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(By Delegates Smith, Hunt, Lawrence and Miley)
(Originating in the Committee on Finance)
[February 24, 2012]
A BILL to amend and reenact §62-12-26 of the Code of West Virginia, 1931, as amended, relating to limitations and restrictions placed on sex offenders who have been adjudicated as violent sexual predators or who are under active supervision as a condition of release on parole or probation; and clarifying the statutory restrictions against such persons living or working within one thousand feet of a school, child care facility or residence of a former victim; defining terms.
Be it enacted by the Legislature of West Virginia:
That §62-12-26 of the Code of West Virginia, 1931, as amended, be amended and reenacted to read as follows:
§62-12-26. Extended supervision for certain sex offenders; sentencing; conditions; supervision provisions; supervision fee.
(a) Notwithstanding any other provision of this code to the contrary, any defendant convicted after the effective date of this section of a violation of section twelve, article eight, chapter sixty-one of this code or a felony violation of the provisions of article eight-b, eight-c or eight-d of said that chapter shall, as part of the sentence imposed at final disposition, be required to serve, in addition to any other penalty or condition imposed by the court, a period of supervised release of up to fifty years: Provided, That the period of supervised release imposed by the court pursuant to this section for a defendant convicted after the effective date of this section as amended and reenacted during the first extraordinary session of the Legislature, 2006, of a violation of section three or seven, article eight-b, chapter sixty-one of this code and sentenced pursuant to section nine-a of said that article, shall be no less than ten years: Provided, however, That a defendant designated after the effective date of this section as amended and reenacted during the first extraordinary session of the Legislature, 2006, as a sexually violent predator pursuant to the provisions of section two-a, article twelve, chapter fifteen of this code shall be subject, in addition to any other penalty or condition imposed by the court, to supervised release for life: Provided further, That pursuant to the provisions of subsection (g) of this section, a court may modify, terminate or revoke any term of supervised release imposed pursuant to subsection (a) of this section.
(b) Any person required to be on supervised release for a minimum term of ten years or for life pursuant to the provisos of subsection (a) of this section also shall be further prohibited from:
(1) Establishing a residence or accepting employment within one thousand feet from the perimeter of a school or child care facility or within one thousand feet of the residence of a victim or victims of any sexually violent offenses for which the person was convicted. For the purposes of this subdivision, "residence" includes the yard, grounds, outbuildings and common or public areas in or surrounding the residence; "child care facility" includes the classrooms, buildings, playground areas, parking lots and common areas utilized by children while attending the child care facility;"school" means an educational facility comprised of one or more buildings including school grounds, used by students during regular school hours or during any school-sponsored function or extracurricular activities; "school grounds" includes the land on which a school is built together with such other land used by students for play, recreation or athletic events while attending school; and "extracurricular activities" means voluntary activities sponsored by a school, a county board or an organization sanctioned by a county board or the state board of education, and include, but are not limited to, preparation for and involvement in public performances, contests, athletic competitions, demonstrations, displays, organizations and clubs.
(2) Establishing a residence or any other living accommodation in a household in which a child under sixteen resides if the person has been convicted of a sexually violent offense against a child, unless the person is one of the following:
(i) (A) The child's parent;
(ii) (B) The child's grandparent; or
(iii) (C) The child's stepparent and the person was the stepparent of the child prior to being convicted of a sexually violent offense, the person's parental rights to any children in the home have not been terminated, the child is not a victim of a sexually violent offense perpetrated by the person, and the court determines that the person is not likely to cause harm to the child or children with whom such person will reside: Provided, That nothing in this subsection shall preclude a court from imposing residency or employment restrictions as a condition of supervised release on defendants other than those subject to the provision of this subsection.
(c) The period of supervised release imposed by the provisions of this section shall begin upon the expiration of any period of probation, the expiration of any sentence of incarceration or the expiration of any period of parole supervision imposed or required of the person so convicted, whichever expires later.
(d) Any person sentenced to a period of supervised release pursuant to the provisions of this section shall be supervised by a multijudicial circuit probation officer, if available. Until such time as a multijudicial circuit probation officer is available, the offender shall be supervised by the probation office of the sentencing court or of the circuit in which he or she resides.
(e) A defendant sentenced to a period of supervised release shall be subject to any or all of the conditions applicable to a person placed upon probation pursuant to the provisions of section nine of this article: Provided, That any defendant sentenced to a period of supervised release pursuant to this section shall be required to participate in appropriate offender treatment programs or counseling during the period of supervised release unless the court deems the offender treatment programs or counseling to no longer be appropriate or necessary and makes express findings in support thereof.
Within ninety days of the effective date of this section as amended and reenacted during the first extraordinary session of the Legislature, 2006, the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Resources shall propose rules and emergency rules for legislative approval in accordance with the provisions of article three, chapter twenty-nine-a of this code establishing qualifications for sex offender treatment programs and counselors based on accepted treatment protocols among licensed mental health professionals.
(f) The sentencing court may, based upon defendant's ability to pay, impose a supervision fee to offset the cost of supervision. Said fee shall not exceed $50 per month. Said fee may be modified periodically based upon the defendant's ability to pay.
(g) Modification of conditions or revocation. -- The court may:
(1) Terminate a term of supervised release and discharge the defendant released at any time after the expiration of two years of supervised release, pursuant to the provisions of the West Virginia Rules of Criminal Procedure relating to the modification of probation, if it is satisfied that such action is warranted by the conduct of the defendant released and the interests of justice;
(2) Extend a period of supervised release if less than the maximum authorized period was previously imposed or modify, reduce or enlarge the conditions of supervised release, at any time prior to the expiration or termination of the term of supervised release, consistent with the provisions of the West Virginia Rules of Criminal Procedure relating to the modification of probation and the provisions applicable to the initial setting of the terms and conditions of post-release supervision;
(3) Revoke a term of supervised release and require the defendant to serve in prison all or part of the term of supervised release without credit for time previously served on supervised release if the court, pursuant to the West Virginia Rules of Criminal Procedure applicable to revocation of probation, finds by clear and convincing evidence that the defendant violated a condition of supervised release, except that a defendant whose term is revoked under this subdivision may not be required to serve more than the period of supervised release;
(4) Order the defendant to remain at his or her place of residence during nonworking hours and, if the court so directs, to have compliance monitored by telephone or electronic signaling devices, except that an order under this paragraph may be imposed only as an alternative to incarceration.
(h) Written statement of conditions. -- The court shall direct that the probation officer provide the defendant with a written statement at the defendant's sentencing hearing that sets forth all the conditions to which the term of supervised release is subject and that it is sufficiently clear and specific to serve as a guide for the defendant's conduct and for such supervision as is required.
(i) Supervised release following revocation. -- When a term of supervised release is revoked and the defendant is required to serve a term of imprisonment that is less than the maximum term of supervised release authorized under subsection (a) of this section, the court may include a requirement that the defendant be placed on a term of supervised release after imprisonment. The length of such term of supervised release shall not exceed the term of supervised release authorized by this section less any term of imprisonment that was imposed upon revocation of supervised release.
(j) Delayed revocation. -- The power of the court to revoke a term of supervised release for violation of a condition of supervised release and to order the defendant to serve a term of imprisonment and, subject to the limitations in subsection (i) of this section, a further term of supervised release extends beyond the expiration of the term of supervised release for any period necessary for the adjudication of matters arising before its expiration if, before its expiration, a warrant or summons has been issued on the basis of an allegation of such a violation.


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On to national speech tourney
Meridith, Franzen and Clark qualify at NFL meet.
That is the number in Spanish of Gothenburg speech students who will travel to Kansas City, MO, in June to compete at the National Forensic League tourney.
During what Swede speech team adviser Dan Jensen described as a grueling, double-elimination contest last week, Elisa Meridith, Zac Franzen and Josh Clark separated themselves from the rest of the pack.
All earned the right to compete nationally at the NFL qualifier in Cheyenne, WY, last Thursday through Saturday.
"I was very pleased with the effort and stamina our students showed," Jensen said.
Meridith qualified in dramatic interpretation while Franzen and Clark will compete in duo interpretation.
Franzen also qualified in dramatic interpretation but can only compete nationally in one event.
All were third-place finalists. Only the top three in each event advance to nationals.
In addition, Franzen was named the Hole in the Wall District Student of the Year for Gothenburg's NFL district.
Jensen said the award recognizes students for their contributions to school, community and speech community outside of their success in forensic competition.
Competitors at the qualifying tournament had to survive numerous rounds to get into finals.
Clark and Franzen went six rounds in their event. In dramatic interpretation, Franzen completed seven rounds as did Meridith.
