text:
Manzanar is best known as the site of one of ten American concentration camps, where more than 120,000 Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II from December 1942 to 1945. Located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada in California's Owens Valley between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, it is approximately 230 miles (370 km) north of Los Angeles. Manzanar (which means "apple orchard" in Spanish) was identified by the United States National Park Service as the best-preserved of the former camp sites, and is now the Manzanar National Historic Site, which preserves and interprets the legacy of Japanese American incarceration in the United States.[8]
Manzanar War Relocation Center
A hot windstorm brings dust from the surrounding desert, July 3, 1942
|Inyo County, California
|Nearest city
|Independence, California
|36°43′42″N 118°9′16″W / 36.72833°N 118.15444°WCoordinates: 36°43′42″N 118°9′16″W / 36.72833°N 118.15444°W
|814 acres (329 ha)
|105,307[1] (2016)
|Manzanar National Historic Site
|NRHP reference #
|Significant dates
|Added to NRHP
|July 30, 1976[5]
|Designated NHL
|February 4, 1985[6]
|Designated NHS
|March 3, 1992[7]
|Designated CHISL
|Designated LAHCM
|September 15, 1976[4]
Long before the first of the Japanese American detainees[9][10] arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to Native Americans, who lived mostly in villages near several creeks in the area. Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910,[11] but it had been abandoned by 1929, after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area.[8] As different as these groups were, their histories displayed a common thread of forced relocation.
Since the last of those incarcerated left in 1945, former detainees and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a National Historic Site to ensure that the history of the site, along with the stories of those who were incarcerated there, is recorded for current and future generations. The primary focus is the Japanese American incarceration era,[12] as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site. The site also interprets the former town of Manzanar, the ranch days, the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute, and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley.[7][12]
- 1 Before World War II
- 2 Wartime: 1942–45
- 3 Preservation and remembrance
- 4 Terminology
- 5 In popular culture
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 Further reading
- 9 External links
Before World War IIEdit
Owens Valley PaiuteEdit
Manzanar was first inhabited by Native Americans nearly 10,000 years ago. Approximately 1,500 years ago, the area was settled by the Owens Valley Paiute,[8][13] who ranged across the Owens Valley from Long Valley on the north to Owens Lake on the south, and from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the west to the Inyo Mountains on the east.[14] Other Native American nations in the region included the Miwok, Western Mono, and Tubatulabal to the west, the Shoshone to the south and east, and the Mono Lake Paiute to the north.[14] The Owens Valley Paiute hunted and fished, collected pine nuts, and raised crops utilizing irrigation in the Manzanar area.[8][15] They also traded brown-ware pottery for salt from the Saline Valley, and traded other wares and goods across the Sierra Nevada during the summer and fall.[16]
The Owens Valley received scant attention from European Americans until the early 1860s, as it was little more than a crossroads on the routes through the area. When gold and silver were discovered in the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains, the resulting sudden influx of miners, farmers, cattlemen and their hungry herds brought conflict with the Owens Valley Paiute, whose crops were being destroyed.[17]
In this Trail of Tears, the U.S. Army was intentionally brutal.
"The Army didn't take them on a direct route, either, said Owens Valley Paiute elder Irene Button. "They were forced to walk all the way around the eastern shore of Owens Lake (covers an area of approximately 108 square miles (280 km2)).[18] They wanted to make sure that as many as possible would die before they reached Fort Tejon."[19]
Approximately one-third of the Native Americans in the Owens Valley were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon. After 1863, many returned to their permanent villages, established along creeks flowing down from the Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Manzanar area, the Owens Valley Paiute had established villages along Bairs, Georges, Shepherds, and Symmes creeks.[20] Evidence of Paiute settlement in the area is still present.
When European American settlers first arrived in the Owens Valley in the mid-19th century, they found a number of large Paiute villages in the Manzanar area.[21] John Shepherd, one of the first of the new settlers, homesteaded 160 acres (65 ha) of land 3 miles (5 km) north of Georges Creek in 1864. With the help of Owens Valley Paiute field workers and laborers,[22] he expanded his ranch to 2,000 acres (810 ha).[23]
In 1905, George Chaffey, an agricultural developer from Southern California, purchased Shepherd's ranch and subdivided it, along with other adjacent ranches. He founded the town of Manzanar in 1910,[11][24] "on the main trunk line of the Southern Pacific."[25] By August 1911, the town had a population of "almost 200 people."[26]
The articles of incorporation for a Manzanar Water Company were filed on September 15, 1910, with capital stock of $250,000. The incorporators, directors, and subscribers were G.A. Hanson, Isaac Baxter and C.E. Searls.[27]
In January 1911, the Inyo County Board of Supervisors approved an application by Chaffey's Owens Valley Improvement Company for a telephone line between Independence, Lone River, Owengo, Francis, Citrus and Manzanar.[28]
The company built an irrigation system over an area of a thousand acres and planted about twenty thousand fruit trees.[11][26]
Ira L. Hatfield was the town's first postmaster, appointed in May 1911.[29] The first post office was at Thebes, a town 1.5 miles away.[30]
In summer 1911, a "one and a half story building, 40x50" was erected at the corner of Francis and Independence avenues. The lower floor included a hall to be used "for public gatherings, church, Sunday-school and dancing." Four rooms were to be used for a company office, a barber shop and "other small lines of business." The upper floor was planned for "a good-sized hall to be used for lodge purposes."[30]
By 1920, the town had more than twenty-five homes, a two-room school, a town hall, and a general store.[24] Also at that time, nearly 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) of apple, pear, and peach trees were under cultivation; along with crops of grapes, prunes, potatoes, corn and alfalfa; and large vegetable and flower gardens.[11][32]
"Manzanar was a very happy place and a pleasant place to live during those years, with its peach, pear, and apple orchards, alfalfa fields, tree-lined country lanes, meadows and corn fields," said Martha Mills, who lived at Manzanar from 1916 to 1920.[33]
Some of the early orchards, along with remnants of the town and ranches, are still present at Manzanar today.[24]
Quenching Los Angeles' thirstEdit
As early as March 1905, the City of Los Angeles began secretly acquiring water rights in the Owens Valley.[34][35] In 1913, it completed construction of its 233-mile (375 km) Los Angeles Aqueduct,[36] But it did not take long for Los Angeles water officials to realize that Owens River water was insufficient to supply the rapidly growing metropolis. In 1920, they began to purchase more of the water rights on the Owens Valley floor. As the decade went on, the City of Los Angeles bought out one Owens Valley farmer after another, and extended its reach northward into Mono County, including Long Valley.[37] By 1933, the City owned 85 percent of all town property and 95 percent of all ranch and farm land in the Owens Valley, including Manzanar.[24]
Although some residents sold their land for prices that made them financially independent and relocated, a significant number chose to stay. In dry years, Los Angeles pumped ground water and drained all surface water, diverting all of it into its aqueduct and leaving Owens Valley ranchers without water.[38] Without water for irrigation, the holdout ranchers were forced off their ranches and out of their communities; that included the town of Manzanar, which was abandoned by 1929.[8]
There was so much water during those early years, that when a horse pulled a buggy, the water frequently came up to the horse's knees," said Lucille DeBoer, who lived on a ranch at Manzanar. "When this happened, the children took off their shoes and socks to walk home. In the early 1900s the City of Los Angeles started to purchase ranches in the Owens Valley for the sole purpose of supplying water to the people in Los Angeles. People started to sell their land to the City; the City put in wells to drain the water out of the ground; the trees began to die; and the land finally turned to vacant dirt. This ended the Land of the Big Red Apples"[32]
Manzanar remained uninhabited until the United States Army leased 6,200 acres (2,500 ha) from the City of Los Angeles for the Manzanar War Relocation Center.[8]
Wartime: 1942–45Edit
After the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States Government swiftly moved to begin solving the "Japanese Problem" on the West Coast of the United States.[39] In the evening hours of that same day, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested selected "enemy" aliens, including more than 5,500 Issei men.[40] The California government pressed the national government to take action, as many citizens were alarmed about potential activities by people of Japanese descent.
