Dependence on immunosuppression tempers the substantial benefit obtained from transplantation (1-13). The typical regimens are relatively complex and expensive. More importantly, they increase the risk of opportunistic infection and malignancy, and have many non-immune side effects that hamper their tolerability. Specifically, CNIs are nephrotoxic, a side effect of significant concern in renal transplantation. Steroids exacerbate osteoporosis and hyperlipidemia, and cause avascular osteonecrosis. Both classes of agent worsen glucose tolerance and hypertension, and are associated with cosmetic effects causing non-compliance. As such, methods of transplantation that lessen the dependence on chronic immunosuppression stand to reduce the risk and expense of transplantation. They must, however, also prevent rejection. Development of alternate therapies that help to minimize the need for lifelong immunosuppression, or eliminate entirely the need for drugs through the induction of tolerance, are therefore of great interest.