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Everyone Loves to eat fast food whether it's a children younger or older generation no can stay away from those tasty snacks, but the main problem that arise due to these are cavities in your teeth so brushing the teeth is really important if you want to keep your teeth cavities free. The main problem with the regular teeth brush is sometime they can't reach all the places of the mouth due to which you can't feel totally healthy and its mostly seen with small kids as they mostly hesitate to brush their teeth but electric tooth brush is an amazing brush that can remove all your problems related to your teeth in a go so what are you waiting for grab the best tooth brush and be healthy and safe.
It is one of the best electric tooth brush that keep your teeth cavity free from every corner of your mouth. Doctors have also certified that children's who uses kids electric toothbrush have healthier mouth and it's easy for the doctors to check their mouth while they visit to them. Not only this, it is the best electric tooth brush one can use for healthy and fresh mouth. So you that you don't need to worry about your kid's health. It's simple to use as it's totally electric so it will do everything at its own.
Another best thing about this electric brush is its price, its price may be much more than regular tooth brushes but its life is 10 times more than the regular tooth brush which everyone uses in their daily life. So go and get the best for your kid's so that you don't need to care for their teeth as this electric brush will take care of everything.


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Sponsored Review
Sentosa 4D AdventureLand is proud to announce the launch of its new 4D experience, Happy Feet Mumble's Wild Ride! Presented for the first time in Asia, this thrilling ride featuring an action-packed adventure of Mumble and his hilarious penguin friends has premiered on 16 Nov 2013. So head down now to enjoy the ride with your family!
Definitely a winner for kids, join Mumble in his journey to the heart of the South Pole to meet a colony of lively Emperor Penguins who encounter a mysterious fish famine. Race down the frozen cliffs of Antarctica at chilling speeds and face Mumble's leopard seal nemesis when the fun turns into a suspenseful chase.
Happy Feet Mumble's Wild Ride!, is the latest motion-simulated extravaganza is presented in 3D and brought to life with its dynamic 4D multi-sensory effects.
Check out the girls all in different poses wearing the 3D glasses. Joey was a bit sceptical of the ride but after the 10mins ride, she was totally bought in by the effects.
We completed the Happy Feet Mumble's Wild Ride!
In addition to enjoying Happy Feet Mumble's Wild Ride!, now you are able to also have unlimited admissions to watch the 4D movie Journey 2: The Mysterious Island, or sit through the thrilling virtual 4D roller coaster Extreme Log Ride and play the interactive 4D shoot-out game, Desperados!
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HAPPY FEET and all related characters and elements are trademarks of and © Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc.

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Because one incredible experience is never enough
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The Gold Coast Wax Museum is Australia's largest museum of it's kind, featuring more than 110 life-size wax figures copies of British Crown Jewels and dioramas of Australian History. The Wax Museum is visited by many thousands of the people each year who marvel at the amazing realism of the life-size figures in authentic costumes. This is your invitation to wander thorugh at your lesisure and meet many important and famous people on Queensland's Gold Coast.
Come face to face with such celebrities as Kylie Minogue, Miley Cyrus, Michael Jackson, Johnny Depp, former PM John Howard, former PM Bob Hawke, President Barack Obama, Past President John F. Kennedy, Adolph Hitler, King Hussein, President Nasser, Mohandas Ghandi, members of the Royal Family, and many others whose lives have all left an indelible mark on our world. Information cards are located alongside each figure.
The Gold Coast Wax Museum contains figures which have been crafted by leading local and overseas sculptors to international standards, equal in quality to the world's best, as seen in Europe, the United Kingdom, and U.S.A. The incredibly intricate detail in the figures is amazing - and includes hair applied one strand at a time, requiring many working hours for one hand, and the eyes so anatomically real they seem to follow the viewer around.
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The Best Destinations for Solo Travel This Valentine's Day
Spending this Valentine's Day on your own? Although it can be hard to avoid starry-eyed romantics during the mushiest time of the year, don't let that derail your plans for a sun-soaked getaway. It may seem like most resorts cater to couples and families, but there are plenty of hot spots for solo travel—simply follow our lead!


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Bitcoin 'Elites' Plan Secret Bilderberg Style Confab
Top 50 members of the "ecosystem" to meet on secret Caribbean Island
of the world's most prominent Bitcoin chieftains are set to gather in secret at an undisclosed Caribbean resort in a roundtable gathering that some are already comparing to The Bilderberg Group meetings.
Coindesk has the story, noting that the gathering, dubbed the Satoshi Roundtable, will take place this weekend and is a closed door confab for "bitcoin CEOs and luminaries". Members of the Press and the public will not be invited.
"Organized by Bruce Fenton of the Bitcoin Association and Atlantic Financial, participants in the first annual Satoshi Roundtable include top executives from companies such as Blockchain, BitGo, BitPesa, Chain, ChangeTip, Coinapult and MegaBigPower, as well as noted VCs in the space such as Erik Voorhees and Roger Ver." the report reads.
An official website for the gathering verifies the secrecy of the meeting, noting "Even if you are a great person with many accomplishments in bitcoin and lots of passion we just won't likely be able to invite you."
Mr Fenton told Coindesk that the group does not wish to act too secretly, but that the meeting has been organized to ensure "the right balance of transparency and privacy."
"Many CEOs will not criticize regulators in a public event because they fear reprisals from the regulators." Fenton said, attempting to justify the secrecy of the gathering. "Another example is that some CEOs fear to attack known scams in public because they don't want attacks from scammers or to be associated with them (even as a critic) in the newspaper," he added.
"Attendees will have the option to have comments from speeches or interaction be publicly available. I personally plan to release everything I say and anyone else can do the same, I'll also work to protect the privacy of those who want it," Fenton said.
The meeting is thought to be taking place in Punta Cana, in the Dominican Republic. The area is a popular tourist destination and is comprised mainly of resorts and luxury hotels. A photo (displayed above) on the official GitHub page for the event has been identified as the Club Med Punta Cana resort, although it is not clear whether the photo was just used as a stock image or not.
"The event is designed to foster relationships, interaction, tech development, deal making and provide a fun and relaxed but intensive environment to dive deeply into the technology and issues surrounding it," Fenton added, without going into detail about what will be discussed.
| Full Story |


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How to buy and sell online without investing in products? You've probably seen websites sales on eBay or MercadoLibre offering many brand items at discount prices through auctions. Perhaps you've wondered where does and how these vendors get their merchandise and are then able to sell so cheap? Well, these vendors buy their wholesale products using a method called dropshippingping.
What is dropshipping?
Dropshipping is a technique retail where retailer does not keep goods in its possession, but transfers responsibility for shipments of goods and fulfilling customer orders to a wholesaler or dealer.
The retailer makes money on the difference in price product retail and wholesale prices. The wholesaler or distributor, meanwhile saving money by not operate a retail store and having to pay a seller to sell products. Anyone can start selling through this method and make money using it. You can start listing the items in your shop or website as soon as you decide. Most people will able to do all this without problems since it is a relatively simple and structured process.
What can you sell online using this system?
You can sell anything, be it clothes, shoes, baby items, electronics, books, perfumes, video games, watches, accessories kitchen, figures, glasses, sports stuff, handbags, toys, school stationery, mobile accessories, mouse pads, key chains, posters, etc. You decide. Before starting, before contacting the dropshipping company you have decided that it will work and before choosing the products they want to sell, you need consider getting a domain name and web hosting for your business and create an online store. The Web store is the part functional system. It's what your customers are making the decision to purchase. In addition, you must establish a merchant account with Paypal so you can start accepting large sums of money and customers do not have to leave your site to make payments when they buy.
Of course, you can sell your products through auction sites like Mercadolibre or eBay, however, commissions on their sales will be reduced enough as a percentage commission paid these companies for each sale you make.
2 Important reasons why you should have own e-commerce shop.
a) Customers feel secure when they see they are buying a formal company with a professional website.
b) It's much less work for you when you have a sales page where you can keep adding new products with ease.
It is important that you create a professional site and this can be achieved using the WordPress platform installing a theme WordPress theme to create eCommerce stores like this.
In the past, it was necessary to know coding to make a professional website. Today things have changed a lot and you can have
list your online store in a matter of minutes. Now, things are more or less automated. See here how to install a professional WordPress site.
This is the simple process to create a website for online sales:
- Get a domain and hosting (Suggest you Go with Siteground)
- Install WordPress (Siteground offers free installation and tutorials)
- Install a theme eCommerce
- Configure theme eCommerce
- Add your products
Many dropshipers have for sale online stores which offer them to customers. You are strongly advised not to hire them for the following reasons:
- There has to be a programmer, it is difficult to create and automate.
- Limited Functionality
- Possible changes in the limited design
You do not have total control over your page.
The price is usually expensive for they offer them the encouragement to make money, but to create and maintain your own page of eCommerce is you.
If for any reason decides to change dropshipper, you will need to create another virtual store from scratch.
Obviously we provide the information and it is you who must make the decision on where to get their website eCommerce.
What is your job?
2- Receive orders.
3- Place orders directly with your dropshipping provider.
4- Pay the dropshipper with the money you earn from each client.
Dropshipper work
1- Your orders handled dropshipper
2- Process your orders
3- Search products
4- Provides new products when stock runs out
5- Pack orders
6- Make a bill with your name
7- Send packages to their customers on their behalf
As you can see this process is very simple and their work is minimal. Besides this requires no investment on your part orders.
List of dropshippers online
– Lastlevel.es: gift items
– Ocivisual.es: videogames
– Priveperfumes.com: perfume
– Plásticosur.com: all
– Tucargadorsolar.com articles related portable solar power
– Mydo.es: Wholesale baby products
– Bigbuy.eu: a bit of everything
When you have chosen a dropshipper, we recommend you try it first. Request a small order to your home address and assess how well it works.
Things to consider:
- Shipping time. Is it really what it promises?
- The package. Is this wrapped properly?
- The invoice. It is placed inside the package at the right price?
Advantages of having a dropshipping business
- No inventory. You do not have to rent space to keep inventory or fill your home with the goods.
- No need to send. Packages of goods sold, sends the wholesale / distributor saving you time and hassle of regret Travel packets and prevents the post office.
- Catalog sales. Very effective method to expand, create a catalog and send it to your customer base and thus earn more money.
Disadvantages of having a dropshipping business
Little control over the goods. You will have difficulty accurately describe your articles to potential customers, especially if:
- They want additional information such as the composition of the material. In most cases, obtaining this information is necessary and should contact the supplier on behalf of the client.
- Little control over shipping. If wholesalers / distributors goods are lost or broken, this will fall on you. Again, you will need to work with your wholesaler / distributor to rectify the situation.
- Responsibility falls on the retailer. No matter who is at fault, you are ultimately responsible for everything to go well for the customer.
Never give information from your wholesaler / distributor customer or tell him to get in touch directly with the wholesale company; This does not
it's just very unprofessional, it also runs the risk that the customer will go directly to the wholesaler.