On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the Secretary of War to designate military commanders to prescribe military areas and to exclude "any or all persons" from such areas. The order also authorized the construction of what were later called "relocation centers" by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), to house those who were to be excluded.[41] This order resulted in the forced relocation of more than 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were native-born American citizens; the rest had been prevented from becoming citizens by federal law.[42][43] Over 110,000 were incarcerated in the ten concentration camps located far inland and away from the coast.[40]
Manzanar was the first of the ten concentration camps to be established.[44] Initially, it was a temporary "reception center", known as the Owens Valley Reception Center from March 21, 1942, to May 31, 1942.[44] At that time, it was operated by the US Army's Wartime Civilian Control Administration (WCCA).[45]
The Owens Valley Reception Center was transferred to the WRA on June 1, 1942, and officially became the "Manzanar War Relocation Center." The first Japanese Americans to arrive at Manzanar were volunteers who helped build the camp. By mid–April, up to 1,000 Japanese Americans were arriving daily, and by July, the population of the camp neared 10,000.[46] Over 90 percent of them were from the Los Angeles area, with the rest coming from Stockton, California; and Bainbridge Island, Washington.[46] Many were farmers and fishermen. Manzanar held 10,046 adults and children at its peak, and a total of 11,070 were incarcerated there.[8]
The weather at Manzanar caused suffering for the inmates, few of whom were accustomed to the extremes of the area's climate. The temporary buildings were inadequate to shield people from the weather. The Owens Valley lies at an elevation of about 4,000 feet (1,200 m).[47] Summers on the desert floor of the Owens Valley are generally hot, with temperatures exceeding 100 °F (38 °C) not uncommon.[47] Winters bring occasional snowfall and daytime temperatures that often drop into the 40 °F (4 °C) range.[47] At night, temperatures are generally 30 to 40 °F (17 to 22 °C) lower than the daytime highs, and high winds are common day or night.[45][47] The area's mean annual precipitation is barely five inches (12.7 cm). The ever-present dust was a continual problem due to the frequent high winds; so much so that people usually woke up in the morning covered from head to toe with a fine layer of dust, and they constantly had to sweep dirt out of the barracks.[48]
"In the summer, the heat was unbearable," said former Manzanar inmate Ralph Lazo (see Notable people section, below). "In the winter, the sparsely rationed oil didn't adequately heat the tar paper-covered pine barracks with knotholes in the floor. The wind would blow so hard, it would toss rocks around."[49]
Camp layout and facilitiesEdit
The camp site was situated on 6,200 acres (2,500 ha) at Manzanar, leased from the City of Los Angeles,[8] with the developed portion covering approximately 540 acres (220 ha).[50] The residential area was about one square mile (2.6 km2), and consisted of 36 blocks of hastily constructed,[51] 20-foot (6.1 m) by 100-foot (30 m) tarpaper barracks, with each family living in a single 20-foot (6.1 m) by 25-foot (7.6 m) "apartment" in the barracks. These apartments consisted of partitions with no ceilings, eliminating any chance of privacy.[52][53] Lack of privacy was a major problem, especially since the camp had communal men's and women's latrines.[52][53]
"One of the hardest things to endure was the communal latrines, with no partitions; and showers with no stalls," said former Manzanar inmate Rosie Kakuuchi.[51]
Each residential block also had a communal mess hall, a laundry room, a recreation hall, an ironing room, and a heating oil storage tank, although Block 33 lacked a recreation hall.[53] In addition to the residential blocks, Manzanar had 34 additional blocks that had staff housing, camp administration offices, two warehouses, a garage, a camp hospital, and 24 firebreaks.[50] The camp also had school facilities, a high-school auditorium, staff housing, chicken and hog farms, churches, a cemetery, a post office, a cooperative store, other shops, a camp newspaper, and other necessary amenities that one would expect to find in most American cities.[52]
Manzanar also had a camouflage net factory, an experimental plantation for producing natural rubber from the Guayule plant, and an orphanage called Children's Village, which housed 101 Japanese American orphans.[52][54] The camp perimeter had eight watchtowers manned by armed Military Police, and it was enclosed by five-strand barbed wire. There were sentry posts at the main entrance.[50][52]
Life in campEdit
After being uprooted from their homes and communities, the incarcerated people had to endure primitive, sub-standard conditions[51] and lack of privacy. They had to wait in one line after another for meals, at latrines, and at the laundry room.[55] Each camp was intended to be self-sufficient, and Manzanar was no exception. Cooperatives operated various services, such as the camp newspaper,[56][57][58] beauty and barber shops, shoe repair, and more.[55] In addition, there were some who raised chickens, hogs, and vegetables, and cultivated the existing orchards for fruit.[55] They made their own soy sauce and tofu.[55]
Food at Manzanar was based on military requirements. Meals usually consisted of hot rice and vegetables, since meat was scarce due to rationing.[55] In early 1944, a chicken ranch began operation, and in late April of the same year, the camp opened a hog farm. Both operations provided welcome meat supplements to the diet.[59]
Most of the adults were employed at Manzanar to keep the camp running. Unskilled workers earned US$8 per month ($122.7 per month as of 2019), semi-skilled workers earned $12 per month ($184 per month as of 2019), skilled workers made $16 per month ($245 per month as of 2019), and professionals earned $19 per month ($291 per month as of 2019). In addition, everybody received $3.60 per month ($55 per month as of 2019) as a clothing allowance.[55]
People made life at Manzanar more tolerable through recreation. They participated in sports, including baseball and football, and martial arts.[48] Lou Frizzell served as the musical director, and under his mentorship Mary Nomura became known as the "songbird of Manzanar" for her performances at dances and other camp events.[60] They also personalized and beautified their barren surroundings by building elaborate gardens, which often included pools, waterfalls, and rock ornaments. There was even a nine-hole golf course.[55][61] Remnants of some of the gardens, pools, and rock ornaments are still present at Manzanar.
Although most quietly accepted their fate during World War II, there was some resistance in the camps. Poston, Heart Mountain, Topaz, and Tule Lake each had civil disturbances about wage differences, black marketing of sugar, intergenerational friction, rumors of "informers" reporting to the camp administration or the FBI, and other issues.[48] The most serious incident occurred at Manzanar on December 5–6, 1942, and became known as the Manzanar Riot.[62]
After several months of tension between those who supported the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) and a group of Kibei (Japanese Americans educated in Japan), rumors spread that sugar and meat shortages were the result of black marketing by camp administrators.[48] To make matters worse, JACL leader Fred Tayama was beaten by six masked men. Harry Ueno, the leader of the Kitchen Workers Union, was suspected of involvement and was arrested and removed from Manzanar.[62] Soon after, 3,000 to 4,000 people gathered and marched to the administration area, protesting Ueno's arrest. After Ueno's supporters negotiated with the camp administration, he was returned to the Manzanar jail.[62] A crowd of several hundred returned to protest, and when the people surged forward, military police threw tear gas to disperse them. As people ran to avoid the tear gas, some in the crowd pushed a driverless truck toward the jail. At that moment, the military police fired into the crowd, killing a 17-year–old boy instantly. A 21-year–old man who was shot in the abdomen died days later. Nine other prisoners were wounded, and a military police corporal was wounded by a ricocheting bullet.[48][63]
On November 21, 1945, the WRA closed Manzanar, the sixth camp to be closed. Although the Japanese Americans had been brought to the Owens Valley by the United States Government, they had to leave the camp and travel to their next destinations on their own.[62][64] The WRA gave each person $25 ($348 today), one-way train or bus fare, and meals to those who had less than $600 ($8,350 today).[64] While many left the camp voluntarily, a significant number refused to leave because they had no place to go after having lost everything when they were forcibly uprooted and removed from their homes. As such, they had to be forcibly removed once again, this time from Manzanar. Indeed, those who refused to leave were generally removed from their barracks, sometimes by force, even if they had no place to go.[64]
One hundred and forty-six Japanese Americans died at Manzanar.[65] Fifteen were buried there, but only five graves remain, as most were reburied elsewhere by their families.[66]
The Manzanar cemetery site is marked by a monument that was built by stonemason Ryozo Kado in 1943.[67] An inscription in Japanese on the front (east side) of the monument reads 慰霊塔 ("Soul Consoling Tower").[65] The inscription on the back (west side) reads "Erected by the Manzanar Japanese" on the left-hand column, and "August 1943" on the right-hand column.[65] Today, the monument is often draped in strings of origami, and sometimes survivors and other visitors leave offerings of personal items as mementos. The National Park Service periodically collects and catalogues such items.
