text:
List of sequencing platforms.
\r\n\r\nThis project was co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund under the Operational Programme "Innovative Economy".\r\n',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1734-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4230-0",doi:"10.5772/59798",price:140,priceEur:155,priceUsd:195,slug:"storage-stability-of-fuels",numberOfPages:278,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"bc73beb5dc74410e15c8ee19ee4de722",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",publishedDate:"February 4th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4751.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14054,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 20th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 25th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 24th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155009/images/system/155009.jfif",biography:"Krzysztof Biernat Ph.D. (Mech.Eng.) is a professor of the Automotive Industry Institute (PIMOT), acting as President of the Polish Biomethane Council, a Coordinator of Polish Technology Platform for Biofuels, and a member of the Coordinating Committee of Society Cluster of Bioeconomy. He is also a lead expert of the International Renewable Energy Agency and an expert in many operational programs. He specializes in chemical thermodynamics of environmental processes as well as obtaining technologies, quality evaluation, and the use of exploitative liquids, including biofuels, and biorefinery systems. He is an author of above 200 publications in the area of properties and exploitative conditionings of fuels, biofuels, and other liquids as well as environmental protection. He is a member of many national and international scientific societies including the American Chemical Society and American Association for the Advancement of Science.",institutionString:"Łukasiewicz R&D Network - Automotive Industry Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"768",title:"Petroleum Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-petroleum-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"47905",title:"The Influence of Engine Fuel Manufacturing Processes on Their Performance Properties in Operating Conditions",doi:"10.5772/59800",slug:"the-influence-of-engine-fuel-manufacturing-processes-on-their-performance-properties-in-operating-co",totalDownloads:1589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47905",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47905",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47911",title:"Criteria for the Quality Assessment of Engine Fuels in Storage and Operating Conditions",doi:"10.5772/59801",slug:"criteria-for-the-quality-assessment-of-engine-fuels-in-storage-and-operating-conditions",totalDownloads:1159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47911",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47819",title:"Biofuels in Storage and Operating Conditions",doi:"10.5772/59802",slug:"biofuels-in-storage-and-operating-conditions",totalDownloads:1289,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47819",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47914",title:"Liquid Fuel Ageing Processes in Long-term Storage Conditions",doi:"10.5772/59799",slug:"liquid-fuel-ageing-processes-in-long-term-storage-conditions",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Marlena Owczuk and Krzysztof Kołodziejczyk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47914",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47914",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47919",title:"Corrosiveness of Fuels During Storage Processes",doi:"10.5772/59803",slug:"corrosiveness-of-fuels-during-storage-processes",totalDownloads:2518,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Monika Ziółkowska and Dorota Wardzińska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47919",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47921",title:"Autoxidation of Fuels During Storage",doi:"10.5772/59807",slug:"autoxidation-of-fuels-during-storage",totalDownloads:1650,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Joanna Czarnocka, Anna Matuszewska and Małgorzata\nOdziemkowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47921",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47922",title:"A Review of Selected Methods of Measurement Used for the On-Line Analysis of Liquid Fuels",doi:"10.5772/59804",slug:"a-review-of-selected-methods-of-measurement-used-for-the-on-line-analysis-of-liquid-fuels",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Artur Malinowski, Paweł Wrzosek, Anna Turlej and Dorota\nWardzińska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47922",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47923",title:"Analysis of Changes in the Properties of Selected Chemical Compounds and Motor Fuels Taking Place During Oxidation Processes",doi:"10.5772/59805",slug:"analysis-of-changes-in-the-properties-of-selected-chemical-compounds-and-motor-fuels-taking-place-du",totalDownloads:1089,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Marta Skolniak, Paweł Bukrejewski and Jarosław Frydrych",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47923",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"47924",title:"Environmental Aspects in the Life Cycle of Liquid Biofuels with Biocomponents, Taking into Account the Storage Process",doi:"10.5772/59806",slug:"environmental-aspects-in-the-life-cycle-of-liquid-biofuels-with-biocomponents-taking-into-account-th",totalDownloads:1466,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Izabela Samson-Bręk, Barbara Smerkowska and Aleksandra Filip",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47924",authors:[{id:"174229",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dorota",surname:"Wardzińska",slug:"dorota-wardzinska",fullName:"Dorota Wardzińska"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"3",title:"Monograph",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4542",title:"Biofuels",subtitle:"Status and Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbcf6eb3ffef503058cdf579d9d7fc63",slug:"biofuels-status-and-perspective",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4542.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8150",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5a930b0695ff23259fe96f219ff9a15",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6784",title:"Biofuels",subtitle:"State of Development",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a31143f106bba91ce8430f49d3339af",slug:"biofuels-state-of-development",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6784.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5087",title:"Alternative Fuels",subtitle:"Technical and Environmental Conditions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d384e15f7ac163a7323b08fede906b7a",slug:"alternative-fuels-technical-and-environmental-conditions",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5087.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"7314",title:"Exploitation of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources",subtitle:"Hydraulic Fracturing and Other Recovery and Assessment Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2eba15587cac74206f978e72a0cef2f9",slug:"exploitation-of-unconventional-oil-and-gas-resources-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-recovery-and-assessment-techniques",bookSignature:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Eshiet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195037",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Imo-Imo",surname:"Eshiet",slug:"kenneth-imo-imo-eshiet",fullName:"Kenneth Imo-Imo Eshiet"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6466",title:"Shale Gas",subtitle:"New Aspects and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02763c6398f049c222acf6a774dd38ee",slug:"shale-gas-new-aspects-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Ali Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6466.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5811",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33b7777178f4a179ba475e3e15405427",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"69565",slug:"erratum-laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-co",title:"Erratum - Laser Based Additive Manufacturing Technology for Fabrication of Titanium Aluminide-Based Composites in Aerospace Component Applications",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69565.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69565",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69565",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69565",chapter:{id:"66879",slug:"laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-composites",signatures:"Sadiq Abiola Raji, Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Sisa Leslie Pityana, Olawale Muhmmed Popoola, Fatai Olufemi Aramide, Monnamme Tlotleng and Nana Kwamina Kum Arthur",dateSubmitted:"November 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 27th 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"7403",title:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal, Dr. Zak Abdallah, Dr. Hollie Louise Cockings and Dr. Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7403.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"66879",slug:"laser-based-additive-manufacturing-technology-for-fabrication-of-titanium-aluminide-based-composites",signatures:"Sadiq Abiola Raji, Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola, Sisa Leslie Pityana, Olawale Muhmmed Popoola, Fatai Olufemi Aramide, Monnamme Tlotleng and Nana Kwamina Kum Arthur",dateSubmitted:"November 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 27th 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"7403",title:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal, Dr. Zak Abdallah, Dr. Hollie Louise Cockings and Dr. Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7403.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"7403",title:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal, Dr. Zak Abdallah, Dr. Hollie Louise Cockings and Dr. Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7403.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8851",leadTitle:null,title:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tWith the advances in neurotechnologies, there has been increasing richness in spatial and temporal resolution of high density neural signals recorded from the nervous system. This has led to tremendous opportunities for the scientists in neuroscience and neural engineering to understand perception, action and cognition in a way never done before. The central theme of this book is to capture these advances in neural signal processing that include the applications of system-level modeling, time-domain and frequency domain analysis, wavelet analysis, statistical signal processing, computational neuroscience, machine learning, data science and analytics, big data, cloud computing and artificial intelligence. The reemerging applications of these tools have transformed the way we look at nervous system today. This book could be viewed as a window to the next generation neural signal processing.",isbn:"978-1-78984-114-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-113-8",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a44ac118b233b29a3d5b57d61680ec38",bookSignature:"Dr. Ramana Vinjamuri",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8851.jpg",keywords:"System-level Modeling, Time-domain and frequency Domain Analysis, Wavelet Analysis, Statistical Signal Processing, Computational Neuroscience, Machine Learning, Data Science and Analytics, Big Data, Cloud Computing and Artificial Intelligence",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 28th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!0,editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",biography:"Ramana Vinjamuri received his undergraduate degree in Electrical Engineering from Kakatiya University (India) in 2002. He received his MS degree in Electrical Engineering from Villanova University in 2004 specialized in bioinstrumentation. He received his PhD degree in Electrical Engineering in 2008 specialized in dimensionality reduction in control and coordination of human hand from the University of Pittsburgh. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow (2008–2012) in the field of brain-machine interfaces (BMI) to control prosthesis in the School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh. He worked as a research assistant professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the Johns Hopkins University (2012–2013). He is currently an assistant professor in Biomedical Engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology. He also holds a secondary appointment as an adjunct assistant professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. His research is supported by funding from private foundations and national institutes in the USA.",institutionString:"Stevens Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"192910",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Skomersic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192910/images/4743_n.jpg",email:"firstname.lastname@example.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5943",title:"Biomimetic Prosthetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"80150cc5713e49ac90a564e8b2895289",slug:"biomimetic-prosthetics",bookSignature:"Ramana Vinjamuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5943.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53954",title:"New Advances in NGS Technologies",doi:"10.5772/66924",slug:"new-advances-in-ngs-technologies",body:'\n
The next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, with the capability to produce, at a low price, millions of DNA sequences per analysis, have changed the way to make the genetic analysis in the veterinary and animal fields. In the past few years, the observed reduction of cost and time required to obtain the genomic information (whole genome, whole exome or targeted gene sequencing) have had several repercussions in various disciplines such as animal selection, animal research, genetic disease diagnosis and control, cancer research, and metagenomic studies. The focus of this chapter is to give an updated overview of the next-generation techniques, analyzing the general framework, the bioinformatic analysis pipeline, present applications in the genetic disease detection, problems and future possible developments.\n
The hereditary traits are transmitted from the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contained in the chromosomes and in the mitochondria. The gene is formed by regions that encode proteins, the exons, and segments that are not translated, the introns. Genetic diseases are due to inherited mutations, which are changes in DNA sequence and transmitted in familiars in different ways. Several diseases are inherited in a simple way and follow the Mendel's law. These are monogenic or Mendelian diseases. Monogenic diseases can be classified according to their mechanisms of inheritance: autosomal dominant and recessive, X-linked and mitochondrial diseases.\n
In the case of dominant disease, the most common genotype is the heterozygous genotype. The disease is transmitted to an average of 50% of the offspring regardless of their sex. The most common cross is between a heterozygous affected (Aa) and a homozygous unaffected (aa). A typical pedigree of an autosomal dominant disease has the following distinguish features:\n
vertical segregation, with affected individuals in all generations, both males and females;
an equal number of affected males and females;
each affected individual have at least one affected parent.