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text: In the Spring of 2007, one of the twin 108″ diameter penstocks at the Xcel Energy Shoshone Power Plant ruptured and flooded the power house. Garney was hired to install a 100″ steel liner inside of each existing 108″ penstock. This was very challenging because these penstocks extend down a mountain on a 45 degree slope with limited access. The penstocks include multiple elbows that made the sliplining of the existing pipe even more challenging. This work was completed using special equipment including winches to pull the pipe in place and various length joints of the 100″ pipe.


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Bucks County Ballet School Debra Sparks Dance Works Testimonials
One cannot find a better studio at which his/her child could study dance. At DSDW, the students are treated with true love and respect. Ms. Debra and Ms. Tamara strive to bring out the best in their students, both as dancers, and as individuals. No matter what the skill level or ability of the student, everyone at DSDW is treated as a valued member of the family. When one sees the impressive talent at this studio and the accolades that have been bestowed, it is natural to assume that there must be a spirit of competitiveness among the dancers, but the opposite is true. Ms. Debra and Ms. Tamara make it clear that only kindness and generosity will be accepted, and that team spirit really shines through. By studying dance at DSDW, my daughter has not only come a long way as a dancer, but also as a student. Learning to focus in her dance classes has helped her to apply that same focus to her studies, and improve her grades. Finally, DSDW is somewhere my daughter calls a second home. She is a second generation in our family to study under Ms. Debra and Ms. Tamara, and holds the two of them in the highest regard. They are role models for her, and two adults that she admires with great affection. During the last academic year, my daughter had a very difficult time at school with the typical "mean girl" nonsense, which really battered her self-esteem. Of course, as her family, we worked to bolster her confidence to ignore the negativity. However, having two wonderful influences like Ms. Deb and Ms. Tam providing positive feedback and encouragement was more of a help than they will ever know, and for that, we are eternally grateful. Be confident that choosing to send your child to the Debra Sparks Dance Works is a decision you will be glad you made for years to come.
DSDW Parent
DSDW has been an amazing place for my daughter to grow as a dancer and an individual. The poise and grace she learns at DSDW reflects in other aspects of her life.She is only 9 yrs old but will sign up for hours and hours of dancing as long as it is at DSDW! Highly recommend DSDW.
DSDW Parent Meeta
Dear Ms. Deb, Now that the excitement has subsided, I take pause to write this note to you expressing my thoughts about you, your staff, and your amazing school of dance. For many years now, the Debra Sparks Dance Works has been an integral part of our family. Most of our daughter's/granddaughter's conversations and interests are about DSDW and I think you are aware that 100% of Paige's world evolves around the planet "SPARKS". She lives and breathes "dance". It was truely a banner day when Kerry discovered your wonderful school. It has become not only an integral part of Kerry's, Paige's, and Heather's lives, but has also become part of Carole's and my life. You have taught our granddaughters devinely, but you have also imparted your grace, poise, charm, and good manners. Your influence can only serve as a positive example for them to follow wherever the road of life takes them. I'm sure that Kerry has thanked you many times for your help, your direction, and even your love for our dear girls. Now on behalf of Carole and myself, I thank you.
Martin F. Farricker, Sr.
The show was amazing! We enjoyed it thoroughly! My husband and son were impressed by my daughter's improvement, even with her injuries – thank you so much for the wonderful instruction and support! It was a difficult year for her, but she feels like it was successful because of your attention and kindness. I am grateful beyond words, as dance is the most important thing in the world to her.
Patty of Holland, PA; DSDW Parent
I just wanted to tell you how beautiful your recital was and the ballet was amazing! My daughter loves coming to dance and seems to have improved a ton thanks to you and your great style and flare for teaching and correcting.
Sari of Churchville, PA; DSDW Parent
First off I want to say thank you so much for making my first year at Debra Sparks Dance Works spectacular! This year you helped me turn my dancing career around in a good way. Thanks to you, if I wanted to do something with dance in the future, it would now be somewhat possible. I remember I came to the Ballet Jazz 6 class to try it out and see where I would fit in. By the end of the class, I couldn't move a muscle. I watched the other girls show you each move so elegantly and was wishing I could be like them. Even though in the beginning it was really hard to keep up because I was tired or didn't feel well, you, Ms. Deb and Ms. Tam, are what kept me going with always saying the positives. I am so grateful that I am lucky enough to dance four nights a week with such great teammates and teachers. I have been dancing for 9 years now and this year by far has been the best year at dance that I have EVER had! I hope that one day I could maybe be on the competition team. Thank you again for making me an elegant young lady and for always showing me the bright side of every problem. I am so glad that I joined this studio this year and couldn't ask for any better teachers! Have a great summer and can't wait until we have summer camp. Xoxo.
Ashley of Newtown, PA; DSDW Student
I must say, Miss Deb and Miss Tam- you outdid yourselves once again. The recital was awesome. Thank you for all of your hard work and dedication to the girls. My daughter always looked forward to going to dance. See you in September. Bravo
Amy of Yardley, PA; DSDW Parent
The show was fabulous! The dancers are so talented and the choreography is beautiful. Our family really enjoyed watching my daughter's growth and development after a year of being at the studio 5 days/week. She really "came to life" on the stage this year. The little special parts that you and Tam assigned to her to help boost her confidence had a big impact. She tries hard to balance soccer and dance… (which is important to us as we try to keep her active and fit) and this year's show really encouraged her to work hard at dance and now she is looking for ways to take more classes in the fall. Oh boy! Thank you for your on-going support.
Best, Randi of Washington Crossing, PA; DSDW Parent
Thank you for a great year. Loved every minute of every class! Can't wait for September.
Love, Emma of Yardley, PA; DSDW Parent
Ms. Deb and Miss Tamara, thank you for a fabulous show and year!! I can't tell you how very much my daughter's love of dance has grown this year. I attribute it to the wonderful way you teach, your love of dance, and love for your students. She misses dance class already and runs to the mailbox everyday to see if her recommendations have come! From the bottom of my heart, thank you both!
Jamie of Richboro, PA; DSDW Parent
Thank you for a wonderful show. It's so nice to see how much my girls have improved during the year. Your studio overall is doing such a wonderful job because my girls always love to go to class. Thanks again and have a relaxing summer!
Lucia of Newtown, PA; DSDW Parent
This is for Ms. Debra: I wanted to send my gratitude for the training she gave me as a dancer. I attended the school when it was in Northeast Philly. Though I stopped dancing midway through high school, I did return to it years later and just performed at the Dance New Amsterdam in NYC as a featured soloist with the New York Theatrical Dance Conference. Throughout my dance journey, my technique has always been remarked on and I know that's because of the very strong foundation Ms. Deb gave me. This, plus an attention to stage presence, have set me apart from other dancers in my field and Ms. Deb's face silently mouthing the words, "Smile girls!" from offstage is largely responsible for this. I have been performing in the tri state area for the last year now, teach a weekly class in Haddon Township, NJ, and will be offering a workshop in NYC in August. I'm so thankful dance is in my life and very grateful to Ms. Deb for helping me get here. So glad to see the school is going strong!
With Love, Kristan of Haddon Township, NJ; former DSDW student