After the camp was closed, the site eventually returned to its original state. Within a couple of years, all the structures had been removed, with the exception of the two sentry posts at the entrance, the cemetery monument, and the former Manzanar High School auditorium, which was purchased by the County of Inyo. The County leased the auditorium to the Independence Veterans of Foreign Wars, who used it as a meeting facility and community theater until 1951. After that, the building was used as a maintenance facility by the Inyo County Road Department.[62][68]
As of 2007, the site also retained numerous building foundations, portions of the water and sewer systems, the outline of the road grid, some landscaping, and much more.[68] Despite four years of use, the site also retains evidence of the ranches and of the town of Manzanar, as well as artifacts from the days of the Owens Valley Paiute settlement.[2][69]
Notable peopleEdit
- Sue Kunitomi Embrey, born on January 6, 1923, was an editor of the Manzanar Free Press, the camp newspaper, and wove camouflage nets to support the war effort. She left Manzanar in late 1943 for Madison, Wisconsin and one year later moved to Chicago, Illinois. Returning to California in 1948, she went on to become a schoolteacher and a labor and community activist.[70] In 1969, Embrey was one of approximately 150 people who attended the first organized Manzanar Pilgrimage (see Manzanar Pilgrimage section, below) and was one of the founders of the annual event. She also went on to become the primary force behind the preservation of the site and its gaining National Historic Site status until her death in May 2006.[70][71]
'Embrey took her pain and anger from the unjust internment and turned it into a life dedicated to making certain that would never happen again,' said Rose Ochi, legal counsel for the Manzanar Committee, after Embrey died on May 15, 2006. 'She was just tireless and as a teacher she was making certain that our history books did talk about the tragic episode.'[71]
'The reason [that the Manzanar National Historic Site has] been accepted by Japanese Americans, local Owens Valley residents and general visitors is in large part because of [Embrey's] knowledge and her personal experience,' said Alisa Lynch, Chief of Interpretation, Manzanar National Historic Site. 'She had the insight to help us be able to be truthful, to be accurate. She was a historian and an internee, she could wear many different hats.'[71]
- Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga, born in 1925 in Los Angeles, was 17 years old when she was incarcerated at Manzanar. Later, she was incarcerated at Jerome and Rohwer, Arkansas.[72] Yoshinaga-Herzig later moved to New York, where she became a community activist in the 1960s and was a member of Asian Americans for Action (AAA), the first Asian American political organization on the East Coast. It included Asian American activists Bill and Yuri Kochiyama.[72] Although she was not trained to be an archival researcher, Yoshinaga-Herzig decided to find out what historical documents about her and her family might exist at the National Archives.[72]
- Herzig-Yoshinaga and her husband, John "Jack" Herzig, pored over mountains of documents from the War Relocation Authority, a task that "was roughly equivalent to indexing all the information in a library, working from a card catalog that only gave a subject description by shelf, without giving individual book titles or authors."[72] Their efforts resulted in the discovery of evidence that the US Government perjured itself before the United States Supreme Court in the 1944 cases Korematsu v. United States, Hirabayashi v. United States, and Yasui v. United States which challenged the constitutionality of the relocation and incarceration. The government had presented falsified evidence to the Court, destroyed evidence, and had withheld other vital information.[73] This evidence provided the legal basis Japanese Americans needed to seek redress and reparations for their wartime imprisonment. The Herzigs' research was also valuable in their work with the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR), which filed a class-action lawsuit against the US Government on behalf of the incarcerated people. The US Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiff.[72]
- Henry Fukuhara, who was born in Fruitland, California, in 1913, was incarcerated with his family in April 1942.[74] An artist and watercolorist, Fukuhara would later teach a series of annual artistic workshops at Manzanar beginning in 1998.[74] His workshops, which usually had about 80 students a year, including Milford Zornes, used outdoor structures at Manzanar to teach water color painting.[74]
- William Hohri (1927–2010),[75] was incarcerated at Manzanar when he was 15 years old. His family entered Manzanar on April 3, 1942, and remained behind the barbed wire until August 25, 1945.[76] Hohri became a civil rights and anti-war activist after World War II. In the late 1970s he became the chair of the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR), which brought a class action lawsuit against the US Government on March 16, 1983, asserting that it had unjustly incarcerated Japanese Americans during World War II.[77] The lawsuit stated 22 causes of action, including fifteen alleged violations of constitutional rights, and sought $27 billion in damages.[78] Despite the fact the US Supreme Court eventually ruled against the class action plaintiffs, the lawsuit helped bring the Japanese American case for redress and reparations to public awareness. It showed the Congress and the Executive Branch that the US Government would have far greater exposure in the still-pending lawsuit than by legislation under consideration in Congress for reparations. The proposed bill called for $20,000 reparations payments to each former inmate or their immediate relatives, along with money for a civil liberties education fund (see Civil Liberties Act of 1988).[79][80][75]
...(The class action lawsuit) remained active until after Congress had passed the redress legislation. While it remained alive, it played a significant part in publicizing the issues. The NCJAR lawsuit demanded $220,000 for each individual whose liberties had been denied. This was more than 20 times greater than the $20,000 per surviving incarcerated person that the redress bills proposed, allowing proponents to portray the legislative solution as a moderate alternative.[72]
- Ralph Lazo, born in 1924 in Los Angeles, was of Mexican American and Irish American descent, but when at age 16 he learned that his Japanese American friends and neighbors were being forcibly removed and incarcerated at Manzanar, he was outraged.[49] Lazo was so incensed that he joined friends on a train that took hundreds to Manzanar in May 1942.[81] Manzanar officials never asked him about his ancestry.[82]
"Internment was immoral," Lazo told the Los Angeles Times. "It was wrong, and I couldn't accept it."[49] "These people hadn't done anything that I hadn't done except to go to Japanese language school."[83]
In 1944, Lazo was elected president of his class at Manzanar High School.[49] He remained at Manzanar until August of that year, when he was inducted into the US Army.[49] He served as a Staff Sergeant in the South Pacific until 1946, helping liberate the Philippines. Lazo was awarded the Bronze Star for heroism in combat.[49] After the war, he was a strong supporter of redress and reparations for Japanese Americans incarcerated during the war.[83] The film Stand Up for Justice: The Ralph Lazo Story documents his life story, particularly his stand against the incarceration.[84]
- Toyo Miyatake, who was born in Kagawa, Shikoku, Japan, in 1896, immigrated to the United States in 1909. He settled in the Little Tokyo section of Los Angeles, and was incarcerated at Manzanar along with his family. A photographer, Miyatake smuggled a lens and film holder into Manzanar and later had a craftsman construct a wooden box with a door that hid the lens. He took many now-famous photos of life and the conditions at Manzanar. His contraband camera was eventually discovered by the camp administration and confiscated. However, camp director Ralph Merritt later allowed Miyatake to photograph freely within the camp, even though he was not allowed to actually press the shutter button, requiring a guard or camp official to perform this simple task. Merritt finally saw no point to this technicality, and allowed Miyatake to take photos.[85]
- Togo Tanaka (1916–2009), editor of the Rafu Shimpo newspaper, was sent to the Manzanar, where he used his journalism experience to document conditions in the camp. A supporter of cooperation with the authorities, he was labeled a collaborator and was transferred to Death Valley after being the target of riots before the first anniversary of Pearl Harbor.[86]
- Harry Ueno, born in Hawaii in 1907, was a Kibei (native-born Japanese American educated in Japan) who was incarcerated at Manzanar with his wife and children.[87] After volunteering for mess hall work, Ueno discovered that Manzanar camp staff were stealing rationed sugar and meat and selling them on the black market.[87][88] Ueno exposed the thefts, and worked to organize the incarcerated people to deal with them.[89] This led to his arrest, which resulted in Ueno becoming the focal point of the Manzanar Riot.[87][90] Ueno was one of the inmates featured in Emiko Omori's Emmy Award-winning film Rabbit in the Moon.[91]
"Ueno made us aware there was opposition in the camps," said Omori. "He made us feel that people did fight back and made us realize that one person can make a difference."[92]
- Karl Yoneda was born in Glendale, California, on July 15, 1906, but his family moved back to Japan in 1913.[93][94] He became an activist early in his life.[93] With Japan on a path towards war, Yoneda returned to the United States rather than be drafted into the Japanese Army.[93] He arrived in San Francisco on December 14, 1926. He was taken to the Immigration Detention House on Angel Island, where he was detained for two months, despite having his California birth certificate.[94] Yoneda later moved to Los Angeles, where he found work organizing with the Trade Union Educational League, and later the Japanese Workers' Association.[93] Yoneda arrived at Manzanar on March 22, 1942, one of the first Japanese Americans to arrive as a volunteer to build the camp.[95] Yoneda later distinguished himself in service to the US, volunteering to serve in the Military Intelligence Service.[96] After the war, Yoneda continued to support progressive causes and civil and human rights issues.[93]
Other notables at Manzanar were: Koji Ariyoshi, Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston, Isao Kikuchi, Tura Satana, Gordon H. Sato, Gary Shimokawa, Tak Shindo, Larry Shinoda, Iwao Takamoto, Takuji Yamashita and Wendy Yoshimura.