An autosomal dominant disease may also arise from a new mutation. A risk factor of a new mutation is the parental age. The frequency of new mutations increases proportionally with the age of the parents. One feature of the dominant autosomal diseases is to show a variable expression among the affected individuals, even in the same family. Some autosomal dominant diseases exhibit the phenomenon of anticipation, which consists of an earlier onset and an aggravation of symptoms with the passing generations. Another characteristic of the autosomal dominant diseases is the penetrance, which is the percentage of animals expressing the phenotype over the total number of individuals which carry the mutation. Other genes or the environment can interfere with an occurrence of a disease resulting in a lack of penetrance. In this case, the subject that carries the dominance mutation will not be affected but, 50% of the offspring will manifest the disease with varying degrees.\n
The presence of two recessive alleles at the same locus causes the disorders. The most frequent cross is between heterozygous individuals for the mutated allele (healthy carriers of an autosomal recessive disease). A typical pedigree of an autosomal recessive disease has the following distinguish features:\n
unaffected parents could have affected offspring;
equal number of males and females;
all offspring are affected when parents are affected.
The heterozygous parents will show a risk of 25% to get affected offspring. Inbreeding is the most important risk factor for the occurrence of an autosomal recessive disease.\n
The X chromosome contains hundreds of genes. The dominant or recessive effect is determined in the females because they have two chromosomes. Males have only one X chromosome and therefore they express the recessive mutations (called hemizygous). In this case, the recessive trait is always expressed. If the alleles are different, a female is heterozygous, i.e., a carrier. A typical pedigree of an x-linked dominant disease has the following distinguish features:\n
each generation usually has an affected individual;
all daughters of an affected male are affected;
all males and females of a heterozygous are affected.
The family tree study shows a zig-zag or diagonal pattern, with a variable number of affected males in the following generations.\n
A typical pedigree of an x-linked recessive disease has the following distinguish features:\n
all males of an affected female are affected;.
affected males never transmit the trait to their male offspring;
unaffected parents may have affected offspring.
Some genetic diseases show a polygenic and/or multifactorial inheritance. The multifactorial traits can be continuous and measurable, such as the weight, height, blood pressure, or discontinuous, such as congenital heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease.\n
The defects in the mitochondrial DNA show a maternal inheritance because mitochondria are transmitted to the offspring by the egg cell. Characteristics of mitochondrial diseases are incomplete penetrance, variable expressivity, and pleiotropy. The phenotypic expression of mitochondrial disorders depends on the ratio of normal and mutated mtDNA present in the cells of various tissues. The organ impairment and its severity depend on the percentage of mutated mitochondria, which is variable in different tissues. Mitochondria are distributed in cells throughout the body and are therefore responsible for pathologies with impairment of different organs and apparatuses.\n
A mutation is defined as a stable and heritable modification of the genetic material. The mutation can occur at different levels and change the attitude of the entire genome showing a variation in the number of chromosomes (genomic mutation), a variation in a single chromosome (mutation chromosome) or, it may involve a single gene (gene mutation). Mutations can be spontaneous or induced. The most common causes of mutation can be physical, chemical, or biological factors (called mutagens). The gene mutation can be lethal to the cell or, when the gene is expressed, give rise to senseless, inactive, or less active proteins or, although much rarely, resulted in products with a greater or different activity. Most of the mutations are harmful and only a small percentage appears to be advantageous. The carrier of an unfavorable gene may die before to reproduce (lethal disease). Natural selection tends to reduce mutated genes. Sometimes, however, due to the changing environment, insignificant mutations can be expressed or even turn out to be advantageous and to be favored by natural selection. Genomic and chromosomal mutations, when they are compatible with life, give rise to a more complex phenotypic pattern, because they involve a large number of genes. On the contrary, gene mutations affect the sequence of a single gene and therefore they have an effect only on the functionality of a single protein. A transition mutation is one substitution of a purine with a purine or pyrimidine with a pyrimidine while a transversion mutation is a substitution between a purine and a pyrimidine. At phenotypic level, effects of mutations can vary from the complete neutrality to a range of events whose gravity depends on the interaction with other genes and with the environment. At the molecular level, a gene mutation consists in a variation of the sequence of a nucleotide of the gene. The normal DNA sequence may change as a result of insertion or deletion of one or more bases. A gene mutation, if it concerns a single point of DNA, i.e., one or a few bases, it is called a point mutation or SNP. The first element to be considered, in assessing the effects of a gene mutation, is what part of the gene has changed. The sequence of a gene is made, in addition to a promoter, of a number of exons interspersed with introns. As is known, the entire sequence of the gene is transcribed, but the intronic fragments are removed during the process of splicing. The exon region of a gene is characterized by the presence of a coding region, which contains the information for the synthesis of the coded protein, and two noncoding regions that are located at the beginning and end of the mRNA molecule (5\'UTR and 3\'UTR that are transcribed but not translated). Mutations that modify the coding region may have important effects on the translation of the proteins, mutations at the junction between intron and exon can interfere with the recognition of splice sites causing the production of modified transcripts while mutations in the untranslated regions (UTRs) and the introns are often neutral or in some cases may alter the regulatory functions of these regions. The mutations that show (most frequently) phenotypic effects are those affecting the coding regions. Therefore, in this chapter, we will focus on them. In the case of a silent mutation, the replacement of a base causes a change in the codon without a change of the amino acid (the genetic code is degenerated and the same amino acid can be coded by more than one codon). For example, if a mutation changes the codon CUA in CUG, as both codons code for the same amino acid leucine, the amino acid does not change. For this reason, a silent mutation has no effect at the level of the protein and thus on the phenotype. In the case of a missense mutation, the substitution of a base of a codon with a different base causes the change in the codon function. For example, if the codon AGC, which codes for the amino acid serine, becomes AGA, encoding for the amino acid arginine, during the protein synthesis, an arginine will be inserted instead of a serine. The substitution of an amino acid may therefore change the protein function. Based on the amino acid substitution, the missense mutations are divided into: (a) conservative substitutions: the new amino acid has similar characteristics to the replaced one (neutral mutation); (b) nonconservative substitutions: the new amino acid has different characteristics [e.g. GAG (Glu) changing to GTG (Val)]. The consequences of a missense mutation are more or less serious depending on the physical-chemical characteristics of the two amino acids involved. Characteristics of the amino acids present in the primary structure determine the secondary and tertiary structures of the proteins by means of ionic and hydrophobic interactions. In turn, the correct folding of the protein chain determines its biological functionality. The maintenance of the protein functions depends on the amino acid position and its structural role. In the case of sickle cell disease, due to a missense mutation in the gene of the beta-globin, a polar amino acid (water-soluble, glutamic acid) is replaced by an insoluble apolar amino acid valine. This causes the production of a beta-globin chain resulting in an altered hemoglobin solubility, which in turn causes the characteristic shape of the sickle red blood cells. A gene mutation can change a codon sense in a noncodon sense (nonsense mutation). For example, if the codon AAG, coding for lysine, becomes UAG, which is a stop codon, then, the protein synthesis will end prematurely. The synthesized protein is therefore incomplete and, in most cases, it will not be functional. An elongation mutation arises when, a nonsense triplet present in the wild gene, following a base substitution, becomes a triplet "sense," encoding for an amino acid. In this case, the stop triplet is eliminated and the mRNA translation will continue with the formation of a longer protein. Deletions and insertions of bases in the coding region of a gene cause a slippage of the reading code system (frameshift mutations). The inclusion or loss of one or more bases causes a slip, resulting in loss of sense of the whole protein. All codons downstream of the mutation change and from that point they are then incorporated into the protein, giving rise to an abnormal protein and almost always nonfunctional. A deletion of an entire portion of a gene can severely alter the three-dimensional protein structure, the chemical properties and functionality. Even in this case, the deletion may lead to a slip of reading (frameshift), determining the loss of a part of the protein. A mutation in a gene can also determine a quantitative variation (not qualitative) of the protein. This occurs when the mutation falls in a regulatory region (i.e., the sequence of the promoter) and modifies the transcription of the gene. A point mutation (by substitution or by insertion/deletion of bases), both in coding and noncoding regions, can give rise to an RFLP (polymorphism of length of the restriction fragments) and to an SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism).\n
Over the last 60 years, it has observed a significant increase in the knowledge of animal genomes and the genetic code, starting from the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 until the publication of the first draft of the human genome in 2001 [1, 2]. The Sanger sequencing [3], also known as sequencing of the first generation, was the method used to sequence the genome within the project "Human Genome' bringing the entire genome sequence in 2003, after 13 years from the beginning of the project with a cost of $3 billion and the contribution of six different nations. In the recent years, several animal and plant genome sequencing projects have been carried out thanks to the implementation of both molecular biology and computer science innovations [4]. The evolution in parallel of these two sectors has enabled the advent of several next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms. Nowadays, by means of this new technology, which is more efficient and economic compared to the previous methods, it is possible to sequence a new genome at the cost of less than one thousand euros in a very short time (1–2 days). Furthermore, the cost and time can be greatly reduced by analyzing only the coding regions (exomes). Despite the fact that the exomes are only 1% of the entire genome, by mean of this method, it is possible to identify the 85% of the monogenic diseases.\n
