text:
We have lots of IMS circuit boards for building LED lights now, about 13000 to be more precise. They are made for single 0.5 W NICHIA LEDs. One LED is enough for a small light with about 40 lumen output.
Workshop with Etsy Labs + Deople in Berlin
There's a workshop for building the can lights on the
27th August, 20:00 – 22:00, Etsy Labs
Ritterstraße 12-14, Berlin – Kreuzberg
together with Deople and Etsy Labs. The Event is sponsored by Etsy Labs Berlin. Please use the following link to sign up:
We will build and improve the LED can light:
Build an open source LED lamp from a beverage can
Download the instructions:
OpensourceLightFromCan_V0.2_EN (English)
OpensourceLightFromCan_V0.2_DE (German)
All components are available for sale as a kit at a low price. Please send me an Email if you are interested.
Open Source LED lighting with a can by Moritz von Buttlar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
Blender 2.61, 3DConnexion and Ubuntu
After a couple of hours experimenting, I got Blender 2.61 (blender-2.61-linux-glibc27-x86_64) on Ubuntu 10.04 64bit to work together with a 3DConnexion SpacePilot 3D input device. The support is built-in and doesn't require a plugin (which was required in earlier blender versions). For quite a long time the 3DConnexion support didn't work because the event structure of blender was re-designed and there's now a lot of confusing information out there (look at this thread, for example). I did so many things that it is difficult to say which of them made it finally work, but I think these are the most important steps:
- get Free Space Nav from Sourceforge (http://sourceforge.net/projects/spacenav/)
check it out with subversion:
svn co https://spacenav.svn.sourceforge.net/svnroot/spacenav spacenav
- compile and install libspnav (configure, make, sudo make install)
- compile and install spacenavd (the daemon which is then accessed by blender)
- disable the 3DConnexion from being a normal mouse in xwindows (more details can be found here):
root@deepsea:~# xinput set-int-prop "3Dconnexion SpaceNavigator" "Device Enabled" 8 0
- If the daemon is running, blender should detect the device during startup (ndof: using SpacePilot message at startup)
- if the daemon is running and blender detects the ndof (n degrees of freedom) input device but it is still not working, try to plug and unplug the device.
- There's a test program in spacenav/libspnav/examples/cube which should work when the daemon is running. If the cube doesn't work, blender will probably also not work.
Slides: what the Opensource-solar project does and why
These are the slides from a talk at the Chaos Communication Camp, August 2011.
Podcast about LED lighting [german]
There was a good radio program about LED lighting in the Deutschlandfunk today. It's in german. Click here to download the MP3:
GnuLight – LED lighting in a can
Since a couple of month I'm experimenting with beverage cans as housings for LED lighting systems:
It's actually a good example of upcycling. The cans have standard sizes and are available nearly for free in most parts of the world. The can houses one or two tiny LEDs mounted on an IMS (insulated metal substrate) circuit board in the concave space at the bottom of the can. The metal of the can works as a heatsink for the 0.5 W LEDs. The total BOM is really low if large quantities of the necessary parts (PCBs, LEDs, acryl covers) are ordered and they are easy to assemble. The selected LEDs (Nichia NFSL157AT-H3) have a high color rendering index and are therefore good for reading and indoor use.
Here's an image of two 0.5 W LEDs on an IMS PCB together with current limiting resistors:
The 0.5 W LEDs which are soldered to an IMS circuit board and then glued into the concave bottom part of the can are really tiny:
This is the first prototype. An acryl cover protects the LED from dust and moisture. The acryl covers are now laser-cut and therefore fit much nicer.
Currently the lights are USB-powered from a computer or a small wall adapter. This makes a great camping light as was tested out at the Chaos Communication Camp 2011.
In the next step we will integrate more electronics: a small LiFePO4 battery and a charge controller. This will allow charging from a solar panel or the USB port.
The animation and rendering is done with Blender. I followed an excellent video tutorial about cans in Blender which can be found here.
The goal is to make an instruction video with blender in the future.
Opensource-solar.org creates and publishes open source know-how about off-grid photovoltaic systems. We cover all aspects of design and manufacturing with a power range from 1-100 W. Applications range from indoor and outdoor lighting to computers and entertainment systems.
We are a comunity of people who are fascinated by the possibilites of renewable energies, who believe in the open source philosophy and who want to change the world by making electricity affordable, renewable, understandable and usable for everyone worldwide. By everyone we want to include the billions of people living from 1-2 USD a day.
Our approach is to run the project as a social business. This implies that it is financially self-sufficient with specific social, ethical and environmental goals: education, sharing of know-how, fulfillment of basic needs and the promotion of renewable and sustainable energy and light generation. Success for us is measured in the impact towards these goals.
Solar charging integrated circuits
There's a company, Consonance electronics, which has an interesting product range of solar charging integrated circuits. Some of their products are pretty interesting, for example the CN3722.
It's a switching charger which can handle output currents up to 5 A. With external resistors the charge current and voltage can be set. The device will switch between a constant current and constant voltage charging mode.
The CN3063 is built into various projects for small solar chargers but it's for lithium ion and not for LiFePO4.
One project which uses it is the MCHCK project which is about building a 5 $ ARM controller board with USB connection.
Update: the CN3059 and CN3060 are linear charge regulators and provide up to 1 A optimized for LiFePO4, just what's needed. I'm waiting for samples now.
28C3: talk about renewable energies
There will be a talk about hacking and renewable energy generation at the 28C3 congress by Gunnar Thöle and Joerg Duerre on the 28th of december in Berlin, http://events.ccc.de/congress/2011/Fahrplan/events/4706.en.html . Usually the talks are live-streamed over the internet and also available for download later on. At the last CCC camp I gave a talk about similar things http://events.ccc.de/camp/2011/Fahrplan/events/4476.en.html and now I'm looking forward to see in which direction other people are working.
See you there, Moritz


text:
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Book Direct with the Owner at Apslawn Australia with Accommodation Kalgoorlie Agent in Apslawn, for all your adventures and things to do.
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copyright © 2019 Accommodation Kalgoorlie. All rights reserved.


text:
Summer is in full swing here in DC, with highs in the upper 90's this past week. We both leapt onto the grill this season – chile rubbed steaks, grilled plantains, burgers, corn on the cob, and the usual bbq fare. I dare to say it all tastes better enjoyed on our new deck, too. We are reveling in home ownership – perhaps a bit too much.
Summer also brings in the season of salads at our house. Throughout the year, I frown on salad. I can't help but sigh at the thought of preparing or eating it. It's a flaw, I know. How un-girl-like of me? I either leave most of the salad on my plate or devour it first so I can eat the good food afterward.
Maybe I'm a little harsh on myself. There are salads out there that I do really like, yet somehow it's ingrained in me that salads do not equal satisfying. Well, I've finally found one that meets all my comfort food needs: Bread Salad. It has at least 2 things going for it. It has bread. It has cheese.
What I love about this salad (in addition to the 2 above highlights of life!) is that it's so well balanced between strong flavors and summer freshness. This and a glass of wine is all I need for dinner. Please let me know if there's another salad I could say that about? I may be a salad-hater, but I'm willing to be converted.
This salad stands up to many changes – swap ingredients as you see fit. Keep the bread, cheese and tomatoes but change up the greens, add artichoke hearts, grilled corn, or other vegetables. Olives are a must for me. Add grilled or roasted chicken (check the Zuni Café Cookbook!). Go wild.
We found these great heirloom grape tomatoes at a farmer's market.
Our Summer Staple: Bread Salad, or Panzanella
Serves 3-4
½ baguette, cut into cubes
Drizzle olive oil
Drizzle balsamic vinegar
2 large handfuls salad greens, baby spinach or arugula
½ pint grape or cherry tomatoes, sliced in half if too large
1 8-oz ball fresh mozzarella, diced
¼ cup sliced kalamata olives, or other briny black olives
¼ cup thinly sliced red onion, or scallions
2-3 Tbsp olive oil
1-2 Tbsp Balsamic vinegar
2 cloves garlic, minced
¼ cup chopped fresh basil leaves
salt & pepper
Preheat the oven to 425 degrees. Lay the bread cubes out on a baking sheet, drizzle with olive oil and balsamic vinegar (go lightly on the vinegar), and toss gently. Make the sure the bread is in one layer and place in the oven for approximately 6-8 minutes or until lightly toasted. This is to your preference, but we prefer them just toasted on the outside, not hard throughout like croutons.
In a large salad bowl, whisk together the dressing ingredients. Add the tomatoes, mozzarella, olives and red onion. Toss to combine. Add the salad greens and cooled bread cubes and toss again. Serve immediately.


text:
Contact us 24/7: +1 877 678 9627
Designer Amy Smilovic founded New York-based label Tibi whilst living in Hong Kong, where she was inspired by the local culture and textiles. Today, the brand is lauded by the fashion pack for its modern take on laid-back femininity. We love its effortless staples in vibrant palettes and prints.


text:
|Authored By: Polly Pitchford, Full Spectrum Health
|One dish delish and mineral rich!
|Diet Types: Macrobiotic, Vegan, Vegetarian
|Serves: 4
|Cooking Time: Under 30 minutes
|Place the tofu and 1 tablespoon of Tamari into a medium-sized container with a tight-fitting lid. Set aside to marinate for 10-15 minutes, shaking occasionally. Meanwhile, place Arame in a bowl and pour the boiling water over it. Let sit for 15 minutes. Drain. In a wok or large skillet, heat the oil. Sauté the garlic for 10 seconds, stirring constantly. Add the tofu, any unabsorbed Tamari, and the soaked Arame, and stir-fry for 1 minute. Stir in the zucchini and 2 tablespoons of water. Cover and cook over med-high heat about 3-4 minutes. Stir in the Sun Dried Tomatoes and basil, and additional Tamari to taste. Serve hot or at room temperature. Serves 4
|Printable Version
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text:
Shakespeare's imagery and what it tells us
The University Press, 1935 - Drama - 408 pages
An analysis of the ways in which Shakespeare's imagery functions to reveal literary and personal motives.