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Cyclic Voltammetry Principle
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Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can view samples of our professional work here.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Keywords: principle of cyclic voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry theory
Cyclic voltammetry is the most widely used technique for acquiring qualitative information about electrochemical reactions [34, 35]. The power of cyclic voltammetry results from its ability to provide considerable information on the thermodynamics and kinetics of heterogeneous electron transfer reactions [47, 48], and coupled chemical reactions [36, 37]. It also provides mathematical analysis of an electron transfer process at an electrode [41, 49, 50].
Basic Principle of Cyclic voltammetry
An electron transfer process with a single step may be represented as;
O + ne ⇋ R (2.1)
where O and R are oxidized and reduced form of electoractive species respectively, which either is soluble in solution or absorbed on the electrode surface and are transported by diffusion alone.
Cyclic voltammetry consists of scanning linearly the potential of a stationary working electrode (in an unstirred solution), using a triangular potential waveform. Depending on the information sought, single or multiple cycles can be used. During the potential sweep, the potentiostat measures the current resulting from the applied potential. The resulting plot of current vs. potential is termed as cyclic voltammogram.
The excitation signal in cyclic voltammetry is given in Fig. 2.1a. Initially the potential of the electrode is Ei. Then the potential is swept linearly at the rate of ν volts per second. In cyclic voltammetry reversal technique is carried out by reversing direction of scan after a certain time t =λ .The potential at any time E (t) is given by
E (t) = Ei - νt t<λ (2.2a)
E (t) = Ei - 2νλ + νt t≥λ (2.2b)
Here"ν'' is scan rate in V/s.
The shape of the resulting cyclic voltammogram can be qualitatively explained as follows:
When potential is increased from the region where oxidized form "O" is stable, cathodic current starts to flow as potential approaches E0 for R/O couple until a cathodic peak is reached. After traversing the potential region in which the reduction process takes place, the direction of potential sweep is reversed.
The reaction-taking place in the forward scan can be expressed as
O + e- → R
During the reverse scan, R molecule (generated in the forward half cycle, and accumulated near the surface) is reoxidized back to O and anodic peak results.
R  O + e-
In the forward scan as potential moves past Eo, the near-electrode concentration of O falls to zero, the mass transfer of O reaches a maximum rate, in unstirred solution, this rate then declines as the depletion of O further and further from electrode takes place. Before dropping again current passes through a maximum. Reversal of scan repeats the above sequence of events for the oxidation of electrochemically generated R that now predominates in near-electrode region.
The continuous change in the surface concentration is coupled with an expansion of the diffusion layer thickness (as expected in the quiescent solutions). The resulting current peaks thus reflect the continuous change of the concentration gradient with time, hence, the increase to the peak current corresponds to the achievement of diffusion control, while the current drop (beyond the peak) exhibits a t-1/2 dependence (independent of the applied potential). For the above reasons, the reversal current has the same shape as the forward one.
Electrochemical Cell
Electrochemical cell is a sealed vessel which is designed to prevent the entry of air. It has an inlet and outlet to allow the saturation of solution with an inert gas, N2 or Ar. Removal of O2 is usually necessary to prevent currents due to the reduction of O2 interfering with response from system under study. The standard electrochemical cell consists of three electrodes immersed in an electrolyte;
- Working electrode (WE)
- Reference electrode (RE)
- Counter electrode (CE)
Working Electrode (WE)
The performance of the voltammetric procedure is strongly influenced by the working electrode material. Since the reaction of interest (reduction or oxidation) takes place on working electrode, it should provide high signal to noise characteristics, as well as a reproducible response. Thus, its selection depends primarily on two factors: the redox behaviour of the target analyte and the background current over the potential region required for the measurement. Other considerations include the potential window, electrical conductivity, surface reproducibility, mechanical properties, cost, availability and toxicity. A range of materials have found application as working electrodes for electroanalysis, the most popular are those involving mercury, carbon or noble metals (particularly platinum and gold).
Reference Electrode (RE)
This functional electrode has a constant potential so it can be used as reference standard against which potential of other electrode present in the cell can be measured. Commonly used reference electrodes are silver-silver chloride or the calomel electrode.
Counter of Auxiliary Electrode (CE)
It is also termed as auxiliary electrode and serves as source or sink for electrons so that current can be passed from external circuit through the cell.
The potential at WE is monitored and controlled very precisely with respect to RE via potentiostat. This may be controlled in turn via interfacing with a computer. The desired waveform is imposed on the potential at the WE by a waveform generator. The potential drop V is usually measured by the current flowing between the WE and CE across a resistor R (from which (I=V/R), the latter connected in series with the two electrodes. The resulting I/V trace, termed as a voltammogram is then either plotted out via an XY chart recorder or, where possible, retained in a computer to allow any desired data manipulation prior to hard copy being taken.
Single Electron Transfer Process
Three types of single electron transfer process can be studied.
- Reversible process
- Irreversible process
- Quasi-reversible process
Based on values of electrochemical parameters, i.e. peak potential Ep, half peak potential (Ep/2), half wave potential (E1/2), peak current (ip), anodic peak potential Epa, cathodic peak potential Epc etc, it can be ascertained whether a reaction is reversible, irreversible or quasi-reversible. Ep is the potential corresponding to peak current ip, Ep/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.5 ip, E1/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.85 ip. These electrochemical parameters can be graphically obtained from the voltammogram as shown in the Fig. 2.2.
Reversible Process
The heterogeneous transfer of electron from an electrode to a reducible species and vice versa
O + ne ⇋ R
is a form of Nernstian electrode reaction with assumption that at the surface of electrode, rate of electron transfer is so rapid that a dynamic equilibrium is established and Nernstian condition holds i.e.
CO(0,t) ∕ CR(0,t) = Exp[(nF∕RT)(Ei-νt-Eo)] (2.3)
In equation (2.3), Co and CR are concentration of oxidized and reduced species at the surface of electrode as a function of time, Eo is the standard electrode potential, Ei is the initial potential and ν is the scan rate in volts per second. Under these conditions, the oxidized and reduced species involved in an electrode reaction are in equilibrium at the electrode surface and such an electrode reaction is termed as a "reversible reaction".
Current Expression
Due to difference in concentration of electroactive species at the surface of electrode and the concentration in the bulk, diffusion controlled mass transport takes place. Fick's second law can be applied to obtain time dependent concentration distribution in one dimension of expanding diffusion layer.
∂Ci(x, t) ∕∂t = Di∂2Ci(x, t) ∕∂x2 (2.4)
Peak current is a characteristic quantity in reversible cyclic voltammetric process. The current expression is obtained by solving Fick's law [51].
i = nFACo*(πDoa)1/2 χ(at) (2.5)
where i = current, n = number of electrons transferred, A is the area of electrode, Co* is the bulk concentration of oxidized species, Do is the diffusion coefficient, χ (at) is the current function and a = nFν/RT
At 298K, function χ(at) and the current potential curve reaches their maximum for the reduction process at a potential which is 28.5/n mV more negative than the half wave potential i.e. at n(Ep-E1/2) = - 28.50 mV, π1/2χ(at) = 0.4463 ( Table 2.1). Then the current expression for the forward potential scan becomes
where ip is the peak current or maximum current.
Using T=298K, Area (A) in cm2, Diffusion coefficient (Do) in cm2/s, concentration of species O (Co*) in moles dm-3 and Scan rate (ν) in volts sec-1, equation (2.6) takes the following form,
Equation (2.7) is called Randle's Sevick equation [39, 40].
Diagnostic Criteria of Reversibility
Certain well-defined characteristic values can be obtained from the voltammogram, for a reversible electrochemical reaction.
Relationship between peak potential (Ep) and half wave potential (E1/2) for a reversible reaction is given by,
Where E1/2 is potential corresponding to i = 0.8817ip [41].
At 298 K
From equations (2.8a) and (2.8b) one obtains,
At 298K
The peak voltage position does not alter as scan rate varies. In some cases, the precise determination of peak potential Ep is not easy because the observed CV peak is somewhat broader. So it is sometimes more convenient to report the potential at i = 0.5ip called half peak potential, which can be used for E1/2 determination [52].
At 298 K
From equations (2.8a) and (2.10a) we obtain,
At 298K
The diagnostic criterion of single electron transfer reversible reaction is often sufficient to get qualitative as well as quantitative information about the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of the system.
For a reversible system, should be independent of the scan rate, however, it is found that generally increases with ï®. This is due to presence of finite solution resistance between the reference and the working electrode.
Irreversible Process
For a totally irreversible process, reverse reaction of the electrode process does not occur. Actually for this type of reaction the charge transfer rate constant is quite small, i.e. ksh ï'£ 10-5cm sec-1, hence charge transfer is extremely low and current is mainly controlled by the rate of charge transfer reaction. Nernst equation is not applicable for such type of reaction.
The process can be best described by the following reaction
O + ne  R
Delahay [51] and later on Mastuda, Ayabe [48], and Reinmuth [53] described the stationary electrode voltammetric curves of the irreversible process.
Irreversibility can be diagnosed by three major criteria.
A shift in peak potential occurs as the scan rate varies.
Half peak width for an irreversible process is given by
Here α is transfer coefficient and na is the number of electrons involved in rate determining step of charge transfer process.
At 298K
Current expression is given as,
i = nFACo*(πDob)1/2 χ(bt) (2.14)
The function χ(bt) goes through a maximum at π1/2χ(bt) = 0.4958.(Table 2.2).
Introduction of this value in equation (2.14) yields the expression (2.15) for the peak current.
A plot of ln ip vs. (Ep-Eo) for different scan rates would be a straight line with a slope proportional to -ï¡naF and an intercept proportional to ks,h.
Quasi-reversible Process
Quasi-reversible process is termed as a process which shows intermediate behaviour between reversible and irreversible processes. Both charge transfer and mass transfer control current of the reaction. For quasi-reversible process value of standard heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h lies between 10-1 to 10-5 cm sec-1[42]. Cyclic voltammogram for quasi-reversible process is shown in Fig. 2.3.
An expression relating the current to potential dependent charge transfer rate was first provided by Matsuda and Ayabe [48].
where, ksh is the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant at standard potential Eo of redox system,is the transfer coefficient and ï¢ = 1- ï¡.
In this case, the shape of the peak and the various peak parameters are functions of ï¡ and the dimensionless parameter ïŒ, defined as [54]
For quasi-reversible process current value is expressed as a function of.
where is expressed as
is shown in Fig. 2.4. It is observed that when ïŒ > 10, the behavior approaches that of a reversible system.
It is observed that for a quasi-reversible reaction, ip is not proportional to ï®1/2. For half peak potential we have
at 298K (2.21)
This implies,
These parameters attain limiting values characteristic of reversible or totally irreversible processes as ïŒ varies. For ïŒ >10, ï"(ïŒ,ï¡) = 2.2 which gives Ep-Ep/2 = 56.5mV (value characteristic of a reversible wave). For < 10-2, ï¡ = 0.5, ï"(ïŒ,ï¡) =3.7, which yields totally irreversible characteristics. Thus a system may show Nernstian, quasi-reversible, or totally irreversible behaviour depending on ïŒ, or experimentally on the scan rate employed. At small Ï… (or long times), systems may yield reversible waves, while at large (or short times), irreversible behaviour is observed [54].
Variation of Δ with Λ and α is shown in Fig. 2.5.
For three types of electrode processes Matsuda and Ayabe [48] suggested following zone boundaries.