All NGS methods are characterized by two important phases: a molecular biology step, which goes from the preparation of the sample to the sequencing phase, which allows to carry out, at the same time, more than one reaction and with less dexterity than the Sanger method, and a computerized stage for the analysis of the data. The first part of the process is divided into three steps: sample preparation, amplification, and sequencing. Sample preparation, which is the common passage for all platforms, is the fragmentation of DNA (dimensions vary from 100 to 800 base pairs (bp) in relation to the platform and the adapters used). The amplification is based on two methods: emulsion or solid PCR amplifications. In the emulsion PCR method, described for the first time by Tawfik Griffiths, the individual molecules of DNA are clonally amplified in micro-compartments consisting of mixtures of water and oil [5]. The adapters bound to individual DNA molecules, hybridize to complementary sequences coating the surface. Cycles of upcoming amplification allow to the formation of "clusters" of folded fragments clonally amplified. All the NGS platforms are characterized by the ability to sequence and massively parallel amplifying the DNA molecules in a clonal or single way. Unlike the Sanger method, where the fragments of different sizes from individual sequencing reactions were separated by electrophoresis, in the NGS technologies, sequencing is accomplished through the repetition of nucleotide extension cycles or oligonucleotide ligations. The principles of sequencing and image acquisition are the peculiar steps that characterize the different platforms on the market. To date, different methods of sequencing are known. The cyclic reversible termination (CRT) sequencing method uses reversible labeled nucleotides. Each sequencing cycle comprises: the incorporation of the nucleotide, the acquisition of the fluorescence, and the cutting of the nucleotide. The subsequent washing step allows the elimination of all nonincorporated nucleotides. At this point, the image for identifying the incorporated nucleotide is captured, followed by a cleavage step that removes the terminator group and the fluorophore. After the elimination, the polymerase can continue the reaction of extension and tie the second nucleotide. This process is used by two types of trading platforms: Illumina and Helicos, which differ in the templates of sequencing. While Illumina uses clonally amplified fragments on a solid surface, Helicos is currently the only commercial platform able to use single DNA molecules. In addition, the acquisition platform of Illumina uses a four-color (the four reversible nucleotides are labeled with a different fluorophore and are dispensed at the same time in the sequencer), while in the Helicos platform, all nucleotides they are labeled with the same fluorophore and are dispensed into the sequencer in a determined hierarchical order.\n
We describe here the main platforms used for the last-generation sequencing:\n
\nRoche 454 system was the first genome sequencer to be marketed in 2004. This system uses the sequencing by synthesis technology known as pyrosequencing. Initially, the 454 sequencing method used reads of 100–150 bp, producing about 200,000 reads, with an output of 20 Mb for each run. In 2008, a new sequencer the 454 GS FLX titanium was produced (reads of 700 bp, with an accuracy after filtering of 99.9%, with an output of 0.7 Gb for run in 24 hours). In 2009, the GS Junior and 454 GS FLX platforms were used to set up a new sequencer with an output of 14 Gb for run. Further developments have led to the production of the GS FLX +, which is able to sequence reads up to 1 kb. The high speed of analysis combined with the long reads is the positive characteristics of this platform. However, the cost of reagents remains a problem to be solved.\n
\nIon Torrent. The method used by Ion Torrent Genome Machine (PGM) is very similar to the Roche 454 system. This platform, instead of using images to capture the incorporated nucleotide, detects the change of pH. The output per run is of 270 Mb with reads of 100–200 bp.\n
\nAB SOLiD system. The Applied Biosystems method was first marketed in 2006. This system uses the ligation sequencing method (in both directions) to ligate fluorescently labeled octomers to the DNA fragment. Initially, the length of the reads was only 35 bp and the output of 3 Gb for run. In 2010, the 5500x1 SOLiD platform was released (reads with length of 85 bp, precision of 99.99% and output 30 Gb per run). The main problem of this method is the low length of the reads.\n
\nIllumina GA/HiSeq system. In 2006, the Solexa company released the Genomic Analyzer (GA) and in 2007, the company was bought by Illumina. The system uses the sequencing by synthesis method (SBS) and the amplification bridge which is an alternative method of the PCR. At the beginning, the analyzer's output was of 1 Gb for run, after upgraded to 50 Gb. In 2010, the HiSeq 2000 was released with an output of 600 Gb for run and reads of 200 bp. The basic method is to generate a great number of polonies (generated DNA colonies) that are simultaneously sequenced in parallel reactions occurring on the surface of a flow cell. The cost of sequencing is lower compared to the competitors. \nTable 1\n presents the main NGS platforms.\n
|Sequencing by synthesis\n
|454 Roche\n
|Ion Torrent\n
|Ion semiconductor\n
|ABI Solid\n
|Ligation based sequencing (color spaced)\n
|Oxford nanopore\n
|Nanopore sequencing\n
|Pacific biosciences\n
|Single molecule real time (SMRT)\n
\nHelicos single-molecule sequencing device: Heliscope method was presented for the first time in 2007. This platform uses a technique that individually analyzes the molecules achieving a greater accuracy. Using this system, you can obtain an output in the order of 28 Gb. However, the main disadvantage of this method remains the low capacity to correctly identify indels, with a consequent increase in errors. Another problem is the length of the reads, which has never exceeded 50 bp.\n
\nOxford Nanopore Miniontechnology. Most of the nanopore sequencing technologies are based on the transit of DNA molecules, after the application of an electric potential, through an array of protein nanopores located in a high-salt buffer. Single bases are identified according to the electric change. Several methods have been proposed based on the nanopore technique. Among these, one is produced by Oxford Nanopore (exploits the combination of three molecules), one based on MSpa (a protein). This method can be very useful for identifying infectious diseases and to analyze environmental samples (metagenomic analysis of bacteria, viruses and fungi) without a previous knowledge of the sample composition.\n
An additional advantage of the third-generation sequencing methods is the production of long reads (>than 10,000 pb and up to 100,000 bp) enabling to analyze insertions, deletions, and translocations [6–9]. Using these technologies and mapping methods, it is possible to study entire chromosome arms.\n
Although the various sequencing technologies use different methods, they all provide as output the FASTQ sequences. The FASTQ string is the type of information used in molecular biology to store genetic sequences and the related quality scores, namely the score that the algorithm assigns to the string and which is then used to choose the best match against the reference genome. At this point, the bioinformatics analysis is divided into three steps: alignment, which search of correspondences between the reads and the reference genome and the variant calling that attempts to separate the differences due to genetic mutations and instrumental errors made during the analysis and filtration and annotation, which attempt to align the reads to the reference genome.\n
The alignment is the process by which you map short reads to a reference genome. It is a complex task, since the software must compare each reads in all of the reference DNA positions [8, 10, 11]. It is a computationally challenging passage and wasteful in terms of time. The SAM (sequence alignment map) and BAM (binary alignment map) are the standard file formats for storing the data obtained using the next-generation technologies (NGS). There are many commercially available software, free or on sale, to perform this task. Most software use a method based on indices, which are very fast in the search for all alignment positions (without gaps) in the reference genome. Other algorithms, instead, allow the search for alignments with gaps. The various methods to solve the problem include the use of hash tables (e.g., MAQ, ELAND), algorithms based on Burrows-Wheeler transformation (e.g., BWA, Bowtie, SOAP2), an algorithm that uses a reversible compression method commuting the order of the characters without changing the values; genome-based hash (e.g., Novoalign, SOAP). Some software can take into account of gaps (e.g., BWA, Bowtie2) while others do not (e.g., MAQ, Bowtie).\n
After the alignment, the DNA sequence can be compared to the reference genome, identifying the possible changes. These variations can be due to genetic diseases or they can be only noise. The complexity of this subject lies in the difficulty to distinguish between the true variations and the sequencing errors [12]. The continuous development and improvement of NGS technologies has brought continuous advantages in this area, improving the quality of analysis [13, 14]. The main difficulty in this kind of analysis is the presence of indels, i.e., phenomena of inserts (insertion) or cancelation (deletion) of DNA segments. In fact, indels are the major cause of false-positives. The number of false-positives increases when using algorithms that do not take it into account of gaps. Another source of errors arises during the preparation of sequences and the PCR analysis. In order to reduce the errors, it is advisable to increase the sensitivity of the PCR analysis, use updated alignment software and a big reference database for getting wider comparisons.\n
After the alignment and variant calling steps, a list of thousands of potential differences is generated between the genome under study and the reference genome. The next step is then to determine which of these variations are due to sequencing errors. The use of specific filters allows to remove variants that do not follow the models under study and to make annotations. The comparison of reads against a genetic reference tree will find all elements of known function. In addition to the filtration step, the annotation process provides another tool to select and restrict the test sample, applying specific functional models [15]. The low cost of these new instruments is leading to the discovery of a great number of genetic variants and identifying various diseases [16]. For example, it has been observed that about 1300 positions of a gene or a sequence within a chromosome are associated with 200 diseases [17].\n
In general, there are three principal categories of variants:\n
Variants showing a clear pathogenetic role and associated with a phenotype disease.\n
The most commonly used definition to define this class of variants is "incidental findings."\n
\n\nTable 2\n reports some useful Internet sites for the genetic variant discovery analysis.\n
|http:// mamtools.sourceforce.net\n
The protocol in a nutshell:\n
Inspect the reads;
Raw data cleanup/quality trimming;
Align reads to a reference genome;
Mark duplicates;
Combine samples into a single file;
Realign reads around insertions and deletions (indels);
Correct inaccurate base qualities (optional);
Make variant calls, SNVs, indels;
Annotate the results.
Steps involved and suggested tools:\n
\nNGS: QC and manipulation → FastQC\n
\nCommand line: fastqc\n
Some of the important outputs of FastQC for our purposes are:\n
Quality encoding type: important for quality trimming software;
Total number of reads: gives you an idea of coverage;
Presence of highly recurring k-mers;
\nNGS: QC and manipulation → trimmomatic\n\n
Suggested trimmomatic functions:\n
Adapter trimming;
Sliding window trimming;
Trailing bases quality trimming;
Leading bases quality trimming;
Minimum read length.
Suggested tools:\n
NGS: Mapping → BWA
NGS: Picard → MarkDuplicates
NGS: SAM Tools → Merge BAM Files
NGS: GATK Tools → Indel Realigner
NGS: GATK Tools → Count Covariates
NGS: GATK Tools → Table Recalibration
\nNGS: GATK Tools → Unified Genotyper\n
Possible alternative software:\n
Varscan http://varscan.sourceforge.net/\n
\nNGS: GATK Tools → Variant Annotation\n\n
\n\nFigure 1\n shows an example of a variant analysis workflow.\n\n
Genetic testing based on NGS analysis can be divided depending on the width of the portion of the analyzed genome:\n
sequencing the entire genome (whole genome sequencing; WGS);
sequencing the entire exome (whole exome sequencing; WES) [18];
targeted gene sequencing.