From inside the book
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There is always something happening in Boulder Creek! Use our drop-down menu below to search for specific events, view coupons for local businesses, download the most recent "On the Street" calendar or just to see what's coming up next.
Bookmark this page and check back often! To suggest any news, local event or other item of interest please contact us.
See you around town!


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Project Launch Calendar
Back to All Events
Earlier Event: April 27RAW Alumni 'Pay It Forward' Scholarship Deadline
Later Event: May 3Alice Burke Flannery Scholarship Deadline
Use the form on the right to contact us.
You can edit the text in this area, and change where the contact form on the right submits to, by entering edit mode using the modes on the bottom right.
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Cars list
Log books
Units convertor
To read
Log books
Other projects
Cars list
Units convertor
User top
In English
Driving our 6x6 Niva for the first time
BMW M6 Test
BMW M4 test-drive
BMW 740d G11 test-drive M Pack G11/G12
Experiment # 1: Safe drift (Accidents in drifting)
1000 LITERS of NON-Newtonian FLUID
CatDog car drifting
What happens when you pour COCA COLA into your engine?
What happens when you POUR boiling water onto a frozen windshield?
Fabricating Wooden Pistons
Wooden Pistons: will it work or not?
The world's first flying car: lifting an Oka with a hot air balloon
10.000 self-tapping screws: putting some studs into racing tires
Making a tire from Coke bottles
Rubber chicken exhaust mod
Oka pedal-car conversion to save on gas
Deep freezing: we'll warm it up and go
Filling a car with 5 tons of concrete – will it drive
What are you?! Sneaker wheels for Shorty
600 rolls of electrical tape instead of tires
Transforming an UAZ into a G-wagon
5 TONS of ICE for the UAZ-based G-wagon
ICE car: first drive
Sticking a car to the wall with construction foam
We buried a German, a Japanese and a Russian
Making a wheel from 10000 sheets of A4 paper
Using springs instead of rubber tires
Converting a car to run on firewood
Our Lada runs on firewood instead of gasoline!
What happens when you tie a 32 kilo kettlebell to your wheel?
What happens when you fill tires with construction foam
Will a car drive if you chain the tires?
Fitting Bicycle Wheel to a Сar
We Turned VOLVO Into A Swimming Pool
How to destroy your engine: vegetable oil, Pepsi, salt, hydrolock
400 hp Toyota Mark II vs SOAP
We intalled a water barrel for drifting
ONE YEAR UNDERGROUND 💀 we unearth our Japanese, German and Russian
Will a car drift better if you spray water on the tyres? Crazy idea
Starting cars which spent a year underground ☠
German bathtub tank
The most bulletproof car in the World
Extremely Budget Drift Car
Rolling car! We met Milo
Driving a toy car at 50 km/h
STREET RACING for CASH. Police Escape
Unique car with outboard seats
Nearly lost my lunch! Ford Kaster Crazy rollercoaster ride
One kilometer of PLASTIC WRAP vs CAR
Mad modification for 80$
3.000 NAILS instead of a TIRE
Cooking a car in 10 tons of boiling water – Lada soup
Welding the prop-shaft to the motor and driving without a gearbox
Stripping the paint from a Lada – for what purpose?
6x6 Lada Niva by Garage 54
Why did we drown this Lada Samara
Creating the "ASS TANK"
Fitting a Lada with some 38 inch wheels
Making a TWO DOOR Lada shorty (episode one)
Washing a rusty car with Coca-Cola
1000 AA's instead of a conventional car battery
Replacing a windshield wiper with a glass cutter
Amphibious car made using polystyrene and construction foam
Bathhouse – first drive
A round in our UAZ-based steam bath with some showgirls
Replacing MOTOR OIL with GASOLINE
Driving our 6x6 Niva for the first time
Taking our twin-engine (2.7 liter inline-8) Lada out for the first time
Monster Lada with 3 motors (4 liters, 12 cylinders)
We take our triple-engine Lada to the dyno
Quad-engine Lada - 5.6 liters and 16 cylinders
25000 rubber bands instead of a tire
5.000 nails vs tires
We tie a Lada to a concrete block and drive away
Driving one mile on a flat tire
Hoverboard vs Automobile
Making tires out of ICE
Shooting at the FUEL TANK
7-liter truck engine swap – pedal box, steering rack, propshaft
Ladzilla (7-liter Lada build) – first drive
Shredding tires in our Ladzilla with its new gearbox
DIY magnetic suspension
How to drive a car with two steering wheels
Transforming a Lada into a Porsche
Cementing the engine bay – will the car start?
Combat drone chases a car covered with 25000 firecrackers
BMW driven around the city by a dog
Drive-through prank: car with no driver
Mounting two tires onto one rim
Can a battery made from 1000 lemons start a car?
Bumper repair using Asian noodles – for real
What happens when you drive 7 miles with the hand brake ON
What happens when you fill the motor with water and let it freeze
Replacing the wheels with manhole covers
Can flipping the axle break an UAZ apart
We stuck 500,000 matches to a Lada and
Drifting on wheels with plastic rims
Detonating a tire in the cabin
Replacing brake pads with iPhones
Shipping container vs Lada
DIY air suspension: replacing springs with basketballs
Semi-truck vs Lada
Lada-based Porsche: first drive
Making wheels using 50 meters worth of chains
Lifting a car using 6 miles of toilet paper
Coil springs out of rebar – will they work?
How much does weight reduction improve acceleration?
Mounting an armchair on top of a BMW
What happens when you apply 35 layers of clear coat?
Making a wheel out of 21.000 matches
What happens if you pour 20 kilos of lead into your wheels?
What happens when you fill the tank with printer ink?
What happens when you wash a car with a fire hose?
Heating pad vs exhaust system: what gives up first?
Lada-based mobile steam bath
In English
Driving our 6x6 Niva for the first time
О видео
Driving our 6x6 Niva for the first time
Автомобили присутствующие в видео:
Lada Niva
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Канал Youtube
Канал Youtube
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text:
Spots up for grabs in PGA Championship
While there is only one month left to qualify for the FedEx Cup playoffs, another points race takes place this week in Canada.
This is the final week to qualify for the PGA Championship, and while it has more PGA Tour players than any other major championship, not everyone is in. The PGA of America has built a reputation of having the strongest field of the majors with most of the top 100 from the world ranking.
PGA CHAMPIONSHIP:Fans get say in hole location
There also is "PGA Points" — the top 70 get in — which is all money earned in PGA Tour events from the Bridgestone Invitational a year ago through the Canadian Open. Among those on the bubble are Roberto Castro (No. 69), Matt Jones (No. 70), David Hearn (73), Matt Every (75) and Jeff Overton (79), who only three years ago was screaming, "Boom, Baby!" after holing a fairway shot in the Ryder Cup.
The PGA of America uses this list to fill its 156-man field, which can add a number of spots.
Meanwhile, the head of the PGA's championships says he is taking a close look at Peter Uihlein and Brooks Koepka, two Americans playing in Europe. Neither had status to start the year and both now have a European Tour cards — Uihlein from a European Tour in Portugal, Koepka by winning three times on the Challenge Tour for an instant promotion.
Uihlein is No. 108 in the world, while Koepka is No. 114.
"We're watching both of them very closely," said Kerry Haigh, the PGA of America's chief championships director. "At this point, they have not been invited."
Haigh said he would consider the high ranking based on the limited tournaments they have played this year. He also would take into consideration their standing on money lists outside of the PGA.
"For people like that who are new players, they can't play enough events to compete fairly over the two-year ranking period," he said.
When they're not traveling the world, Uihlein and Koepka are roommates in south Florida.
BACK TO GOLF: Not to worry — Judy Rankin is not making a comeback on the LPGA Tour at 68.
But she is playing golf again.
Rankin, who worked for ESPN at the British Open, said she played for the first time since 2011 during a family trip to Ruidoso, N.M. She played 10 holes with son Tuey and granddaughter Kendall with mixed results.
"It was the first time I had my hands on a golf club in two years," said Rankin, the first woman to go over $100,000 in one year on the LPGA Tour and a member of the Hall of Fame. "Hit some good ones, hit some bad ones."
One thing she discovered: "If I decide to play again, I'm going to need to get fitted for clubs," she said. "Mine are too big for me."
OLD CHAMPIONSHIP, OLD WINNERS: Phil Mickelson contributed to an odd slice of history by winning the British Open at age 43. The last three winners of golf's oldest championship were in their 40s, a streak that has never occurred in any major.
Even back in the old days — the really old days — Willie Park Sr. kept Old Tom Morris from winning three straight in his 40s.
Ernie Els and Darren Clarke both were 42 when they won at Royal Lytham and Royal St. George's, respectively. Most of the attention going into the final round was on Lee Westwood, who turned 40 in April and started the day with a two-shot lead.
Age doesn't mean much these days.
"Guys are just hitting their stride. I'm 40 years old, too, like Lee, but I don't feel like I've aged any," Stewart Cink said. "I feel strong. I feel great out there. I think I've got a lot of years left to go."
The next stop is the PGA Championship, where the last three winners have all been in their 20s — Rory McIlroy, Keegan Bradley and Martin Kaymer.
DIVOTS: Angel Cabrera tied for 11th in the British Open, moving up to No. 43 to qualify for the Bridgestone Invitational next week at Firestone. ... British Open champion Phil Mickelson has made more money from three majors this year than Inbee Park in winning 15 LPGA events, including her wins in three majors. ... Even though Woody Austin won a PGA Tour event in Mississippi, he is only No. 130 on the FedEx Cup list and might not qualify for the playoffs. ...Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice will be the keynote speaker at the Golf Coaches Association of America national convention Dec. 9-11 in Las Vegas. Rice is to speak on leadership, organizational management and life lessons from golf.