a) Reversible (Nernstian)
Λ15; ksh  0.3 υ1/2cm s-1
b) Quasi-Reversible
15 Λ  10-2 (1+α); 0.3 υ1/2  ksh  2 10-5 υ1/2 cm s-1
c) Totally Irreversible
Λ < 10-2 (1+α); ksh < 2 10-5 υ1/2 cm s-1
Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 225.
Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 227.
Multi Electron Transfer Process
Multi-electron transfer process usually takes place in two separate steps. Two-steps mechanism, each step characterized by its own electrochemical parameters is called "EE mechanism".
Stepwise reversible "EE mechanism" is given by following reaction,
A + n1e ⇋ B (E10) (2.22a)
B + n2e ⇋ C (E20) (2.22b)
where, A and B are electroactive species and n1 and n2 are the number of electrons involved in successive steps. If A and B react at sufficiently separated potentials with A more easily reducible than B, the voltammogram for overall reduction of A to C consists of two separated waves. The first wave corresponds to the reduction of A to B with n1 electrons and in this potential range the substance B diffuses into the solution. As potential is scanned towards more cathodic values, a second wave appears which is made up of two superimposed parts. The current related to substance A, which is still diffusing toward electrode increases since this species now is reduced directly to substance C by (n1+n2) electrons. In addition, substance B, which was the product of the first wave, can be reduced in this potential region and a portion of this material diffuses back towards the electrode and reacts.
Each heterogeneous electron transfer step is associated with its own electrochemical parameters i.e. ks,hi and αi, where i =1, 2 for the 1st and 2nd electron transfer respectively.
Based on the value of ï"Eo, we come across three different types of cases [50] as shown in the Fig. 2.6.
Types of Two Electron Transfer Reactions [50]
Case 1: Separate Peaks
When ï"Eo  -150mV the EE mechanism is termed as "disproportionate mechanism [55]. Cyclic voltammogram consists of two typical one-electron reduction waves. The heterogeneous electron transfer reaction may simultaneously be accompanied by homogenous electron transfer reactions, which in multi-electron system leads to
disproportionation. Each disproportionation reaction can be described as,
2R1 ⇋ O+ R2 (2.23)
The equilibrium constant K (disproportionation constant) is given by
It can be derived from the difference between the standard potentials using (2.25)
Case 2: < 100mV ----Peaks Overlapped
In this case, the individual waves merge into one broad distorted wave whose peak height and shape are no longer characteristics of a reversible wave. The wave is broadened similar to an irreversible wave, but can be distinguished from the irreversible voltammogram, in that the distorted wave does not shift on the potential axis as a function of the scan rate.
Case 3: = 0mV Single peak
In this case, in cyclic voltammogram, only a single wave would appear with peak current intermediate between those of a single step one electron and two electron transfer reactions and Ep-Ep/2 = 21 mV.
Case 4: E1o < E2o----2nd Reduction is Easy than 1st one
If the energy required for the first second electron transfer is less than that for the first, one wave is observed having peak height equal to 23/2 times that of a single electron transfer process. In this case, Ep - E1/2 = 14.25 mV. The effective E0 for the composite two electron wave is given by [50].
Source: Polcyn, D.S.; Shain, I. J. Anal. Chem. 1966, 38, 370.
Cyclic Voltammetric Methods for the Determination of Heterogeneous Electron Transfer Rate Constant
Cyclic voltammetry provides a systematic approach to solution of diffusion problems and determination of different kinetic parameters including ks,h. Various methods are reported in literature to determine heterogeneous rate constants. Nicholson [41, 42], Gileadi [56] and Kochi [37] developed different equations to calculate heterogeneous electron transfer rate constants.
Nicholson's Method [41, 42]
Nicholson derived an expression for determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant ksh. This method is based on correlation between and ks,h through a dimensionless parameter by following equation,
where is scan rate.
for different values of ΔEp can be obtained from the Table 2.3. Hence, if ΔEp (Epa-Epc) is determined from the voltammogram, can be known from Table 2.3. From the knowledge of, , ksh can be calculated using equation (2.27).
If D o= DR then γ=1
This method is applied for voltammograms having peak separation in the range of 57mV to 250mV, and between this range, the electrode process progresses from reversible to irreversible. With increasing scan rate, the peak separation and hence ψ decreases.
It can be seen from the Table 2.3, that for reversible reactions i.e. for the current voltage curves and is independent of . For totally irreversible reaction i.e. for the back reaction becomes unimportant, anodic peak and is not observed. For quasi-reaction i.e. for 0. 001<<7, the form of current curves and depends upon .
Separation of cathodic and anodic peak potential as a function of the kinetic parameter ï¹ in the cyclic voltammogram at room temperature.
Kochi's Method
Kochi and Klinger [37] formulated another correlation between the rate constant for heterogeneous electron transfer and peak separation.
The expression for ksh given by Kochi was
The standard rate constant ksh can be calculated from the difference of peak potentials and the sweep rates directly. This equation applies only to sweep rates which are large enough to induce electrode irreversibility. The relation derived by Kochi is based on following expressions derived by Nicholson and Shain [41].
where β = 1-α , and υ is the scan rate.
Equations (2.29a) and (2.29b) yield
This expression is used for the determination of the transfer coefficient. Assuming that (for reversible reaction).
We have,
Gileadi's Method
Gileadi [56] formulated a more sophisticated method for the determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h, using the idea of critical scan rate, c. This method can be used in the case where anodic peak is not observed.
When reversible heterogeneous electron transfer process is studied at increasing scan rates, peak potential values also vary and process progresses towards irreversible. If are plotted against the logarithm of scan rates, a straight line at low scan rates and ascending curve at higher scan rate is obtained. Extrapolation of both curves intersects them at a point known as "toe". This "toe" corresponds to the logarithm of critical scan rate, c. as shown in Fig. 2.7. Hence critical scan rate can be calculated experimentally.
ks,h can be calculated as,
where υc is the critical scan rate, α is a dimensionless parameter, called transfer coefficient and Do is the diffusion coefficient.
Coupled Chemical Reactions
Although charge transfer processes are an important part of entire spectrum of chemical reactions, they seldom occur as isolated elementary steps. Electron transfer reactions coupled with new bond formation or bond breaking steps are very frequent. The occurrence of such chemical reactions, which directly affect the available surface concentration of the electroactive species, is common to redox processes of many important organic and inorganic compounds. Changes in the shape of the cyclic voltammogram resulting from the chemical competition for the electrochemical reactant or product, can be extremely useful for elucidating the reaction pathways and for providing reliable chemical information about reactive intermediates [35].
It is convenient to classify the different possible reaction schemes in which homogeneous reactions are associated with the heterogeneous electrons transfer steps by using letters to signify the nature of the step. E represents an electron transfer at the electrode surface, and C represents a homogenous chemical reaction. While O and R indicate oxidized and reduced forms of the electroactive species, other non electroactive species which result from the coupled chemical complication are indicated by W, Y, Z, etc [57]. The order of C with respect to E then follows the chronological order in which the two events occur [58]. So according to sequence of step, the systems are classified as EC, ECE, CE etc. These reactions are further classified on basis of reversibility. For example, subclasses of EC reactions can be distinguished depending on whether the reactions are reversible (r), quasi-reversible (q), or irreversible (i), for example Er Cr, ErCi, EqCi, etc.
Two Steps Coupled Chemical Reactions
In two steps reactions, a variety of possibilities exist, which include chemical reactions following or preceding a reversible or an irreversible electron transfer [59, 60, 61, 62]. The chemical reactions themselves may be reversible or irreversible.
a) Preceding Chemical Reactions (CE)
In a preceding chemical reaction, the species O is the product resulting from a chemical reaction. Such a reaction influences the amount of O to be reduced so forward peak is perturbed. For a preceding chemical reaction, two mechanisms are possible, depending on whether the electron transfer is reversible CrEr or irreversible CrEi [58].
Reversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction
(CrEr Reaction)
The process in which a homogeneous chemical reaction precedes a reversible electron transfer is schematized as follows:
where Y represents the non electroactive species and O and R are the electroactive congeners.
Since the supply of electroactive species O results from the chemical reaction, it is important to know that how much of O is formed during the time scale of cyclic voltammogram. In this connection, it must be noted that the time scale of voltammetry is measured by the parameter
a = nFÏ…/RT for a reversible process
and b = αnaFυ/RT for a quasi reversible or an irreversible process
It means that the time scale of cyclic voltammetry is a function of the scan rate, in the sense that higher the scan rate, the higher is the competition of the voltammetric intervention with respect to the rate of chemical complication.
The limit at which the chemical complication can proceed is governed either by the equilibrium constant K or the kinetics of the homogeneous reaction (l = kf+kr). In this regard, it is convenient to distinguish three limiting cases depending on the rate of chemical complication [41].
Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr << nFÏ…/RT)
When K is large (i.e. K > 20) most of O will already be present in solution, the response is apparently not disturbed by the latter, i.e. it appears as a simple reversible electron transfer.
When K is small, the small electron transfer again appears as a simple reversible process except that the peak current will be smaller than is expected on the basis of quantity of Y in the solution. This results because the concentration of the electroactive species CO, being determined by the equilibrium of the preceding reaction is equal to a fraction of species Y placed in the solution.
where C* = CO (x,0) +CY(x,0)
Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFÏ…/RT)
When K is large, once again the response appears as a simple reversible electron transfer, but the measured standard potential Eo/* is shifted toward more negative values compared to the standard potential Eo/ of the couple O/ R by a factor of .
When K is small, because of the fast continuous maintaining of the small equilibrium amount of O, the complete depletion of O at the electrode surface will never be reached, so that the forward profile no longer maintains the peak shape form, rather assumes a sigmoidal S-shaped curve, the height of which remains constant at all scan rates.
Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFÏ…/RT)
In this case, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and the diffusive currents according to the relationship
Irreversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction
(CrEi Reaction)
This process is schematizes as.
In this case, not only the thermodynamic K (kf / kr) and kinetic (kf + kr) parameters of preceding chemical reaction but also the kinetic parameters of the electron transfer (α, k0) play a role. Obviously the lack of reverse peak is immediately apparent, due to the irreversibility of the charge transfer. The curves are also more drawn out because of the electron transfer coefficient, α.
Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr << nFÏ…/RT)
In this case, the process appears as a simple irreversible electron transfer. The peak height of the process depends on the equilibrium constant because, as mentioned in the previous case, the concentration of the active species CO is a fraction of the amount C* put in the solution:
Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFÏ…/RT)
If instead the reaction kinetics is fast, there are two possibilities:
If K is large, again the response appears as if the preceding chemical reaction would be absent. However, the peak potential is shifted towards more negative values than those that would be recorded in the absence of the chemical complication by a factor equal to .
If K is small, as in the preceding case, an easily recognizable S-like curve voltammogram is obtained having a limiting current independent from the scan rate
Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFÏ…/RT)
Here again, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and diffusive currents according to the relationship
b) Following Chemical Reactions (EC)