Other individual results and rounds completed included:
Duo interpretation—Semifinalist, Willis Middleton and Jeramie VanAcker, five rounds; Morgan Kowalewski and Maddy Costello, four rounds; Beth Advey and Ashlee Bruntz, two rounds.
Dramatic interpretation—Brennan Costello, two rounds.
Humorous interpretation—Semifinalists, Ashlee Bruntz and Elisa Meridith, seven rounds; Jeramie VanAcker, four rounds.
U.S. extemporaneous speaking—Morgan Kowalewski, four rounds; Josh Clark, three rounds.
International extemporaneous speaking—5. finalist, Aaron Block, five rounds.
Original oratory—4. finalist, Brennan Costello, seven rounds; semifinalist Beth Advey, six rounds; Maddy Costello, four rounds.
Receive the entire issue of the Gothenburg Times on-line in PDF format each Wednesday for only $25 per year. Call 308-537-3636 to subscribe.
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subset: commoncrawl


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|Half Baths
|3,300 sq. ft.
|Property type
|Minimum Stay
|3 nights
Private oasis in the heart of the city
Pool heating available
Luxury pool with water slide
Very close to everything in scottsdale
Child friendly fenced pool
5 minutes from TPC, Kierland, Barrett Jackson
10 minutes from old town Scottsdale
Luxury remodeled
Amazing master bath with jacuzzi tub
Control4 home automation system
Resort pool/jacuzzi/bbq
Very lush large back yard with 7 hole putting green
Outdoor dining as well as patio dining
This VRBO partner has demonstrated and is committed to fast response times, the best rates, and a great guest experience.
We are a young couple in our mid 50s that love to travel and meet new people. This home is our pride and joy and look forward to sharing it with you!
Viktor Kiss purchased this house in 2002
You will love how so many exciting things to do are so close to this home. This home is very private without close neighbors so you wont be bothered or bother anyone while enjoying your vacation.
This home sits on 1 1/3 acre and most of it has rich vegetion to form a lush back yard. If you like to golf, you will enjoy putting in the back yard with our 7 hole mini course. The back yard is an oasis for the whole family to enjoy with the patio and back yard dining, bbq island and luxury pool with slide. Perfect for friends or the whole family to enjoy.
Our stay here was just perfect! The house is large enough for a bigger group and doesn't feel cramped at all. It's very nicely decorated and upon arrival, it was immediately apparent the owner takes pride in providing a top notch experience for guests. The house and grounds are clean and well kept, the kitchen is fully stocked for cooking all the meals you need, there's balls and putters for you to use out back, and the pool is stocked with towels, noodles, balls, and of course a fun little slide. We were there for a boys trip to play some golf, hit the casinos, and enjoy the Scottsdale nightlife, and this house is perfectly located so that you're not more than a 15 minute drive from any of those places. If I had to knitpick, the only thing we would have changed is the height of ceiling fans and chandelier lights in the bedrooms. Including me, there were 3 in our group all over 6'-4" and we really had to dodge the lights in the rooms, but we're taller than most so take that with a grain of salt! Again, that is really digging for something less than perfect about this place, book it now and don't look back!
If your looking at this property and your not sure - pull the trigger now before you miss out.
You will not regret it.
We came down for spring training. The location was a huge plus. Central to everything you would want to go to. Only minutes away from the ball field, also close to the grocery store & Starbucks and a variety of restaurants.
The pictures on the site do not really do it justice. The back yard was fantastic and well groomed. It is well laid out and has everything you could need. We loved lounging out by the heated pool. The atmosphere was wonderful. There are orange, lemon and grapefruit trees on the property. Note - the grapefruit is outstanding.
The inside was just as nice . The beds and furniture were all very comfortable.
A great place! We thoroughly enjoyed our stay and hope to return next year.
House was amazing. Super clean, nice amenities and great owner if you need anything. Had many of the items you need on hand during your stay. We took advantage of the large kitchen, heated pool and hot tub. Great location, easy to find and get around. I highly recommend it.
This property was even nicer in person. We stayed here w/ 4 couples and couldn't have been happier. All rooms converted to king or double beds. The outdoor area was awesome. The kitchen was well equipped, we cooked many meals. The location was convenient to all we needed. Thank you! We will stay here again.
The owner was very responsive too.
Best place to stay in Scottsdale! We were a group of 8 guys on a golf vacation. The house is extremely nice with plenty of room. While at the house we spent most of our time in the backyard which feels like a tropical oasis. It has a full grill area with bar that includes a huge table to dine. The hot tub was perfect to relax in after a long day of golf. The yard is a great space for any games to be played. The amenities inside are top notch and included everything we needed. The location is perfect as it is close to all the great golf courses as well as a short drive to old town and the talking stick casino. The owner is terrific and responsive. Never had any issues with our weekend stay. Highly recommended!
We stayed here for a guys weekend to play some golf and go to the Phoenix Open and couldn't have been more pleased with the house and our experience. Everything was clean and as described and the owner was very accommodating. The putt putt course was a big hit with our group and we will definitely check back here next time we are in town. Thanks!
Located at the heart of Scottsdale while maintaining a private resort style home on a 3/4 acre property. Lushious back yard with 7 holes of golf putting and too many amenities to list. The house has a Control4 automation system with lighting control and music distribution. The house is located within 10 minutes driving distance from the most popular Scottsdale hot spots including shopping malls, night clubs, fine dining, numerous golf courses including the Scottsdale Country Club (walking distance), West world and TPC Scottsdale Golf Course. If you like to gamble, the new Talking Stick Casino and Resort is within 5 minutes drive. If you like to shop, Fashion Square mall, Kierland, Scottsdale Quarter and Old Town Scottsdale are all within 10 minutes drive. If nightlife is what you are looking, old town scottsdale is the entertainment district conveniently located also within 10 mintus drive. You will find dozens of amazing restaurants very close to the house. If you are looking for a southwest experience, Cave Creek has live bull riding in a 100 year old western authentic bar. Whether you are looking for golf, shopping, dining, night life, pampering or simply relaxing, you will love how contrally located this property is to everything.
|Cleaning Fee


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Sizing up the threat: The envisioned physical formidability of terrorists tracks their leaders' failures and successes
Colin Holbrook & Daniel Fessler
Cognition, April 2013, Pages 46-56
Victory in modern intergroup conflict derives from complex factors, including weaponry, economic resources, tactical outcomes, and leadership. We hypothesize that the mind summarizes such factors into simple metaphorical representations of physical size and strength, concrete dimensions that have determined the outcome of combat throughout both ontogenetic and phylogenetic experience. This model predicts that in the aftermath of tactical victories (e.g., killing an enemy leader), members of defeated groups will be conceptualized as less physically formidable. Conversely, reminders that groups possess effective leadership should lead their members to be envisioned as more physically formidable. Consonant with these predictions, in both an opportunistic study conducted immediately after Osama bin Laden's death was announced (Study 1) and a follow-up experiment conducted approximately a year later (Study 2), Americans for whom the killing was salient estimated a purported Islamic terrorist to be physically smaller/weaker. In Studies 3 and 4, primes of victorious terrorist leaders led to inflated estimates of terrorists' physical attributes. These findings elucidate how the mind represents contemporary military power, and may help to explain how even largely symbolic victories can influence reasoning about campaigns of coalitional aggression.
Jordi Quoidbach, Daniel Gilbert & Timothy Wilson
Science, 4 January 2013, Pages 96-98
We measured the personalities, values, and preferences of more than 19,000 people who ranged in age from 18 to 68 and asked them to report how much they had changed in the past decade and/or to predict how much they would change in the next decade. Young people, middle-aged people, and older people all believed they had changed a lot in the past but would change relatively little in the future. People, it seems, regard the present as a watershed moment at which they have finally become the person they will be for the rest of their lives. This "end of history illusion" had practical consequences, leading people to overpay for future opportunities to indulge their current preferences.
Adding Small Differences Can Increase Similarity and Choice
Jongmin Kim, Nathan Novemsky & Ravi Dhar
Psychological Science, forthcoming
Similarity plays a critical role in many judgments and choices. Traditional models of similarity posit that increasing the number of differences between objects cannot increase judged similarity between them. In contrast to these previous models, the present research shows that introducing a small difference in an attribute that previously was identical across objects can increase perceived similarity between those objects. We propose an explanation based on the idea that small differences draw more attention than identical attributes do and that people's perceptions of similarity involve averaging attributes that are salient. We provide evidence that introducing small differences between objects increases perceived similarity. We also show that an increase in similarity decreases the difficulty of choice and the likelihood that a choice will be deferred.