STAT OF THE WEEK: For the first time in 25 years, the first three majors were won by three players from inside the top 10 in the world — Adam Scott (7), and Justin Rose and Phil Mickelson (5). In 1988, it was Sandy Lyle (3), Curtis Strange (5) and Seve Ballesteros (4).
FINAL WORD: "I'm not too disappointed. I don't really get disappointed with golf anymore." — Lee Westwood, who had a two-shot lead and tied for third in the British Open.


text:
We're driven to make tomorrow better. Our global team creates innovative, integrated solutions to make cities more connected, buildings more intelligent and vehicles more efficient. We are passionate about improving the way the world lives, works and plays. And we take pride in making Johnson Controls a vibrant, rewarding place to work. The future requires bold ideas, an entrepreneurial mind-set and collaboration across boundaries. You'll work with the best and brightest from around the world to shape the future and your career. Tomorrow needs you.
Bring your passion for innovation and we'll challenge you to help us create a better tomorrow. We support you at every level of your career.
At Johnson Controls, every voice matters. Starting from the top, our leaders are authentic and passionate. They embrace new ideas and nurture a culture of innovation that fuels collaboration. We understand that ideas can and should come from every level within our company – it's key to how we do business the right way. Our philosophy is simple – we provide products and services across the world, so our workforce needs to reflect varied cultures, thoughts, ideas and experiences to serve all markets.
Our rich history of growth is made possible by our entrepreneurial-minded employees who help Johnson Controls make an impact around the world. We believe in holding ourselves to a higher standard. And working with each other to leverage our unique expertise to transform the future. Every day our employees embrace our mission, push the limits of innovation and focus on insights that lead us to an even better tomorrow.
The future is being built today, and Johnson Controls is making that future more productive, more secure and more sustainable.
Read about our latest news, featured stories & case studies.
View our 2016 Business and Sustainability Report
Equal Opportunity & Non-Discrimination - Johnson Controls International plc. is an equal employment opportunity and affirmative action employer and all qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, protected veteran status, sexual orientation, gender identity, status as a qualified individual with a disability or any other characteristic protected by law. To view more information about your equal opportunity and non-discrimination rights as a candidate, visit EEO is the Law. If you are an individual with a disability and you require an accommodation during the application process, please click here.


text:
Install or update ionCube Loader
WordPress themes and plugins sometimes require additional software called ionCube Loader. You have two options for installing ionCube Loader:
- Call our support number and one of our experts can do it for you for a fee.
- Do it yourself following the instructions in the tables below.
WordPress Premium Support
Our support experts can perform the following services for you for a fee:
- Install and activate ionCube Loader.
- Update ionCube Loader.
Do it yourself
To install or update ionCube Loader yourself, use the tables below to find the hosting type that's applicable and follow those instructions.
Install and activate ionCube Loader
|To do it yourself, see these steps
|Installing ionCube on Linux Web hosting
|Installing ionCube on cPanel hosting
|Installing ionCube on Managed WordPress is not possible. If you are on this hosting and require ionCube, you will need to migrate to a Linux Web hosting plan.
|Installing ionCube on Plesk hosting is already done for you, so there are no additional steps you need to take.
|Installing ionCube on Windows Web hosting is not possible. If you are on this hosting and require ionCube, you will need to migrate to a newer hosting plan.
Updating ionCube Loader
|To do it yourself,
|Updating ionCube Loader is as simple as following the above steps for your hosting plan. If you are on Plesk or cPanel, this software will be automatically updated for you.
More info
- For more information about our premium support for WordPress, please visit our WP Premium Support Catalog.


text:
Welcome to the first in a series of tutorials in which I will talk about how to make a basic webmail system with PHP and MySQL.
The finished system will have the following system:
- Retrieve e-mails from a specified e-mail account
- Show all the mailboxes for the account
- Retrieve and save e-mail attachments
- Save all e-mails to a database for security
- Have a preview screen below the e-mail listings
- Compose e-mail function
- The ability to delete, reply and forward messages
I will go through it at a steady pace while explaining things thoroughly and giving you the code, breakdowns and links to the php site about the functions used.
Tutorial Part 1 Server Setup
For this system you will need a PHP server, a SMTP/IMAP server (or Gmail etc.) and a MySQL database.
Step 1: setup the location where you will make the script either a subdomain or a folder. This depends on your host and where you want people to access the facility.
Step 2: setup your database, I advise you if possible to have a separate database to make sure the e-mail data is secure as possible. Keep the server url, username, password and database handy as you will need them throughout this and the next part of this tutorial.
Step 3: add the initial database tables to the database using the sql code below. In this example it will store both the e-mail address/username and password (encrypted) in a database and store all the e-mails in another. The other table will store all the mailboxes for each e-mail address so the webmail can be loaded without connecting to the mail server if you wanted.
SQL: users table stores email addresses and passwords
CREATE TABLE `users`( `ID` INT(250) NOT NULL AUTO INCREMENT, `Email` VARCHAR(250) NOT NULL, `Password` VARCHAR(250) NOT NULL, Primary key(`ID`));
SQL: mailbox table stores all the mailboxes for a user uses user ID as a secondary key
CREATE TABLE `mailboxes`( `ID` INT(250) NOT NULL AUTO INCREMENT, `Name` VARCHAR(250) NOT NULL, `UserID` INT(250) NOT NULL, Primary key(`ID`));
SQL: message table stores all the messages for each user stores Mailbox ID as a secondary key
CREATE TABLE `messages`( `ID` INT(250) NOT NULL AUTO INCREMENT, `To` VARCHAR(250) NOT NULL, `CC` VARCHAR(250), `BCC` VARCHAR(250), `From` VARCHAR(250) NOT NULL, `Subject` VARCHAR(250), `Message` LONG BLOB NOT NULL, `Date` DATETIME NOT NULL, `MailboxID` INT(250) NOT NULL, Primary Key (`ID`));
I have not covered the database for the attachments as that will come in later on in the tutorial series when we get to the stage of working with attachments.
Step 4: setup the folders you will need below is the basic file organisation you will need:
End of Tutorial 1
I have not covered much in this tutorial but the aim is to get the foundations together so we are ready to build on the script.
Next Time
In the next tutorial I will be concentrating on the database class and running a script to test it before we get down to the real code on this project.
Until next time..


text:
|S.S. Phemius (Built in 1921, Sunk by U-515 on 20 December 1943) (Source)
Hurricane season is upon us, so consider these excerpts from Richard Hughes' largely forgotten novel In Hazard (1938). Both are descriptions of the engine-room of the Archimedes, a cargo ship caught in the whorls of a catastrophic hurricane during the entirety of the novel:
An engine-room is unlike anything in land architecture. It is an immensely tall space—reaching from the top of the ship, more or less, to the bottom. Huge. But, unlike most large architectural spaces (except perhaps Hell), you enter it through a small door at the top.And then:
The stokehold (or fire-room), which you enter at the bottom ordinarily, through a low door from the bottom of the engine-room, is a very different place. The air here is hotter still; but quite dry. Here, moreover, is a symmetry more like that of land-architecture: a row of similar furnaces, small at the bottom and growing larger above, so that overhead they come together, like gothic arches in a metal crypt (or the walls of a room in a dream).[1]These passages call our attention to a subtle difference between "land architecture" and "land-architecture." These two terms identify something we are all familiar with (buildings), and yet it is the use of a hyphen that really merits our attention. In the first excerpt, the words "land" and "architecture" are unconnected: they are separated both physically and conceptually. If architecture is different than land, then the engine-room is different from any kind of building we may be familiar with.
With the second passage, however, the hyphen joins "land" and "architecture." This is more than just a typographic connection. Here, it is as if buildings were literally connected to the earth. This gesture evokes such terms as site, location, and even context—all expressing different ways in which buildings become part of something else. History may even be the very thing that connects "land" and "architecture." Notice how Hughes describes the engine-room's stokehold as "symmetrical," an attribute that immediately brings to mind the symmetric plans of classical or Beaux-Arts architecture. If the stokehold is "more like" a building, then equating its furnaces with "gothic arches" is another deliberate architectural description. Yet what connects these two descriptions are the parenthetical asides. In the first, the engine-room is "Hell"; in the second, "walls of a room in a dream." These are architectural ideas, and thinking of a ship as architecture is enough to make it so.
Admittedly, this all amounts to a fair bit of hair-splitting. We may even excuse the narrator for any errors of judgment or observation he may have made. This is, after all, neither an architect nor a historian, but a novelist that is making these equations. Yet this interest in equating the design and making of ships with the design and making of buildings is not foreign to the history of architecture. Nor is it foreign to the history of the history of architecture.
|Antoine-Denis Chaudet, Julien-David Le Roy, 1803-4 (Source: Christopher Drew Armstrong, "The Architect as Revolutionary Hero: A Monument to Julien-David Leroy," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 66, No. 3 (Sep., 2007), 317.)