The choice of the different method will take into account several factors:\n
\nCosts: since the introduction of the NGS practice, the use of specific panels has been privileged for economic reasons. Nowadays, the cost of the different methods has gradually narrowed and today this aspect is not, in most of the cases, the primary choice element. WES may be, in fact, less expensive of sequencing a panel of genes and, similarly, the cost of WGS is getting closer to that of WES;
\nPurpose: in general, the NGS techniques find the best applications in the case of high heterogeneity genetic diseases or for the Mendelian diseases in which the gene is not yet been identified;
\nDiagnosis: direct clinical applications are more and more frequent, especially for the congenital diseases;
\nSensitivity: the higher the number of reads of a specific region, the greater will be the sensibility for that particular stretch of DNA. In principle, in the analysis of specific panels, the smaller is the portion of the genome analyzed, the greater is the coverage and then the sensitivity. This is the reason why, for a mosaic alteration, the analysis of known genes shows a greater sensitivity than the WES analysis;
\nData storage: in relation to the increasing number of sequenced genomes and data to be analyzed, new bioinformatic platforms for storage and data analysis are needed.
The amount of data generated by NGS platforms is on the order of terabytes (Tb). Software used for data analysis differ according to the NGS technology but, all follow a "pipeline" system of data analysis converting the luminescence images or fluorescence data to "reads" sequences. In this process, defined, "base calling," a quality score value is set for each nucleotide, indicating the probability of an error associated with it. The "quality score" is an important value for selecting the reads during the analysis process. If they fall below a specific level, they are eliminated improving the accuracy of the alignment process. In order to get an adequate efficiency of the alignment, this value should not be below 30. Another limitation for the alignment process is represented by the repeated sequences. The error rates associated with the NGS technologies seem to be higher than the traditional Sanger method. However, the accuracy of the NGS sequencing is increased by means of a repeated and massive reading of each gene fragment, which determines the "coverage" of the genome. The latter parameter represents an essential value in the NGS analysis (value ranging between 20 and 50 times, in relation to the platform used) determining the presence of false negatives (for heterozygous individuals) in the detection of nucleotide variants. At the end of the variant annotation process, the number of identified variants varies in relation to the application of various filters, used to reduce the number of candidates. The filters most commonly used are based on:\n
inheritance pattern (autosomal/X-linked, dominant/recessive);
sharing equal variations in well-characterized families;
removal of variants already known through the use of public databases (dbSNP);
based on the potential effect of the change (no sense, missense, changes in splicing sites or insertions and deletions that modify the reading frame);
prediction of the functional effects of changes through the use of in silico bioinformatic tools (SIFT, POLYPHEN, and ANNOVAR software).
Although, in previous decades, the development of the Sanger method has brought many findings in chemistry, automation and miniaturization of the process, only the advent of NGS technologies has led to a significant improvement of quality and speed of the genome analysis [19]. The release of new sequencing platforms and the reduction of costs associated with the NGS technology is the consequence of three factors:\n
Thousands/millions of sequencing reactions can be conducted in parallel exceeding the limit of 1–96 possible reactions obtainable with a traditional sequencer;
Cloning or amplification of the DNA fragment is, in the new technologies, not necessary or completely automated within the platforms;
Ability to detect the minor allele with high accuracy. This in term allows a better identification of a variant in mosaic sample or heterozygous deletions. The number of times that a DNA fragment is amplified and sequenced is proportional to the abundance of such segment in the original sample.
The NGS technology has, however, some limitations related mostly to the magnitude of data products. In fact, in the NGS results we can observe false positives and false negatives.\n
False positives can result from:\n
an incorrect alignment with the reference sequence. You can overcome this problem using different alignment software;
systematic sequencing errors. This type of error can be identified in all the samples and removed from the final list [20];
technical errors of the sequencer. For example, with the pyrosequencing method, a common error was observed using homopolymers longer using the pyrosequencing method, was observed when reading homopolymers longer than 5–6 bases;
False negatives instead come from:\n
low coverage;
low coverage in regions of interest;
alignment of repeated regions.
The reduction of errors can be obtained increasing the coverage and the quality of DNA fragmentation (fragments of greater size). The implementation of the "paired-end" sequencing, that is able to sequence fragments of a greater length by both ends, allows the analysis of fragments of 5–10 kb. The use of the Sanger method is, however, required at the end of the analysis because the results, obtained using the NGS methods, require to be validated.\n
The genome can be assessed globally, only in the coding regions or in target regions. The main interest of the veterinary genetic sector is to study the coding regions as the greater number of diseases is caused by mutations or exonic splicing which alter the correct amino acid sequence of the protein. Indeed, exomes, while constituting only 1% of the genome, are the location of 85% of pathogenetic mutations. The number of mutations known to be associated with a genetic disease exceeds 110,000 variants, in most of 3700 different genes. It was estimated that only half of the Mendelian diseases have a known genetic basis. For these reasons, the scientific research focused mostly on exomes for the identification of new genes [21]. The approach, commonly used in the past, was to identify the transmitted loci associated with the phenotype by means of the segregation or linkage analysis, identifying shared genes of affected individuals in large size families. The advent of WES technology has triggered a rapid growth of the sector (identification of new disease), having the advantage of requiring a limited number of samples. The first successful application of this method has led to the identification of the gene DHODH as causative of Miller syndrome. Since 2010, a large amount of studies have identified new disease-causing mutations, through the exome sequencing method using a reduced number of affected individuals, in various types of diseases including cases of neuropathy, poikiloderma associated with neutropenia, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, immune disorders, and tumor predisposition. The use of WES allowed to identify some causative mutations also in diseases with high phenotypic heterogeneity where the traditional linkage analysis approach is more difficult. A new area of the development of NGS technology is linked to the identification of new biomarkers or pharmagenomics with the development of personalized therapies. The impact of next-generation sequencing technology on genomics has in turn led to a new revolution in the genetic field changing the nature of genetic trials. The production of a large number of low cost NGS platforms is useful for many applications. These include: new variants discovered by targeted resequencing regions of interest or whole genomes; de novo assemblies of bacterial genomes and lower eukaryotes; cataloging of cell, tissues and organism transcriptomes (RNA-Seq); profiling of genome-wide epigenetic marks and chromatin structure using seq-based methods (Chip-seq and Methyl-seq); classification of species and/or discovery of the gene using metagenomic studies. NGS technologies can also accelerate exploration of the natural world [22, 23]. Despite a dramatic increase in the number of complete genome sequences available in public databases, most of the biological diversity, in our world, remains to be explored. Nowadays, de novo assembly of NGS data requires the development of new software tools that can overcome the technical limitations of these technologies. In fact, the main limitation is a rapid deterioration in the quality of assembly as the length of reading decreases.\n
\nDe novo genome assembly is often compared to solving a great puzzle without knowing the picture that we are trying to rebuild [7, 21, 24]. Mathematically, the issue de novo assembly is difficult regardless of the method of sequencing. During the de novo assembly process, a high number of repeated segments in the genome may cause several errors. The assembler tool should guess the right genome, starting from a great number of alternative options (the number of attempts increases exponentially with a high pattern of repetitions in the genome) [25]. As the technology has evolved, new methods for assembling genomes have continuously changed [26]. Genome sequencers have never been able to read more than a relatively short stretch of DNA at once, with read lengths gradually increasing over time.\n
\nAssembly quality: High coverage is necessary to sequence polymorphic alleles within diploid or polyploidy genomes. However, using shorter reads, the coverage should be increased in order to balance the low connectivity of the system and to obtain an optimal assembly. However, some times, a poor assembly process cannot be improved by a higher coverage. In fact, in the case of a high number of long repeated sequences in the genome, a high coverage will never fully compensate for the increasing errors and gaps which are produced during the editing phase. Using paired end technology gaps can be crossed and eliminated [5].\n
Assembly methods aim to create the most comprehensive reconstruction as possible without introducing errors. The central challenge of assembling the genome is to solve the problem of repetitive sequences. If the DNA reads are random, than the expected number of cases of each sequence will decrease exponentially and the number of repeats in the genome is reduced. However, several genomes may share highly repeated structures which do not allow an easy assembly process [27].\n
\nScaffolding: The phase of scaffolding focuses on repeats to fix linking contig initials in data-driven scaffolds. A scaffold is a collection of contig linked by pair partners, where gaps between contigs between contig might be repeats, in which the gap can in theory be filled or outright gaps that original sequencing project does not capture [6]. If the distances are long enough, the assembler is able to connect contig in nearly all repetitions. Assembler tools may vary in the method how they call the contigs. The great majority of them are based on a combination of two factors: contig length and a number of reads. A contig containing too many reads is called as a repetition. High-copy-number patterns are easy to be identified. On the contrary, the identification of two copies is more difficult) [25]. If the contigs are overlapping in a scaffold, the assembler can merge at this point. Otherwise, the assembler will record a gap inside the scaffold.\n
\nExample of de novo assembly using the galaxy platform (www.galaxy.org)\n\n
Steps involved and suggested tools:\n
\nNGS: QC and manipulation → FastQC: comprehensive QC\n\n
\nCommand line: fastqc\n\n
Some of the important outputs of FastQC for our purposes are:\n
Read length: Will be important in setting maximum k-mer size value for assembly;
Quality encoding type: Important for quality trimming software;
% GC: High GC organisms don't tend to assemble well and may have an uneven read coverage distribution;
Total number of reads: Gives you an idea of coverage;
Dips in quality near the beginning, middle, or end of the reads: Determines possible trimming/cleanup methods and parameters and may indicate technical problems with the sequencing process/machine run;
Presence of highly recurring k-mers: May point to contamination of reads with barcodes, adapter sequences, etc.;
Presence of large numbers of Ns in reads: May point to poor quality sequencing run. You need to trim these reads to remove Ns.
Steps involved and suggested tools:\n
\nNGS: QC and manipulation > trimmomatic\n\n
Command lines:\n
Adapter trimming
Sliding window trimming
Trailing bases quality trimming
Minimum read length
Steps involved and suggested tools:\n
\nNGS-Assembly → Velvet Optimizer\n
\nPossible alternative software:\n
\nPossible tools for improving your assemblies:\n
QUAST – http://bioinf.spbau.ru/quast
InGAP-SV – https://sites.google.com/site/nextgengenomics/ingap
\nSemi-automated gap fillers:\n
Gap filler – http://www.baseclear.com/landingpages/basetools-a-wide-range-of-bioinformatics-solutions/gapfiller/
IMAGE – http://sourceforge.net/apps/mediawiki/image2/
\nGenome visualizers and editors:
Artemis – http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/artemis/
IGV – http://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/
Geneious – http://www.geneious.com/
CLC BioWorkbench – http://www.clcbio.com/products/clc-genomics-workbench/
\nAutomated and semi-automated annotation tools:\n
Prokka – https://github.com/tseemann/prokka
RAST – http://www.nmpdr.org/FIG/wiki/view.cgi/FIG/RapidAnnotationServer
JCVI – http://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/annotation-service/.