The Social Distance Theory of Power
Joe Magee & Pamela Smith
Personality and Social Psychology Review, forthcoming
We propose that asymmetric dependence between individuals (i.e., power) produces asymmetric social distance, with high-power individuals feeling more distant than low-power individuals. From this insight, we articulate predictions about how power affects (a) social comparison, (b) susceptibility to influence, (c) mental state inference and responsiveness, and (d) emotions. We then explain how high-power individuals' greater experienced social distance leads them to engage in more abstract mental representation. This mediating process of construal level generates predictions about how power affects (a) goal selection and pursuit, (b) attention to desirability and feasibility concerns, (c) subjective certainty, (d) value-behavior correspondence, (e) self-control, and (f) person perception. We also reassess the approach/inhibition theory of power, noting limitations both in what it can predict and in the evidence directly supporting its proposed mechanisms. Finally, we discuss moderators and methodological recommendations for the study of power from a social distance perspective.
What Happens Why? Psychological Distance and Focusing on Causes Versus Consequences of Events
SoYon Rim, Jochim Hansen & Yaacov Trope
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
When do people focus more on the causes versus the consequences of events, and how does differential focus affect downstream judgments and choices? Building on construal level theory (Trope & Liberman, 2010), we propose a bidirectional relationship between psychological distance and causal focus, such that distance (vs. proximity) leads to a greater focus on causes (vs. consequences), and likewise, focusing on causes (vs. consequences) leads to greater estimates of psychological distance from events. This should be the case because causes are features of events that are more high-level relative to consequences (as shown in Experiments 1 and 2). We demonstrate that temporal (Experiment 3) and social (Experiment 4) distances lead to a greater tendency to focus on the causes (vs. consequences) of events and that, conversely, thinking about causes (vs. consequences) leads to greater perceptions of temporal (Experiment 5) and spatial (Experiment 6) distances from events. Additionally, we explored some downstream effects of this distance-dependent focus on causes versus consequences for predictive judgments, experiences, and behavioral choice (Experiments 7, 8, and 9). Broader implications of the results for moral decision making, power and leadership, and self-regulation are discussed.
The Future Looks "Right": Effects of the Horizontal Location of Advertising Images on Product Attitude
Boyoun (Grace) Chae & JoAndrea Hoegg
Journal of Consumer Research, forthcoming
Consumers from cultures that read from left to right possess a spatial representation of time whereby the past is visualized on the left and the future is visualized on the right. Across four studies, the current research investigates whether and how this past-left, future-right conceptualization of time impacts attitudes toward time-related products. Specifically, when consumers view advertisements in which product images are positioned congruently (incongruently) with their spatial representation of time, they have more (less) favorable attitudes toward the product. This effect occurs both for products that naturally involve the progression of time (e.g., self-improvement products), and also for products for which a time component is a desired attribute (e.g., antiques). The effect of horizontal position reverses among consumers who read from right-to-left. The mediating role of processing fluency is highlighted as an underlying mechanism, and the moderating role of need for structure is identified.
Urbanization Decreases Attentional Engagement
Karina Linnell et al.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, forthcoming
Exposure to the urban environment has been shown dramatically to increase the tendency to process contextual information. To further our understanding of this effect of urbanization, we compared performance on a local-selection task of a remote people, the Himba, living traditionally or relocated to town. We showed that (a) spatial attention was defocused in urbanized Himba but focused in traditional Himba (Experiment 1), despite urbanized Himba performing better on a working memory task (Experiment 3); (b) imposing a cognitive load made attention as defocused in traditional as in urbanized Himba (Experiment 2); and (c) using engaging stimuli/tasks made attention as focused in urbanized Himba, and British, as in traditional Himba (Experiments 4 and 5). We propose that urban environments prioritize exploration at the expense of attentional engagement and cognitive control of attentional selection.
How quickly can you detect it? Power facilitates attentional orienting
Letitia Slabu, Ana Guinote & David Wilkinson
Social Psychology, Winter 2013, Pages 37-41
This study investigated how power impacts the ability to orient attention across space. Participants were assigned to a high-power or control role and then performed a computerized spatial cueing task that required them to direct their attention to a target preceded by either a valid or invalid location cue. Compared to participants in the control condition, power holders were better at overriding the misinformation provided by invalid cues. This advantage occurred only at 500 ms stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), whereas at 1000 ms SOA, when there was more time to prepare a response, no differences were found. These findings are taken to support the growing idea that social power affects cognitive flexibility.
A look into the ballot box: Gaze following conveys information about implicit attitudes toward politicians
Marco Tullio Liuzza et al.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, February 2013, Pages 209-216
Although considered a predominantly automatic social behaviour, gaze following (GF) is sensitive to complex social factors like political affiliation and ideology. The present study aimed to determine whether the differential proneness to in-group leaders' gaze is related to attitudes towards politicians as measured by other implicit procedures. A GF paradigm was used to test the extent to which electors were prone to gaze following when attending to two female candidates who competed for the position of governor in an Italian election campaign. Results showed that GF significantly predicts voting intentions. Also, it was found that GF is significantly and positively correlated with the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Hierarchical multiple regression models illustrated that GF and IAT uniquely predict voting intentions, accounting for a substantial proportion of variance. Thus GF and IAT, even though significantly related, seem to account for different aspects of the attitudes towards candidates. A multivariate regression model showed that, while IAT scores are predicted by explicit emotions toward the candidate, GF is predicted by the candidates' perceived influence within their political coalition.
The Big Picture for Large-Screen Television Viewing: For Both Programming and Advertising, Audiences Are More Attentive, More Absorbed, and Less Critical
Michael McNiven, Dean Krugman & Spencer Tinkham
Journal of Advertising Research, Fall 2012, Pages 421-432
Large-screen televisions have gained prominence in the marketplace. Focus groups and a national survey were used to investigate viewing of large-screen televisions as they relate to attitudes toward advertising and the way advertising and programming are viewed. Results indicate that larger screens positively impact how advertising and television programming are consumed. Large-screen television viewers were less skeptical of advertising than small-screen viewers; more positive toward advertising; and paid more attention to both commercials and programming. Also, large-screen viewers were more absorbed in television programming - a phenomenon that mediates the impact of screen size on attention, evaluation, and skepticism toward television advertising.
Laura Mickes et al.
Memory & Cognition, forthcoming
Online social networking is vastly popular and permits its members to post their thoughts as microblogs, an opportunity that people exploit, on Facebook alone, over 30 million times an hour. Such trivial ephemera, one might think, should vanish quickly from memory; conversely, they may comprise the sort of information that our memories are tuned to recognize, if that which we readily generate, we also readily store. In the first two experiments, participants' memory for Facebook posts was found to be strikingly stronger than their memory for human faces or sentences from books - a magnitude comparable to the difference in memory strength between amnesics and healthy controls. The second experiment suggested that this difference is not due to Facebook posts spontaneously generating social elaboration, because memory for posts is enhanced as much by adding social elaboration as is memory for book sentences. Our final experiment, using headlines, sentences, and reader comments from articles, suggested that the remarkable memory for microblogs is also not due to their completeness or simply their topic, but may be a more general phenomenon of their being the largely spontaneous and natural emanations of the human mind.
Vicissitudes of Desire: A Matching Mechanism for Subliminal Persuasion
Chris Loersch, Geoffrey Durso & Richard Petty
Social Psychological and Personality Science, forthcoming
Recent research on subliminal persuasion has documented effects primarily when people have a preexisting need related to the target of influence. Based on the situated inference model of priming effects (Loersch & Payne, 2011), we propose a novel matching mechanism and describe how it expands the circumstances under which subliminal primes can produce persuasive effects, doing so without a consideration of preexisting need states. In two studies, we alter the desirability of various products by selecting subliminal primes that address the basic questions participants consider while judging product desirability. Subliminal persuasion depends on the precise match between the subliminal primes and the question under consideration. These results are evident when the question participants consider varies naturally due to the type of product that is judged, and when the core question is directly manipulated by altering the aspect of a product on which participants focus.
Einstein's jacket: Evidence for long-term perceptual specificity in mental imagery
David Pearson & James Hollings
Consciousness and Cognition, March 2013, Pages 148-154
To what extent are visual fantasies constrained by our perceptual experience of the real world? Our study exploits the fact that people's knowledge of the appearance of individuals from the early 20th Century (e.g., Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill) derives predominantly from viewing black-and-white media images. An initial experiment shows that mental imagery for individuals from this period are experienced as significantly less colourful than imagery for individuals from the era of colour media. A second experiment manipulated whether participants were instructed to explicitly imagine using colour or not (i.e., "imagine Albert Einstein wearing a green jacket" vs. "imagine Albert Einstein wearing a jacket"). Results show that colour manipulation only influences imagery for black-and-white era individuals, with no comparable effect on imagery for colour era individuals. This finding is replicated in a third experiment that includes an additional control condition of imagining generic characters (i.e., "Imagine a knight wearing a cloak" vs. "imagine a knight wearing a red cloak"). Again, only imagery for black-and-white era individuals is affected by the colour manipulation. Overall these results provide evidence for long-term perceptual specificity effects in mental imagery. We argue that visual fantasies can be constrained by surface features of underlying representations in memory, even when imagining something we have never directly perceived.