The process in which the primary product of an electron transfer becomes involved in a chemical reaction is indicated by EC mechanism. It can be represented by
O + ne ⇋ R
R ⇋ Z (2.38)
where O and R are the electroactive congeners and Z represents the non electroactive species.
Several situations are possible depending on the extent of electrochemical reversibility of the electron transfer and on the reversibility or irreversibility of the chemical reaction following the electron transfer.
As a general criterion, in cyclic voltammetry, the presence of a following reaction has little influence on the forward peak, whereas it has a considerable effect on the reverse peak.
Reversible Electrode Process Followed by a Reversible Chemical Reaction
(ErCr Reaction)
ErCr mechanism can be written as
Once again the voltammetric response will differ to a greater or lesser extent with respect to a simple electron transfer depending on the values of either the equilibrium constant, K, or the kinetics of the chemical complication (kf+kr) [58].
Analogously to that discussed for preceding equilibrium reactions, three limiting cases can be distinguished.
Slow following chemical reaction (kf+kr << nFÏ…/RT)
If the rate of chemical reaction is low, it has a little effect on the process, thus reducing it a simple reversible electron transfer.
Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFÏ…/RT)
If the rate of the chemical complication is high, the system will always be in equilibrium and the voltammogram will apparently look like a non complicated reversible electron transfer. However, as a consequence of the continual partial removal of the species R from the electrode surface, the reduction occurs at potential values less negative than that of a simple electron transfer by an amount of .
Due to the fast kinetics of the chemical complication, the potential will remain at this value regardless of the scan rate.
Intermediate following chemical reaction (kf+kr=nFÏ…/RT)
If the kinetics of the chemical reaction are intermediate with the scan rate the response gradually shifts from previous value for a fast chemical reaction [which was more anodic by w.r.t. to value of the couple O/R] towards the Eo/ value assuming more and more the values predicted by the relationship
In other words, the response (which for the fast kinetics is more anodic compared to E0/) due to the competitive effects of the potential scan rate moves towards more cathodic values by 30/n (mV) for every ten fold increase in the scan rate. However, it is noted that at the same time, the reversible peak tends to disappear, in that on increasing the scan rate, the species Z does not have time to restore R. This is demonstrated by the current ratio which is about one at low scan rates, but it tends to zero at high scan rates.
Reversible Electrode Process Followed by an Irreversible Chemical Reaction (ErCi Reaction)
The general scheme of the ErCi mechanism is
This is a particular case of the preceding treatment in which the equilibrium of the following chemical reaction is completely shifted to the right.
Also for this case, the localization of the voltammetric response depends on the kinetics of the chemical reaction. However, it differs from the preceding one in that the parameter kr and K of the chemical reaction are not present.
Slow following chemical reaction (kf << nFÏ…/RT)
If kf << nFÏ…/RT, the response is very similar to that of a simple reversible electron transfer and occurs at the formal potential E0/, of the couple O/R.
Fast following chemical reaction (kf >> nFÏ…/RT)
Conversely, if kf >> nFÏ…/RT (i.e. if the chemical reaction is very fast), the forward peak (for a reduction process) is found at potentials more positive than the formal potential E0/ of the O/R couple. Furthermore, the reverse peak is virtually absent because as soon as R is generated, it is removed from the electrode surface by the chemical reactions.
Intermediate following chemical reaction (kf = nFÏ…/RT)
If kf = nFÏ…/RT (i.e. if the chemical complication is neither too slow nor too fast and, consequently, the kinetics of the chemical complication are of the same order as the time scale of cyclic voltammetry) the potential of the forward peak shifts towards less anodic values with the scan rate according to the relationship:
This implies that the peak potential moves towards negative values by a factor of 30/n (mV) for every 10-fold increase in the potential scan rate. At the same time, as shown in Fig. 2.11, increasing the scan rate will allow a condition to be reached at which the reverse peak begins to appear as there is no longer sufficient time for R to be completely converted to Z.
c) Catalytic Chemical Reactions
A particular case of following chemical reactions is constituted by that in which the product of the electrode reaction undergoes a homogeneous chemical reaction which regenerates the initial electroactive reagent [63]. Catalytic reactions can further be classified as shown below.
Catalytic Regeneration of the Reagent Following a Reversible Electron Transfer
This reaction sequence can be schematized as follows
In order to ensure that the process takes place, a powerful oxidant Z (to ensure the irreversibility of the complication), but electro inactive (at least in the potential region of interest), must be present in solution at concentration normally much higher than that of O, in order to guarantee pseudo-first-order reaction conditions.
Slow following chemical reaction ( kf+kr << nFÏ…/RT)
Considering the cyclic voltammetric response, if kf is small, or at very high scan rates, the following chemical reaction does not take place and a simple reversible electron transfer voltammogram is obtained.
Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFÏ…/RT)
As kf becomes larger, or the scan rate is reduced, the regeneration of the reagent causes the forward response to have a higher current than that of a simple reversible electron transfer. The increase in the peak current on decreasing the scan rate continues up to a limiting value, beyond which further lowering of the scan rate has no effect on the current. This is a consequence of having attained conditions such that the rate, with which the species O disappears, due to reduction at the electrode, equals the speed at which O is regenerated by the oxidant Z. At such a limiting value the response loses its peak shaped form, assuming an S-like shape reminiscent of a polarographic wave.
Under these limiting conditions, the limiting current is given by
iL = nFACo*Do1/2kf1/2 (2.44)
And the half wave potentials E1/2, for this wave coincides with the E0/ of the couple O/R.
kf can be determined by using the above expression for the limiting current. This case is given in Fig. 2.12.
Catalytic Regeneration of the Reagent Following an Irreversible Electron Transfer
When the catalytic reaction follows an irreversible electron transfer, the process can be represented as follows
In this case, the cyclic voltammetric response is essentially similar to the preceding case, with the difference that the return peak is missing.
Slow following chemical reaction (kf+kr << nFÏ…/RT)
Thus if kf is low, the response is that of a simple irreversible electron transfer.
Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFÏ…/RT)
As kf increases, the peak current also increases. This continues to a maximum value at which the response assumes an S- like shape.
Under these limiting conditions one can calculate the value of kf from the relation:
which, at 298 K becomes
Different limiting cases are shown in Fig .2.13.
2.5.2 Three Steps Coupled Chemical Reactions
Among three steps coupled chemical reactions, most common is ECE coupled chemical reaction [58].
a) A Chemical Reaction Interposed Between Two Electron Transfers (ECE)
An electrochemical process in which the product of the electron transfer undergoes a chemical reaction that generates a species which in turn is electrochemically active is defined as an ECE mechanism. ECE mechanisms are of two types depending upon the reversibility or irreversibility of the chemical reaction [62, 63]. It is commonly schematized as
O + n1e ⇋ R
R ⇋ O/
O /+ n2e ⇋ R/
Such a series of events can have associated aspects of more or less complicated nature depending upon the degree of reversibility of the two electron transfers; the number of electrons exchanged in the two electron transfers; i.e. the ratio n2/n1, the difference between the redox potential of the first couple O /R and that of the second couple O/ /R/, and the value of the equilibrium constant of the interposed chemical reaction (K = kf/kr). One of the common ECE mechanisms is an irreversible chemical reaction interposed between two reversible one electron transfers.
An irreversible chemical reaction interposed between two reversible one electron transfers (case R-R).
The so called ECE process, if n1 = n2 =1, can be written as
O + e ⇋ R E1o/
R ⇋ O/
O/ + e ⇋ R/ E2o/ (2.48)
The cyclic voltammetric response depends on the separation between E2o/and E1o/or ΔEo/. Hence several cases are possible depending on whether
The species O/ is more difficult to reduce than the original species O (ΔEo/ negative)
The species O/ is reduced at the same potential as the species O (ΔEo/ = 0)
The species O/ is easier to reduce than the species O (ΔEo/ is positive)
These specific cases of ErCiEr are now discussed.
Standard potential of the second electron transfer more cathodic than that of the first electron transfer (ΔEo/ negative)
Consider the case where the formal electrode potential of the second couple is more cathodic by at least 180mV, with respect to the first couple (which has, for example, E = 0.00V). If kf is low (compared to the intervention times of cyclic voltammetry; i.e. if kf << nFv/RT), the response will be due to the first electron transfer process, without complications caused by the following chemical reaction. As kf increases, the second process will have increasing effect up to the limiting case in which kf >> nFv/RT. In this limiting case, the voltammogram will display two forward peaks, but only the second electron transfer will exhibit a return peak.
A). kf /(nFÏ…/RT) = 0.05, B). k f/(nFÏ…/RT) = 10.0
It can be seen that when the cyclic voltammetric time scale (i.e. the scan rate v) is much faster than the chemical reaction (or, when the rate of the interposed chemical reaction is low), the curve I is the response of a simple reversible process (solid line). As kf grows (dashed line), peak I shifts towards more anodic values and increases slightly in height (maximum of 10%), concomitantly with the appearance of an easily observable second peak II.
Standard potential of the second electron transfer equal to that of the first electron transfer (ΔEo = 0)
When the potential of the couple O/ R is equal to that of the couple O// R/ it is quite probable that the entire system displays a single forward peak associated with a single reverse peak.
If the kinetics of the chemical reaction are very fast it is possible that the height of the forward peak is two times greater than that of the reverse peak, in that the return peak corresponds to the reoxidation of the only R/, where as the forward peak corresponds to the reduction of both O and O/.
In this case, ΔEo = 0, it is not possible to obtain information on the interposed chemical reaction.
Standard potential of the second electron transfer more anodic than that of the first electron transfer (ΔEo positive)
The case in which the product O/, generated by the chemical reaction following the first electron transfer, is more easily reduced than the original species O constitutes another common ECE mechanism.
As usual, if the rate constant kf of the interposed chemical reaction is low, only the first electron transfer will occur; conversely, if kf is very high, both the electron transfers will take place.
The typical voltammogram for the case in which the second electron transfer proceeds (kf nFv/RT) and the potential of the couple O//R/ is more anodic than that of the couple O/R by at least 180mV, is shown in Fig. 2.15.
The system of peaks I and II results from the couple O/ R, where as the system of peaks III/IV results from the couple R//O/. If kf is very high, the return peak II can be absent.
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Happy Hump Day lovelies! Today is going to be a crazy busy day for since it is the day before my company's holiday party, which I plan every year. This is the one party that actually drives me to bad dreams and cold sweats. So...yay! Honestly it's the most stressful party I plan and I am always happy when it's done but it's a good time for the most part. The trouble with event planning is that you can never 100% enjoy the event since you are always thinking about the little details or what could go wrong. I do however look forward to the meal- amazing food.
On to a more pertinent subject- it's Artsy Wednesday! Today's theme is "Glitter gradient". I wanted to do something seasonal since I probably won't have time to do my nails again before the party. I wanted to stay away from greens and reds since I felt it would be too obvious a choice. So of course I immediately thought of gold glitter!
I started with two coats of OPI Every Month Is Oktoberfest and added a coat of SV to help it dry. Once my nails were completely dry, I used a makeup sponge and sponged on China Glaze Champagne kisses onto the tips of my nails. I then added on a light coat of Revlon Sequins. I am seriously obsessed with this polish. I bought it Sunday and have already used it twice.