Enter Julien-David Le Roy. As an architect, archaeologist and historian, Le Roy (1723-1804) is credited with creating a dualist approach to history that lingers to this day. Think of this approach as one that views the same building under two separate lenses—one historical, the other architectural— and that can yield different results. This was no doubt a reflection of Le Roy's own curious upbringing. As a student at the prestigious École des arts under Jacques-François Blondel, Le Roy inherited a very rigorous background in architecture history. Upon finishing, he received the prestigious Prix de Rome in 1751. While there, he undertook an exhaustive and systematic study of Greek ruins, and went to Athens, Corinth and Sparta in 1754 to study more examples. In 1758, he published Les Ruines des plus beaux monuments de la Grèce (Ruins of the Most Beautiful Monuments of Greece), his account of his travels to Italy and Greece. Part travel monograph, and part history of the region, Le Roy's book featured picturesque compositions along with measured drawings of details and examples of Greek architecture. Others have remarked already that these two kinds of drawings represent the dualist approach I alluded to earlier: whereas the more picturesque drawings sought to situate a particular ruin within a historical context, the measured drawings represented an understanding of architecture through abstract and formal differences.[2] This latter approach has been touted as an example of a "scientific" approach to the history of architecture. (Le Roy is often credited as being the first to apply Enlightenment ideas about science to the writing of architecture history). That is, Le Roy's formal studies of Greek architecture were an attempt to deduce examples from general, original forms he called ideés. It perhaps should not surprise the reader that Le Roy also came from a distinguished family of watchmakers. Clocks, after all, were more than just metaphors describing the order of the universe; they were mechanical technologies that implemented order and structure to those phenomena that eluded description. In other words, clocks were regulators of chaos. They were highly rational machines that provided form.[3]
Le Roy was a young architect who busied himself by expanding his world view. Worldly travels were becoming essential to architectural training, and this meant booking passage on vessels throughout Europe and the Mediterranean to visit those sites which were of historical importance. Le Roy was following in the footsteps of Antoine Babuty Desgodetz (1653-1728), who also traveled to Rome to make measured drawings of ruins and buildings from antiquity. Desgodetz's experiences as an architectural traveller are remarkable: during his 1674 trip to Rome, Ottoman pirates captured and overran his ship. He and his companions, Jacob Spon and Augustin-Charles d'Aviler, were kept as slaves in Algiers and Tunis for a year. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of Finance under Louis XIV and a tireless advocate of building up the French merchant fleet and armada, later arranged for a prisoner exchange. Once Desgodetz returned to Rome, he began the series of drawings that would become part of the influential Les edifices antiques de Rome dessinés et mesurés très exactement (The Ancient Buildings of Rome, Accurately Measured and Delineated) (1682).
Like engraved books, ships were important mechanisms for conveying information about the ancient world to larger audiences. They were mediums of exchange between the modern and ancient worlds. This would take on an additional significance for Le Roy. After the successes of Les Ruines, as well as subsequent books on the history of ecclesiastical architecture, and following his appointment to the Académie Royale d'Architecture and the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, Le Roy began to turn his attention to ships. In 1786, he became an advisor to Académie de marine in Brest and even proposed designs for a national school of maritime studies in 1794. These were all formative moments in an already illustrious career. Yet Le Roy's project of articulating simultaneous historical and scientific approaches to history had reached their fullest expressions by 1770 and 1777 in three works that were not about buildings, but about ships.
The first of these was "Mémoires sur la marine des anciens" ("Memoirs on the navies of the ancients"), Le Roy's first lecture on naval architecture. Presented at the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres in February 1770, this lecture presented analyses and detailed explanations of the evolution of ships and sails to demonstrate that the historical and scientific approaches had to work in tandem. In Le Roy's words, history and nature were similar: "History, as much as nature, frequently offers us a mass of sterile facts; she also sometimes presents us with some more precious, but more rare facts, from which can be drawn, as from a prolific spring, a great number of truths."[4] History and nature both yielded the ever-important principles needed for scientific understanding. Without a historical underpinning, a technical understanding of ship building would be faulty. The same applied to history of naval architecture: it made little sense without understanding the kinds of technological changes that gave rise to the present problem. And like Les ruines, Le Roy's first work on ships identified the development of an idée over time. The only difference here, of course, was that he looked to examples from Phoenician, Greek, and Roman shipbuilding to prove his point.
Le Roy's use of images, begin to demonstrate how these two methods were at first separated. The most famous of these are the set of engravings (drawn by Catherine Haussard) showing the development of vessels based on the idée of a single-person raft. At the top, an elevation shows a flat piece of wood supported by wooden logs. Underneath, the complexity of the vessel increases progressively according to the number of oarsmen and passengers, showing Odysseus' raft, a Phoenician long ship, and culminating with an Egyptian vessel. Another engraving shows the further development of rowing vessels, focusing on the idée of a ship comprised of a single line of rowers. Yet the emphasis is geographically-specific. Here, Le Roy focused on how Greek designers modified ships in order to accommodate larger numbers of rowers. Whereas the first engraving depicted changes in development according to technological innovations, the second focused on a specific historical context.
In his third text on ship design, Les navires des anciens (The Ships of the Ancients) (1783), Le Roy begins to conflate the two approaches. Again, it is an engraving that gives a visual expression to this method. Here, the focus is on the development of sails, showing the development of Carthaginian, Greek, and Roman ships as part of a singular historical procession. The unifying principle here is the shape and arrangement of the sail as it leaps periods and geographies by dint of the engraved image. It is an image that underscores faith in reason, for only through the application of scientific reasoning could such an image be created. But in order to get a sense of how all of this came to be, of why ships should even be subjected to the same kind of analysis as buildings, it is important to look at Le Roy's second text on ships, La marine des anciens peuples (The Navies of Ancient Peoples) (1777).
|Engraving by Jean Goujon of the Vitruvian origins of fire as shown in the first French translation of de Architectura. From Jean Martin, Architecture, ou Art de bien bastir de Marc Vitruve Pollion Autheur (Paris, 1547).
Here, it is not an image, but a historical reference that reveals something new. In the very first section of La marine, Le Roy details the history of seafaring peoples. He relies on ancient geographic texts by Ptolemy and Eusebius to identify the ancient Phoenicians as one of the first fish-eating people, or Ichthyophagi. But the very idée of a ship began with something more tumultuous. Eusebius was one of the first people to provide an account of the first ship—a story which was a retelling of a fragment by the Phoenician chronicler Sanchuniathon:
And when furious rains and winds occurred, the trees in Tyre were rubbed against each other and caught fire, and burnt down the wood that was there. And Ousous took a tree, and, having stripped off the branches, was the first who ventured to embark on the sea.[5]Le Roy acknowledges this fragment as an account of the origins of seafaring. Yet he re-imagines the passage, here giving form to the meteorological event that gave birth to seafaring:
Hurricanes (said Sanchuniathon) having burst all at once upon the trees of the forest of Tyre, which caught on fire, and the flames devoured the forest. In this confusion, Ousoüs took the trunk of a tree, and having de-limbed it, he first ventured out to sea.[6]Le Roy did not have to scour ancient texts to find this fragment. A version of it also appeared in the first volume Antoine-Yves Goguet's De l'origine des loix, des arts, et des sciences (On the Origins of Laws, Arts, and the Sciences) (1758). In a section devoted to the history of commerce and navigation, Goguet also gives credit to Sanchuniathon's account, noting that Ousous, having made a raft from a "half-burned tree," was the first to expose himself to the water.[7] Yet in Le Roy's telling, this tale gains architectural significance. He explains how the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius borrowed Sanchuniathon's story of seafaring and applied it to his study of architecture. To prove the point, Le Roy notes the similarity between Sanchuniathon's account of the origins of seafaring with this description from Book II of Vitruvius' de Architectura (also known as The Ten Books of Architecture):
A tempest, on a certain occasion, having exceedingly agitated the trees in a particular spot, the friction between some of the branches caused them to take fire; this so alarmed those in the neighbourhood of the accident, that they betook themselves to flight.[8]The "flight" here leads to the first gathering of people around a fire, which leads to the creation of the first shelters — the origin of architecture. Yet Le Roy's reading of Sanchuniathon gives a more important significance to storm at Tyre. The very hurricane that gives birth to seafaring becomes the storm that gives birth to architecture. This was by no means a strange way to look at the historical relationship between ships and buildings. In La marine, Le Roy also mentions in a footnote Goguet's description of large seaborne rafts known as "pyrogues" as "that other kind of building."[9] By the time that Le Roy published his treatises on naval architecture, "bâtiment" was commonly understood to refer to both "ship" and "building."[10] But as Le Roy noted, thanks to Vitruvius replacing Ousous' wooden raft with a shelter, we can now locate the origins of architecture in seafaring.[11] The ship was the very first architectural object.
Le Roy believed in the study of ancient sources as a way to approach contemporary architectural design. The same could be said about his interest in ships. More than a historian of naval architecture, Le Roy also designed various ships and used his knowledge of seafaring from classical antiquity to design sails and riggings. This aspect of his career has meteorological origins as well. In 1763, the Minister of the Navy, the Duke de Choiseul, appointed Le Roy to test a new kind of sail based on ancient designs aboard the war frigate Calypso. These riggings, which used triangular instead of square sails, proved deficient when a strong storm overtook the Calypso and forced the crew to almost scuttle the ship near the English coast.[12] Though crewmen were able to repair the ship, Le Roy would continue this aspect of his career. Besides testing additional sails and riggings on other naval vessels, he would design his own ship, the Naupotame, and engage in an prolonged letter exchange with Benjamin Franklin about the development of merchant fleets.[13] This would reach its apex in a final series of texts, including one written in 1786, that concerned sail designs and the avoidance of marine hazards, and another, a small tract advocating for a system of deep canals that would connect Paris and the Seine to the sea.[14]
|Aftermath of 1932 hurricane, Santa Cruz del Sur, Cuba
The 1932 Atlantic hurricane season was particularly devastating to ports and merchant fleets along the Caribbean. October alone saw three storms. One, which formed on October 30 near Guadeloupe, traveled southwards and then curved towards the north, becoming one of the most powerful storms ever recorded before it hit Cuba.[15] It weakened and gained even more strength before reaching Jamaica. At that time, it crossed paths with the S.S. Phemius, a merchant steamer traveling between Savannah and Colon. With initial gusts of over 200 miles per hour, the hurricane overpowered and ensnared the Phemius for almost four days. The ship's meteorological log describes the storm's effect on the ship's various structures and buildings:
At 2 p.m. [November 5, 1932] the wind shifted to N.E. blowing with hurricane force accompanied by blinding squalls and a very high sea. The barometer was then falling rapidly reaching the low point of 914.6 mb. [27.01 inches] by 8 p.m. A fierce hurricane was blowing and a very high sea running. The ship was enveloped in spindrift, reducing the visibility to Nil, the No. 1 hatch not being visible from the bridge. The vessel was rolling heavily, the helm being of little use. So great was the force of the wind that shortly before 8 p.m. the funnel was blown overboard. The ship was rendered helpless and from then on was carried with the hurricane in an unmanageable state. It would not be overestimating to put the wind force at 200 miles per hour. Hatches were blown overboard like matchwood, derricks and lifeboats wrecked, upper and lower bridges blown in.[16]The passage, with its account of chaos and destruction, seems to be undoing very description that introduced this post. If the Archimedes from Richard Hughes' In Hazard is an example of a ship that can be equated with "land-architecture," then this storm becomes the very force that "erases" the hyphen. Architecture becomes unmoored, cast adrift in a maelstrom.