Beauty Beyond Compare: Effects of Context Extremity and Categorization on Hedonic Contrast
Elizabeth Cogan, Scott Parker & Debra Zellner
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, forthcoming
Three studies investigated the effects of extreme context stimuli and categorization on hedonic contrast by having subjects judge the attractiveness of faces. Experiment 1 demonstrated hedonic contrast in both directions by using 2 sets of stimuli presented in different orders. Preceding moderately unattractive faces with moderately attractive faces made the unattractive faces more unattractive. When the order of presentation was reversed, the moderately attractive faces became more attractive. Experiment 2 found that this hedonic contrast was eliminated when the moderately attractive faces were replaced with extremely attractive faces. Experiment 3 showed that even with those 2 sets of extremely different stimuli, hedonic contrast occurred if subjects were instructed to think of both sets of stimuli as belonging to the same category. These findings, using hedonic judgments, parallel Sarris's (1967, 1968) finding with weights that when 2 sets of stimuli are too different in the dimension being judged, no contrast occurs. They also lend support to his explanation for this result. When the 2 sets of stimuli are too different they are not seen as belonging to the same category. They are therefore not compared, and contrast does not occur. The authors propose that these principles might apply to contrast in all settings.


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On Saturday, I was lucky enough to get a chance to ride the new BMW K1600GTL over at MAX BMW. I have been waiting to ride this bike since I saw the initial sketch, and I was definitely not disappointed.
I was talking with Craig at MAX and had expressed my interest in riding it, and he emailed me to tell me that the finally had one in house, and it was available for demo rides. Perfect. I'll be right up! As he put the dealer plate on the bike, he asked me to stand behind the bike as he started it. I wasn't really sure where he was going with it, but I played along. He fired it up, and it had a sweet sport bike sound to the exhaust. Wow! Sounds awesome.
I didn't get to take it for a long ride because it was Saturday and people were lined up to ride it, but I did get to spend a little time on it. My first impression was excitement over the power. The fly-by-wire throttle was instantaneous. Just touch it and the needle on the tach flew up. The inline 6 cylinder engine produces 160hp. That's plenty of power to move this 700 plus pound motorcycle down the street in a big hurry.
Another thing that really impressed me with this bike was the way it leaned. I haven't done a lot of riding on too many touring bikes, so I was expecting the weight to make it a little cumbersome in the corners. I am very much used to laying my bikes over pretty far in the corners, so the first corner was a little easy, just to get a feel for the bike. The bike went over very easily, so on the next corner, I really put it over. It fell into the corner like it was on rails. Amazing…
Because of the short ride, I didn't get to play with all of the gadgets. Craig welcomed me to come back during the week when it wasn't so busy and check it out in depth. So, after Americade is over, I plan to take him up on his offer. Stay tuned for more!


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Mạng và viễn thông P32
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Mạng và viễn thông P32
Network Trafic Control Traffic control is as much art as it is science, and the profits are gratifying. The right control mechanisms and routing algorithms in the right places will determine the overall performance and efficiency of our network. What is more, they will giveus simpler administration, better management and lower costs. This chapter describes a number of these admirable devices: first the simple methodscommonlyusedforoptimizingnetworkroutingundertypical'normal-dayloading' conditions; then we look at recent more powerful and complex techniques, together with some of the practical complications facing telecommunications today. ...
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- Networks and Telecommunications: Design and Operation, Second Edition. Martin P. Clark Copyright © 1991, 1997 John Wiley & Sons Ltd ISBNs: 0-471-97346-7 (Hardback); 0-470-84158-3 (Electronic) 32 Network Trafic Control Traffic control is as much art as it is science, and the profits are gratifying. The right control mechanisms and routing algorithms in the right places will determine the overall performance and efficiency of our network. What is more, they will giveus simpler administration, better manage- ment and lower costs. This chapter describes a number of these admirable devices: first the simple methodscommonlyusedforoptimizingnetworkroutingundertypical'normal-dayloading' conditions; then we look at recent more powerful and complex techniques, together with some of the practical complications facing telecommunications today. Finally we note how several net- work operators have found ways interconnecting with the multiple carriers that have emerged of lately as a result of market deregulation. 3 . NETWORKS 21 Anymetropolitan,international,trunk,transitorcorporatenetwork, by virtue of its nature andsheer size has to include a considerable number of switches (exchanges). If there are many inter-connections between switches, individual these any call crossing the network will have plenty of alternative paths open to it. It is in fact the number of pathpermutations whichdeterminestherobustness of thenetwork to individual link failure and sets the level or grade of service provided (i.e. the prob- ability of successful call connection). It offers the customer what he most wants, an acceptablechance of makingasuccessfulcall or informationtransfereachtime. Particular attention must be paid to choosing the call-control mechanisms which are going to determine the routing of our customers' individual calls, connections or mes- sages, bearing in mind that in an ideal network we aim overall to achieve a controlled flow of traffic throughout the network at reasonable cost and without the penalty of complicated administration. Various methods and preliminary calculations can now be considered in turn. 571
- 572 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL 32.2 SIZING CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS First of all, to find how many circuits a telecommunications network will need to meet traffic demand, a mathematical model is required to predict network performance, and it will comprise at least two parts 0 a statistical distribution to represent the number calls in progressat anygiven time of 0 a forecast of the overall volume of traffic Erlang's model provides a statistical methodfor approximating telephone traffic, which is based on his measurements of practical telephone networks. A short reminder follows. Erlang devised a method of calculating the probability of any given number of calls being in progress at any instant in time. The probability density function used for the calculation is termed the Erlang distribution. The Erlang formula, a related and complex iterative mathematical formula, can be manipulated into a number of different forms. The most common form is used to calculate the required number of circuits (or circuit group size) to carry a given traffic volume between two exchanges, under theconstraint of having to meet a given grade of service. The traffic valueinput into this formula is the measurement of trafic intensity. The intensity of traffic on a route between any two exchanges in a network is equal to the average number of calls in progress, and is measured in Erlangs. In Chapter30 we discussed how, for planning purposes, it was normal measure the to route traffic intensity during the busiest hour of activity, or so-called route busy hour. Using this value and the Erlang formula, the number of circuits required for the route can be calculated according to a given target grade of service. The grade of service ( G O S ) of a telephone route between any two exchanges in a circuit-switched network is the fractional quantity of calls which cannot be completed due to network congestion. The lower the numerical value of GOS, the better the per- formance. A typical target value used in many trunk and international networks 1%, is or 0.01 (in other words 1% of calls cannot be completed due to network congestion, the other 99% can). The calling customer, however, probably only perceives end-to-end an grade of service, on a call-by-callbasis, of around 5 % (i.e. 5% lostcalls).This is because most connections comprise a number of links and exchanges, each of which is likely to be designed to inflict a 1% loss. The common method is to dimension circuit groups within a network using a target grade of service and the Erlang formula; so that Circuits Required = E(A, GOS) where E represents the appropriate form of the Erlang formula or function, with inputs A = route busy hour traffic and GOS = target grade of service. Alternatively, for packet or message-switched networks, we discussed an alternative formula, which sought to model the waiting time distribution packets, rather than the of proportion of lost calls; insteadof dimensioning in accordance with grade service, we of can dimension according to waiting time. The methodwas again covered Chapter 30. by
- HIERARCHICAL NETWORK 573 32.3 HIERARCHICAL NETWORK The Erlang model is a good predictor of the traffic behaviour of most telecommunica- tions networks. A feature of telephone routes dimensioned using the Erlang method is that routes comprising a large number circuits are proportionately more of efficient (i.e. require proportionately fewer circuits per carried call) than smaller ones,when designed to the same grade of service, and are therefore more economic. This is apparent from the general shape of the graph of circuits against traffic-carrying capacity. Figure 32.1 illustrates the graph of 1% loss, or 1% grade of service. Note that the graph is almost 20 linear for circuit group with circuit numbers above circuits, each extra circuit adding approximately 0.85 Erlangs of traffic capacity. Thusby adding ten circuits to a group of Traffic capacity : l'/. g.0.s Number of circuits 30 l 110 20 10 6 0 10 20 30 Erlangs Figure 32.1- The inefficiency of small routes