Preservation and remembranceEdit
Manzanar PilgrimageEdit
On December 21, 1969, about 150 people departed Los Angeles by car and bus, headed for Manzanar.[97] It was the "first" annual Manzanar Pilgrimage. But as it turned out, two ministers, the Reverend Sentoku Mayeda and the Reverend Shoichi Wakahiro, had been making annual pilgrimages to Manzanar since the camp closed in 1945.[97]
The non-profit Manzanar Committee, formerly led by Sue Kunitomi Embrey, has sponsored the Pilgrimage since 1969. The event is held annually on the last Saturday of April[97] with hundreds of visitors of all ages and backgrounds, including former inmates, gathering at the Manzanar cemetery to remember the incarceration. The hope is that participants can learn about it and help ensure that what is generally accepted to be a tragic chapter in American History is neither forgotten nor repeated. The program traditionally consists of speakers, cultural performances, an interfaith service to memorialize those who died at Manzanar, and Ondo dancing.[98]
"My mother was a very staunch Buddhist and she would always say, 'Those poor people that are buried over there at Manzanar in the hot sun—they must be so dry. Be sure to take some water [as offerings],'" said Embrey. "She always thought it was important to go back and remember the people who had died."[99]
In 1997, the Manzanar At Dusk program became a part of the Pilgrimage.[100] The program attracts local area residents, as well as descendants of Manzanar's ranch days and the town of Manzanar. Through small-group discussions, the event gives participants the opportunity to hear directly from those who had been there and to talk about the relevance of what had happened at Manzanar to their own lives.[101]
Since the September 11 attacks, American Muslims have participated in the Pilgrimage to promote and increase awareness of civil rights protections in the wake of widespread suspicions harbored against them post-9/11.[102][103]
California Historical Landmark and Los Angeles Historic-Cultural MonumentEdit
The Manzanar Committee's efforts resulted in the State of California naming Manzanar as California Historical Landmark #850 in 1972, with an historical marker being placed at the sentry post on April 14, 1973.[2][104]
Manzanar, which had been historically owned by the City of Los Angeles, was registered as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument in 1976.[4]
National Historic Landmark and National Historic SiteEdit
The Manzanar Committee also spearheaded efforts for Manzanar to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and in February 1985, Manzanar was designated a National Historic Landmark.[2][6][105] Embrey and the Committee also led the effort to have Manzanar designated a National Historic Site, and on March 3, 1992, President George H. W. Bush signed House Resolution 543 into law (Pub.L. 102–248; 106 Stat. 40). This act of Congress established the Manzanar National Historic Site "to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II."[7][106] Five years later, the National Park Service acquired 814 acres (329 ha) of land at Manzanar from the City of Los Angeles.[106]
The site features a visitor center, housed in the historically restored Manzanar High School Auditorium, which has a permanent exhibit that tells the stories of the transportation to Manzanar, the Owens Valley Paiute, the ranchers, the town of Manzanar, and water in the Owens Valley.[107][108]
"Stories like this need to be told, and too many of us have died without telling our stories," Embrey said during her remarks at the Grand Opening ceremonies for the Manzanar National Historic Site Interpretive Center on April 24, 2004. "The Interpretive Center is important because it needs to show to the world that America is strong as it makes amends for the wrongs it has committed, and that we will always remember Manzanar because of that."[71]
The site, which has seen 1,275,195 people visit from 2000 through December 2016,[1] features restored sentry posts at the camp entrance, a replica of a camp guard tower built in 2005,[109] a self-guided tour road, and wayside exhibits.[110] Staff offer guided tours and other educational programs,[111] including a Junior Ranger educational program for children between four and fifteen years of age.[112]
The National Park Service is reconstructing one of the 36 residential blocks as a demonstration block (Block 14, adjacent to and west of the Visitor Center). One barrack appears as it would have when Japanese Americans first arrived at Manzanar in 1942, while another has been reconstructed to represent barracks life in 1945. Exhibits in these barracks opened on April 16, 2015. A restored World War II mess hall, moved to the site from Bishop Airport in 2002, was opened to visitors in late 2010.[113]
In late 2008, historically appropriate vegetation was planted near the Visitor Center. The Manzanar National Historic Site also unveiled its virtual museum on May 17, 2010,[114]
National Park Service staff have continued to uncover artifacts from throughout Manzanar's history, the result of archaeological digs that have also excavated several of the gardens designed and built there, including the noted Merritt Park (also known as Pleasure Park).[115] In progress is a classroom exhibit that will be housed in the Block 9 barracks[116] and an historic replica of the Block 9 women's latrine (opened in October 2016, but with no interpretive exhibit materials at this time).[117]
Opposition to the creation of the Manzanar National Historic SiteEdit
After Congress named Manzanar a National Historic Site and gave the National Park Service the job of restoring the site in 1992, protests against its creation emerged. Letters flooded the National Park Service, demanding that Manzanar be portrayed as a guest housing center for the Japanese Americans.[118] William Hastings, of Bishop, California, wrote to the National Park Service, saying that the portrayal of Manzanar as a concentration camp amounts to "treason."[118] Protesters threatened to start dismissal campaigns against Bill Michael, a member of the Manzanar Advisory Commission who was the Director of the Eastern California Museum in Independence, California, and Superintendent Ross Hopkins, the National Park Service employee assigned to the site.[118] They also threatened to destroy any buildings erected or restored at Manzanar.[119] Further, Lillian Baker, and others in California, objected to the words "concentration camp" on the California State historical marker,[119] which has been hacked and stained, with the first "C" of "concentration camp" having been ground off.[119] Further, a man, who described himself as a World War II veteran, called Hopkins to say that he had driven 200 miles to urinate on the marker.[119]
Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar, and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents, were incarcerated by the United States Government during the war.[120][121][122] Manzanar has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," "internment camp," and "concentration camp".[9]
In 1998, use of the term "concentration camps" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at Ellis Island. Initially, the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and the National Park Service, which manages Ellis Island, objected to the use of the term in the exhibit.[123] However, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City, leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term.[124] After the meeting, the Japanese American National Museum and the AJC issued a joint statement (which was included in the exhibit) that read in part:
A concentration camp is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they have committed, but simply because of who they are. Although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history, the term 'concentration camp' was first used at the turn of the [20th] century in the Spanish American and Boer Wars. During World War II, America's concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from Nazi Germany's. Nazi camps were places of torture, barbarous medical experiments and summary executions; some were extermination centers with gas chambers. .[125][126]
In popular cultureEdit
A made-for-television movie, Farewell to Manzanar, directed by John Korty, aired on March 11, 1976, on NBC. It was based on the 1973 memoir of the same name, written by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston, who was incarcerated at Manzanar as a child, and her husband James D. Houston. The book and the movie tell the story of the Wakatsuki family and their experiences behind the barbed wire through young Jeanne's eyes.[127][128] On October 7, 2011, the Japanese American National Museum (JANM) announced that they had negotiated the rights to the movie, and that they would make it available for purchase on DVD.[129][130]
Come See The Paradise was a feature film about how forced removal and incarceration at Manzanar affected a Japanese American family from Los Angeles and a European American union organizer. The film, released in 1990, starred Dennis Quaid and Tamlyn Tomita, and was written and directed by Alan Parker.[131]
Folk/country musician Tom Russell wrote "Manzanar", a song about the Japanese American Incarceration, that was released on his album Box of Visions (1993).[132] Laurie Lewis covered the song on her album Seeing Things (1998), adding the Japanese string instrument, the koto, to her performance.[133]
The 1994 award-winning novel, Snow Falling on Cedars by David Guterson, contains many scenes and details relating to Japanese Americans from the Puget Sound, Washington, area and their incarceration experiences at Manzanar.[134][135] The 1999 film based on the book also details that connection.
The Asian American jazz fusion band Hiroshima has a song entitled "Manzanar" on its album The Bridge (2003). It is an instrumental song inspired by Manzanar and the Japanese American incarceration.[136] Also, its song "Living In America", on its album titled East (1990), contains the phrase "I still remember Manzanar."