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Benjamin nets prestigious medal for stand-out season
Dwayne Benjamin has taken out the S&K Electrical Geraldton Buccaneers' Dan Hunt Medal for the 2017 SBL season.
Benjamin polled 70 votes to claim the award on Saturday night, ahead of fellow import Maurice Barrow on 64.
Coach Ray Evans said Benjamin's consistency throughout the season made him a well-deserved recipient.
"He actually missed a few games throughout the season as well, so to do that and still win the award just shows how good and consistent he has been for us," he said.
Evans also lauded Barrow for his consistency, saying his defence and versatility had been a highlight of his season.
Benjamin topped the season point scoring with 792, while Barrow had the highest free throw percentage of 85.3. Mat Wundenberg had the highest field goal percentage with 65.2, while Jackson Hussey topped the assists with 6.1 per game. Joey Iaria was name team man of the year. Dylan Myers took out the division one MVP award, with Coby Ryan runner-up.


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2 results
In this article, we study a resort with a residential ownership component as a means of considering some of the key factors affecting this increasingly common property feature.
For the US Mountain region, and mountainous areas of the Pacific States, ski resort real estate markets are among the most luxurious in the country. The report is an overview of 10 year trends in sales, pricing and values as of the end of 2015.


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When I first decided to write an arts blog, my main concern was that it would speak to people who don't actively seek out the arts – not due to a lack of interest in creativity, but a lack of interest in a stuffy, dull and greying cliché.
At uni, I spent a year poking around dusty archives, interviewing local experts and trawling, trawling, trawling the web for anything that could shed a little light on the underestimated and supremely talented Henry Scott Tuke. A hundred years on, he's still an exciting artist (was he gay? Was he straight? Does it matter?*); so I was delighted to hear of his significant presence at Amongst Heroes: The Artist in Working Cornwall at Two Temple Place.
But did the exhibition do Tuke and his Newlyn School cohorts justice? Did it lift Cornish worker art out of obscurity and into the spotlight?
Hell yeah, it did. With paintings on the walls and boats on the floors, not to mention the stun-ing setting, the exhibition was one of my favourite non-blockbusters I've seen since moving to London. Seriously. My only advice to newbies is to read up a little beforehand. Cornwall doesn't flaunt its most interesting and beautiful parts, and nor do its artists. It's your job to do a little detective work.
I caught up with Hannah Jordan to chat about her experience as Programme Co-ordinator of Amongst Heroes.
*That pretty much compresses my 8,000 word dissertation into 9 words
Which is your favourite piece/who is your favourite artist featured in the exhibition?
My personal favourite is 'The Pilot' by William John Wainwright (see above). He has such an expressive face. I can't work out if he's sad or just well-worn, but he has such a kind face and I'd really like him to stay!
Were any of the artworks difficult to come by?
Fortunately for us, many of the lenders were keen to have the works exhibited – that's why we've got over a hundred pieces in the show. We were overwhelmed by everyone's enthusiasm, and are so pleased to see that reflected in the visitors' responses. This is clearly an untapped passion of the art world outside of Cornwall.
How does the show speak to those who are just starting to explore art?
We've found that many people stumble upon the building in pursuit of the artworks – and vice versa. As it's a free exhibition, we've been able to open our doors to a wider range of visitors, which has made for some interesting discussions! Very few of the staff are from a Museums of Heritage background, so we know firsthand the benefits of an exhibition that is free from assumption.
Amongst Heroes: the artist in working Cornwall runs until April 14th, 2013. Catch it for free at Two Temple Place – more information can be seen here.