- 574 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL 20 circuits we make it suitable for carrying 20.5 Erlangs rather than 12 (an increase in capacity of 8.5 Erlangs). Notice that an isolated group of 10 circuits is only suitable for 4.5 Erlangs of offered traffic. Smaller circuit groups are thus far less efficient, as Figure 32.1 shows. Looking at the graph itis useful to imagine that the first six circuits carry notraffic at all, and that all subsequent circuits have a capacity of 0.85Erlangs each. It is almost as if there were a 'penalty' price of six circuits for having a route at all! The line representing this assumption is shown in Figure 32.1. The equation of this line provides a handy method of estimating the number of circuits required to carry a given offered traffic load, but it is only valid up to about A = Erlangs.Abovethis value, other estimating formulae can be used as follows N + (A/0.85) =6 for A < 75 N = 14 + (A/0.97) for 75 < A < 400 N=29+A 400 for
- HIERARCHICAL NETWORK 575 International exchanges 3 ( 1 or 2 only) lncreaslng degree of inferconnection between exchanges t Trunk exchanges (relatively few) Localexchange ( many 1 Figure 32.3 Hierarchical network structure Figures 32.2 and 32.3. In such a structure, a small number of main exchanges are fully interconnected with one another, and various tiers of less important exchanges have progressively less directconnectionstootherexchanges.If no direct route is available from one given exchange to another, then the call is referred to an exchange in the next higher tier. By using such a structure we can reduce the number of circuits on long-haul routes. Under such a hierarchical scheme, routes are combined so that groups may be dimensioned (or sized) to carry multiple-traffic streams, and so reap the economic benefits of the larger scale. The hierarchial network technique works as shown in Figure 32.2. Let us assume that thecallers on each originating exchange A2, A3) in Figure 32.2 (Al, are generating calls equivalent to a traffic intensity of 25 Erlangs (i.e. an average of 25 simultaneous calls in progress) to each terminating exchange (Bl, B2, B3). Let us also assume that exchanges A l , A2, A3 are quiteclose together, as are exchanges B1, B2, B3, but that region A and region B are a long way apart. Without a hierarchical network structure, each A exchange would need a set of long- haul circuits to connect with each B exchange, as shown in Figure 32.2(a). This would give a total of nine routes (Al-B1, Al-B2, etc.). Using Erlang's formula for 1% GOS, each of these routesor circuit groups wouldrequire 36 circuits,amassing a total requirement of 9 X 36 = 324 long haul circuits. Alternatively, if the traffic is concentrated through collecting exchanges T1 and T2 (called transit or tandem exchanges) withintheoriginating and terminating regions, only a single route is required. That route has to carry all 225 Erlangs, but only 247 long-haul circuits (again using Erlang's formula) are needed. Figure 32.2(b) illustrates this alternative network structure. Of course, when comparing the cost of the the two structures we must not overlook the additional switches T1 and T2, as Comparison 1 below indicates. 32.3.1 Comparison 1: DirectversusHierarchicalStructure (Traffic between each A-B pair: 25 Erlangs) All direct routes 324 long circuits haul (9 X 36) (as Figure 32.2(a)) Hierarchical structure 247 long circuits haul (as Figure 32.2(b)) 2 X transit switches (Tl, T2); 225 Erlaags each 324 short haul circuits (A-TI and T2-B)
- 576 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL So then, if 77 long-haul circuits (324-247) costs more than two 225 Erlang switches (Tl,T2) plus the short haul access circuits (A-T1 and T2-B), hierarchicalstructure (Figure 32.2(b)) is the more cost effective. In individual cases the particular circumstances will decide whether a direct or a hierarchical network structure is cheaper, though the general rule applies that in very- long-haulsituations(internationalnetworksforexample)thehierarchicalstructure usually wins. Hierarchical structure can also be cost-effective when point-to-point route traffic is very small (as in rural networks). To illustrate this point, in Comparison 2 the example of Figure 32.2 has been repeated with much lower traffic values (and with circuit numbers re-calculated, again using the Erlang method). 32.3.2 Comparison2:DirectversusHierachicalStructure: Low TrafficOnly (Traffic between each A-B pair: 3 Erlangs only) All direct routes 72 long circuits haul (9 X 8) (8 circuits required for each 3 Erlang route) Hierarchical structure 38 long circuits haul (for 27 Erlangs) 2 transit switches (Tl, T2); 27 Erlangs each 72 short haul circuits Note how in Comparison 2 the proportion of long-haul circuits saved as the result a of network hierarchy is much greater than it was in Comparison 1 (47% saving as opposed to 24%). This is because the inefficiency of very small routes is very marked, as we saw in Figure 32.1. There are therefore greater proportional savings to be made from com- bining very small routes. Hierarchicalstructure is common inmany of the world's telephone and ISDN networks, in which a large number of local exchanges (or end offices) route their trunk traffic via a smaller number of trunk (or toll) exchanges. At the highest tier in the hierarchy there are probably only one or two international exchanges, each lower tier has a greater number of exchanges, but each with only a restricted degree of long-haul inter-connection. Figure 32.3 illustrates a typical national hierarchy. Anaddedadvantage enjoyed by hierarchicalnetworks lies intheircapacity for getting the most out of their circuits at times when the busy hours of various trans- mission routes do not coincide. For an example look back again at Figure 32.2(b), and we can see that if AI-B1 is busy in the morning and A3-B3 in the afternoon, then thanks to hierarchical structure the same circuits can be used for both traffic streams. Ontheotherhand,separate directcircuitgroups(asinFigure 32.2(a)) wouldbe inefficient, as one or other of the groups would . a l w a p be Idle. A disadvantage of hierarchical n e t w o r k - d e n compared with direct-circuited net- works, is their greater s u s c e p W t y to congestion under network overload. There are ~~~~~~ two causes. 0 Fewer overall circuits are available in hierarchical than in equivalent direct-circuited networks.
- OVERFLOW OR 'AUTOMATIC ALTERNATIVE (AAR) ROUTING' 577 0 Congestion between only one pair of exchanges (e.g. AI-B1 of Figure 32.2(b)) will result in congestion on all otherroutes (e.g. A2-B3), because all calls have to compete for the same circuits (Tl-T2). This can rapidly lead to further congestion, as customers dial merrily on regardless. 32.4 OVERFLOW 'AUTOMATIC OR ALTERNATIVEROUTING' (AAR) A simple means of improving purely-hierarchial networks is to apply the technique of overflow, and for this we require the automatic alternative routing ( A A R ) mechanism. AAR is alsoknownas overflow or alternative routing, andmost exchangesare capable of it. It can be understood as a priority listing of the route choices leading to any given destination. Turning back to our example of Figure 32.2(b), let us assume that we introduce an additional link between exchanges A1 and B1. This might be a first choice, or high-usage ( H U ) route (as described below). In this case, an AAR table for traffic from A1 to B1 might be as shown in Figure 32.4. Cost benefits can be gained by judicious application of AAR (as in Figure 32.4) rather than using the simple hierarchical structure (as in Figure 32.2(b)), particularly if the route traffic between points A1 and B1 is large. The saving is achieved by making quite sure that the first choice route between A1 and B1 does not have enough circuits High-usage route I l 1 12 I I For traffic from A1 to B1 A A R t a b l e i s : A A Rt a b l e First hoice c Use o f t h e d i r e c t r o u t e to B1 Second choice O v e r f l o wt h et r a f f i c ( i f all f i r s t c h o i c e via T1 c i r c u i t s a r e busy) Figure 32.4 Automatic alternative routing (AAR)
- 578 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL High-usage (HU) routes B1 A2 Final route 0 Tl T2 D - Figure 32.5 The benefit of high-usage working to carry the whole traffic. A remainder is then left which is forced to overflow via T1. Because of the way they are used, the two routes A1-B1 and AI-Tl-T2-B1 are called high-usage ( H U ) a n d j n a l routes, respectively. In fact A1-B1 is a primary high-usage route, as it is first choice; however, secondary, tertiary, and so on, high-usage routes (i.e. extra route choices between prirnaryHU a n d j n a l ) may also be used, and they have their place in the AAR table. To evaluate the savings of high-usage working, let us assume that we provide high- usage routesof 25 circuits between each pair exchanges in Figure 32.2(b) (i.e. nine of HU routes; A1-B1, Al-B2, etc). Then the network adopts the pattern shownFigure 32.5. in To compare the overall circuit requirement with earlier examples, must dimension we thenetwork tothe sameoverall 1% grade of service performance.However,the dimensioning of the overflow links(A-T1 and T2-B), as well as of the overflow orfinal route Tl-T2, presents a special problem for which Erlang formula has be modified. the to This is because overflow traffic does have arandom nature as the Erlang not dimensioning method requires. Consequently, in Comparison 3, the more complex Wilkinson-Rapp equivalent random method (explained later in the chapter) has been employed, and the network hasbeen dimensioned so that all customersreceive a gradeof service equivalent to or better than Yn. By this method, determine that 1 we 43jnal route circuitsare required + on Tl-T2. We thus need (9 X 25) 43 = 268 circuits in total. Comparison 3 below compares this value with the direct and the hierarchical network structures. 32.4.1 Comparison 3: DirectversusHierachicalversus HU Structure (Traffic between each A-B pair: 25 Erlangs) All direct routes: 324 long haul circuits Hierarchical structure: 247 long haul circuits 2 X transit switches (225 Erlangs each) 324 short haul circuits