Fort Minor's song "Kenji", from the album The Rising Tied (2005), tells the true story of Mike Shinoda's family and their experiences before, during, and after World War II, including their imprisonment at Manzanar.[137]
Channel 3's song titled "Manzanar" is about the incarceration.[138]
In the 1984 movie The Karate Kid, Daniel reads the letter which informed Mr. Miyagi of the death of his wife and son during child birth on November 2, 1944, while in the Manzanar Relocation Camp. Mr. Miyagi was fighting for the US against the Germans in Europe when he received the news.[139]
A 2007 episode of the CBS television crime drama Cold Case, titled "Family 8108", dealt with the 1945 murder of a Japanese American man in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania after he and his family were released from Manzanar. The episode originally aired on December 9, 2007.[140]
Episode 253 of 99% Invisible, which aired March 2017, focused on Manzanar.[141]
See alsoEdit
- Three Farewells to Manzanar (details below)
- ^ a b "Manzanar NHS". National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
- ^ a b c d Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar. Manzanar Committee. 1998. p. 19.
- ^ "California Historical Landmarks – Inyo County". California State Parks, Office of Historical Preservation, State of California. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
- ^ a b "Historic-Cultural Monument (HCM) List: City Declared Monuments" (PDF). City of Los Angeles, Office of Historical Resources, Cultural Heritage Commission. July 22, 2013. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
- ^ "Manzanar National Historic Site: Park Statistics (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
- ^ a b "National Historic Landmarks Program – National Park Service: Listing of National Historic Landmarks by State" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
- ^ a b c "THOMAS (Library of Congress) HR 543". 1992-03-03. Retrieved 2013-02-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Manzanar National Historic Site: History & Culture (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
- ^ a b Herzig-Yoshinaga, Aiko (March 4, 2010). "Words Can Lie Or Clarify: Terminology Of The World War II Incarceration Of Japanese Americans" (PDF). ManzanarCommittee.org. Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga (self-published). Retrieved October 11, 2019.
- ^ National JACL Power of Words II Committee (April 27, 2013). "Power of Words Handbook: A Guide to Language about Japanese Americans in World War II - Understanding Euphemisms and Preferred Terminology" (PDF). Retrieved October 11, 2019.
- ^ a b c d "Manzanar National Historic Site – Orchard Community (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved July 26, 2007.
- ^ a b National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior (August 1996). Manzanar National Historic Site: General Management Plan and Environmental Statement. National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. pp. 13–16.
- ^ Steward, Julian H (1933). "Ethnography Of The Owens Valley Paiute" (PDF). University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 33 (3): 233–250. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
- ^ a b Burton, Jeffery F. (1996). Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14. Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. p. 151. Publications in Anthropology 67.
- ^ "Manzanar National Historic Site – Owens Valley Paiute (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved July 26, 2007.
- ^ Burton. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14. p. 155.
- ^ "California and the Indian Wars: The Owens Valley Indian War, 1861–1865". The California Military Museum. 1979. Retrieved April 23, 2007.
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- ^ Van Horn, Lawrence F. (1995). Native American Consultations and Ethnographic Assessment: The Paiutes and Shoshones of Owens Valley, California. Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, Denver Service Center. pp. 3–4.
- ^ Burton. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14. p. 2.
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- ^ Burton. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14. pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b c d Burton. Three Farewells To Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Part 1: Chapters 1–14. p. 3.
- ^ "Topmost Prices for Owens Valley Apples," Santa Ana Register, March 1, 1913, image 10
- ^ a b "The Thousand Wonders of Productive Owens Valley; Manzanar" Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1911, image 88, column 5
- ^ "Official Record," San Bernardino Daily Sun, September 25, 1910, image 7
- ^ "Progress Marks Passing of Time," Los Angeles Times, January 29, 1911, image 61
- ^ "Postmasters Are Named for Office," The San Francisco Call, May 16, 1911, image 18
- ^ a b "New Building's Varied Uses," Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1911, image 15
- ^ "Manzanar Historic Resource Study/Special History Study - Chapter Six: Site Selection for Manzanar War Relocation Center — Historical Background of Owens Valley and Manzanar Vicinity". National Park Service. January 1, 2002.
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- ^ Smith. Deepest Valley. pp. 195–196.
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- ^ Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar. Manzanar Committee. p. 2.
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- ^ "Manzanar National Historic Site – Manzanar Free Press Index (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. 2004. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
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- ^ "Mary Nomura", Densho Encyclopedia, Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project, retrieved 2018-03-09
- ^ Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. p. 168.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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- ^ a b c Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar. Manzanar Committee. p. 11.
- ^ a b c Burton, Jeffery F., Haines, Jeremy D., Farrell, Mary M. (2001). I Rei To: Archaeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. p. 5. Publications in Anthropology 79.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Burton, Haines, Farrell. I Rei To: Archeological Investigations at the Manzanar Relocation Center Cemetery, Manzanar National Historic Site, California. p. 18.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar. Manzanar Committee. p. 28.
- ^ a b Reflections: Three Self-Guided Tours Of Manzanar. Manzanar Committee. p. 18.
- ^ Burton, Farrell, Lord, Florence B., Lord, Richard W. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Site. pp. 173–200.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ a b "Sue Kunitomi Embrey Obituary" (Press release). Embrey, Bruce. May 2006.
- ^ a b c d Gunji, Nao, Muranaka, Gwen (May 17, 2006). "Sue Embrey, 83, Led Movement to Preserve Manzanar". Rafu Shimpo. p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f Fujita-Rony, Thomas Y. (2003). "Destructive Force: Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga's Gendered Labor in the Japanese American Redress Movement". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies. 24 (1): 38–60. doi:10.1353/fro.2003.0017. Retrieved April 24, 2007.
- ^ Unrau, Harlan D. (1996). Manzanar National Historic Site: The Evacuation And Relocation Of Persons Of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study Of The Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study/Special History Study, Volume Two. National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. pp. 856–857.
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Further readingEdit
Owens Valley resourcesEdit
- Burton, Jeff (1998). The Archeology of Somewhere: Archeological Testing Along U.S. Highway 395, Manzanar National Historic Site. Western Archeological Center, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. Publications in Anthropology 72 (Covers archeological finds at Manzanar from the pre-World War II, wartime and post-war periods).
- Chalfant, William A. (1980). Story Of Inyo. Chalfant Press. ISBN 978-0-912494-34-0.
- Ewan, Rebecca Fish (2000). A Land Between: Owens Valley, California. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6461-2.
- Hoffman, Abraham (1992). Vision or Villainy: Origins of the Owens Valley-Los Angeles Water Controversy. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-509-2.
- Kahri, William L. (1983). Water and Power: The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05068-6.
- Nadeau, Remi A. (1997). The Water Seekers. Crest Publishers. ISBN 978-0-9627104-5-2.
- Steward, Julian (1933). "Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 33 (3): 233–250.
- Steward, Julian (2007) [1934]. Myths of the Owens Valley Paiute. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-4325-6538-1.
- Wehrey, Jane (2006). Voices From This Long Brown Land: Oral Recollections of Owens Valley Lives and Manzanar Pasts. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29541-7.
- Armor, John; Wright, Peter. (1989). Manzanar; Photographs by Ansel Adams. Vintage Books.
- Adams Ansel, Benti, Wynne (ed.), Embrey, Sue Kunitomi (contributor), Michael, William H. (contributor). (2001). Born Free And Equal: The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans. Spotted Dog Press. ISBN 978-1-893343-05-4.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Bunting, Eve, Soentpiet, Chris K. (1998). So Far from the Sea. Clarion Books. ISBN 978-0-395-72095-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Cooper, Michael. (2002). Remembering Manzanar: Life In A Japanese Relocation Camp. Clarion Books. ISBN 978-0-618-06778-7.
- Denenberg, Barry. (1999). The Journal of Ben Uchida: Citizen 13559, Mirror Lake Internment Camp, California, 1942. Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-590-48531-9.
- Embrey, Sue Kunitomi. (1972). The Lost Years: 1942–1946. Moonlight Publications. ISBN 978-0-930046-07-1.
- Garrett, Jessie A., Larson, Ronald C. (ed). (1977). Camp and Community: Manzanar and the Owens Valley. Japanese American Oral History Program: California State University, Fullerton. ISBN 978-0-930046-00-2.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Goyette, Braden (September 16, 2014). "These Haunting Photos Capture The Daily Reality Of A Dark Episode In U.S. History". Huffington Post. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
- Goyette, Braden (May 12, 2014). "What It Was Like To Be A Kid In The Middle Of A Shameful Chapter In American History". Huffington Post. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
- Howser, Huell (2002-01-08). "Manzanar (4012)". California's Gold. Chapman University Huell Howser Archive. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
- Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.) (2000). Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience. Heyday Books and the California Historical Society. ISBN 978-1-890771-30-0.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- Peterson, Robert (November–December 1999). "Scouting in World War II Detention Camps". Scouting Magazine: The Way It Was. Retrieved September 28, 2007.