\n\nFigure 2\n shows an example of a genome assembly workflow.\n\n
The transcriptome is the totality of the transcripts present in a cell, each with their abundance and varies depending on the age stage and physiological conditions of the animals. The study of the transcriptome allow to interpret the functional genome elements identifying the different types of transcripts (mRNA, coding RNA, and small RNAs), to determine their level of expression and their structure (terminations to the 5\' and 3\', exon-intron structure, alternative splicing). The introduction of NGS methods has revolutionized the characterization and quantification of transcriptomes overcoming limitations of previous methods (for example, microarrays or RT-PCR), as the need for a previous knowledge of the genomic sequence, the background noise (due to cross-hybridization), and the limited dynamic range. Starting from the mRNA, a cDNA library is constructed and specific adapters to both ends of each sequence are used. Each molecule is then sequenced after the PCR amplification. The sequencing produces a series of short reads, which can be aligned to the genome or the reference transcriptome. These are used to construct an expression profile for each gene, with a resolution that can reach up to a single base. If the reads are short and very numerous (up to several million per run) you can identify transcripts with a low level of expression. The RNA-seq is highly reproducible and requires less RNA for the synthesis library, since it lacks the step of cloning. Nc RNAs (noncoding RNA) are small molecules which are not translated into proteins. This class of RNAs includes several RNAs as the transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), small nuclear and small nucleolar RNA, micro RNA and small interfering RNA (miRNA and siRNA). Micro RNAs (21-nucleotide-long RNAs) are very important posttranscriptional regulators of genes in animals. \nTable 3\n reports the most important Internet reference databases.\n
|DNA Data of Japan\n
|SNP consortium\n
|Stanford microarray\n
Karyotyping and in situ fluorescent hybridization technique (FISH) were traditionally used to detect the large genetic disorders. In the last decade, microarrays have been used to improve the resolution. Nowadays, NGS technologies can be used to sequence all the exomes or targeted exome regions.\n
SNP array is a specific type of chip array which is used to identify the single point mutations. After the DNA extraction, DNA is fragmented and processed by means of biochemical methods and labeled with a fluorescent dye. The DNA spots (20–100 bp) are attached to a solid surface (glass, plastic, or silicone) and the hybridization is performed using the samples of DNA to be tested. For each SNP to be genotyped, several DNA probes are designed with similar sequences but variable at one position corresponding to a polymorphism. The measure of the fluorescence, at each spot, allows us to detect the presence/absence of a specific allele. Two individual are identical at 99.9% of the genome and the wide linkage disequilibrium (LD) observed throughout the genome reduces the number of needed SNPs. If many SNPs are linked together in one region, only one maker is needed to be accurately measured. The ability to detect SNPs using array-based approaches is often limited by the density of the array.\n
Methylation effects and histone modifications explain most of the epigenetic and posttranscriptional modifications. Chip-seq (chromatin-immuno-precipitation and direct sequencing) is used at the whole-genome level [28].\n
The operations to be carried out in the molecular laboratory are as follows:\n
extracting DNA from a tissue, usually the blood;
DNA amplification. It consists in amplifying selectively the DNA;
DNA sequencing. Once you obtained the various DNA fragments amplified by PCR, you run the "sequencing reaction";
Analysis of the nucleotide sequences and search for gene mutations.
Specific software is used to perform an alignment between the nucleotide sequences of an individual showing a monogenic disease (from which you want to search for the mutation) and those of a control healthy individual (i.e., which does not have one specific disease). From this comparison, if the animal has a monogenic disease, may emerge one or more differences in the nucleotide sequence. These mutations (silent mutations, missense, not sense, frameshift, and splicing) shall be individually analyzed and evaluate the effects. The prediction of the effects of a missense mutation in the protein structure level is a complex process, in which we must take into account all the characteristics of the amino acids protein chain and their mutual interactions. Currently, some programs are available (such as SwissPdbViewer, for free on the websitehttp://www.expasy.org/spdbv/text/download.htm), able to process all of these data and provide a prediction of how the mutation will affect the three-dimensional structure of the protein. The automated sequencer provides the data files that can be displayed in the form of electropherograms with specific programs such as MT-Navigator (Applied Biosystems). The succession of peaks that make up the electropherogram is the result of the detection the fluorescence emitted by the fluorophores linked to the four ddNTPs used in the reactions of sequence. For each fluorochrome, and then to each nucleotide, it is conventionally associated a different color (A = green, T = red, C = blue, and G = black), thus facilitating the reading of the sequence. The reference sequences for the comparison may be obtained from the National Database Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The individual mutations are recognizable on the basis of several peak patterns. The substitutions of a single nucleotide or more nucleotides can be recognized because of its presence in a specific point of different color peaks corresponding to the replaced bases. One individual homozygous shows only one peak while a heterozygous shows two peaks corresponding to two alleles. A mutation can be localized in correspondence of the first base of the junction of splicing (GT becomes TT). In fact in most eukaryotic genes, introns begin with the "GT" bases and end with "AG."\n
Animal geneticist, whose role consisted only once in calculating the probability of transmission hereditary of a given genetic disease in a given individual, is now an active figure throughout the clinical process, from diagnosis to treatment. The collection of family history is a central point in clinical genetics. It, in fact, can help to arrive at a correct diagnosis. In addition, through early diagnosis, it is possible to prevent or delay the onset of the disease through a suitable therapy. This possibility is often about relatives of an individual and can take to extend the analysis beyond the individual subject. Even for a correct formulation of the prognosis, it is important to be able to refer to the specific form assumed by a given disease in a certain family. For example, in some cases, analysis of family history has allowed to recognize some individuals with less aggressive forms of a disease, a less severe clinical picture, and then improved life expectancy.\n
Genetic counseling is a communication process that aims to provide to individual pet owners or farmers the risk of genetic diseases in order to help these people to analyze the consequences and to make responsible decisions. The first task of the genetic counselor is to identify the individual's needs and provide information with an appropriate manner to the degree of its culture and its beliefs. In addition to information about the disease, it must present the possible available genetic tests, highlighting their reliability. Finally, it should discuss the implications of the various choices.\n
Rat infestation is an age-old problem around the globe. Dealing with rat pest in crops or plantation posed a long time challenge that has been tackled over the ages from the crudest method of flushing and hunting [1, 2] to mechanical trapping [3, 4] to translocation of exotic predators or classical biological control [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] to the applications of rodenticides of a certain active ingredient or another as a stand-alone or in combination with the propagation of a selected predator [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. However, sustainability is the keyword whereby keeping the rat population below the carrying capacity of the habitat almost indefinitely and at the same time reduces the potential of harming other animals and the environment as a whole. In agriculture and plantation where food is overly abundant to the depredators such as rodent in this case, keeping the rat population low would be particularly a challenge. Even if a method is improvised whereby huge population of rats is removed at any one time, the turnover rate is incredible that soon the vacant space will be reoccupied in no time, bringing the infestation level to where it originally was. Therefore, to design a sustainable control programme is not straightforward, and one may have to consider a number of options to get the near optimum result. In this chapter, conventional methods of baiting rats with rodenticides will be maintained but in combination with biological control approaches as outlined in the all too well familiar concept of integrated pest management (IPM).\n
In the olden days, rat infestation can be described as a plague, destroying whole fields of rice crop ready to harvest. The sight of fallen tillers at day break can be a so heart-rendering sight. Rats seemed to have migrated en masse from someplace else to take advantage of the ripened rice grains. In the 1900s up to the 1940s as per documented, hunting parties involving the whole village were organized to flushed out rats from their burrows and the surrounding areas and actually chasing and beating them as they showed up [19, 20]. Tens of thousands of rats were systematically bludgeoned to death in such campaigns. Despite of the decimation in numbers, there was no guarantee that the population will not be restored or replaced by a neighbouring colony. However, this gave some assurance and a temporary measure for a grain harvest of the season later after the Second World War with the advent of anticoagulant rodenticide; the warfarin became the quick answer to the rat infestation problem. It has remained in the market for decades since, although other more potent and toxic compounds found their way into the market. These classes of rodenticides are fittingly called anticoagulants from their mode of action which induces perforations of the blood vessels leading to massive loss of blood as a result of the suppression of the clotting factor in the blood. They eventually took over the more acute poisons with almost immediate effect upon consumption such as zinc phosphide. Although the application of the latter has been made unlawful, farmers are known to still subscribing to it and other unspecified compounds. Applications of the warfarin or what was eventually labelled as first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (FGARs) have led to resistance as a consequence of prolonged exposure of the rat population over an extended period [21, 22]. Over-reliance of the warfarin has been attributed to the phenomenon of commensal rats in urban areas as well their agricultural counterparts, developing high tolerance and even complete resistance to the former [23, 24]. Not only warfarin has been made ineffective; rats are also not succumbing to other FGARs compounds perhaps by way of cross resistance. These have prompted the chemical companies to develop second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides with potency or toxicity that may reach 10fold compared to FGARs. Compounds such as bromadiolone and brodifacoum have been in the market for a reasonably long time that it is anticipated that rats will eventually overcome them as a result of long-term exposure. Apart from being highly toxic, which may expedite the development of resistance, they are also harmful to the other creatures which may consume the bait or the predators that become exposed to the compound indirectly by feeding on the prey. Indirect feeding may also involve a secondary or a top predator consequently causing tertiary poisoning. The residues of the active ingredient will build up the food pyramid or down the food chain, accumulating in the tissues and vital organs in the process. The end or top predator will bear the brunt as the bioaccumulation of the residues has reached a level that is fatal [25, 26, 27]. Another more destructive impact is the sequesterian of the residues on the eggs through the process of ovulation, leading to lower fecundity, addled eggs, lower clutch size and smaller less healthy brood [28, 29]. Many raptors in the temperate regions have become extinct in certain parts of their geographical distribution in Europe and North America [30]. Therefore, unsustainable rodenticide application has a huge impact on the wildlife at the end of the food chain [31]. Thus, to redeem the situation and reclaim our natural ecosystem, a more benign approach has to be discovered to replace the standard conventional rat baiting method.\n