- RANDOMEQUIVALENT WILKINSON-RAPP 579 Overflow structure: 268 long haul circuits 2 X transit switches (32 Erlangs each) 99 short haul circuits Comparison 3 shows that it is possible (by choosing the optimum size of high-usage (HU) circuit groups) to reduce significantly the size of the transit switches required (between the hierarchical and overflow structures), without significantly increasing the long-haul circuit requirement. This clearly reduces the cost. However, our examplenotis very realistic. In practice, if any of the individual traffic streams are toosmall, the benefit ofproviding high-usage circuitsfor thecorrespondingdirectroutedisappears.In practice then, itis often useful to provide high-usage routes only thosetraffic streams for exceeding a given Erlang threshold value. In other words, 'if more than X Erlangs of traffic exist between any two nodes, then a direct HU route is justified'. The value of X will depend upon the relative costs and of lineplant and exchanges equipment and on whether the exchanges are local, trunk, or international ones. A problem facing plannersusing overflow in practical networks is that the number of circuits required cannot always be cut to a minimum without adding another control mechanism such as trunk reservation, as explained later in this chapter. Furthermore, the high-usagestructure is notasadvantageousasthehierarchical when route busy hours of the various traffic streams do not coincide, because the cir- cuits are 'less available' for shared use, e.g. by onestream in the morning and by another in the afternoon. HU structures do, however, have a better overload performance, in that individual traffic streams are tosome extent protected from congestionon other routes (caused for example by very high seasonal or short term demand). 32.5 WILKINSON-RAPP EQUIVALENT RANDOMMETHOD In the previous section when we were attempting to dimension routes carrying overflow traffic we ran into the difficulty that because the distribution of traffic which is over- flowed from a high usage circuit group is not random, the Erlang formula may not be used directly. So, introduce the Wilkinson-Rapp equivalentrandom method instead. This is in fact the Erlang method slightly adapted. Imagine two traffic streams a and b which have high-usage routes of the A and B circuits available, respectively. These two traffic streams overflow amounts of traffic a' and 6' onto a common final route of N circuits, which is also the first choice for thejirst- oflered traffic stream c. Figure 32.6 illustrates this schematically. The problem is to find the value of N which will guarantee the appropriate grade service on all traffic streams. of + Circuit group N is subjected to overflow traffic a' b' and first-offered traffic c, and we dimension it by the Wilkinson-Rapp equivalentrandom method as follows. The method assumes that the Ncircuits will behave in the same as a set of Ncircuits part way way down a larger group of (NEQ+ N ) circuits when subjected to an imaginary single stream of equivalent random trafic, AEQ. Figure 32.7 illustrates the set of N circuits and the imaginary set NEQ. The problem is finding the values of NEQ and AEQ so that the traffic overflowed from the NEQ circuits exactly matches the characteristics of the real
- 580 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL - H i gh usage Final routes route h r First-offered Overflowed traffic traffic(a') Q * A ccts D , First-offered Overflowed traffic B traffic (b') N b b ccts e ccts First-offeredtraffic C b Figure 32.6 Dimensioning final routes + + traffic a' b' c. The mean M and variance V characterize the traffica' b' c which + + we imagine to overflow from the N E Q circuits, and by choosing the values of AEQ and NEQ carefully we can equate the valuesexactlywith thecorrespondingmeanand variance values of the real traffic By knowing the valuesA,, and NEQ,the traffic lost by the N circuit group caneasily be determined. It is done by usingthe normalErlangformula, assuming thatan equivalent random traffic valueA,, is offered to a total number circuits N NEQ. of The + grade o service determined by the formula is the overall lost traffic ( L in Figure 32.7) f quoted as a proportion of the imaginary original traffic valueAEQ. 1 I G O S , , = LIA,o Imaginary Equivalent usage high random Real 'final' route traffic group M,V 1 N YL A EO c NE, ' / cct S * ccts ' Offered traffic matches Lost traffic i s assumed (a'+b'*c) to match the behaviour of real circuit group Figure 32.7 The Wilkinson-Rapp equivalent random method
- DIMENSIONING 'FINAL ROUTES' 581 It is normal to dimension the group of N circuits by first calculating the permissible traffic loss in Erlangs (i.e. the amount of the real traffic which need not be carried, L in Figure 32.7), and then calculating this as a proportion of&Q. This is the imaginary or equivalent grade of service required when traffic A,, is offered to N + N E Q circuits, and + allows us to calculate the value of ( N NEQ) using the Erlang method as follows maximum permissible lost traffic = L L = GOS required X traffic on (a' + b' + c) imaginary GOS required on N + NEQ circuits = GOS,Q = L N+ N E Q = E(AEQ, GoSE,), where E represents the Erlang formula Having determined the value of N + NEQ, the real number of circuits required for the real traffic ( N ) is found by subtracting value NEQ. The values N E Q and AEQ are relatively straightforward to calculate, but the process requires a number of mathematical steps. An appendixat the end of the chapter shows how to calculate these values and gives an exampleof the wholeWilkinson-Rapp overflow route dimensioning method for those readers who are interested. TheWilkinson-Rappmethod is nowquiteold (1956) and in consequencemore complex methods have evolved whichseek to improve it.As with the alternatives to the basicErlangmethodit rests withtheuser to decidethemethodwhichsuits his circumstance the best. 32.6 DIMENSIONING 'FINAL ROUTES' It is normal practice to dimension final routes for only a 1% loss of the mean traffic offered to them. This ensures a 1% grade of service for any traffic which i s j r s t offered tothe final route.Thispractice was adopted in thepreeding section whenmixed overflow and first-offered traffic shared the same circuit group. In instances where there is no first ofSered traffic on the final route, then the circuit numbersmay be reduced,commensurate with an overall 1% loss oneach of the individual traffic streams. Thus if only 10% of traffic overflows from the high usage route (a typical value), only 10% of the original traffic is offered to the final route. The caller experiences a net1YOgrade-of-service evenif as muchas 10% of the traffic offered to thefinal route is lost. Thus the grade service of the final route need only be 10% in of this case! 32.7 TRUNK RESERVATION To some trunk reservation is a relatively new technique, for although it hasbeen around formorethan 30 years, only recently hastheadvent ofstoredprogramcontrol (SPC) exchangesmadeit more widely available. It providesamethod of priority
- 582 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL ranking traffic streams, which can be particularly useful in conjunction with overflow network schemes, when the network planner may wish to give higher priority to Jirst- oflered trafic than to overflow trafic. As we saw in the example shown in Figure 32.6, final routes must be dimensioned large enough to ensure the chosen grade of service (usually 1Yo) any Jirst-offered for trafic streams.Theconsequence of this is an unavoidablyand unnecessarilygood grade-of-service for the overflowtraffic (far better than1%), and the penalty regrettably is the need to provide extra circuits over and above the minimum. Trunk reservation, however, gives a way out. Developing our example of Figure 32.2(b) a littlefurther to illustrate the principle of trunk reservation, let us now recognize that in practicetheroute traffic between individual A and B nodesis not identical in value and varies widely. Let us assume that exchanges A l , A2, B1, B2 and B3 are in large towns, and A3 is in a much smaller town and consequently generates and receives much less telephone traffic. It might well be that while A l , A2, B1,B2 and B3 justify direct interconnection by high-usage (HU) routes, overflowing via T1 and T2, the traffic originated at A3 might be insufficient to justify such direct HU groups. In this case the traffic passing over the circuit group from T1 and T2 is a mixture of 0 overflow (i.e. not all) traffic generated byA1 and A2 0 alltrafficgenerated by A3 Under such circumstance, it seems reasonable to take some precaution to ensure that the A3-originated traffic has some typeof priority for use of the Tl-T2 circuits so that the grade of service to A3 customers is on a par with the performance available to customers at AI and A2. Such a mechanism is provided by one form or another of trunk reservation. Numerous slightvariantsof trunk reservation exist. Inthesimplest,each traffic stream competing for agiven route is allocated a trunk reservation value (typical values range from 0 to 15). The value corresponds to a number of idle circuits. If at any given moment only this number of idle circuits are available within the group (the others being busy), then new calls from the particular traffic stream to which the trunk reserva- tion value applies, are rejected (i.e. are given network-busy tone and not completed). In other words, the trunk reservation value 'disadvantages' the traffic stream, to the benefit of other streams: the larger the value set, the larger the 'disadvantage'. Each traffic stream competing for the circuit group may be allocated a different trunk reservation value (or disadvantage) butat least one stream should be given value 0 (top priority), otherwise some circuits will always be idle. By using trunk reservation we can ensure the that various traffic streams are completed according to a priority order during periods when the circuit group is heavily loaded (i.e. few circuits are idle). In this manner we can nearly equalize the grades of service of the trafffic streams, by disadvantaging overflow traffic streams which have had previous route options. When further circuits become free, fewer traffic streams are disadvantaged, so that more of the traffic streamsare allowed to complete calls. It is important to note that the algorithm does not take into account which particular circuits within the group are free, only the total number which are idle.