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Fashion Design Program Description:
The Fashion Design program is a two-year course for juniors and seniors interested in pursuing a career in a fashion-related or retail management position, or secondary education in a fashion-related field.
The Fashion Design program provides core skills and knowledge necessary for entry-level employment in a fashion or retail career field. Students learn the fundamentals of business including customer service, buying and selling, marketing, product display, merchandising and achieving a profit. They also learn aspects of fashion design, product development and the design process.
The second year program builds on these skills by establishing a work site internship where students apply their knowledge on-the-job.
Students enrolled in the Fashion Design program will learn the following during a two-year program:
- Safety skills
- Professionalism skills development
- Fundamental marketing skills
- Leadership skills development
- Customer Service
- Buying, selling and store promotions
- Fundamentals of merchandising and visual display
- Fashion industry terminology
- Project management
- Retail management
- Post-Secondary Opportunities
- Fashion and Retail Career Opportunities and Job Search Skills
- Internship Opportunities
- Portfolio Development
- Writing Literacy skills
Program Benefits:
- 3 High School credits per year
- May qualify for math, history, health/PE, science, or language arts credits. Because these credits differ by home district, click on credit equivalencies to learn what is specifically offered for this program by your sending high school.
- Competency Certificate
- Leadership opportunities
- Preparation for next level of education/training
- Internship opportunities
- Opportunity for scholarships
Industry Certification:
- Work Readiness Credential
- Washington Fashion Strategies Skills certification
- 21st Century Skills certification
Fashion Design 1:
- Reading at 10th grade level
- Passed Algebra 1 or Integrated Math 1
- Excellent high school attendance record
- Must provide own health insurance to participate in internships
- Must provide own transportation to internship sites and provide current car insurance
Fashion Design 2:
- Must pass 1st year program with a B grade or better to qualify for 2nd year; space is limited
- Must provide own transportation to internship sites and provide current car insurance
- Must provide own health insurance to participate in internships
- Speech or communication classes recommended
- Able to pass background check may be necessary depending on internship placement
Note: Upon acceptance into the program, student and parent/guardian are encouraged to participate in the orientation at Cascadia Tech Academy.
Lab Time/Theory Time:
Approximately 40 percent of time will be devoted to theory and professionalism; 60 percent devoted to lab. Students will develop a personal portfolio.
Textbook Reading Level:
Theory material 10.5
Career Opportunities:
- Small Business Owner
- Sales Associate
- Special Events Coordinator
- Buyer/Sales Representative
- Assistant Store Manager
- Management Trainee
- Marketing Representative
- Human Resources
- Visual Merchandiser
- Merchandising Specialist
- Product Demonstrator
- Merchandise Marketer
- Fashion Design Office Assistant
Program Supply List / Student Costs:
Please plan ahead. Some programs require that uniforms, supplies, and other program specific related items (such as immunizations, food service card, etc.) be purchased, started or completed prior to the first day of school. To access the list for this program's uniform, supply and other program related costs please click here.
Credit Equivalencies and College Credit:
Click here to learn more about credit equivalencies as well as the articulation agreements and college credits available for each program.
Note: Student accident insurance is available through your sending high school.
If you have concerns regarding these expenses, please see Melissa Downing in our Student Service Center. There are funds available for qualifying students. Ms. Downing can be reached at 360-604-1050 ext. 2150 or at email@example.com.


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Adventure Printed Tee$20.00 $11.99
Humorous Shirt
#23, Fabian Johnson has been a mainstay in the German Bundesliga. He will transfer to Borussia Mochengladbach for the 2014 season. Stand up and cheer for Fabian Johnson while he represents the USA taking on the world in Brazil. After a rough start in qualifying against Honduras, the USMNT quickly silenced critics by winning the Hexagonal. The Stars and Stripes won seven of their ten matches, netting 15 goals to their opponents' eight. Show your support for your favorite star from the USMNT with this unique styled shirt. A USA Soccer themed badge with "Don't Tread on Me" is featured. Nameplate and Number customized on the back to show off your favorite USMNT Star! U S A!!! Printed on a 6.1oz. 100% preshrunk cotton tee. The inks used are a water based eco-friendly ink developed by Brother to hold up well under normal washing and drying. It is similar to water based screen printing inks that they give a really soft hand feel and wash well.


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This morning (Monday 18 April) , commuters were invited to relax and enjoy the feeling of grass beneath their feet in the 'Zen Zone' in Virgin Trains' refurbished First Class Lounge. The 'Zen Zone' joins meeting, working and resting zones in the revamped lounge, which includes innovative furniture, a bold splash of red, and even a resident masseuse.
This is one of eight refurbished First Class lounges to be rolled out on the train operator's East Coast route and comes in response to a six per cent increase in First Class travel since Virgin Trains took over the franchise a year ago and embarked on a £21 million upgrade to its fleet.
Alison Watson, Customer Experience Director, Virgin Trains on the East Coast said: "We're passionate about giving our customers the best possible experience and that starts long before they board our trains. We know that being able to relax ahead of a journey or prepare for that key business meeting is one of the things that our customers really value. We're confident that providing some Virgin style to these lounges will help us to meet the increasing demand for First Class travel."
The 'Zen Zone' is being trialed for a month.


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Repeated swings with a golf club can wear down and smooth out even the most expensive grip. Regripping your clubs when they become worn can solve this problem before you fling your 5-iron 40 yards down the fairway. Golf shops can replace your grips, but this can also be done at home if you have the right materials.
Step 1
Choose your desired grip. These come in varying sizes and styles to suit all levels of golfers. A store assistant or PGA professional can help in choosing the right grip for you and your game. Match the size of the grip to the size of the shaft.
Step 2
Secure the club's shaft below the grip horizontally in the vise or clamp. The closer to the grip the vise is positioned, the more stable the grip will be as you work with it. Make sure the club face is secured in playing position, perpendicular to the floor.
Step 3
Strip the old grip by slicing it in a straight line up the side with the utility knife. Remove all tape and excess material until only the club's shaft remains. For graphite shafts, use a utility knife with a hook blade. A regular flat blade can damage the surface and integrity of the graphite.
Step 4
Wrap the shaft along its length with the double-sided tape. This process will be easiest using 2-inch tape. Measure a single length of tape equal to the grip itself, plus a quarter inch, and apply the centerline of the tape lengthwise along the shaft, leaving the extra quarter-inch of tape at the top. Flatten the tape so that it surrounds the shaft. Expose the sticky backing of the tape and press down on the excess portion at the top to cover the hole in the shaft, keeping the tape as flat as possible.
Step 5
Prepare the grip itself by covering the vent hole at the top with your fingertip and pouring in enough grip solvent to coat the interior. Cover the large hole as well with the palm of your other hand and shake to distribute throughout. Any excess solvent should be poured out onto the taped-up portion of the shaft and spread evenly.
Step 6
Squeeze just beneath the open end of the grip to create an oval shape and place it around the end of the shaft. Next, make sure the grip is parallel to the floor and use both hands to slide the grip onto the shaft in a smooth motion. Do this while the solvent is still wet and align the patterns with the club face. The grip pattern can be aligned after it is installed, but must be done before the solvent dries completely.


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The Navy Yard in Philadelphia is home to one of the largest microgrids in the United States, and soon it will be home to 6-MW natural gas-fired peaking plant.
Officials at the Navy Yard have hired Ameresco, a renewable energy solutions company, to begin work on the plant, which will be part of a 35-MW unregulated, stand-alone electric grid that will serve the Navy Yard campus.
"This new on-site generation facility will help support the energy demand for the 1,200-acre campus as businesses continue to locate here and grow, while remaining in line with the Navy Yard's commitment to smart energy initiatives and sustainability," said Prema Gupta, Senior Vice President, Navy Yard Planning, Development, and Operations at PIDC, an economic development agency in Philadelphia.
Once operational, the multi-million-dollar peaking plant is anticipated to run during the Navy Yard's peak demand periods and during intervals of high-cost energy and capacity from the grid. By generating power during peak times, the project will allow PIDC to reliably meet the projected demand growth needs of the Navy Yard and its tenants.
The project is expected to be operational in late 2017.


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where we add FUN to your event!
About Us
Photo Gallery
Themed Backdrops
Our Rates
Preferred Vendors
Contact Us
Our photo booth is very unique! We can make the photo booths 8 x 10 to fit 20-22 people or
6 x 7 to fit about 15. It is set up with pipes and drapes, but we can also set up our photo booth with only the capes if you are limited on space or if you want the photo booth as an open air system. With no curtains up this allows all your guests to be part of any picture.
You are more then welcome to have as many pictures printed as you'd like,
that way everyone in the picture can have one for the fun memory!
** Don't forget, we provide tons of props for your event—free of charge! Not only do
you get free props, we customize the bottom of your photo strip just for YOUR event!
© 2016 Box Of Fun Photobooths


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Visit Us
Lots to do – year round!
Every day you can tour and taste what Muskoka's all about. We're passionate about what we do, and love to share it with visitors. That's why we're open 362 days a year (we close Christmas Day, Boxing Day and New Years' Day).
Seasonally, there are new discoveries to be made. So plan your visit now!
Our Wine
Taste local in a new way!
We start with quality, local fruit to craft wines that reflect this region. The French call it 'terroir' – or taste of place. We make wines from dry to dessert that have won awards at national and international competitions. They're delicious, fruit forward and perfect for every occasion!
Our Cranberries
For three generations!
In 1950, Orville Johnston bought land in Muskoka to start his cranberry dream. Over 60 years later, the Johnston family is still dedicated to growing excellent cranberries with a commitment to environmental stewardship, family values, honesty and community care. We love where we live and are passionate about what we do – it's that simple.