Resorting to biological control would be the method of choice as predators would keep prey population in check. In a natural environment where the ecosystem has reached an equilibrium, the population of prey and predator dynamics would always be in tandem [32, 33, 34]. This would lead to a stable relationship as there would not be cycles of trough and population crash as a result of over predation. Such an ideal association may be possible in a natural habitat where the vegetation and food resources limit the population size. The carrying capacity of the habitat for any particular prey and in turn predator would always be in keeping with the availability of resources which is heterogenous for the most part. In a monocropping situation, there is an overabundance of a particular resource to a handful of consumer species which are best to adapt and exploit the resources. As a consequence the carrying capacity of these handfuls of species may explode by several folds compared to the more heterogenous natural habitat. This in turn will bring about huge crop and economic losses. The predators may be incapacitated to deal with such high density of prey and may not be able to grow in population size to match the prey availability [35]. After all food limits not only the population density of the prey but also the nesting sites and foraging space. Therefore, the lower number of predators than what the habitat can actually support will only harvest a fraction of the surplus individuals of prey [36, 37]. This will only sustain an exceptionally high prey density which translates into high volume of crop damage. Therefore, identifying a suitable predator for a rat prey would have to take into consideration the adaptability and the carrying capacity of the habitat of the said predator.\n
Small mammals such as rodents would be the prey choice for most medium size predators like civet cats, mongoose, monitor lizards, the more agile snakes and birds of prey [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. These resident predators casually prey on rats apart from other invertebrate prey, amphibians, small reptiles and mollusc. The varied prey is suitable for a forest habitat that is home to a myriad of invertebrates to compensate for the scarcity of rodents and larger prey which are occasionally present. Some of these animals also sample roots, tubers, fruits and other plant matter. The diet structure may not be suitable for candidacy of a biological control agent. The feeding capacity may not fulfil the criteria for an effective predator of the prey. Furthermore the range of food of such predators makes them less than ideal to be recruited as a biological control agent. Snakes and reptiles in particular have a lower food requirement by virtue of its poikilothermic nature. It may not require as much food to sustain its metabolism. Therefore, they consume less food and remove fewer prey than homeotherms.\n
Birds of prey or raptors especially eagle are day hunting predator. Although the diet of eagles may consist of a range of prey, they are predominantly small mammals such as rodents. However, rats are nocturnal animals, and in terms of temporal distribution, the prey and predator are not compatible. Therefore, eagles and the like are out of the question. Having discounting the eagle and allies, the owls on the contrary are nocturnal birds of prey. They are active from dusk to dawn, and their eyes and habits are designed for hunting rodents in the cover of darkness. There are two types of owl: the true owl and the barn owl. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the two largest oil palm producers in the world, many wildlife have become adapted to inhabit and forage for food. Owls particularly barn owl has become a common resident especially where artificial nest boxes are provided. In those plantations where artificial nest boxes have been established, the barn owl population has grown considerably to effectively deal with rat infestation, especially in combination with a suitable rodenticide bait.\n
The barn owl Tyto alba is believed to have arrived at Peninsular Malaysia from the island of Java, perhaps at the turn of the century based on the first documented observation [48]. The first recorded breeding was documented in Johore in 1969 [49]. A vagrant species, the barn owl has a worldwide distribution except for Antarctica where it is absent as well as the remote atolls in the Pacific. It is associated to farm and agriculture landscape, where it typically seeks refuge or nest in barns and other farm buildings. While barn owl is a common sight in the fields and natural landscape of Europe and North America, it is not common in the agricultural landscape of Malaysia. Rice farmers were not familiar with the owl prior to the late 1980s, whereby they were first introduced by the Department of Agriculture as part of the rat control programme in the ricefield in the state of Selangor and Perak [50]. The infrastructure which largely consists of concrete buildings may not be suitable as refuge for owls. Therefore, artificial nest boxes were installed which boost the local owl population. A year after the implementation of the programme, crop damage as a result of rat activities has dropped considerably from around 10–15% to less than 2% [15]. The damage levels were maintained at that low level for 5 years straight and gradually increased to around 5% which was attributed to the dilapidated condition of the nest boxes. They were made of plywood and apparently were not durable and no longer habitable. Not only the lower crop loss was substantially lower, rat baiting was cut down from eight to just a single round per season. With only two baiting rounds necessary per year to bring down the base rat population lower than the carrying capacity of the ricefield habitat, so that the owls can suppress the population turnover rate, the economic benefits are tremendous.\n
Barn owl programme in the ricefield was actually preceded by a pioneer programme in the oil palm. Oil palm was first grown in the country in 1917 and cultivated on a commercial scale in 1950. Unlike in its original home where it grows naturally, in Malaysia oil palm is a cultivated crop with a high productivity. The release of the pollinating weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus on a large scale has pushed the palm oil production to unprecedented levels. The oil palm fruit bunch provides nutritious food source for birds and small mammals, particularly squirrels and rats. Squirrels particularly the plantain or red-bellied squirrel Callosciurus notatus and the grey squirrel Callosciurus caniceps are common in oil palm plantation [40, 51]. While the squirrels sample the oil palm fruitlets nibbling away its rich mesocarp and kernel during the day, rats feed on them at night [52]. In the early stage, these rodents may visit oil palm plantations especially those that are contiguous with the natural forest to feed and return back to their natural habitat where they breed and forage. However, with these rodents particularly rat with a high learning capacity and adaptability, they eventually adopt the oil palm plantation as home. The first rat species that is known to adapt successfully in the oil palm plantation is the wood rat Rattus tiomanicus, which originally live in the shrubs and secondary forest [53]. When they start to nest in the spaces within the bases of the oil palm fronds, the oil palm plantation is the new adopted home for R. tiomanicus. Thus, it is now by and large associated with oil palm [54]. With the high availability of such nutritious food, the carrying capacity of the crop for rat was estimated at over 350 rats per hectare. In its natural habitat where food is scarce and with diverse niches which support more species of small mammals, the interspecific competition is greater [3, 4, 46, 47, 55]. Thus, the population density of R. tiomanicus can be manyfold higher than its original natural habitat. Losses attributed to R. tiomanicus and other rat species to a smaller extant can reach anywhere from 5% up to 30% or even higher in some situations [56].\n
In areas where oil palm plantation is adjacent to the ricefield, the common rat species found is the ricefield rat Rattus argentiventer. In that situation R. argentiventer is the dominant species, but studies have shown that its presence is transient, i.e. up to 4- or 5-year-old stand only. Other rat species may take over such as R. rattus diardii, which is common in areas near human habitation or R. tiomanicus. At any rate, the rat density hovers from 200 to 400 individuals per hectare. Damage is confined not only to the fruitlets but also to the apical bud at the nursery and young planting stage [56, 57, 58, 59]. At 30–36 months when the young oil palm starts to crop, while the crowns are low lying, damage can be severe on the fruit bunches. Rats may also devour the male and female florescence, and they may also feed on the larvae of the pollinating weevils, reducing the fruit set. Recently invasion by a much larger species the bandicoot rat Bandicota indica in plantation in the northern state of Perlis showed that not only do they completely devour the florescence but they also feed away the base of the outer frond of young palms, killing them in the process [59].\n
The frequent use of rodenticide which has been the mainstay of rat control in oil palm has led to some serious implications to the ecosystem. The most direct consequence is the unintended poisoning of nontarget species especially wildlife. Since rodenticides are all broad-spectrum, it is fatal to any mammals of birds which casually consume them. As the rodenticides are presented as baits, they are likely to be picked up by wildlife including forest rat species which lives near the forest edge and may undertake daily foraging inside the plantation. Apart from primary exposure, predators or scavengers can be duly exposed to secondary poisoning from feeding on prey or carcass that has succumbed to the effects of the rodenticide [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65]. Bioaccumulation of the active ingredients may lead to long-term sublethal effects or immediate lethal effects [66, 67, 68, 69]. Another implication which is counterproductive is the development of resistance individuals as a result of natural selection against rodenticide toxicity. It will eventually give rise to a population which is predominantly resistant, and the susceptible individual will systematically disappear over time [70, 71]. In such a situation, the rodenticide will be rendered ineffective, and a more potent rodenticide will have to be synthesised to overcome the resistant individuals. There is a possibility that resistant individuals will exhibit cross resistance to a range of other rodenticides of different active ingredients.\n
In the oil palm plantation, as a result of a long-term application of warfarin, a first-generation anticoagulant rodenticide has led to many rat populations which turned resistant, prompting planters to switch to brodifacoum, a second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR) introduced in the early 1980s [72].\n
Therefore, biological control using predators is the closest to depict nature. However, the capacity or predation rate will have to keep with the prey population density [8, 35]. Predators may act in a numerical fashion, i.e. increase in prey will bring about increase in predation rate. This can be realised theoretically by higher rate of hunting and consumption by an increase in predation numbers [73]. This can be achieved by either increasing production rate or higher immigration rate to take advantage of the higher prey density. Naturally this is difficult to achieve because there is a lag time for the predator numbers to keep up with the prey population. The consequence is higher crop damage before the predator can decimate the prey. The other responses of the predator can be functional, i.e. each individual predator increases its consumption on that particular prey species [74, 75]. Theoretically this is applicable, but in reality, the prey species may not be varied which is ideal for a generalist predator which simply switches prey type based on availability [76]. In a situation of a crop habitat where there's only one common species, it is impossible for the predator to modify its diet unless it immigrate or emigrate depending on the availability of the single prey type. These are the theoretical consideration when choosing a natural enemy to be recruited for an effective biological control programme for rats in oil palm [77].\n
The barn owl seems to be an ideal predator given the circumstances in the oil palm plantation [78]. It does not build its own nest. Natural potential nesting sites such as the hole in a trunk is next to impossible to come by. Thus providing artificial nest boxes which the owl readily occupies boosts numbers to match with the rat infestation levels. With the huge prey availability, nest boxes not only increase breeding pair to take up residence and breed; the reproductive level can increase to take advantage of the food availability. The clutch size that ranges from typically 4 to 7 is dictated by prey availability [10, 66, 78, 79, 80]. A clutch size of 10–12 eggs is documented during peak season of the rat prey. This is apparent particularly in the ricefield during the land preparation stage after harvesting where the subadult rats born of the season start to join the aboveground population [81]. They guarantee a good supply of food for a high brood size or owlet numbers of the season. The owls have a self-checking mechanism to regulate their population size. In times of low prey numbers, the clutch size is smaller to sustain most of the chicks. When food is particularly scarce, the chicks will be subjected to differential survival. Since the egg hatches asynchronously, i.e. at intervals of 2 to 3 days, the size of the chicks from the same brood is different. In fact there is a gradation in size or height of the chick from the largest to the smallest [10, 78]. In unfavourable season only the larger owlets will get sufficiently fed to grow to fledglings. The smaller ones will starve to death by virtue of not being able to compete for food with the larger siblings. Fledging success is typically high in the region of 80% unless owl population is subjected to application of highly toxic rodenticide in the environment [66, 78]. There has also been cannibalism, i.e. owlets being killed by the respective parents, and this behaviour may be triggered by insufficient food. In a way this is a mechanism that leads to a numerical response of sort.\n