- TRUNK RESERVATION 583 For our example illustrated in Figure 32.8 it would probably be appropriate to set values as shown in Figure 32.8. The mathematics needed to calculate trunk reservation values are exceptionally com- plex. However, it is found in practice that values of 3 or 4 establish a significant priority and can be used in a trial-and-error fashion. More accurate calculations are possible by the use of mathematical tables or computer programs, but as any one value of trunk reservation has much the same effect on all sizes of traffic streams, whether large or small, this only strengthens the case for trial-and-error use of values 3 and 4. Trunk reservation is highly effective inprovidingapriority list based on 'dis- advantage', and a value as low as 15 may virtually cutoff a given stream. As we shall see later in the chapter, routing techniques are moving from hierarchical (i.e. structured overflow) schemes towardsnon-hierarchical(i.e.dynamic) schemes. In consequence, new teletraffic modelling methods are necessary, capable of modelling end-to-end con- gestion rather than simple link-by-link analysis. Simple capacity flow models are used Trafficsource Trunk reservation value (applied at exchange 11, accordlng t o the source of t r a f f i c ) A3 0 (toppriority) A1 or A 2 3 o r L( t y p i c a lv a l u e ) Figure 32.8 Typical trunk reservation values
- 584 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL for this analysis, but the technique of trunk reservation is no less relevant in protecting priority streams on particular links. In a dynamicroutingenvironment, trunk reservation valuesneed to be higher thanin simple overflow schemes (i.e. AAR), typically 10. 32.8 'CRANKBACK' OR 'AUTOMATIC RE-ROUTING' (ARR) A more powerful form of overflow routing is that of automatic re-routing (ARR), also called crankback. This mechanism, which relies on sophisticatedswitch and signalling interaction, enables an alternative transit route to be chosen even if it is the second link of a previous transit route choice that is busy. Figure 32.9 shows how it works. Thismechanism is particularly useful inhighlyinterconnectednetworks;it gives much better grade-of-service where most of the available paths between two points are via transit exchanges, and it is made up of a multiple number of links. 1st choice C A B D 2nd choice Alternative routes A to B ARRfirst choice Via : C ( i ) i f A-C congestedthenARRvia A-D ( i i ) if A-C free and C-B free then forward c a l l to B otherwise if C-B b u s y go on to ARR second choice I ARR second choice V i a : D ( i f D-B b u s y then fail the call) Figure 32.9 Automatic re-routing (ARR)
- BIDDING PROPORTIONATE 585 32.9 PROPORTIONATE BIDDING FACILITY (PBF) When there is more than one route toa given destination, it is sometimes an advantage to be able to control the exact proportion of traffic offered to each route. Proportionate bidding provides a mechanism for this purpose. Call attempts are 'dealt' in turn around all the available routes according to a set percentage regime (one for you, three for you, two for you, etc.). The 'dealing' is made by an exchange software program, which works in almost the same way that a croupier deals a pack of cards. Both calls and cards are subdivided into random fractional samples. Figure 32.10 provides an example. Useful applications of this algorithm might be as follows. Route balancing: suppose that exchange 'A' is a trunk exchange, and B and C are international exchanges with say 60% and 40%, respectively, of circuits to a given over- seas country. Traffic can be split by 'A' and routed toexchanges B and C in appropriate fractions (60/40), using PBF as a routing mechanism at exchange A. Multiple carrier environment: suppose this time that exchanges A, B, C, D are inter- national exchanges, A being in one country while B,C and D are owned by separate carriers (competing telecommunications companies) in another. Outgoing traffic from exchangeAcan be split, using PBF, in the same proportion as incoming traffic is received from carriersB, C and D. PBF in this case provides a fair proportionate return solution to the problems of connecting with multiple carriers. The method has already been adopted by a number of telephone network operators asa means of interconnect- ing with multiple telecommunications carriers operating in a destination country. 32.10 DYNAMIC ROUTING Another new technique is that of dynamic routing. A number of slightly different dynamic routing techniques have been developed, but all of them work on the same general premise: that the traffic pattern inalargenetwork is continuallychanging / l E- &*/. r o u t e d via B C./. r o u t e d via C . d./. r o u t e d via D &+c*d= 100 ' I . Figure 32.10 Proportionate bidding facility (PBF)
- 586 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL time Pacific zone seaboard Eastern time zone U SA f: m New York Los Angeles Washington DC \ Figure 32.11 Dynamic routing / according to the time of day, the day of the week, and the season of the year. At any given time some routes will be busy while others are slack. If, then, one could employ some of the slack capacity to serve the busy routes, there would be an overall saving in network resources, even though some of the individual calls might have to be routed circuitously via exchanges in other timezones. Figure 32.11 shows an example of traffic being routed from New York to Washington via Los Angeles. In the Figure 32.1 1 example, as customers in Los Angeles are waking up and are starting to ring New York, the overall routing pattern needs to be adjusted dynam- ically, to prevent the New York/Washington traffic from causing congestion on the trans-USA links. At this time of day European and African exchanges will be down- loading as their business days end, and these switches could be used as alternative transit points for the New York/Washington traffic (instead of Los Angeles). Clever controlmechanismsareneeded to achieve optimum routing patterns, and to keep adapting the network so as to maintain the optimum. A number of such mechanisms havebeen patented. TheyincludeAmericanTelephone and Telegraph's(AT&T's) dynamic hierarchial non routing ( D N H R ) and British Telecom's (BT's) dynamic alternative routing ( D A R ) . 32.11 ROUTINGAND TRAFFIC CONTROL IN DATANETWORKS In contrast to circuit-switched networks, in particular the public telephone network, data networks (e.g. packet, frame, ATM, LAN, MAN and Znternet networks)have tended to use moresophisticatedautomaticroutingcontrol techniques.Typicalin telephonenetworks is thattheroutingtable ineachindividualexchangemustbe manually programmed (aswe saw in Figure 32.4). In data networks, more sophisticated routing protocols and algorithms (e.g. spanning tree protocol, a source routing protocol or some other protocol such as the TCP/IP method OSPF, open shortest path first) are generally used to select the route to the destination. The advantage is the simplicity of setting up maintaining and routing mechanisms in complicated networks,the disadvantage is the difficulty in measuring and predicting traffic flows. In the case of path-oriented, connection-oriented networks, all the packets, frames or cells take the same route through the network. Path orientation helps to ensure that the
- ROUTING AND TRAFFIC CONTROL IN DTA NETWORKS 587 packets arrive in the same order in which they sent, thus minimizing thejob of any were necessary re-sequencing. The delays encountered by each of the packets is similar, thus giving approximately even performance of the network as perceived by the user. In addition, the path traffic volumes are relatively predictable and sometimes manually programmable using techniques similar to those discussed circuit-switched networks. for The alternatives to path-oriented networks are datagram networks. These are net- works in which individual packets constituting a given communication find their own individual way through thenetwork.Theadvantage of the datagram approach, as opposed to the path-oriented approach (both are illustratedinFigure 32.12) is the greater ability to spread traffic more evenly through the network according to instan- taneous data packet loading and availability of individual links. As not all the packets take the same route through a datagram network, it is more difficult for a third party to try to 'tap' the call, also making it more secure. Datagram networks are also more adept coping with individual link failures within network at the on a dynamic basis. Packets simply divert another route. When a link failure occurs via inapath-orientednetwork,thenetworkusuallytakesalittlelongertonoticethe failure, and then usually requires a little time to determine a new path. The virtual connection is not usually lost, but for maybe a few seconds (say around 10) it may not carry any further packets until the path is re-established over a new route. In connectionless networks, a virtual connection is not established. Instead, each of the packets or frames making up the message is simply despatched into the network in a manner similar to datagram switching. There is no confirmation of receipt of messages. The main advantage of connectionless networks is the effort saved in establishing con- nections and the high security resulting from the use of different paths and the absence of identifiable connections. Connectionless routing is used widely in the Internet. As is evident from the above, data networks have much more powerful automatic routing capabilities than has historically been the case in public telephone networks. This significantly reduces the manual effort required establish and administer routing to tables. In addition, it enables complex router networks (suchas the Internet itself) to be put together simply by plugging a large number of sub-networks operated by different organizations together, without the need for an organization planning the network and routing as a whole. So much for the advantages of automated routing algorithms and protocols; the disadvantage is the resulting chaos. The Internet, for example, has historically lacked a rigid structure and tight overall network planning authority, with the result that no-one Figure 32.12 Packet, frame or cell routing in data networks