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Hello Skooter Blog readers, Today I talk about Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) do Playstation 3 (PS3), acquired on eStarland, whose purchase has been described in a previous article.
The Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) this is the only game purchase that is not specific for Playstation Move, it can also be used as wheel (coupled to a fixture shaped wheel). The choice was because I'm a fan of the franchise since the first Need For Speed came on PCs (DOS), with its excellent graphics for its time, I could only play in its entirety long after, after a PC upgrade.
Just turning collector series, tive o The Need For Speed SE, o Need for Speed II, o Need for Speed II SE, o Need For Speed: Hot Pursuit (the original, from 1998), o Need For Speed: High Stakes, o Need for Speed: Porsche Unleashed e o Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit II. Todos eles no PC.
With the second generation, I thought the series unraveled a bit. Nevertheless, I remember playing a bit the Need for Speed: Underground, o Need For Speed: Underground II, o Need for Speed: Most Wanted, o Need for Speed: Carbon, o Need For Speed: ProStreet e o Need for Speed: Undercover. In the first missed the beautiful scenery of the races during the day and never got excited too much about these possibilities for the car to look like a Christmas tree on wheels. In the last business unraveled so that I mellowed the franchise.
It was in 2009 that I ended up buying the Playstation 3 traveling to the USA, more with the idea of having you as Blu-ray player, it did not encourage me to spend $ 200,00 in each game and did not yet know the eStarland. In the same year went to live in Canada, without game, limiting myself to just play emulators on laptop, whose onboard Intel video was not enough for the games of the season. Then bought Dingoo A-320, and continued only with emulators. Finally, a few weeks before returning to Brazil decided that I would bring at least a Playstation game 3, and the chosen ended up being the Need for Speed: Shift, that comprei na Amazon Canada. Quite liked him, although I think racing at race tracks has nothing to do with Need For Speed. It is a good game, just might have another name.
Meu segundo Need for Speed para console foi o Need For Speed: Hot Pursuit – Limited Edition (PS3). I quite liked this. Brought back races in beautiful scenery in mountains, plus the ability to choose to be running out of the law or the police who will try to capture the first. The online game options, the various game modes, the cars that are being released, ultimately, an excellent game.
Note that the Need For Speed franchise is now in the hands of several different software houses, Electronic Arts is only the owner of the franchise. Os dois Shift são da Slightly Mad Studios. The Need For Speed: Hot Pursuit – Limited Edition (PS3) and the Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) são da Criterion Games, subsidiary of Electronic Arts. Because of that I ended up not giving much attention to the Need for Speed: Shift 2 e ao Need For Speed: The Run. But Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) eu logo me interessei por ser também da Criterion Games, and has received the best reviews that others in specialized media.
E gostei do Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) also, although not as much as in the previous. It is very similar to Burnout Paradise, which is also the Criterion Games. Not that this is a negative point, since Burnout Paradise is also a good match. A polícia está presente, and the intensity with which will have to pursue varies depending on the damage you do. Can you escape running and into other streets. Note que ao contrário do Hot Pursuit, the Most Wanted usa o conceito de mundo aberto (open world). Open world is legal for allowing the operation of the whole scenario and provide these trails even police when you're not in a rush. The boring of the open world is that, during races, if you take a wrong turn unwittingly the race is lost. You need to exercise caution. On Most Wanted você não tem opção de ser o policial. Moreover, both Hot Pursuit as Most Wanted procuram ser razoavelmente fiéis à proposta de seus homônimos da primeira geração.
The cars have upgrades, but are functional upgrades, nothing perfumery and Christmas tree lights. New cars are unlocked as you advance in the game. The scenarios are still fantastic, but I still prefer the less urban scenarios Hot Pursuit. The city also has inherited the style of Burnout Paradise, com o estilo metrópole no centro e as montanhas nas laterais. Quanto ao modo online, could not do anything on it. It seems kind of unnecessary, unfortunately. O modo carreira provavelmente é o que vale mais a pena no Most Wanted. The menus are all accessible with digital directional, without stopping the game.
And I'm ending here the article on Need for Speed Most Wanted (2012) (PS3) with a positive recommendation. All I ask is that, again, click the "Like" and give a retweet up there (or down there), otherwise I would be very unmotivated and shut the blog to dedicate myself to collect buttons Hard Rock Cafe. If you also want to buy your Playstation games 3 (PS3) and other consoles in eStarland, click here and good shopping.


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Here you can search our scientific articles, reports, brief reports, polar handbooks, annual reports, books and skrifter. Many of these are open access, including our journal «Polar Research» For printed editions, check the nearest library or bookstore, or order directly from us.
9 matches
SMOS sea ice product: Operational application and validation in the Barents Sea marginal ice zone
Arctic in Rapid Transition: Integrating spatial and temporal scales in the changing arctic system: Towards future research priorities
Arctic sea ice in transformation: A review of recent observed changes and impacts on biology and human activity
Changes in Arctic Maritime Transport.
Kunnskapsgrunnlag for de store nasjonalparkene og fuglereservatene på Vest-Spitsbergen
Nature Comment Six priorities for Antarctic science and Supplementary information
A roadmap for Antarctic and Southern Ocean science for the next two decades and beyond
Climate change in the Norwegian Arctic - Consequences for life in the north
Klimaendringer i norsk Arktis: konsekvenser for livet i nord


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Friday on MSNBC's "MTP Daily," former Minneapolis Mayor R.T. Ryback, , a Democratic National Committee vice chairman, backed up Rep. Tulsi Gabbard (D-HI), who had claimed it was not true that DNC chairwoman Rep. Debbie Wasserman Schultz (D-FL) consulted her vice chairs before decided to limit the Democratic primary debates to six, as she claimed several times this week.
Ryback said "This is part of a long pattern. For context, this has played out as Debbie Wasserman Schultz and Tulsi Gabbard, but it's really about Ruth Bader Ginsburg and her successor. We have to elect a president. The job of the DNC is to bring this tent together and I think the current chair, I've seen unfortunately over many months, seems to be unable to bring this big tent together. And a lot of us have spent a lot of time trying to coach her through that, a lot going on behind the scenes. Frankly, I felt it was important to play this out now, so that we can do what we can to hold that tent together, reach out to all parts, so we don't have this blowup before the convention when we're trying to get people together or before the election."
He continued, "The current discussion is about debates, no question about it. There's a policy difference. The chair feels we should have six. Several other of us feel we should have more debates. Much of the party feels we should have more debates. What I think what a chair should do is to hear that and if she feels strongly that she has the right position, then open up the process. Tell people why, explain that. But don't tell people that you already have people like me and Tulsi Gabbard signed on, which you don't. Don't call Tulsi Gabbard and I, people telling untruths. The fact of the matter, what we have to do is bring people together. I've been in different campaigns, the Bradley campaign, the Dean campaign, the Obama campaign. When you have campaigns that start off as insurgent campaigns, you get a sense that everybody's against you, almost a paranoia, and it's essential for the central party to say, hey, look, it's all going to be fair and equal. We did that when the party met in Minneapolis and all the candidates got the same amount of time. And frankly, I don't believe the conspiracy theory that this is something about Hillary Clinton."
"I think the chair and I have straight-up policy disagreement. I could be wrong, but I don't think so. I think, however, the way she arrived at it was to simply make the statement, ignore those of us who gave her good advice behind the scenes about how to bring people together, how to communicate that, how to try to give a little bit of ground, to people who feel differently than her, and she has, I think, fairly recklessly ignored that advice and thrown a lot of gasoline on the fire," he added.
When asked of he thinks Wasserman Schultz should stay chair of the party Ryback said, "I have serious questions, and it's not just about the debate. The fact of the matter is, sometime in the month or two before the convention, somebody's going to win or lose. It's going to be essential for the leader of the party to be able to say to everyone, look, it's been fair, we need you now, let's all pull together. That's what Democrats want. The only thing that will mess right now is in the position to be that peace maker who builds that big tent for all of us."
"The only reason I went public on this was after the chair went on television and repeated a knowing untruth about Tulsi Gabbard, one of our fellow co-chairs, a congresswoman from Hawaii," Ryback concluded. "I'm not going to stand by and watch that."
Follow Pam Key on Twitter @pamkeyNEN


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Wigley Terry D Rev is located at 223 Saraland Blvd N, Saraland, AL. This business specializes in Religion & Spirituality.


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Contact Us
We welcome requests to join our team from enthusiastic postdoctoral, graduate, and undergraduate researchers. We are always looking for candidates with a strong interest in materials, thin-film processing, photovoltaic device fabrication and characterization, manufacturing tool and process development, solar energy, technology commercialization, and other related fields.
Please send your resume/CV and a brief summary of research interests to Joel (email@example.com) or any of the GridEdge PIs.
Our Office
77 Massachusetts Ave.
Building 13-3146
Cambridge, MA 02139


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Written by: Breeze Jackson Artists born in New Orleans have a breadth of musical education that someone who isn't from there might find hard to understand. Your earliest memories are colored by music and the characters who produce it. The discipline, hard work, and fun that is involved with its creation has seasoned all your memories. Classes start when you take your first … [Read more...] about Music Maker Interview: Rapper Fiend on his new moniker 'International Jones' and performing with a live band
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DALLAS -- Ross Perot plans a major effort to influenc legislation on Capitol Hill during the early years of the Clinton administration, starting with the May 1 special election in Texas to replace Sen. Lloyd Bentsen, President-elect Bill Clinton's choice as treasury secretary.
Mr. Perot said in an interview that in the first 24 hours after he announced his intention to resume political activity Jan. 11, 500,000 people called his phone banks, and 400,000 joined United We Stand, America, the organization that grew out of his independent presidential campaign in 1992. Tens of thousands of letters are in a Dallas warehouse, waiting to be opened. The group's annual dues are $15.
In a year or two, he said, the group may be financially self-sustaining, but he will be its spokesman and will help it financially as needed. He waved aside any suggestion that it constitutes a nascent third party.


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The Royal Philharmonic Society Music Awards receive worldwide media coverage.
Since 2003, BBC Radio 3 has been the media partners of the RPS Music Awards, giving extensive coverage in the build up to the presentation and broadcasting a feature length programme dedicated to the winners. The announcement of the Awards Shortlist is made live on BBC Radio 3 in April each year.
In addition to our media partnership with BBC Radio 3, we have a particular association with BBC Music Magazine, supporters of the Conductor Award.
For media and press information, please contact our press consultant, Sophie Cohen.