- Weglyn, Michi (1996) [1976]. Years Of Infamy: The Untold Story Of America's Concentration Camps. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97484-2.
- Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. (1997). Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97558-0.
- Bahr, Diana Myers (2007). The Unquiet Nisei: An Oral History Of The Life Of Sue Kunitomi Embrey. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-60067-6.
- Daniels, Roger, Kitano, Harry H.L., Taylor, Sandra C (1986). Japanese Americans From Relocation To Redress. University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-0-87480-258-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Irons, Peter (1983). Justice At War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503273-4.
- Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California (1998). Nanka Nikkei Voices: Resettlement Years, 1945–1955. Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California.
- Maki, Mitchell T., Kitano, Harry H.L., Berthold, S. Megan (1999). Achieving The Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-02458-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Silber, Rebecca R (March 15, 1998). "Lexicon of Genocide (Letter to the Editor)". New York Times. Retrieved January 1, 2008.
- Takei, Barbara, Tachibana, Julie (2001). Tule Lake Revisited. T & T Press. ISBN 978-0-9711676-0-5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Tse, Joyce (May 2, 2007). "Manzanar Pilgrimage Begins A New Era". The Rafu Shimpo. Archived from the original on July 1, 2007. Retrieved January 19, 2009.
External linksEdit
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manzanar War Relocation Center.
- Adams photographs of Manzanar War Relocation Center, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division
- The struggle for self government at Manzanar Relocation Center, The Bancroft Library
- Manzanar Assembly Center letter and telegrams, 1942–1943, The Bancroft Library
- Forced Relocation and The Owens Valley By Lee Hanover, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
- Deepest Valley: Owens Valley resource
- Eastern California Museum
- Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. CA-2399, "Manzanar War Relocation Center, Owens Valley off U.S. Highway 395, six miles south of Independence, Inyo County, CA"
- Manzanar Cemetery
- Manzanar Committee – official web site
- Manzanar National Historic Site, National Park Service
- Manzanar National Historic Site Virtual Museum
- Photo Journal: Solemn Lessons From Mananar," by Mario G. Reyes, Rafu Shimpo
- Prehistory of Owens Valley
- Smithsonian Institution: A More Perfect Union
- "Manzanar," Glen Kitayama, Densho Encyclopedia
- "Manzanar Free Press (newspaper)," Patricia Wakida, Densho Encyclopedia
- Manzanar National Historic Site, National Park Service at Google Cultural Institute


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Outstanding Eye Care
Vision Correction Salt Lake City
At Salt Lake Eye Associates, quality is our focus, and providing superior treatments that are personalized and tailored to fit your needs is our highest priority. Out of the thousands of patients that we see, no two pairs of eyes are the same. It is for that reason that Dr. Benator offers a range of surgical and non-surgical vision correction procedures at her Salt Lake City, Utah eye center. These treatments can help improve and preserve our patients' vision.
LASIK is a surgical procedure, intended to decrease a person's dependency on visual aids like contacts or glasses. During the surgery, refractive errors such as myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism can be corrected. By modifying a patient's corneal tissue with a specialized laser, Dr. Benator can reshape the cornea, providing immediate relief and instantaneous results. Read More about LASIK
NearVision CK
NearVision CK uses radio waves, instead of a laser or scalpel, to reshape the cornea, eliminating the need to make an incision in the corneal tissue. This alternative is perfect for patients who have never had a need for glasses until later in life, or want to vastly improve their near vision. The procedure takes less than five minutes to complete and is performed at our Salt Lake City eye center. Read More about NearVision CK
Even though LASIK eye surgery has become a popular procedure worldwide, Dr. Rachel Benator offers patients in Salt Lake City an alternative – IntraLase. Patients will often see better results in their vision correction if they undergo IntraLase, a blade-free laser technology, than with traditional LASIK surgery. Using the IntraLase method, the first step in the LASIK procedure – creating the corneal flap – is done by a laser rather than a sharp razor blade. The corneal incision is more precise, yielding more accurate results in your vision correction. Read More about InterLase
Cataract Surgery
A cataract is a clouding of the lens inside the eye, causing vision loss that cannot be corrected with glasses, contact lenses or refractive surgery like LASIK. Symptoms include cloudy, blurry vision, light sensitivity with glare at night and dimming of colors.
As frightening as cataracts might sound, modern cataract surgery usually can restore vision lost to cataracts — and often can reduce your dependence on eyeglasses as well. The symptoms of early cataract may be improved with new eyeglasses, brighter lighting, anti-glare sunglasses, or magnifying lenses. If these measures do not help, surgery is the only effective treatment. According to the National Institute of Health, cataract surgery involves removing the cloudy lens and replacing it with an artificial lens. Read More about Cataract surgery
Contact Us
Contact Salt Lake Eye Associates to learn more about the comprehensive services that we offer. We look forward to meeting you, improving your vision, and enhancing your outlook on life.

subset: commoncrawl


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Courtney with Seaside Doula helped me and my wife through so much during and after the pregnancy. She was very helpful when it came to breastfeeding, soothing and caring for our baby. There were times, even late at night, that we weren't sure that what we were experiencing was normal. The first person we would call is Seaside Doula. She made us feel more assured that we were doing okay, even if it felt like we weren't. I am so happy we can count on her to help us out with our first baby girl.
I reached out to Courtney for advice on babywearing. She educated me on the many benefits, variety of carriers and how important it was for me and the baby to feel safe and comfortable with whatever product I chose. Baby wearing is such a life saver. Thank so much Courtney!
"Just because you can do it alone, doesn't mean you should have to. Seaside Doula is here for you!"
-Courtney Gomez


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U.S. Bureau Of Labor StatisticsNov 27
This comprehensive guide gives details about specific education degree programs, prospective profession paths, salary information and associated occupations. Students discover how to create sound assessment methods, determine challenges at every stage, and apply various teaching methods to guarantee the student gets the quality education they require. Teachers learn and implement behavioral modification methods and discover sophisticated communication capabilities to ensure they can guide and help the student efficiently. Other people significant in elementary education or a content location, such as math or science, with a minor in specific education. Operating on collaborative projects related to specific education can also open up a wealth of specialist possibilities.
This is a strengths-based method to assessment that focuses on what students can do rather than what they cannot do. Teachers serving students in the K-three grade range will assess making use of a portfolio method and report student status 3 time per year in an online method. Numerous teachers could be struggling with designing lessons that help students prepare for the ELA / writing assessments that are element of the DLM technique at all grade levels.
Teachers in general education implements procedures and teaching approaches regardless of the variations amongst the students. Some states and/or employers demand even far more education, with a master's degree requirement in special education for all special education teachers. These applications offer graduates with an advanced understanding of what it takes to operate with students with mild and moderate disabilities. The particular education teacher must be able to connect and communicate with these students making use of the proper tone, language, and in some instances, nonverbal cues. This signifies, these young individuals need to be afforded with free education, albeit particular education.
Both types of degrees provide sophisticated training and instruction with a strong focus on designing and implementing effective teaching applications, curriculum, teaching techniques, and performing correct assessments. They adapt common education lessons and teach a variety of subjects, such as reading, writing, and math, to students with mild and moderate disabilities. Teachers with sophisticated certification, a master's degree or particular abilities may possibly earn a larger-than-average salary.
Special education degree programs provide fundamental expertise and training to perform with diverse varieties of students, create lesson plans, and assess students at different levels. Teachers may possibly be needed to comprehensive annual expert improvement classes or a master's degree program to keep their license. Demand for unique education teachers is predicted to remain steady for the subsequent decade and salaries are anticipated to remain competitive compared to other teaching and education jobs. With these approaches, schools offering specific education could give kids with unique requirements a excellent opportunity to acquire understanding and capabilities that match their mental and physical capacities.…


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Home Decor. Tuesday , August 28th , 2018 - 05:44:18 AM
Relaxing white chaise tufted lounge chair living area decor furniture.
credit: rjeneration.org
Quote from Chaise lounge sofa and chair ideas :
Chaise lounge sofa and chair ideas
There are numerous furniture pieces available in the market which can be designed and placed in a particular space depending on the use and area prevalent. There are some furniture items which form an essential part of a specific space in the house like the bedroom, living room and bathroom. But there are certain furniture items which do not have a definite character and are versatile in nature which makes it possible to arrange and organize them in various spaces and different areas of the house. They are not just confined to one room or space. The availability of such type of furniture components makes the whole design process of the space very interesting for the designers as well as people aspiring to do the same with their personal space of habitat. One such versatile furniture piece is the chaise lounge sofa and chair which can be installed in various areas of the room. Some of the innovative ideas for the design of the space with the help of chaise lounge sofa and chair are as follows:
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Any content, trademark/s, or other material that might be found on this site that is not this site property remains the copyright of its respective owner/s. In no way does Room Decor Ideas claim ownership or responsibility for such items, and you should seek legal consent for any use of such materials from its owner.