- 588 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL can accurately predict the path taken by an individual message traversing it. This leads to significant difficulties in designing an appropriate overall topology and ensuring adequate quality of network performance. Many customers complain of unacceptable response times when 'surfing' the Internet. To optimize the topologyof a data networkrequires a thorough understanding of the protocols and algorithms atwork in determining the routing of individual connections and packets or frames. Thus, for example, many different metrics and attributes may be used in the determination of the appropriate path, as we discussed in'Chapter 28. It is a difficult job to achieve optimum traffic flow through a datanetwork which uses complex routing protocols and algorithms. It requires very careful establishment within the network configuration database of the values of each of the metrics and attributes for each of the nodes and links, though this may be to some extent automated within the network management system. The easiest way to ensure success, as in telephone networks, is the use of a hierarchical network structure. Such a structure is rapidly appearing within the Internet, where only about four major nodes (all in the USA) switch most of the messages traversing the network. 32.12 NETWORK DESIGN A number of traffic-controlling mechanisms have been presented in this chapter. In practice, any one or any combination mechanisms may be used by network planners of in striving towards the perfect network; andalways the optimum topology makes some form of compromise between least cost, overall performance and robustness under overload. The constraints will arise from the control mechanisms actually available in any given case. None of the constraints and impositions are ever the same. All in all, network design is indeed a complex and imprecise art! Figure 32.13 provides a flowchart for network design, outlining the steps leading to the determination of a suitable topology. It starts by assuming that a network already exists and that the current point-to-point traffic demand between exchanges can be obtained by measurement. If this is not the case, current demand will have to be esti- mated. Alternatively, the scope for using an entirely new network configuration might be considered. Having measured the current traffic, the next step is to identify any problems of congestion or unreliable equipment. We must then estimate all the future requirements of the network, first by forecasting the future traffic demand (see Chapter 31), and then by reviewing any other reasons for undertaking network changes. The network mayneed to be changed to accommodate routes to new exchanges, or to connect to networks in previously unserved areas. Alternatively, its topology may need to change for economic or service reasons. Instead of being one made up of a large number of small outdated exchanges, it may become one comprising a small number of large, modern technology ones. Often these factors have the most impact on the evolv- ing network structure. When the future demands on the network are known, we review the efficiency and suit- ability of the current network. For its intended future purpose we determine as many dif- ferent options as possible for its evolution. At the simplest, an option may only require
- NETWORK DESIGN 589 Measure the current point-to-point t r a f f i c demand Determine points of current network congestion or poor r e l i a b i l i t y Forecast future traffic demand and potential congestion Review any new network demands - new exchanges, modernization, other networks requiring interconnection etc Review the current network 1 efficiency and determine if new interconnections or new call control mechanisms are justified l Determine alternative network topologies, and compare the cost o f various options 1 Determine the best topology and calculate circuit numbers, together w i t h any new routes and exchanges t h a t are needed 1 Check t h a t t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and congestion objectives are met Figure 32.13 Network design
- 590 NETWORK TRAFFIC CONTROL adjustment to the capacity the exchanges or of the transmission links interconnecting of them. Morecomplex options might demand theuse of new call control techniques (such as ARR, PBF ordynamic routing). However, the deployment such techniquesis likely of to incur considerable cost and needs to be weighed against the benefits, both in overall network performance and in overall network cost. Once the choice has been made, the final circuit numbers can be determined and a plan worked out for the new circuits, routes and exchanges that will be needed. Then it is up to the implementors. Depending on thenature of thenetworkand itscustomers,theplan will need periodic, if not frequent, review and readjustment. Nonetheless, the more comprehen- sive and forward looking is the plan, the greater is the likelihood of smooth network administration and performance. Contrariwise, insufficient forward forecasting or lack of anticipation of future needs can lead to short-term 'firefighting', with a need to adjust continually the structureof the network. Under such circumstances few networks reach their optimum of performance and economic efficiency. 32.13 APPENDIX: THE WILKINSON-RAPP ROUTE DIMENSIONINGMETHOD In the main part of the text we briefly describedtheWilkinson-Rappmethod for dimensioning overflow circuit groups, but althoughwe described the method we did not demonstrate how to calculate the values AEQ and NEQ. For those interested readers we now cover the necessary calculations and give an example of the use of the method. The explanation refers back to the diagrams of Figures 32.6 and 32,7 and describes the method in mathematical notation. In Figure 32.6 the traffic offered to the N circuit group is a' + h' overflow traffic c first-offered traffic Thequestion is 'how many circuits ( N ) are requiredin orderthat a 1% GOS is achieved?' The value can be calculated as below. First, the separate streams within the offered traffic are characterized in mathematical terms by the statisticalmeans and variances of their traffic intensities,which are calculated using the normal Erlang formula. Provided that the streams are statistically independent of oneanother,thenthemeanand variance of thecombinedstream a' + b' + c can be calculated by simple summation. These values in turn allow A,, and N E , to be worked out. The method is then as explained in the main text of the chapter.Refer to Figure 32.7. The actualtraffic which may be lost,L , is calculated as 1 % X (a' + h' + c) and from this the equivalent grade of service GOS,, can be worked out. + Finally, the total size of the equivalent circuit group N NEQ is obtained from the normal Erlang formula and the value of N deduced by subtraction of value NEQ. There now follows a short summary in mathematical notation.
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Speedweek in Adelaide
Speedweek in Adelaide
Feb 14, 2014
APRIL in ADELAIDE is SPEEDWEEK
The Adelaide Motorsport Festival will be one of Adelaide's most significant motorsport events. It is already attracting interest Australia wide. It commences on the Saturday April 12th with a unique hill climb on one of Adelaide's iconic scenic roads just a few kilometres from the Adelaide CBD. The climb finishes at the renowned Windy Point restaurant.
On Sunday April 13th we utilise part of the original Grand Prix circuit in the Adelaide parklands where we will stage a Super Sprint event. Cars will range from vintage racers to modern day supercars with special demonstrations by historic F1 cars including the Alan Jones Beatrice Lola which competed in the inaugural AGP. On the lawns in front of the historic Victoria Park grandstand will be displays of unique and exciting cars and motorcycles as well as food and entertainment.
Visit www.adelaidemotorsportfestival.com.au for all the details
Following which we have our traditional array of Historic motorsport with;
Wednesday April 16th - Easter Historic Hillclimb at Collingrove
Saturday April 19th and Sunday April 20th - Easter National Historic Circuit race meeting at Mallala including:
And if you are not competing, you can be in the centre of the action by DISPLAYing your car at either the Adelaide Motorsport Festival Victoria Park Super Sprint on Sunday April 13th or the Easter National Historic Circuit race meeting at Mallala on Saturday April 19th.
So, to enter some or all of the events above.......
For the Adelaide Motorsport Festival (AMF) events...visit the www.adelaidemotorsportfestival.com.au website for all the information, the online entry and payment process. As the AMF events (Hillclimb and Sprint) are focused on historic cars and rare and collectible cars, you must pay a $20 application fee then you will receive an invite to compete after the application is assessed. As most of you will be entering something that is historic, you will get priority assessment and should get an invite to compete within 7-14 days. To answer some of your questions early...yes the Sprint is on a part of the Clipsal track within Victoria Park and yes Historic Sports and Touring cars of all types are welcome, with F1 cars as the drawcard.
For our traditional events, either go to our Web site http://www.sportingcarclubsa.org.au/forms.php to download the old PDFs or go to www.meecamsau.com and enter that way. If you are not using this site yet, you are wasting a lot of time filling out forms that could be better wasted on old cars
AMF Poster Speed Week (2).jpg
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Upcoming Events
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Wed Feb 19, 2014
Motorsport - Historic
Percy Wein Smith Room Clubrooms
Wed Feb 19, 2014
Motorsport - Circuit
Clubrooms- Percy Wien-Smith Room
Thu Feb 20, 2014
Touring - Veteran/Vintage
Clubrooms- Reg Sparks Room
Fri Feb 21, 2014


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