The high rate of prey removal which is not necessarily translated into prey consumed is another attribute of the barn owl. The male barn owl which has been observed to bring prey to the nest may take home more prey than what is necessary to feed the chicks. In many occasions the carcasses were left to rot in the nest boxes, and only a fraction of the prey was actually consumed. This is an added advantage as it increases the kill rate more than the daily food requirement. From casual survey in the fields, the number of rats removed from the fields by a breeding pair of barn owl is in the region of 800–1500 rats per breeding season. Thus, by having an optimum density of nest boxes in the plantation, barn owl can bring down rat numbers substantially.\n
However, the prolificity of the rat population leads to a high turnover rate which the owls cannot keep up. Thus, the baseline population of the rat needs to be lowered by the application of rodenticides. Barn owl in combination with a suitable rodenticide will bring about the desired effect, i.e. sustainable rat management in oil palm.\n
Barn owl has many of the attributes of owls which make them excellent nocturnal predators, features like the binocular vision and the almost complete 360 degree of the head turn. However, it lacks the feature of the more secretive owl, the typical owls. The barn owl relies on keen hearing more than eyesight, especially when hunting in the thickets and forest undergrowth. The differential positioning of the ear cavity enables the owl to detect its prey with near precision. Thus, the barn owl can hunt in darkness and rely on the sound made by a potential prey as the cue. The wing area to body weight ratio is particularly larger than most birds, so that it does not have to flap harder to create lift causing a lot of air turbulence. The owl only needs to glide effortlessly and strike at its unsuspecting prey.\n
The features that make the barn owl close to an ideal predator have prompted efforts of translocating owls to areas that are not known to have a local resident population [82]. Several attempts have been made to translocate owls from the Peninsular Malaysia to Sabah and Sarawak. There has been some spectacular success in this venture. Even though the oil palm landscape may not be similar with that in the Peninsular, with varied different species of rats abound, the translocated owls have established well and been breeding successfully [83]. In Lahad Datu, Sabah, owl's translocation programme that started with ten pairs of owl in 2015 has grown to a population of more than 700 individuals [84, 85].\n
Since barn owl is a generalist predator and responds to prey availability by numerical response, i.e. increasing fecundity or immigration/emigration, the effectiveness as a natural predator of rats in the long run relies much on the prey/food supply [86, 87]. Since, in many occasions, infestation of rats in oil palm plantation has reached epidemic levels, the reliability of the owls may not fulfil the control requirement. There was an abundance of prey that only surplus individuals of the aboveground population will be harvested [35]. The infestation status will remain above the economic threshold or crop injury level. Therefore, the application of rodenticide has to be placed in combination with the barn owl programme. Warfarin as the classical FGAR has been applied in combination with barn owl propagation since the 1970s and well into the 1980s. Past studies have assumed warfarin has no apparent effects on barn owl fecundity and population status. When rat has shown evidence of resistance and plantations gradually or abruptly switched to SGAR particularly brodifacoum, barn owl population in a number of occasions experience a sharp decline or were completely wiped out [72]. The susceptibility of owls to the effects of bioaccumulation of SGAR residues in the vital organs and tissues has rendered the combination of the latter with rodenticide futile [63, 66, 88, 89].\n
The impact of FGARs may not be apparent in terms of immediate lethal effects. Studies on sublethal effects measured in terms of lowered nest occupancies, fecundity, lower brood size and lower fledging success have shown that FGARs can have some long-term effects on the viability of the barn owl population. It may lower the fitness of the individuals and eventually the population as a whole [90, 91]. A study investigating the sublethal effects of anticoagulant rodenticides in an oil palm plantation in Pahang, Malaysia, over four breeding seasons has indicated that FGARs like chlorophacinone lead to lower nest boxes occupancies, significantly lower brood size and lower fledging rates (Table 1). However, the result from the bromadiolone (SGAR)-treated area was significantly lower than chlorophacinone in terms of nest occupancy [92]. Another study in oil palm in Perak suggested that the brood size and the fledging rate were lower in brodifacoum (SGAR)-treated plot than warfarin (FGAR)-treated plot which in turn was lower than the untreated plot (Table 2) [66].\n
|Rodenticide free\n
|37.20 ± 1.14 a\n
|51.79 ± 1.34 bc\n
|83.33 ± 3.60 c\n
|Clutch size\n
|3.56 ± 0.10 a\n
|3.69 ± 0.10 a\n
|4.69 ± 0.11 a\n
|Brood size\n
|3.11 ± 0.06 a\n
|3.38 ± 0.07 a\n
|4.21 ± 0.12 b\n
|Fledging rates\n
|2.20 ± 0.10 a\n
|2.65 ± 0.06 a\n
|3.95 ± 0.07 b\n
|Rodenticide free\n
|Clutch size\n
|4.83 ± 1.64 a\n
|3.95 ± 0.68 a\n
|5.43 ± 1.07 a\n
|Brood size\n
|2.06 ± 1.42 a\n
|2.17 ± 0.80 b\n
|4.21 ± 0.12 c\n
|Fledging rates\n
|0.50 ± 0.17 a\n
|1.52 ± 0.73 b\n
|4.40 ± 1.01 c\n
Low mean fledging rates of 2.65 and 2.20 in chlorophacinone (FGAR)- and bromadiolone (SGAR)-treated areas, respectively, suggest that owls are at considerable risk in maintaining a stable population. The nestlings were most likely to have succumbed to the toxic effects during their development stage. Similarly low fledging rates of 1.52 and 0.50 were recorded in the warfarin- and brodifacoum-treated plots, respectively. Henny [79] estimated that 1.9–2.2 fledging per breeding pair is the minimum reproductive rate to maintain a stable barn owl population. Based on these results, chlorophacinone and warfarin (FGAR) may not differ much compared to bromadiolone and brodifacoum (SGAR) as far as the long-term survival of owls for a sustainable rat control programme.\n
Nestlings in the rodenticide-free plots show the longest wingspan and greatest body mass compared to the SGAR- and FGAR-treated areas in both Pahang and Perak (Tables 3 and 4). The reduction in wing length and body mass ranged from 10 to 16% to 7–10% from the sublethal effects of SGAR and 2–8% to 6–10% from the sublethal effects of FGAR, respectively. There were teratogenic signs in a few nestlings exposed to brodifacoum as a morphological evidence to support claims of secondary poisoning. Nestlings raised in rodenticide-free area fledged successfully upon release into the field, but those from treated areas need another 1 or 2 weeks before they can take to flight [66].\n
|Rodenticide free\n
|Wing length (cm)\n
|26.02 + 0.22\n
|26.30 + 0.23\n
|28.70 + 0.14*\n
|Weight (g)\n
|544.4 ± 7.05\n
|565.0 ± 8.44\n
|579.9 ± 10.07*\n
|Rodenticide free\n
|Wing length (cm)\n
|22.15 + 0.23\n
|25.86 + 0.13\n
|26.28 + 0.11*\n
|Weight (g)\n
|554.9 ± 8.72\n
|585.8 ± 6.62\n
|613.3 ± 5.98*\n
The barn owl is an effective biological control agent on rats. However, its natural or facilitated rearing by providing nest boxes in combination with rodenticide can have long-term sublethal effects on the former. The choice of rodenticide is crucial to sustain owl population in oil palm. SGAR can have a greater implication in terms of lowered fecundity and morphological impairments. However, the sublethal effects of FGAR only differ in terms of scale compared to that of SGAR. Therefore, baiting strategy and botanical-based or biological rodenticide need to be formulated for a sustainable rodent control with barn owl.\n
IntechOpen is the first native scientific publisher of Open Access books, with more than 116,000 authors worldwide, ranging from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery. Established in Europe with the new headquarters based in London, and with plans for international growth, IntechOpen is the leading publisher of Open Access scientific books. The values of our business are based on the same ones that any scientist applies to their research -- we have created a culture of respect, collegiality and collaboration within an atmosphere that's relaxed, friendly and progressive.",metaTitle:"Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant",metaDescription:"We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Marketing and Communications Specialist position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate will be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate wll be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.\\n\\n
The Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant will report to the Senior Marketing Manager. They will work alongside the Marketing and Corporate Communications team, supporting the preparation of all marketing programs, assisting in the development of scientific marketing and communication deliverables, and creating content for social media outlets, as well as managing international social communities.\\n\\n
Essential Skills:\\n\\n
Desired Skills:\\n\\n
What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?\\n\\n
IntechOpen is a global, dynamic and fast-growing company offering excellent opportunities to develop. We are a young and vibrant company where great people do great work. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, passionate, and above all, fun environment where you can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow your career and experience.\\n\\n
To apply, please email a copy of your CV and covering letter to firstname.lastname@example.com stating your salary expectations.\\n\\n
Note: This full-time position will have an immediate start. In your cover letter, please indicate when you might be available for a block of two hours. As part of the interview process, all candidates that make it to the second phase will participate in a writing exercise.\\n\\n
*IntechOpen is an Equal Opportunities Employer consistent with its obligations under the law and does not discriminate against any employee or applicant on the basis of disability, gender, age, colour, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation, war veteran status, or any classification protected by state, or local law.\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate wll be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.\n\n
The Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant will report to the Senior Marketing Manager. They will work alongside the Marketing and Corporate Communications team, supporting the preparation of all marketing programs, assisting in the development of scientific marketing and communication deliverables, and creating content for social media outlets, as well as managing international social communities.\n\n
Essential Skills:\n\n
Desired Skills:\n\n
What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?\n\n
IntechOpen is a global, dynamic and fast-growing company offering excellent opportunities to develop. We are a young and vibrant company where great people do great work. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, passionate, and above all, fun environment where you can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow your career and experience.\n\n
To apply, please email a copy of your CV and covering letter to firstname.lastname@example.com stating your salary expectations.\n\n
Note: This full-time position will have an immediate start. In your cover letter, please indicate when you might be available for a block of two hours. As part of the interview process, all candidates that make it to the second phase will participate in a writing exercise.\n\n
*IntechOpen is an Equal Opportunities Employer consistent with its obligations under the law and does not discriminate against any employee or applicant on the basis of disability, gender, age, colour, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation, war veteran status, or any classification protected by state, or local law.\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5319},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4828},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1471},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14788}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108345},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8565",title:"Aeronautics and Astronautics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43f114ba03e5e42ba53da372ffc3cbde",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8565.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8183",title:"Differential Hardening",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3960c9c8b7a83b8e61db186dcf59d65a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8183.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9207",title:"Telescopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"57bcf0a5b15fc2ed722e4b79f9183ae5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9207.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9465",title:"Sputtering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9ca7edff5f5d5c991efb8a8d40d7dded",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9465.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9861",title:"Supersymmetry in Physics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ef9240efb577442af37dc1f899e7dea9",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9861.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9871",title:"Photometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9ef5705e1c2ad6c8823e84dca0ea1864",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9871.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9899",title:"Star Rotation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43fe887126b97826cfeba2e51302ccaf",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9899.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10084",title:"Catenary Curve",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d4bc9f20742fcb7053961b65983ad9b9",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10084.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10081",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e2b699f2e8f11f107dc753f7a0166f70",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10081.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10083",title:"Baryons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4824640c88eb4f4f1eed7a9ca53ef4f2",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10083.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9189",title:"Hyperfine Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df6ed610ec763f455e222cff7ab5ae7a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sivarama Krishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9189.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"305542",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivarama",surname:"Krishnan",slug:"sivarama-krishnan",fullName:"Sivarama Krishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7857",title:"String Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c0f1f74e6dfe0087e52325fc64b48235",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7857.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:34},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:33},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:71},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:136},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Genesiology",value:300,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:521,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:30},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",slug:"antioxidants",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4398},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8747",title:"Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6083f7c9881029f1e033a1e512af7e20",slug:"asphalt-and-asphalt-mixtures",bookSignature:"Haitao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8292",title:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"327e750e83634800ace02fe62607c21e",slug:"oral-health-by-using-probiotic-products",bookSignature:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8292.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245925",title:"Dr.",name:"Razzagh",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"razzagh-mahmoudi",fullName:"Razzagh Mahmoudi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8347",title:"Computer Architecture in Industrial, Biomechanical and Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3d7024a8d7d8afed093c9c79ec31f15a",slug:"computer-architecture-in-industrial-biomechanical-and-biomedical-engineering",bookSignature:"Lulu Wang and Liandong Yu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257388",title:"Dr.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"435",title:"Educational Management",slug:"educational-management",parent:{title:"Business Administration",slug:"business-management-and-economics-business-administration"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:26,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"educational-management",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"4511",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Education and Training",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a10958147b9a516affca89c11cdafe09",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",bookSignature:"Jose C. Sanchez-Garcia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4511.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105695",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",slug:"jose-c.-sanchez",fullName:"Jose C. Sanchez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"47780",doi:"10.5772/59272",title:"Mismatch in Teachers' Ontological Conception of Entrepreneurship Education",slug:"mismatch-in-teachers-ontological-conception-of-entrepreneurship-education",totalDownloads:1443,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Kaarlo Paloniemi and Pekka Belt",authors:[{id:"171583",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaarlo",middleName:null,surname:"Paloniemi",slug:"kaarlo-paloniemi",fullName:"Kaarlo Paloniemi"},{id:"171584",title:"Dr.",name:"Pekka",middleName:null,surname:"Belt",slug:"pekka-belt",fullName:"Pekka Belt"}]},{id:"47731",doi:"10.5772/59344",title:"Promoting Entrepreneurship Education through University Networks — A Case Study in Mozambique",slug:"promoting-entrepreneurship-education-through-university-networks-a-case-study-in-mozambique",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Dambusse Libombo, Anabela Dinis and Mário Franco",authors:[{id:"105171",title:"Prof.",name:"Anabela",middleName:null,surname:"Dinis",slug:"anabela-dinis",fullName:"Anabela Dinis"},{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mario Franco"},{id:"171585",title:"MSc.",name:"Dambusse",middleName:null,surname:"Libombo",slug:"dambusse-libombo",fullName:"Dambusse Libombo"}]},{id:"47530",doi:"10.5772/59061",title:"Entrepreneurship Education as Learning to Form Identities — Cross-Cultural Perspective",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-as-learning-to-form-identities-cross-cultural-perspective",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Iiris Aaltio and Qian Wang",authors:[{id:"170936",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"},{id:"170942",title:"Prof.",name:"Iiris",middleName:null,surname:"Aaltio",slug:"iiris-aaltio",fullName:"Iiris Aaltio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"47731",title:"Promoting Entrepreneurship Education through University Networks — A Case Study in Mozambique",slug:"promoting-entrepreneurship-education-through-university-networks-a-case-study-in-mozambique",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Dambusse Libombo, Anabela Dinis and Mário Franco",authors:[{id:"105171",title:"Prof.",name:"Anabela",middleName:null,surname:"Dinis",slug:"anabela-dinis",fullName:"Anabela Dinis"},{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mario Franco"},{id:"171585",title:"MSc.",name:"Dambusse",middleName:null,surname:"Libombo",slug:"dambusse-libombo",fullName:"Dambusse Libombo"}]},{id:"48258",title:"Entrepreneurship Education in China",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-in-china",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Weiming Li and Chunyan Li",authors:[{id:"170960",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Weiming",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"weiming-li",fullName:"Weiming Li"},{id:"170961",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"chunyan-li",fullName:"Chunyan Li"}]},{id:"47571",title:"Entrepreneurship Education in Spain",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-in-spain",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"José C. Sánchez-García and Brizeida Hernández-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"105695",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",slug:"jose-c.-sanchez",fullName:"Jose C. Sanchez"},{id:"171418",title:"Prof.",name:"Brizeida",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Sanchez",slug:"brizeida-hernandez-sanchez",fullName:"Brizeida Hernandez-Sanchez"}]},{id:"47638",title:"The Spirit of Entrepreneurial Education in Namibia — An Exploratory Study",slug:"the-spirit-of-entrepreneurial-education-in-namibia-an-exploratory-study",totalDownloads:2570,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Wilfred Isak April",authors:[{id:"110034",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfred",middleName:"Isak",surname:"April",slug:"wilfred-april",fullName:"Wilfred April"}]},{id:"47530",title:"Entrepreneurship Education as Learning to Form Identities — Cross-Cultural Perspective",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-as-learning-to-form-identities-cross-cultural-perspective",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Iiris Aaltio and Qian Wang",authors:[{id:"170936",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"},{id:"170942",title:"Prof.",name:"Iiris",middleName:null,surname:"Aaltio",slug:"iiris-aaltio",fullName:"Iiris Aaltio"}]},{id:"47596",title:"Entrepreneurship Education for Women in Brazil — Challenges and Limits",slug:"entrepreneurship-education-for-women-in-brazil-challenges-and-limits",totalDownloads:1433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Elaine da Silveira Leite",authors:[{id:"171363",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",middleName:null,surname:"Silveira Leite",slug:"elaine-silveira-leite",fullName:"Elaine Silveira Leite"}]},{id:"47424",title:"Educating Succeeding Generation Entrepreneurs in Family Businesses – The Case of Slovenia",slug:"educating-succeeding-generation-entrepreneurs-in-family-businesses-the-case-of-slovenia",totalDownloads:1397,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Mojca Duh, Marina Letonja and Jaka Vadnjal",authors:[{id:"107741",title:"Prof.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Duh",slug:"mojca-duh",fullName:"Mojca Duh"},{id:"108501",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaka",middleName:null,surname:"Vadnjal",slug:"jaka-vadnjal",fullName:"Jaka Vadnjal"},{id:"172967",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Letonja",slug:"marina-letonja",fullName:"Marina Letonja"}]},{id:"47669",title:"Customer Orientation of Current and Future Entrepreneurs in Research Using Projection Methods — Implications for Education",slug:"customer-orientation-of-current-and-future-entrepreneurs-in-research-using-projection-methods-implic",totalDownloads:1171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Anna Pawłowska",authors:[{id:"170962",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Pawłowska",slug:"anna-pawlowska",fullName:"Anna Pawłowska"}]},{id:"47423",title:"The Importance of Partnerships in Promoting Entrepreneurship Education – Case Study of a Group of Schools",slug:"the-importance-of-partnerships-in-promoting-entrepreneurship-education-case-study-of-a-group-of-scho",totalDownloads:1498,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Maria Isabel Carvalho and Mário Franco",authors:[{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mario Franco"},{id:"172084",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Maria Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",slug:"maria-isabel-carvalho",fullName:"Maria Isabel Carvalho"}]},{id:"47595",title:"Teaching and Detecting The Creative Potential — Experience and Perspectives",slug:"teaching-and-detecting-the-creative-potential-experience-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"entrepreneurship-education-and-training",title:"Entrepreneurship",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship Education and Training"},signatures:"Sílvio Manuel Brito",authors:[{id:"170935",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvio Manuel",middleName:"Da Rocha",surname:"Brito",slug:"silvio-manuel-brito",fullName:"Sílvio Manuel Brito"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"educational-management",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10080",title:"Vortex Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea97962e99b3e0ebc9b46b48ba5bea14",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Zambri Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8771",title:"Raman Scattering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1354b3097eaa5b27d9d4bd29d3150b27",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Samir Kumar and Dr. Prabhat Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8771.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296661",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"samir-kumar",fullName:"Samir Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10073",title:"Recent Advances in Nanophotonics-Fundamentals and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aceca7dfc807140870a89d42c5537d7c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mojtaba Kahrizi and Ms. Parsoua Abedini Sohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10073.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"113045",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kahrizi",slug:"mojtaba-kahrizi",fullName:"Mojtaba Kahrizi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9284",title:"Computational Aeroacoustics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7019c5e5985faef7dc384c87dca5c8ef",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9284.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"onlineFirst.detail",path:"/online-first/sustainable-control-of-rats-by-rodenticide-application-and-natural-propagation-of-barn-owls-tyto-jav",hash:"",query:{},params:{chapter:"sustainable-control-of-rats-by-rodenticide-application-and-natural-propagation-of-barn-owls-tyto-jav"},fullPath:"/online-first/sustainable-control-of-rats-by-rodenticide-application-and-natural-propagation-of-barn-owls-tyto-jav",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()