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Naperville Police Arrest Suspect for Disorderly Conduct
On Sunday, April 22, at approximately 11:45 p.m., Naperville Police Investigators arrested Samuel Rogers, 18, of the 2600 block of Bangert Court in Naperville, following an investigation into online threats of gun violence against Neuqua Valley High School and a school faculty member. The Will County States Attorney's Office approved the charge of Disorderly Conduct, a Class 4 Felony. At this time, no additional details will be provided pertaining to the threats made.
"Threats of violence will absolutely not be tolerated in our community, especially in our schools, where students' main concern should be their education, not their safety," said Police Chief Robert Marshall. "As evidenced by this charge, any threats made against our school personnel or our citizens will be taken very seriously by the police department and will be pursued to the fullest extent of the law."
"We appreciate the work of the Naperville Police Department in investigating this matter and in always keeping our school community safe," said District 204 Superintendent Karen Sullivan.
The Naperville Police Department encourages anyone with any information about any threat to an individual or school community to contact police immediately by dialing 9-1-1.
The Naperville Police wish to remind the public and the news media that a charge is merely an accusation, and a defendant is presumed innocent unless proven guilty.
About Naperville: Located 28 miles west of Chicago, Naperville, Ill., is home to approximately 145,000 people. This vibrant, thriving city consistently ranks as a top community in the nation in which to live, raise children and retire. The city is home to acclaimed public and parochial schools, the best public library system in the country, an array of healthcare options and an exceptionally low crime rate. Naperville has ready access to a variety of public transportation, housing and employment options. The city's diversified employer base features high technology firms, retailers and factories, as well as small and home-based businesses. Residents also enjoy world-class parks, diverse worship options, the opportunity to serve on several City boards and commissions, a thriving downtown shopping and dining area, a renowned outdoor history museum known as Naper Settlement and an active civic community. For more information, please visit our website at www.naperville.il.us.


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What's New in Swift 4?
Swift 4 is the latest major release from Apple scheduled to be out of beta in the fall of 2017. Its main focus is to provide source compatibility with Swift 3 code as well as working towards ABI stability.
Exploring the new String API in Swift 4
This week, let's take a look at how it is to work with strings in Swift 4, and how we can take advantage of the new, improved API in various situations.
Why is it called a "Closure" anyway? A Swift Conceptual Look.
If a programming language comes with a named feature, you can be pretty sure it was named that way for a reason. It's a safe bet that the language designers were purposeful in their naming, so if you can figure out that essential "Why'd they name it that?" question, you might be that much closer to understanding the feature or concept.
iOS Development
What's new in iOS 11 for developers
iOS 11 was announced at WWDC 2017, and introduces a massive collection of powerful features such as Core ML, ARKit, Vision, PDFKit, MusicKit, drag and drop, and more. I've tried to summarize the key changes below so you can get started with them straight away, providing code where feasible.
11 Considerations to Update Your App for iOS 11
Another WWDC keynote has come and gone. 2017 saw Apple focus on six particular areas, including announcements for the Apple TV, Apple Watch, Mac, iPad, the new HomePod, and of course, iOS 11. All of these impact the work we do at Savvy Apps, but the most significant of all is iOS 11.
Why Core ML will not work for your app (most likely)
While the buzz around newly released Apple framework is loud, I want to explain several things, that may not be obvious for those who are new to machine learning (ML).
New rules following WWDC 2017 - App Store Review Guidelines History
After a densely packed WWDC keynote with many new features for developers and user, Apple also published a new version of the App Store Review Guidelines. There are many changes ranging from minor rephrasings to totally new rules.
SSL certificate pinning in iOS applications
The most basic form of security when transferring data between the application and the service backend is SSL/TLS encryption, and it is very common for developers today to switch their traffic to https and declare their communications as secure. In fact mobile platforms today make it really hard for developers not to use https. That by itself, however, is not enough. Encryption is useless when communicating parties can not validate the identity of their piers.
The Best Way to Organize your iOS Project Files in Xcode
If you use standard Xcode Groups to organize your files in project — you will eventually find out that it creates mess in your project root folder on a disk. Xcode Groups (folders) exist only virtually, while on the disk you will see plain list of created files in the root directory, and that can potentially lead to some possible uncomfortable situations and even risks.
Porting Your iOS App to macOS
Learn how to port iOS apps to macOS. If you're developing apps for iOS, you already have skills that you can use to write apps for macOS!
Speech Recognition Tutorial for iOS
Learn how to transcribe live or pre-recorded audio in your iOS app with the same engine used by Siri in this speech recognition tutorial for iOS.
iOS Simulator Power Ups
For the modern iOS developer, spending time in Terminal and firing up the shell of choice on macOS, Bash, is commonplace. Today, we'll look at a utility one can use in Terminal that's been around for a few years but has largely eluded the spotlight: simctl — a lovely little tool to aid with the iOS simulator.
Phased Release
At WWDC 2017, Apple announced the new phased release feature of iTunes Connect. You can use it to publish an app in phases over a period of one week.


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How To Get Trustworthy Term Paper Assistance Quickly?
At the end of each semester, students can feel overwhelmed having to write term paper after term paper to show that they have received some type of education from the course they have taken. The most important goal for every student should be to work towards receiving the best outcomes they can on their term paper through hard work and dedication. Sometimes this may be tricky if a student requires some extra assistance, but the following people/things can help a student receive trustworthy assistance in their writing quickly:
- Professors
- Peers
- Family
- Libraries
- Internet
The most vetted person when it comes to receiving assistance on term paper writing is the exact person that assigned it in the first place. Professors have extensive knowledge of the topics they request a student write a term paper on so that they can provide the student with the best feedback possible. It also allows the professor to continue to learn new ways of thinking about a specific topic. Many professors have specific hours set aside to help students in this quest.
Other students taking the course or one's that have taken it in the past can help a student with their term paper questions. As students sit next to each other all semester long, they can use this as a way of bouncing ideas about the topics that have been discussed off of each other. This also allows for students to study topics they may have forgotten throughout the course of the semester.
Families provide quick assistance for a student writing a term paper as they are often the number one support system of their student. Family members will read and help a student edit their paper and often provide advice on what they could do better next time.
The library is the central hub of learning when it comes to term paper assistance. Not only are libraries filled with encyclopedias, books, journals and other scholarly materials but a desk secretary if often paid to help students conduct research. Yes, someone is paid to help students conduct research at absolutely no cost to the student!
As the times have changed, the internet also provides quick references to using search engines and online journal databases to collect information quickly. Students can often speak sometimes with the library staff of their school on the library's website, which can help a student receive their assistance quicker than waiting for their professor's office hours.


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This was a somewhat unusual panel because the panelists were all young professionals who have entered the information profession relatively recently. The goal of the panel was to feature the views of a new generation on their careers, how and why they decided to go into the information field, and how they see the field developing in the future. Judging from their presentations, the goals of the organizers were very well met, and the future of the library space is bright.
Mara Blake, Spatial and Numeric Data Librarian at the University of Michigan began by noting that she decided to enter the profession because of a love of research in the library. She originally had an office job but found it very boring, so she went to library school. She began with social science librarianship and is now dealing with data and enjoys the research aspects of it. She is in a smaller library with liaison responsibilities and has learned about geographic information systems. She values working at a smaller institution and was emphatic that she is no longer bored in her job!
Jen Maurer, Library Sales Representative, Cambridge University Press (CUP), took a year off after graduation, then found a job as an editorial assistant at Springer through an ad on Craigslist, and subsequently moved to an account development role. She worked at OCLC and then moved to New York City and works in sales at CUP. She likes the ability to move around seamlessly and finds that change presents many opportunities and is exciting. Sales gives her the opportunity to listen to other people and make connections.
Hannah Scates Kettler, Digital Humanities Librarian at the University of Iowa, came into the profession from a non-traditional background as an archaeologist. She consults and does research on methodologies and platforms and publishes her results in an institutional repository or as a monograph. She also represents the library to various campus departments and describes library resources and special collections, doing lots of talking and meeting new people. She entered the profession because she was interested in differentiated learning and teaching and wanted to use the library. After working 3 years in the library, she wrote a job description for her position, so of course it lived up to her expectations! She fines the openness in the library to be uplifting.