Later in 1932, after the Phemius was towed to salvage, its captain, D.L.C. Evans, asked Richard Hughes to write an account of the hurricane. He would eventually fictionalize the account, the result being one of the inspirations for In Hazard. And though the book's descriptions of the storm are sometimes fantastic, their brute poetry give the 1932 hurricane an additional allegorical dimension. Hughes wrote the novel in in 1938, its chaotic whorls foreshadowing the ways in which the Second World War would ravage Europe and the rest of the world.
Yet the hurricane from In Hazard is more than just an allegorical storm. As a meteorological event, it is the device that propels and structures Hughes' narrative. It is, in other words, a form-giver, an elusive, chaotic event that nevertheless orders the world it consumes. To fully understand this, it is important to consider one final storm.
|Vice-Admiral Georges Cloué (Source: Préfecture Maritime de la Manche et de la Mer du Nord)
On May 24, 1885, a tropical monsoon cyclone formed near the Laccadive Islands, about 555 km southwest of the Indian peninsula. It traveled westwards and entered the Arabian Sea, making a direct line toward the Gulf of Aden. Yet neither the cyclone's trajectory, nor its strength and magnitude were known until unverified and poorly-kept accounts from ships caught in the storm's path began to appear in various newspapers. The storm would eventually make landfall on the Horn of Africa, and its immediate aftermath became well known. On June 3, the cyclone claimed five vessels—the German corvette Augusta, the French dispatch vessel Renard, the Turkish steamer Fetul-Bahari, and the British cargo ships S.S. Speke Hall and S.S. Seraglio—with no sign of cargo and at least 427 crew and passengers lost.[17]
It was not until 1886 when the first detailed accounts of the storm began to appear in official publications. For example, a report of the storm appeared in an issue of Annalen der Hydrographie und martimen Meteorologie, the German Hydrographic Office's official journal. The article featured one of the first maps of the cyclone's trajectory, based on information provided by the Indian Meteorological Office. That year also saw one of the most comprehensive and authoritative accounts of the cyclone. Written in March 1886 by Vice-Admiral Georges Cloué, the newly-appointed French Minister of the Navy and the Colonies, the article was the first of several reports for the French Navy compiling meteorological and navigational data from 27 vessels that were caught in the storm.[18]
Cloué's studies featured numerous diagrams and maps that explained the strength of the storm in terms of the speed and orientation of winds. Of these, the most visually compelling are the diagrams that show the location of a ship in relation to the storm. Each is presented from a particular vessel's "point of view." The most basic diagram is that representing the storm as it passed over the French frigate Rouen, carrying a cavalry regiment from Tonkin in Indochina. Here, Cloué calculated the cyclone's direction and orientation by compiling wind speed, direction, and atmospheric pressure: these were drawn as a familiar cyclonic form, with a line in the middle representing the storm's direction. This was a fairly straightforward, yet incomplete graphic. Though the center of the cyclone passed over the Rouen, the diagram did not show the ship's position in relation to the storm's. Cloué would achieve this subsequently with other diagrams depicting the storm's trajectory as it would intersect with a ship's, and in other instances, showing the cyclone in relation to two vessels. All of this information would be compared with data provided by manometers and anemographs posted on the Gulf of Aden by the British Royal Navy.
Cloué's studies, though carefully-researched and expertly-wrought, only foregrounded what was really at stake: the form and "design" of tropical cyclones. He called the very last section of his April 1886 article "Étude du cyclone" ("Study of the Cyclone"), and it purported to be just that: an investigation of the storm's shape and form as it gained and lost strength. This was necessary. Cloué claimed that his report would improve on previous work on storms, which often relied on eyewitness accounts without corroborative data. Even more important was the fact cyclones rarely occurred on or near the Gulf of Aden. The Aden cyclone was not only unprecedented in terms of strength and destructiveness, it was rare.
By comparing the previous drawings with sailors' accounts, Cloué introduced a series of diagrams that give us a more familiar understanding of the shape and movement in a hurricane. He presents one describing the cyclone's trajectory as a function of data provided by S.S. Duke of Devonshire and a weather station on Aden. The data was not only easy to obtain but also easy to interpret and showed that the storm traveled in a curlicue pattern along a line equidistant from both sources. Yet this was no mere trending line. Cloué compared the Aden cyclone's movements with those from other parts of the world, in short deducing the trajectory as a function of wind speed and pressure. These were just ways of expressing the importance of latitudinal motion to the Coriolis effect: the counterclockwise movement of fluids around a vortex in the Northern Hemisphere.[19]
Only a year after the Belle-Poule was nearly scuttled, another event would give Cloué's observation some weight. In 1847, the French mathematician Joseph L. F. Bertrand "popularized" the Coriolis effect in an article concerning "relative movement"— the perception of one object's motion compared to an other's. When applied to natural phenomena such as hurricanes, Bertand's interpretation of the Coriolis effect resulted in two observations: first, that a storm would conserve its velocity as it traveled; and second, that the Coriolis effect alone was responsible for the movement of hurricanes.[21] Cloué's remark about knowledge that had been around since 1846 is poignant because by 1885, everything that there was to know about the Coriolis effect was known. His observations about the Aden cyclone contradict Bertrand's descriptions of the Coriolis effect. Energy was not at all conserved. Rather, Cloué noted that the Aden cyclone shrank in size as it gathered in strength until it slowed down and withered into nothing: "the mass of storm clouds was consumed by itself, and without further nourishment the cyclone ended like a simple waterspout."[22] More importantly, he stated that what caused the cyclone was not the Coriolis effect, but rather the collision between southeasterly winds and the easterly monsoon winds. He illustrates this with a drawing showing how the collision between these two winds could generate the counter-clockwise motion normally associated with the Coriolis effect in northern latitudes.
|Diagram showing the Aden cyclone being formed by the collision of southeasterly winds and the easterly monsoon winds (Source: Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885, dans le Golfe d'Aden.")
The hurricane has become a central metaphor for this tale. Cyclones, tropical storms, and other meteorological aberrations are more than just phenomena that order and structure narratives; they are the very forces compelling one to write a literary or historical account. And yet a hurricane, whether described by Richard Hughes, Vitruvius, Eusebius, Le Roy, or Cloué, is that most illogical of objects, a kind of destructive disorder that can only be understood through various normative means of representation. As a series of lines that suggest a whirlpool, or a circle with watery arms that "spin" in a counter-clockwise direction, hurricanes are examples of what English physicist Michael Faraday called "lines of force." These tell-tale lines, which proved the existence of magnetism, could not be observed. Yet when metal shavings were placed near a magnet, they "formed" lines that seemed to oscillate outwards.[23]
Like Faraday's "lines of force," Cloué's whorls and curlicues confront and describe something that is known yet invisible. Yet what really separates the two is that, unlike Faraday's accounts of magnetism, Cloué's diagrams and descriptions of the Aden cyclone rely on conventional drawing techniques. Sometimes rough, other times meticulous, these drawings treat data in a sketch-like manner. They only aim to give a sense of a hurricane's ideal, and not precise form. Returning to Le Roy's treatises on naval architecture momentarily, we are reminded of how his combination of historical and architectural approaches could be combined in a single diagram. Like the example of sail and rigging development from Les navires des anciens, drawings could be use to convey both scientific and historical development. The same could be said of Cloué's analytical drawings of the Aden cyclone.
Following the initial diagram showing the Aden cyclone's curlicue path, a second image shows a progressive series of similar paths. Each of these changes shape with changes in wind speed and barometric pressure. Yet we are not looking at one storm, but several from different parts of the world. Some show the trajectory of winds in the Northern Hemisphere, others in the Southern. It is a diagram that is conceptually similar to the engraving from Le Roy's Les navires showing the development of sails. As these showed the development of sails throughout history using examples from different eras, Cloué's diagram abandons geographical specificity to demonstrate how a hurricane's path develops over time.
|Diagram showing comparative shapes of storm trajectories from different parts of the world, arranged according to progressive wind speed and direction (Source: Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885, dans le Golfe d'Aden.")
Yet the general principle that underlies Le Roy's thinking—the tracing of the development of an idée over time—resonates with another aspect of Cloué's work. In an 1887 article, Cloué introduced two maps, each showing the path of the cyclone as it moved from the Laccadives to the Gulf of Aden at a specific time of the day. The first is a reinterpretation of the German map that appeared in German hydrographic journals in 1886. It shows the storm's trajectory, as told from the point of view of different vessels. The paths of four of these are depicted as dashed arrows, each showing the general path of a ship as it moved with or against the oncoming storm. Labeled dots indicate the threshold at which barometric pressure reaches the 750 mm isobar at a certain time and location. The thickest, blackest line belongs to the Aden cyclone itself, here shown as moving in a shallow sine wave-like pattern as it entered the gulf. Small dots show that the storm was increasing in size as it approached land.
The two maps then exemplify different kinds of knowledge. The German map, which relied extensively on wind change data to show differences in isobars as well as the position of the storm, exemplified a quantitative approach to meteorology that was being recuperated slowly.[25] Cloué's map, on the other hand, resonates with the kind of scientific thinking shown in the engravings from Le Roy's Les navires. This map suggests that experience, in the form of the accounts from various vessels moored or traveling along the Gulf of Aden from May 31 to June 3, 1885, confirm the idea that cyclones travel in straight paths. The fact that the maps show the cyclone differently is also important. Whereas the German hydrographic map depicts the cyclone as a nebulous form that saunters along the Gulf of Aden, Cloué's shows it as a circle—a convention that reflects the actual "position and extent" of the storm.[26]
Readers will no doubt find Cloué's conclusions troubling, especially since the German map "looks" more exact than the French map. Yet more attention must be paid to not only the location of the cyclone in each map, but also to the lines which connect it as it travels up the Gulf of Aden. Because the German map considers the storm in terms of wind direction, it calls attention to four instances of sudden changes in orientation. The result is a map that shows the trajectory as a sweeping curve. It is, in some ways, reminiscent of the Indian Meteorological Office's synoptic chart from 1891. One of several authoritative maps published in various almanacs until about 1900, this chart shows the Aden cyclone in relation to the changes in isobars in the region on 3 June 1885. With Cloué's map, however, the "line of least resistance" is just that: an unwavering line with a preordained trajectory. They are overly conclusive, but more importantly, they connect seemingly unrelated phenomena in the most efficient way possible.
There is another way to read these lines. These are not lines of causality portraying how one event followed another in a logical sequence. Nor are these "lines of force" that suggest something that is understood yet invisible. The lines describing the Aden cyclone's path are reminiscent of hyphens. As stated at the beginning of this post, a hyphen is a line that joins separate words to form a single, coherent idea. The hyphen also presupposes that the ideas are unrelated. But for a hyphen, we would understand "land-architecture" as different from "land architecture." Yet hyphens and similar marks perform a more complicated operation than just connecting and separating. The hyphen, as understood in classical and medieval texts, was first used as a pronunciation aid and then as a device for correcting spacing errors.[27] This must be distinguished from the trait d'union, a hyphen-like mark appearing around the tenth and eleventh centuries. The trait d'union ensured continuity in text through the separation of words. And through the separation of words, texts became easier to read.[28] The trait d'union was therefore a representation of continuity. And like Le Roy's ships or the Aden cyclone, the trait d'union was a kind of representation that reflected changes in geography and technology. It not only changed as printing technologies changed, but it was used in different ways according to the kind of text and location.
Above all, both the trait d'union and hyphen are important because they are examples of devices or conventions that articulate the spaces in between words with lines. Space became a connector. Like a picture plane, the flat, two-dimensional surface of a printed page, synoptic chart, or hydrographic map became, as art historian Erwin Panofsky described it, a "spatial continuum ... which is understood to contain all the various individual objects."[29] Cloué's line of least resistance can be considered as such. It is not only evidence of a spatial and temporal continuum, but more importantly, it shows how the space in between the Aden cyclone's various positions are imbued with meaning.
Portentous, unpredictable, and destructive, hurricanes, cyclones, and other forms of treacherous weather were carriers of meaning as the world spun into modernity. For example, in Voltaire's Candide, or Optimism (1759), the logical Pangloss tells the hapless Candide that the storm that has just destroyed their vessel within sight of Lisbon and killed numerous sailors was "formed expressly" for this disaster.[30] And though Voltaire's account of weather seems rather accepting, inclement weather was an important metaphor for change. In the first of two lectures that became Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century (1884), John Ruskin ruminated on the significance of "ragged white clouds" carried aloft by a wind that shook trees and windowpanes. This "plague-wind" darkening the skies of over Europe from the "North of England to Sicily" takes on a more sinister aspect:
[The wind] looks partly as if it were made of poisonous smoke; very possibly it may be: there are at least two hundred furnace chimneys in a square of two miles on every side of me. But mere smoke would not blow to and fro in that wild way. It looks more to me as if it were made of dead men's souls—such of them as are not gone yet where they have to go, and may be flitting higher and thither, doubting, themselves, of the fittest place for them.[31]Part-description of the effects of industrialization on city and country air, and part-meditation on the end of the Franco-Prussian War, Ruskin's storm-cloud set the bar high for using weather as the go-to metaphor for dire prognostication. And as this historical tour of storms approaches the twentieth century, consider the opening moments from Robert Musil's The Man Without Qualities (Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften) (1930-1942):
A barometric low hung over the Atlantic. It moved eastward toward a high-pressure area over Russia without as yet showing any inclination to bypass this high in a northerly direction. The isotherms and isotheres were functioning as they should. The air temperature was appropriate relative to the annual mean temperature and to the aperiodic monthly fluctuations of the temperature. The rising and the setting of the sun, the moon, the phases of the moon, of Venus, of the rings of Saturn, and many other significant phenomena were all in accordance with the forecasts in the astronomical yearbooks. The water vapour in the air was at its maximal state of tension, while the humidity was minimal. In a word that characterizes the facts fairly accurately, even if it is a bit old-fashioned: It was a fine day in August 1913.[32]These last words—"It was a fine day in August 1913"—not only operates as a satire on positivism, but also underscores one of the novel's preoccupations: analytical passivity in the face of an oncoming global catastrophe. Indeed, all meteorological information may lead to the conclusion that it is a fine day in August 13, and yet the opening paragraph is one of the few emphatic statements of certainty in the novel. Everything unravels after this point, as it is made clear by the fact that the novel's titular character, an Austrian mathematician named Ulrich, claims that he lacks unity and coherence.
Like the Archimedes, or even Ousous' raft, we seem to have drifted very far from the opening premise of this post: that ships were architecture. To avoid what may seem like a tacit fact, the narrative moved forwards and onwards, taking whorl-like detours and breezy tangents that tried to escape the centering premise, and yet managed to circle around it. To say that hurricanes are architectural is different than saying that hurricanes have a significance for the history of architecture. But is there really any other metaphor that encapsulates the historian's task like a hurricane? Unlike Le Roy, our take on the histories of architecture and urbanism leads us to the inevitable conclusion that ours is a demanding and herculean task. Historical and technological accounts are only part of the information we much compile and assess. And much like Vice-Admiral Cloué, we compare this data with ephemeral or less-than-ironclad information to try to come up with an understanding that builds upon, elaborates, or even corrects previous accounts. To confront this situation, to give order to conflicting and confusing information, Cloué gave us the ideal form of a hurricane. And he did it in a most architectural fashion: as a rendering composed almost entirely of lines and space.
|Ideal storm (Source: Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885, dans le Golfe d'Aden.")
[1] Richard Hughes, In Hazard (New York: NYRB Classics, 2008 [1938]), 5,6.
[2] One of the most succinct articles espousing this point is Jeanne Kisacky, "History and Science: Julien-David Leroy's 'Dualistic Method of Architectural History," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Sep., 2001), 260-289. For more information about Le Roy's writings, see Robin Middleton's exhaustive introduction to Julien-David Le Roy, The Ruins of the Most Beautiful of Greece, Historically and Architecturally Considered, David Britt, trans. (Los Angeles: Getty Center Research Publications, 2004) as well as Christoper Drew Armstrong, "Progress in the Age of Navigation, The Voyage-Philosophique of Julien-David Leroy," Unpublished Ph.D Diss, Columbia University, 2003. Later this summer, a version of this last work will be published as Christopher Drew Armstrong, Julien-David Leroy and the Making of Architectural History (London: Routledge, 2011).
[3] For excellent descriptions of how clocks became essential to the Western tradition, see Carlo M. Cipolla, Clocks and Culture, 1300-1700 (New York: Norton, 1977) and J. David Bolter, Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984).
[4] Julien-David Le Roy, "Premier mémoire sur la marine des anciens," Histoire de l'Académie royale des inscriptions et belles-lettres, avec les mémoires de Littérature tirés de Registres de cette Académie, depuis l'année M.DCCLXX, jusques & compris l'année M.DCCLXXII, Tome 38 (Paris: L'Imprimerie Royale, 1778), 545: "L'Histoire, ainsi que la Nature, nous offre souvent une un amas de faits isolés & stériles: elle nous en présente aussi quelquefois de plus précieux , mais en petit nombre, d'où sort, comme une source féconde, un grand nombre de vérités." This quote also appears in Kisacky, "History and Science," 278. Much of my understanding of Le Roy's views comes from this article.
[5] Eusebius of Caesarea, Praeparatio Evangelica (Preparation for the Gospel). E.H. Gifford, trans. (1903) -- Book 1, http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_pe_01_book1.htm, Accessed 21 May 2011.
[6] Julien-David Le Roy, La marine des anciens peuples, expliquée et considerée par rapport aux lumieres qu'on en peut tirer pour perfectionner la Marine moderne (Paris, 1777), 12: "Des ouragans (dit Sanchoniaton) ayant fondu tout-à-coup sur des arbres de la forêt de Tyr, ils prirent feu, & la flammé dévora la forêt. Dans ce trouble, Ousoüs prit un tronc d'arbre, & l'ayant ébranchée, il osa la premier aller en mer." (Italics mine). An excellent account of how other historians incorporated Sanchuniaton into their own accounts, see Edward Eigen, "The Plagiarism of Heathens Detected: John Wood, the Elder (1704-1754) on the Translation of Architecture and Empire, " Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol 70, No. 3 (Jul., 2009), 375-397. In this text, Eigen focuses on an English account of Sanchuniathon, Richard Cumberland, Sanchoniatho's Phoenician History, translated from the first book of Eusebius De Praeparatione Evangelica (London: W.B. for R. Wilkin, 1720). Special thanks also go to Eigen for also pointing me to Cloué's articles about the Aden cyclone that are discussed later in this post.
[7] Antoine-Yves Goguet, De l'origine des loix, des arts, et des sciences, Volume 1 (Paris: Desaint & Saillant, 1758), 274: "Sanchoniaton dit qu'Ousoüs, un des plus anciens héros de la Phéncie, s'étant saisi d'un arbre à demi-brûlé, en coupla les branches, & eut le premier la hardiesse de s'exposer sur les eau."
[8] Marcus Vitruvius Pollo, On Architecture, Book II, Bill Thayer, trans., http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/2*.html, Accessed 21 May 2011. The entire passage reads: "Mankind originally brought forth like the beasts of the field, in woods, dens, and groves, passed their lives in a savage manner, eating the simple food which nature afforded. A tempest, on a certain occasion, having exceedingly agitated the trees in a particular spot, the friction between some of the branches caused them to take fire; this so alarmed those in the neighbourhood of the accident, that they betook themselves to flight. Returning to the spot after the tempest had subsided, and finding the warmth which had thus been created extremely comfortable, they added fuel to the fire excited, in order to preserve the heat, and then went forth to invite others, by signs and gestures, to come and witness the discovery. In the concourse that thus took place, they testified their different opinions and expressions by different inflexions of the voice. From daily association words succeeded to these indefinite modes of speech; and these becoming by degrees the signs of certain objects, they began to join them together, and conversation became general." ("Homines veteri more ut ferae in silvis et speluncis et nemoribus nascebantur ciboque agresti vescendo vitam exigebant. interea quodam in loco ab tempestatibus et ventis densae crebritatibus arbores agitatae et inter se terentes ramos ignem excitaverunt, et eo flamma vehementi perterriti qui circa eum locum fuerunt sunt fugati. post ea re quieta propius accedentes cum animadvertissent commoditatem esse magnam corporibus ad ignis teporem, ligna adicientes et ita conservantes alios adducebant et nutu monstrantes ostendebant quas haberent ex eo utilitates. in eo hominum congressu cum profundebantur aliter spiritu voces, cotidiana consuetudine vocabula ut obtigerant constituerunt, deinde significando res saepius in usu ex eventu fari fortuito coeperunt et ita sermones inter se procreaverunt.")
[9] Goguet, De l'origine des loix, 274: "Aux radeaux auront succédé probablement les pyrogues, c'est-à-dire, des troncs des arbres creusés par le moyen de feu, comme le pratiquent encore les sauvages. Cette seconde sorte de bâtimens étoit & plus commode & plus sûre que les radeaux."
[10] Bâtiment could refer to either a large or small vessel. Dictionnaire de l'Académie française, 4th Edition (1762), http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/dicos/pubdico1look.pl?strippedhw=b%C3%A2timent, Accessed 22 May 2011. However, in Diderot's and D'Alembert's Encyclopedie, the authors take great pains to distinguish between buildings and ships, creating a separate category for bâtimens ("buildings"), bâtimens de marine (naval buildings such as arsenals), and bâtiment marine ("ships"). L'Encyclopedie, Volume II (1752), http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/L%E2%80%99Encyclop%C3%A9die/Volume_2#BATIMENT, Accessed 22 May 2011.
[11] Le Roy, La marine des anciens peuples, 189, b: "Vitruve, parlant, comme Sanchoniaton, de l'origine des Arts, dit: Homines veteri more, ut ferae, in silvis & speluncis & nemoribus nascebantur, ciboque agresti vescendo, vitam exigebant. Interea quodam in loco ab tempestatibus & ventis densae crebritatibus arbores agitatae, & inter se terentes ramos, ignem excitaverunt. Vitr. lib. II, cap. I."
[12] For more on Le Roy's work for the French Navy, see: Kisacky, "History and Science," 278-280; Robin Middleton, "Introduction," in Julien-David Le Roy, The Ruins of the Most Beautiful of Greece, Historically and Architecturally Considered, 130; and Sylviane Llinares, "Marine et anticomanie au xviiie siècle: les avatars de l'archéologie expérimentale en vraie grandeur," Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest, Vol. 2, No. 115-2 (2008), 67-84.
[13] Le Roy, Lettres à M. Franklin: sur la marine, et particuliérement sur la possibilité de rendre Paris port; précédés de recherches sur les moyens d'y prévenir la disette des grains (Paris, 1790).
[14] Le Roy, Nouvelles recherches sur le vaisseau long des anciens, sur les voiles latines, et sur les moyens de diminuer les dangers que courent les navigateurs (Paris, 1786). This text also details some of his correspondence with Franklin; Le Roy, Canaux de la Manche, indiqués pour ouvrir a Paris deux débouchés a la mer (Paris: Stoupe, 1801).
[15] This account is taken from Ivan Ray Tannehill, Hurricanes: Their Nature and History: Particularly Those of the West Indies and the Southern Coasts of the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945).
[16] Ibid., p. 205.
[17]Vice-Admiral Georges Charles Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885, dans le Golfe d'Aden," in Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Annales hydrographiques: Recueil d'avis, instructions, documents et mémoires relatifs à l'hydrographie et la navigation, Vol. 2, No. 8 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1886), 44.
[18] The first version appeared in the April 1886 issue of Revue maritime et coloniale; the second as Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885 dans le Golfe d'Aden (second mémoire)" Revue maritime et coloniale, Vol. 93 (Paris: Librarie Militaire de L. Badouin et cie, 1887), 177-214.
[19] The Coriolis effect is named after the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis (1792-1843), who outlined the contours of this theory in Coriolis, "Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps," Journal de l'Ecole royale polytechnique, Vol. 15, No. 24 (1835), 142-154.
[20] Ibid., p. 106: "Tout est excessif dans un ouragan: l'état électrique, la mer entièrement bouleversée; le vent, le vent surtout, irrésistible, épouvantable! J'en puis parler, car je suis un témoin d'un de ces grands et dangereux météores, et les quelques détails que je vais donner sur un événement déjà vieux de trente-neuf ans ne sont pas hors de propos."
[21] For more on Bertand's erroneous calcuations, see Anders O. Persson, "The Coriolis Effect: Four Centuries of Conflict Between Common Sense and Mathematics: Part 1: A History to 1885," History of Meteorology, Vol. 2 (2005), 1-24.
[22] Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885, dans le Golfe d'Aden," 103: "La masse de nuages orageux se consommant sans se renouveler, l'ouragan a peut-être pris fin comme une simple trombe?" This quote also appears in David Membery, "Monsoon Tropical Cyclones: Part 2," Weather, Vol. 57, No. 7 (Jul., 2002), 248.
[23] For more on "lines of force," see Michael Faraday, Experimental Researches in Electricity (London: Taylor, 1839).
[24] Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885 dans le Golfe d'Aden (second mémoire)," 199: "A priori, nous pensons que lorsqu'un cyclone s'engage dans un bras de mer relativement étroit, il tend à suivre la ligne de moindre résistance, aussi, il ne nous parait pas possible d'admettre que ce grand tourbillon ait pu changer quatre fois de direction, dans un espace relativement peu étendu, et ce soit promené ainsi d'un côté à l'autre du golfe."
[25] For more about the relation between precision and meteorology in 19th century Germany, see Theodore S. Feldman, "Late Enlightenment Meteorology," in Tore Frängsmayr, J.L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, eds. The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 143-177. Here, Feldman argues how political events of the late 18th century interrupted the project of quantifying weather. This would set the stage for the more systemic, "globalist" approaches to meteorology perfected by Alexander von Humboldt. Focusing on the work of German physicist and meteorologist H.W. Dove, M. Norton Wise situates the desire to quantify weather within a larger series of contexts, including not only relations between scientists and an emerging maufacturing sector, but also the advent of locomotive and wireless technologies. Wise, "Precision: Agent of Unity and Product of Agreement Part II—The Age of Steam and Telegraphy," in Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 222-238.
[26] Cloué, "L'Ouragan de juin 1885 dans le Golfe d'Aden (second mémoire)," n.p.: "Les cercles indiquent la position et l'etendue du Cyclone, à midi et à minuit de chaque jour."
[27] Paul Saenger, Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), 69.
[28] Ibid., p. 66.
[29] Erwin Panofsky, Perspective as Symbolic Form, Christopher S. Wood, trans. (New York, New York: Zone Books, 1997), 27 (translation of "Die Perspektive als 'symbolische Form'," in Vorträge der Bibliothek Warburg, 1924-1925 [1927]).
[30] Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet), Candide, or Optimism (New York: Bantam, 2003 [1759]), 26.
[31] John Ruskin, The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century: Two Lectures Delivered at the London Institution, February 4th and 11th 1884 (Sunnyside, Orfington, Kent: George Allen, 1884), 43-44, 47-48.
[32] Robert Musil, The Man Without Qualities, Part I: A Sort of Introduction and Pseudoreality Prevails into the Millenium, Sophie Wilkins, trans. (New York: Knopf, 1995), 3.


text:
Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space. International lawyers have been unable to agree on a uniform definition of the term "outer space," although most lawyers agree that outer space generally begins at the lowest altitude above sea level at which objects can orbit the Earth, approximately 100 km (62 mi).
The inception of the field of space law began with the launch of the world's first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957. Named Sputnik 1, the satellite was launched as part of the International Geophysical Year. Since that time, space law has evolved and assumed more importance as humankind has increasingly come to use and rely on space-based resources.
Early developments
Beginning in 1957, nations began discussing systems to ensure the peaceful use of outer space.[1][2] Bilateral discussions between the United States and USSR in 1958 resulted in the presentation of issues to the UN for debate.[1][3][4] In 1959 the UN created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space(COPUOS).[5] COPUOS in turn created two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been a primary forum for discussion and negotiation of international agreements relating to outer space.
International treaties
Five international treaties have been negotiated and drafted in the COPUOS:
- The 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty").
- The 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement").
- The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention").
- The 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention").
- The 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon Treaty").
The Outer Space Treaty is the most widely-adopted treaty, with 98 parties. The Rescue Agreement, the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention all elaborate on provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. U.N. delegates apparently intended that the Moon Treaty serve as a new comprehensive treaty which would supersede or supplement the Outer Space Treaty, most notably by elaborating upon the Outer Space Treaty's provisions regarding resource appropriation and prohibition of territorial sovereignty. The Moon Treaty has only 13 parties, and many consider it to be a failed treaty due to its limited acceptance. India is the only nation that has both signed the Moon Treaty and declared itself interested in going to the moon. India has not ratified the treaty; an analysis of India's treaty law is required to understand how this affects India legally.
In addition, the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water ("Partial Test Ban Treaty") banned the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space.
The COPUOS operates on the basis of consensus, i.e. all committee and subcommittee delegates must agree on treaty language before it can be included in the final version of a treaty, and the committees cannot place new items on their agendas unless all member nations agree. One reason that the U.N. space treaties lack definitions and are unclear in other respects, is because it is easier to achieve consensus when language and terms are vague. In recent years, the COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been unable to achieve consensus on discussion of a new comprehensive space agreement, and it is also unlikely that the Subcommittee will be able to agree to amend the Outer Space Treaty in the foreseeable future. Many space faring nations seem to believe that discussing a new space agreement or amendment of the Outer Space Treaty would be futile and time consuming, because entrenched differences regarding resource appropriation, property rights and other issues relating to commercial activity make consensus unlikely.
1998 ISS agreement
In addition to the international treaties that have been negotiated at the United Nations, the nations participating in the International Space Station have entered into the 1998 Agreement among the governments of Canada, Member States of the European Space Agency, Japan, Russian Federation, and the United States of America concerning cooperation on the Civil International Space Station (the "Space Station Agreement"). This Agreement provides, among other things, that NASA is the lead agency in coordinating the member states' contributions to and activities on the space station, and that each nation has jurisdiction over its own module(s). The Agreement also provides for protection of intellectual property and procedures for criminal prosecution. This Agreement may very well serve as a model for future agreements regarding international cooperation in facilities on the Moon and Mars, where the first off-world colonies and scientific/industrial bases are likely to be established.
National law
Space law also encompasses national laws, and many countries have passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space Treaty requires parties to authorize and supervise national space activities, including the activities of non-governmental entities such as commercial and non-profit organizations. The Outer Space Treaty also incorporates the UN Charter by reference, and requires parties to ensure that activities are conducted in accordance with other forms of international law such as customary international law (the custom and practice of states).
The advent of commercial space activities beyond the scope of the satellite communications industry, and the development of many commercial spaceports, is leading many countries to consider how to regulate private space activities. The challenge is to regulate these activities in a manner that does not hinder or preclude investment, while still ensuring that commercial activities comply with international law. The developing nations are concerned that the space faring nations will monopolize space resources.
Geostationary orbit allocation
Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately 35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same longitude but differing latitudes). These disputes are addressed through the ITU allocation mechanism.[6] Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.[7] In 1976, countries located at the Earth's equator created the Bogota Declaration, in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.[8]
The future of space law
While this field of the law is still in its infancy, it is in an era of rapid change and development. Arguably the resources of space are infinite, and limited only by our ability to use them in a manner that is fair and equitable to all nations and which is environmentally ethical. If commercial space transportation becomes widely available, with substantially lower launch costs, then all countries will be able to directly reap the benefits of space resources. In that situation, it seems likely that consensus will be much easier to achieve with respect to commercial development and human settlement of outer space. High costs are not the only factor preventing the economic exploitation of space: it is argued that space should be considered as a pristine environment worthy of protection and conservation, and that the legal regime for space should further protect it from being used as a resource for Earth's needs.[9][10] Debate is also focused on whether space should continue to be legally defined as part of the "common heritage of man," and therefore unavailable for national claims, or whether its legal definition should be changed to allow private property in space.[11][9]
Michael Dodge, of Long Beach, Mississippi, is the first law school graduate to receive a space law certificate in the United States.[12][13] Dodge graduated from the National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law in 2008.[14][15]
The University of Sunderland is the first UK University to offer a space law module as part of its LLB programme.
The University of Nebraska College of Law offers the U.S.'s first and only LL.M. in space and telecommunications law.[16] Professor Frans von der Dunk, former Director of space law research at Leiden University joined the program in 2007. In addition to the LL.M., students can earn a J.D. at Nebraska Law with an emphasis in space and telecommunications law. The program also hosts three space and telecommunications conferences each yearhttp://spaceandtelecomlaw.unl.edu
See also
- Space archaeology, the law as related to preserving cultural heritage from space sites
- Metalaw
- Andrew G. Haley
- Ernst Fasan
- ^ a b inesap.org Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and International Law.
- ^ UN website UN Resolution 1148 (XII).
- ^ Google books Nuclear Weapons and Contemporary International Law N.Singh, E. WcWhinney (p.289)
- ^ UN website UN Resolution 1348 (XIII).
- ^ "United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space". United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.
- ^ http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/conferences/seminars/mexico-2001/docs/06-procedure-mechanism.doc
- ^ ESA – ECSL European Centre for Space Law – Geostationary Orbit. Legal issues
- ^ Thompson, J. (1996) Space for rent: the International Telecommunications Union, space law, and orbit/spectrum leasing, Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 62, 279-311
- ^ a b Billings, L. (2006) To the Moon, Mars, and beyond: culture, law, and ethics in space-faring societies, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 26(5), 430-437
- ^ Lee, K. (1994) Awe and humility: intrinsic value in nature – beyond an earthbound environmental ethics, in: Attfield, R. & Belsey, A. Philosophy and the Natural Environment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 89-101
- ^ Fountain, L. (2003) Creating the momentum in Space: ending the paralysis produced by the "Common Heritage of Man" doctrine, Connecticut Law Review, 35(4), 1753-1787
- ^ The Daily Mississippian: UM space law only of its kind
- ^ "Deccan Herald: Beyond the blue yonder". Archived from the original on 2009-05-07.
- ^ Space.com: First Space Lawyer Graduates – Posted May 8, 2008; Accessed May 13, 2008
- ^ Law Graduation Includes First-Time Certificate in Space Law, Newswise, May 8, 2008
- ^ http://spacelawprobe.blogspot.com/2007/09/nebraska-space-law-program-to-liftoff.html
External links
|Spaceflight lists and timelines
|General spaceflight
|All spaceflights (records) · Space exploration (milestones 1957–1969) · Rocket and missile technology
|Human spaceflight
|Solar Systemexploration
|Timeline · Probes (active · timeline · escaping) · Interplanetary flights · Landings on other planets (objects left) · Objects at Lagrangian points
|Earth observation satellites (timeline) · Communications satellite firsts · Cubesats · Geosynchronous · GOES · Kosmos · Magnetospheric · Climate · NRO ·TDRS · USA
|Spacecraft (uncrewed · crewed) · Launch systems · Small lift launch systems · Medium lift launch systems · Heavy lift launch systems ·Super-heavy lift launch systems · Sounding rockets · Upper stages
|Launches by rocket type
|Ariane · Atlas · Black Brant · Long March · Proton · R-7 · Thor & Delta · Titan · V-2 tests
|Agencies, companies, facilities
|Space agencies · Private Spaceflight Companies · Largest fixed satellite operators · Spacecraft manufacturers · Spaceports · Rocket launch sites
|Other mission lists and timelines
|Constellation missions · First orbital launches · NASA missions · Space Race
- International Institute of Space Law
- Res Communis — University of Mississippi National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law blog about air and space law developments
- Overview of space law (German) at the Foreign Office website
- International Space Law at the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs website
- Rose, Neil (2009-08-13). "Can you buy an acre of the Moon?". The Times (London).
Pasted from <http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Space+Law>
Related articles
- Did aliens really come to earth (wiki.answers.com)
- Fun life of first settlers in outer space (prophet666.com)
- From The Movies, Lessons On Privatizing Outer Space (npr.org)
- Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon, and Other Celestial Bodies (readyfortheshift.com)
- "Hacker Space Program" to be launched at 1500+ attendee camp near Berlin in Aug. (events.ccc.de)
- Is it illegal to destroy other planets (wiki.answers.com)
- Praying Toward Mecca … In Outer Space (npr.org)


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The child who is being evaluated for attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) may be evaluated for other disorders associated with the
condition, such as learning or behavior disorders. The child may be asked
questions (verbal tests) or may be given written tests to evaluate his or her
intellectual abilities.
The most common tests for intellectual abilities in children are:
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Tuesday, October 20, 2009
The Greatest Prime Minister Ever
Posted by James Curran at 10:25 PM
3 comments:
- Devin Johnston said...
So, by your logic, Margaret Thatcher is the greatest ever Prime Minister of th UK?
- Oct 21, 2009, 12:36:00 AM
- Bert said...
So then, who said, "his government had nothing to apologize for in seeking to reap maximum partisan political benefit from disbursing $1-billion worth of federal job grants across Canada each year."
Our "buddy", Jean Chretien
- Oct 22, 2009, 3:51:00 PM
- James Curran said...
Actually, I think very highly of the Iron Lady Devin.
And Bert, I think it's the Harper Government owning the Billion dollar partisan thing right now.
- Oct 22, 2009, 3:58:00 PM
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