Dan Valen, Product Specialist, Figshare, handles business development and partnerships and supports the sales team. He started in publishing at Springer 7½ years ago, worked in editorial, printed trade publications, and then in licensing to university libraries. He liked to talk to schools and hear what they think of publishers; everybody was talking about open access. He started looking at alternate business models and was an adviser for ReadCube which led him to the digital science world. After talking to a Figshare representative, he joined the company. He believes that you should do business with people who believe what you believe.
The panelists have in common that they are all young, smart, articulate, and poised information professionals. Two are working on vendor side, and 2 in libraries.
Here are a series of questions asked by the Moderator and the panelists' replies:
How are organizations are doing at assimilating younger workers?
Dan: Nobody at Figshare is over 40. Everybody's input is valued in a small company. Ideas can be heard.
Hannah: A large institution has a more varied age range. Although there is a tradition of hearing young early career voices, older people do listen.
Mara: She felt empowered with her own ideas, but other resources and people depend on the institution and bureaucracy. Equal opportunity for all ages requires bigger buy-in.
Jen: One of the challenges is finding the opportunities for empowerment and making sure you can grow and seize the chance. There is something to learn from everybody you meet.
Do you envy startups or Silicon Valley companies with a younger freer culture?
Dan: A bigger company tends to have the culture that says "this is the way we have always done things". A startup lets you be more nimble and grow faster.
Jen: Being around experienced people is a good learning experience. You need to build trust; there is an adjustment period. It's a challenge to navigate the space I am in.
Mara: Smaller companies have leeway to fail at projects that we don't have in the library.
What will Charleston programs look like in 20-30 years?
Hannah: They will still be relevant and useful and will discuss access to digital material and more openness in library spaces. Libraries will evolve to knowledge creation–not just finding it but generating it–and be spaces to work together, create projects, talk about hard issues.
Dan: The library will help foster creation of content (not necessarily publishing it) among researchers. Many academic libraries have the advantage of being located in the center of campus. They are the space where knowledge is generated. The internet has democratized everything but academia.
If you "got the keys", what would you do to make your institution stronger and more vital to students, authors, scholars, and researchers?
Hannah: Figure out how we preserve, present, and publish different types of data outside the norm.
Mara: Work on a geospacial data project—and it's happening now!
Jen: I would love to see better mechanisms for feeding library projects back into CUP. There is a danger in thinking we know. How can we partner differently and better?
Dan: Being willing to try things and fail was something to get used to. We need to figure out how to pursue our mission.
Don Hawkins blogs about conferences for Information Today and Against The Grain. He also maintains the Conference Calendar on the Information Today website and is the Editor of Personal Archiving: Preserving Our Digital Heritage, published by Information Today in 2013, and Co-Editor of Public Knowledge: Access and Benefits, published by Information Today in 2016. He received his Ph.D. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, and has worked in the information industry for over 45 years.


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Ridout, Martin S., Xu, X., Wan, Y.Y.K (2007) Sampling schemes for estimating spikelet incidence of Fusarium head blight. Annals of Applied Biology, 151 (3). pp. 341-347. ISSN 0003-4746. (doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.2007.00174.x) (The full text of this publication is not currently available from this repository. You may be able to access a copy if URLs are provided)
|The full text of this publication is not currently available from this repository. You may be able to access a copy if URLs are provided. (Contact us about this Publication)
|Official URL
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of wheat crops. The incidence of diseased spikelets in the population is most naturally estimated by sampling ears of wheat and counting the number of infected spikelets, X, and the total number of spikelets, Y, on each ear. However, there is usually much more variation from ear to ear in the number of infected spikelets than in the total number of spikelets and in practice it is common to obtain a larger sample of X values than Y values. In this paper, we investigate the relative efficiencies of these alternative sampling procedures. Based on historical data, we show that for the levels of disease incidence typically encountered, the latter sampling scheme is indeed more efficient. The results are relevant to estimating disease incidence in other crops.
|Item Type:
|DOI/Identification number:
|Uncontrolled keywords:
|delta method; disease incidence; overdispersion; relative efficiency; underdispersion
Q Science > QA Mathematics (inc Computing science) > QA276 Mathematical statistics
S Agriculture > SB Plant culture
|Faculties > Sciences > School of Mathematics Statistics and Actuarial Science > Statistics
|Depositing User:
|Martin S Ridout
|Date Deposited:
|07 Jun 2008 12:01 UTC
|Last Modified:
|28 May 2019 13:38 UTC
|Resource URI:
|https://kar.kent.ac.uk/id/eprint/3224 (The current URI for this page, for reference purposes)
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Current AmeriCorps Member: Jodie Clouser & Lian McGuire
Recruiting for the 2018-2019 service year starting on August 6th, 2018
Ijams Nature Center evolved from humble beginnings during the early twentieth century as a gathering point for birders. Over the years, Ijams Nature Center, as a non-profit organization and public nature preserve, has grown in size and stature to become the region's leading wildlife sanctuary and environmental learning center incorporating Mead's and Ross Marble quarries. Ijams works to encourage stewardship of the natural world by providing an urban greenspace for people to learn about and enjoy the outdoors through engaging experiences. With over 300 -acres of greenspace, 12 miles of hiking, biking, climbing, and paddle boarding on-site, Ijams has been voted one of the top three attractions in Knoxville and boasts unparalleled sites of urban wilderness.
Ijams offers numerous engaging and fun educational programs for adults, families and schools that encourage outdoor exploration. They also host multiple events including Symphony in the Park, Meadowlark Music Festival and River Rescue, which helps remove thousands of lbs of trash and debris from our waterways each year.
There are three positions available at this site. The Naturalist coordinates and conducts a range of educational programs as well as helps with event planning and management. The Park Ranger helps with trail maintenance and other park construction, and finally the River Ranger maintains water quality and health of the river beds within the park and supports education efforts.
Partner Website: http://ijams.org/
Position Descriptions


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Toyota has recently announced a partnership with iBiquity, which will put HD Radio systems in a variety of Scion vehicles. What makes this partnership even funnier is the PR-speak Toyota used to announce the partnership.
"Since Scion customers are in tune with audio technology, it makes sense that we enhance our already outstanding audio offerings for them," said Jason Adang, Accessory Audio and Electronics Planning Manager, Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. "Digital HD Radio technology is ideal for our youthful, tech-savvy customers who will enjoy the wide range of content available on HD Radio channels."
Toyota hasn't gotten that hint that HD Radio is floundering, big time. This whole marketing thing is pretty new to Scion, as well.
Despite HD Radio's recent attempts to revitalize its name, the fact of the matter is that HD Radio is a niche that nobody wants to explore, especially the youth-demographic that Scion desperately wants. Oh, and the last time we checked being "in tune with audio offerings" doesn't mean "adopting technology on the brink of extinction, Toyota and Scion. [Orbitcast]


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|Royal Canin
|Dry Food
|COMPOSITION: rice, maize, dehydrated poultry protein, maize gluten, animal fats, hydrolysed animal proteins, beet pulp, vegetable protein isolate*, fish oil, minerals, psyllium husks and seeds, soya oil, fructo-oligo-saccharides, hydrolysed yeast (sourceof manno-oligo-saccharides), borage oil (0.1%), green tea and grape extracts(source of polyphenols), hydrolysed crustaceans(source of glucosamine), marigold extract (source of lutein), hydrolysed cartilage (source of chondroitin). ADDITIVES (per kg): Nutritional additives: Vitamin A: 30900 IU, Vitamin D3: 800 IU, E1(Iron): 49 mg, E2 (Iodine): 4.9 mg, E4(Copper): 9 mg, E5 (Manganese): 64 mg,E6 (Zinc): 192 mg, E8 (Selenium): 0.11 mg - Technological additives: Pentasodium triphosphate: 3.5 g -Preservatives - Antioxidants. ANALYTICAL CONSTITUENTS: Protein:25% -Fat content: 14% - Crude ash: 4.8% -Crude fibres: 1.4% - *L.I.P.: protein selected for its very high assimilation.
We offer FREE SHIPPING to metro and major regional areas in QLD, NSW, VIC & SA for orders over $49. For areas listed outside of these, your shipping cost can be calculated at checkout.
Your order is shipped within 24 hours of an order being placed during business days (Monday- Friday) Delivery times will vary by reigon & state: