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Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:57:34 AM by Julie Crevier. Chair. Arm chair are perfect furniture item for your home. There are many styles, colors, and sizes to choose from and these chairs also provide several functions. Arm chairs would be most beneficial to a homeowner is for added seating in your room. You will feel so comfortable at these arm chairs. There is Helsinki Chair, Louis Armchair, Volume Arm Chair and Cozy Arm Chair those are fit in any room of your house. We provide you arm chairs with beautiful designs, different colours, comfort and affordable prices.
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:15:58 AM. Chair By Georgette Corne. Conference Chairs - Having a set of nice conference chairs is a key piece of furniture every office should acquire. Conference chair prices can vary from the low-end of around $100 to the high-end of up to $600. Conference chairs on the low-end of the price spectrum will have a basic look, last around 5 years, and will have a cheaper upholstery (vinyl, faux leather, etc.). Chairs with a higher price range will have a more modern appearance, more adjustments, a more expensive upholstery (leather), and will typically last a bit longer with their sturdier construction. Good conference chairs do not have to put a burden on your budget it really comes down to how nice you want the chairs to look, if guests will be sitting in your chairs or solely employees, if real leather upholstery is a staple in your purchasing decision, the level of adjustability, and how much time will be spent in these chairs on a regular basis.
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:15:55 AM. Chair By Julie Crevier. If you experience neck pain look for a chair that comes with an adjustable headrest. Again you will need to measure your back to ensure you do not pick a chair that has a back that is too high or too low, otherwise your headrest may end up turning out to be detrimental rather than helpful. Many people suffer from lower back pain from having a chair that does not have proper lumbar support which is why it is crucial to find a chair that offers built-in lumbar support, adjustable lumbar support, or air lumbar support to prevent lower back pain.
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:01:04 AM. Chair By Georgette Corne. How is it that some church chair dealers can advertise and offer "Free Shipping" on the chairs they sell, at least to some areas of the country? After all, trucking rates nationally have skyrocketed in recent years with high fuel costs and increasing government regulation and expensive equipment all contributing to this trend. When a company advertises that they provide free shipping on church chairs purchased from them to many states, and subsidized shipping to most other states, HOW are they able to do so? Are we really to believe that there are those who enjoy incurring all the expenses associated with loading and unloading, and maintaining trucks, and paying $5.00 a gallon for diesel fuel in a truck that gets 5 miles a gallon, so that a church can receive FREE SHIPPING on their chairs?
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:01:02 AM. Chair By Julie Crevier. Ergonomics are all the rage in the modern age, and no where have ergonomics been pushed to the limits further than in the realm of office chairs. Ergonomics, which refers to the study of comfort and efficiency in the workplace, began by starting with the office chair. It's no surprise that the field of ergonomic office chairs have made drastic leaps and bounds in recent years. Today, ergonomic office chairs offer amazing pain relief for those plagued by typical office ailments. High adjustability makes ergonomic office chairs easily customizable to relieve back pain, neck pain, joint pain, and poor circulation. Even if chairs like the RFM Verte Ergonomic Chair (which is heralded is one of the most comfortable chairs in existence) can get a bit pricey, most ergonomic chairs, such as those from the Hawk Series by Eurotech, come at incredibly low prices that make easy additions to the holiday shopping cart!
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:01:01 AM. Chair By Georgette Corne. The last factor to consider is how adjustable you will need your ultimate ergonomic chair to be. If you work for more 8 or more hours a day, you will likely need a highly adjustable chair that allows you to recline throughout the day with tilt lock and tilt tension control(allows the user to choose the amount of tension needed to recline back in their chair and to lock their chair in the upright position when typing then unlock when recline is desired). If you are a taller or shorter individual, it may be beneficial to have a seat slider adjustment that allows you to determine make your chair's seat depth either longer or shorter.
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:00:47 AM. Chair By Georgette Corne. Add more comfort and style to any room in your home with our smart Leather Retro Chairs collection consisting of a range of styles and designs. View our stylish and beautiful Leather Retro Chairs, crafted in beautiful and soft leather, with many colors to choose from. These days Leather Retro Chairs are available in many styles and shapes like Hollywood Brown Leather Chair, Retro Lounge Chair, Snake Chaise Lounge and New York leather chairs. New York leather chairs are available in 6 beautiful colours.
Published at Thursday, June 28th 2018, 01:00:41 AM. Chair By Julie Crevier. As I reflected on this pastor's statement, a couple of thoughts came to my mind. One is that his statement was a very personal one that indicated a preference that was important to him and was a value I needed to honor. An additional thought though was about what actually makes a chair a "church chair". Here is an expansion on those thoughts with three observations as to what really is needed for a chair to be labeled a "church chair".
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Get Healthy With These Nutrition Tips And Tricks
Nutrition can be an overwhelming concept to wrap your head around. Trying to learn about all the nutrients your body needs each day can create somewhat of an information overload. The advice in this article will help you on your path to eating healthier.
For women who are pregnant or lactating, good nutrition is essential. A woman who is pregnant should make sure she is getting enough protein. Try blending egg whties into your smoothies for more protein. Eggs have no fat, are low calorie, and each egg white has 3 grams of the protein needed. Therefore, for pregnant women they are a wonderful protein addition. Always make sure to check with your physician before doing this, and only consume pasturized eggs. This can help you to avoid potentially harming your fetus.
Pack a meal for yourself before heading out the door to classes or your job. If you bring your own food, you will not subject yourself to the unhealthy choices outside. All you need is a few minutes to make multiple meals.
Junk food is addictive and can be as hard to resist as a drug. After time, you get used to the quick fixes and easy pleasure provided by foods that are bad for you. After switching to a healthy diet, people can be left with a craving for junk food. That's why it's crucial to be aware of cravings and to build enthusiasm for healthy alternatives.
Health Food
Quinoa can help you maintain protein in your diet while cutting back on red meats. Quinoa contains a lot of the essential amino acids, which is rare to find in a non-meat food item. It is also rich in vitamins and does not contain any gluten. It tastes great too.
Hopefully, now you know much more about the valuable information you can use to craft a nutritious diet, as well as methods to organize the information so it makes sense to you. Use the above tips to begin and keep a healthier diet.

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October 17, 2018
Let's face it, this time of year is an endless cycle of putting up decorations and taking them down, only to put more up for the next holiday. It's easy to see how life can get hectic and storage in your home can be cluttered. Whether your trying to organize all your décor to make your life easier next year, or your getting your pantry, closet, or bathroom in check, these tips and tricks on how to easily organize your home will help!
2. The kitchen seems to be a bit of headache for people when it comes to organization. With pots, pans, utensils, coffee markers, toasters, the list could go on and on. But where's the best place to put these items? How do you maximize drawer space? We know every kitchen is different, but one of our must-do's is using tension rods to create dividers in your cabinets. Not only is this inexpensive, it is effective! Instead of having to clunk around pots and pans to get to the one at the bottom of the stack, simply use these tension rods to de-clutter your cabinets and lay out your cutting boards, plates, and pans!
3. Of course, another beast of organization in homes is the closet. Whether you have a small closet or a walk-in one, this space always seems to have the most disorder. One tip that's old as time is to color coordinate your closet. This will save you time searching for that green blouse or blue button down but will also make your closet aesthetically pleasing like the rest of your home. If you are a shop-aholic and have a lot of clothing items, go by the season! This means, when winter comes around, take one of those storage bins you bought and put all your summer clothes away because you won't be needing them! The only thing worse than an unorganized closet, is a stuffed to the brim unorganized closet!
Not only do these spaces look amazing once they're organized to perfection, but they will truly make your life easier! Take the time during the winter when its cold and dreary out to tackle some of these organization projects and go into 2019 having your home look amazing. There are endless, and we mean endless options to tackle your clutter and make your home Pinterest worthy! Make sure to check back to our blog for more organization tips this spring.
Do you have any tips or tricks we didn't mention above? Share some in the comments!
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Mintel has announced the two beauty trends set to impact the global beauty and personal care market over the next decade: the panorama of humanity and identity traders. These trends are expected to have implications for manufacturers, companies, brands and consumers. The Panorama of Humanity As consumers explore the line …Read More »
Aussie Made Beauty
This spring Australians are encouraged to shop Australian-made by looking out for the Australian Made logo when shopping for beauty and personal care products. Research from Roy Morgan shows that 58 per cent of shoppers prefer to buy Australian-made beauty and personal care and cosmetic products, while 23 per cent …Read More »
Keeping up with the collagen craze
You're scrolling through Instagram. You see a glowing skinned, shiny haired influencer holding a tiny product that says, 'healthier skin, nails and hair.' You say to yourself, 'I'll take 20'. Collagen based products are generally labelled all with those similar promises, and with social media at such a high point, …Read More »
Priceline winning battle for cosmetics market share
Priceline is doing battle with supermarkets for the Australian cosmetics market, says Roy Morgan – and Priceline is gaining the edge. According to Roy Morgan's latest data, Priceline has continued to grow its market share. Now, almost one in four Australian women (23.3 per cent) who buy cosmetics buy from …Read More »
The best five skin care clinics in Sydney?
Everybody's skin is unique, especially in a country as diverse as Australia, with its rainbow range of skin tones. So how do you find a clinician to suit your own? The number of skin care clinics in Australia is dizzying, particularly as its major cities are hubs for skin care …Read More »
Askin' the right skincare questions
The current trend for natural-looking beauty is contributing to the continued success of the skincare category and, today in Australia, skincare is the leading pharmacy category. In 2018, skincare outperformed the second-placed cosmetics category by almost $500 million, an increase of more than 20 per cent. Despite this popularity, skincare …Read More »
Teenagers: ditch your tan
The focus of a campaign on teenagers and tanning this National Skin Cancer Awareness week is to ditch the tan and #ownyourtone. Partnering to put this message out is the Australasian College of Dermatologists (ACD) and Cancer Council who are reminding Australians of the importance of sun protection and early …Read More »
Hitting a six for charity
Priceline Pharmacy says it passed its previous fundraising record by collecting more than $1.1 million between June 7 and July 7 for its Priceline Sisterhood Foundation, which supports five charities that help women and their families. The money raised through the 'Misterhood for the Sisterhood' campaign takes the total collected …Read More »
API acquires Clearskincare
Australian Pharmaceutical Industries (API) has entered binding agreements to acquire the assets of Clearskincare Clinics for $127.4 million, to be paid in instalments over three years. API will initially acquire a 50.1 per cent controlling interest in the clinic business no later than July 31 and will move to 100 …Read More »
TBN's 'you-beaut' growth
Total Beauty Network (TBN) has achieved company-wide year-to-date growth of 38 per cent compared with last year, according to CEO Tony Rechtman, addressing TBN's June pharmacy and health conference. TBN's brand portfolio includes Designer Brands (DB), Colour by TBN, Inika and Raww Cosmetics. The result was described as putting TBN …Read More »


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Also some research shows that the human body is primed to consume most of its calories during daylight hours. But the lifestyle is problematic for many: Because family meals and dinners with friends often are scheduled for after sunset, "people who try to stop eating after 7pm can't do it every day for the rest of their lives," says Dr. Seltzer, who supports an alternative strategy: Eating a hearty meal at your regular dinnertime.
Long-term weight loss appears to be more of a function of lifestyle choices than specific food choices. One study on people in the National Weight Control Registry, a large group of people who have lost significant amounts of weight and kept it off for at least five years, found that key weight maintenance behaviors include a consistent diet pattern, not skipping breakfast, and exercising at least an hour per day (5).
The Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes diet, most commonly called the TLC Diet (Free), has a name that's about as interesting as cold broth, but experts say it's a top choice to lower cholesterol and that you will lose weight if you follow the eating and activity guidelines. The downside to this diet is that you have to figure out which foods to eat and there is no support. Guidelines are available online on the U.S. National Institutes of Health website, but they're not as specific as with fee-based weight loss programs. However, while there are no "official" community websites that accompany the TLC diet, there is plenty of information available online from dieters who have successfully followed the programs and offer their suggestions, recipes and tips.
One review found that people who sleep between 3.5 and 5.5 hours a night consume nearly 385 more calories the next day when compared to those who sleep between 7 and 10 hours. (6) Sleep is critical for our bodies to repair and function properly. When you consistently don't get enough sleep, not only are you more likely to gain weight, but you're also at a higher risk for chronic diseases, anxiety, irritability and more.
Cortisone as an oral drug is another common culprit (e.g. Prednisolone). Cortisone often causes weight gain in the long run, especially at higher doses (e.g. more than 5 mg Prednisolone per day). Unfortunately, cortisone is often an essential medication for those who are prescribed it, but the dose should be adjusted frequently so you don't take more than you need. Asthma inhalers and other local cortisone treatments, like creams or nose sprays, hardly affect weight.
Think of each almond as a natural weight-loss pill. A study of overweight and obese adults found that, combined with a calorie-restricted diet, consuming a little more than a quarter cup of the nuts can decrease weight more effectively than a snack comprised of complex carbohydrates and safflower oil—after just two weeks! (And after 24 weeks, those who ate the nuts experienced a 62% greater reduction in weight and BMI!) For optimal results, eat your daily serving before you hit the gym. A study printed in The Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition found that almonds, rich in the amino acid L-arginine, can actually help you burn more fat and carbs during workouts. Fill up, but don't fill out: Use these Eat This, Not That!-recommended 10 Daily Habits That Blast Belly Fat.
So how does this work? A quick run-through: The first tip was to eat low carb. This is because a low-carb diet lowers your levels of the fat-storing hormone insulin, allowing your fat deposits to shrink and release their stored energy. This tends to cause you to want to consume fewer calories than you expend – without hunger – and lose weight. Several of the tips mentioned above are about fine-tuning your diet to better this effect.
Probably. If you have overweight or obesity, your risk for many health problems is higher than that of women who are at a normal weight. Even a small amount of weight loss can lower your risk for or even prevent health problems like diabetes and heart disease. Calculate your body mass index (BMI) to see whether you're at a healthy weight. If you have overweight or obesity, start by making small changes to your eating habits and getting more physical activity.
Other diabetes medications. Insulin-releasing tablets (e.g. sulphonylureas) often lead to weight gain. These include: Minodiab, Euglucon, Daonil, and Glibenclamide. Tablets like Avandia, Actos, Starlix and NovoNorm also encourage weight gain. But not Metformin. The newer drugs Victoza and Byetta (injectable) often lead to weight loss, but possible long-term side effects are still unknown. More on diabetes
If you're specifically looking to target your belly, we have some bad news: you can't spot-target fat loss. That means you can do crunches or planks all day long, but you won't specifically burn belly fat. Instead, you can lose body fat overall, including from your belly. And by avoiding certain belly-bloating foods and with some strategic exercise, you will inevitably see results in your belly.
The least intrusive weight loss methods, and those most often recommended, are adjustments to eating patterns and increased physical activity, generally in the form of exercise. The World Health Organization recommended that people combine a reduction of processed foods high in saturated fats, sugar and salt[11] and caloric content of the diet with an increase in physical activity.[12]
In addition to improving your health, maintaining a weight loss is likely to improve your life in other ways. For example, a study of participants in the National Weight Control RegistryExternal* found that those who had maintained a significant weight loss reported improvements in not only their physical health, but also their energy levels, physical mobility, general mood, and self-confidence.
Think about it: If you have a big plate, it may be easy to pile on the food until the plate is full, leaving you with portions that are way too large. "Since I regularly ate balanced meals, I knew it was my portions that had to be fixed," says Erika Cataldi. "I began using toddler plates; I could load them up and still feel like I was getting a lot." That optical illusion help Cataldi drop 70 pounds.
Make lunch at home and bring it to work. That way, you know of every single ingredient that's going into your meal. Not to mention it'll save you the cost of buying a lunch. Cleveland Clinic recommends making sure one half of your plate is filled with leafy greens, one quarter is lean meat, and the other quarter is whole grains like brown rice or barley.
Stephen Colbert may be on to something. UCLA Center for Human Nutrition researchers divided study participants into two groups, each of which were fed a nearly identical low-cal diet for 12-weeks. The only difference between the groups was what they were given to eat as an afternoon snack. One group ate 220-calories of pretzels while the other group munched on 240-calories worth of pistachios. Just four weeks into the study, the pistachio group had reduced their BMI by a point, while the pretzel-eating group stayed the same, and their cholesterol and triglyceride levels showed improvements as well.
Useful goals should be (1) specific; (2) attainable (doable); and (3) forgiving (less than perfect). "Exercise more" is a great goal, but it's not specific. "Walk 5 miles every day" is specific and measurable, but is it doable if you're just starting out? "Walk 30 minutes every day" is more attainable, but what happens if you're held up at work one day and there's a thunderstorm during your walking time another day? "Walk 30 minutes, 5 days each week" is specific, doable, and forgiving. In short, a great goal!
So how does this work? A quick run-through: The first tip was to eat low carb. This is because a low-carb diet lowers your levels of the fat-storing hormone insulin, allowing your fat deposits to shrink and release their stored energy. This tends to cause you to want to consume fewer calories than you expend – without hunger – and lose weight. Several of the tips mentioned above are about fine-tuning your diet to better this effect.
The fad military diet consists of low-calorie, odd food pairings such as bun-less hot dogs with banana, carrots, and broccoli. "Any diet like the military diet that severely limits the amount of calories you consume or eliminates one or more entire food groups puts any individual at risk for nutrient deficiencies," says Kyle. "This can be more harmful than holding onto those 10 extra lb you're trying to lose." (32)
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This snack-busting tip comes from Tricia Minnick, who lost a whopping 128 pounds by cutting soda and processed carbs from her diet, filling half her plate with veggies at every meal, and brushing her teeth after eating. "It'll help stop night snacking," she says. "Fresh breath makes you less tempted to eat more." Wise up on other ways to stop mindless snacking with these tips.
Don't buy your tickets to Bonnaroo just yet; the kind of acid that will help you slim down is the stuff right inside your cabinet. A 12-week study published in Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry reveals that obese study subjects who made vinegar part of their diet dropped more belly fat than a control group, and other research suggests that acidic foods, like vinegar, can increase the human carbohydrate metabolism by as much as 40 percent.
From intermittent fasting to the keto diet to teatoxes, there's a plethora of diet advice out there. Maybe the keto diet worked wonders for your co-worker, but it's just not conducive to your nutritional needs. Or not eating after 7 p.m. helped your sister lose 20 pounds, but you like doing evening workouts. The truth is losing weight is hard—and it takes patience—so if it's too good to be true, then it probably is. "Adopting healthy habits is not easy, but most things in life that are worthwhile take work," explains Bonnie Taub-Dix, RDN and author of Read it Before You Eat It - Taking You from Label to Table. But losing weight doesn't need to be complicated. Following these simple nutritionist-backed tips will help point you in the right direction and reach your goals.


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Challenge Community Services
We provide care and support services across NSW in urban and rural locations.
Disability Services Locations
Foster Care Locations
Therapeutic Services Locations
58 years ago we were a small band of parents and friends seeking support services for our children with disabilities. Today, Challenge has grown to be one of the largest community support services in New South Wales. We provide support to over 1000 people from Albury to Lismore, Sydney, Dubbo, Tamworth and beyond. With over 500 staff, 130 of which have a disability, we strive to comply with and exceed all standards required under State and Federal Acts.
Address: 476 Peel Street Tamworth NSW 2340
Phone: (02) 6763 1800


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We will never sell, rent or share your details. Focus on the right information to facilitate the creation of a plan that will impact the business! The Annual Plan Template is designed as a one pager to facilitate the annual planning process which drives the annual budget.
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Specifically, these are some of the key areas to cover: Spend more time focusing on a few things that will have the most impact on driving the business forward. The thinking was that the annual planning process was too complex and time consuming. About Peter Peter is a strategic and visionary marketing executive and brand champion who has leveraged his unique combination of classical training and entrepreneurial experience at start-ups and F companies to transform technology innovations into multimillion-dollar revenue streams.
His experience spans all areas of marketing, including go-to-market strategy and execution; brand identity and brand positioning; product development; sales and marketing leadership; customer acquisition and retention; and influencer and analyst relations.Guidelines for Preparing the FY ‐11 Annual Business Plan Issued: February 12, Purpose: • To identify, prioritize, and manage the work efforts of OGS business units toward achieving the agency's mission and goals.
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Bray Wyatt appears to be through his feud with Seth Rollins now, having defeated The Architect at last week's Crown Jewel pay-per-view.
The Fiend attacked Daniel Bryan backstage on this week's episode of SmackDown Live, which would hint that the latter will be Wyatt's next opponent. With Survivor Series only two weeks away, WWE will have to book these two on the card soon, and it wouldn't be surprising if Bryan got a championship opportunity.
But even if Bryan winds up facing Wyatt in two weeks, it doesn't sound like this feud will last long. Rather, The Miz seems to be in line to clash with The Fiend for his Universal Championship.
According to the Wrestling Observer Newsletter (h/t Paul Davis of Wrestling News), The Miz and Wyatt are being advertised for numerous events in the near future. This includes a steel cage match at the Nov. 30 event in Mexico City.
The Observer noted that The Miz-Wyatt feud was supposed to begin on last week's episode of SmackDown, with the Universal Champion set to appear on Miz TV.
Related: WWE: Every Extreme Rules Event, Ranked
The Miz has mainly been used as a mid-card performer throughout the bulk of his career, but it looks like he's about to reenter the main event spotlight. The main question for now is if Bryan will be the one to face Wyatt at Survivor Series, or if their clash backstage was a one-time thing.
Miz Is A Great Opponent Choice For Wyatt
The Miz has done a fine job working as a babyface as of late, and with superb mic skills, the promos between he and Wyatt would be nothing short of excellent. Miz is long overdue for another main event push, so the feud against the Universal Champion really can't come soon enough.
Next: NXT Cuts AEW's Viewership Lead Down To Just 9000 Viewers


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At least twelve professional football teams will send representatives to a football combine workout Saturday at Dillard High School.
The Florida Bobcats are one of seven Arena Football League teams that will have scouts or coaches attending the combine. Also attending will be representatives of four Arena II Football League teams and one Canadian Football League team.
Organizers of the combine said it's not certain whether any National Football League teams will scout the event.
Players who are interested in playing professional football are eligible to try out. In last year's combine at Dillard, 183 players worked out and 32 were signed.
Cost for participation is $165. Players may sign up before the start of the five-hour combine Saturday at 9 a.m.
Players with professional experience who will be among those trying out as free agents include Lawrence Phillips, Chris Gardner, Richard McKenzie, Daryl Lane, Calvin Jackson, Preston Johnson, Erick Hickson, Harvey Wilson, Ken Mastrolle, A.C. Tellison, Butch Rolle, James Bostic, Jeff Popovich, Rick Hamilton and Otis Mounds.
For more information call Andy Silverman at 954-260-8108.


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Our facility is an outdoor, open air layout with 10 baseball cages and...
Let us find local Batting Cage providers for you.
To the left you will find a list of batting cages in Cleveland, OH!
Watch your child hit the ball out of the park at your local batting cage. Many batting cages also offer kids birthday party packages.
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With the Adhesive Seam Gauge, you can sew strips of fabric together very quickly and with accuracy. It is made of thick acrylic and has an adhesive backing which is covered with a strip of paper that you may reattach for storage. Additional replacement adhesive strips are available.
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Nissan Sentra S
Here's a great deal on a 2019 Nissan Sentra. With fewer than a thousand miles on the odometer, this 4 door sedan prioritizes comfort, safety and convenience. It features a continuously variable transmission, front-wheel drive, and a 1.8 liter 4 cylinder engine. All of the premium features expected of a Nissan are offered, including: delay-off headlights, 1-touch window functionality, an outside temperature display, tilt steering wheel, cruise control, an overhead console, and much more. Audio features include an AM/FM radio, and 4 speakers, providing excellent sound throughout the cabin. Nissan ensures the safety and security of its passengers with equipment such as: dual front impact airbags, head curtain airbags, traction control, brake assist, ignition disabling, and ABS brakes. For added security, dynamic Stability Control supplements the drivetrain. This vehicle has achieved Certified Pre-Owned status, by passing Nissan's comprehensive certification process, including a comprehensive 156 point inspection! Come down to our dealership, where you can browse our entire inventory in person.


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Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz
Print version ISSN 0074-0276
Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz vol.106 no.7 Rio de Janeiro Nov. 2011
New tools for epidemiology: a space odyssey
Robert Bergquist+
Ingerod, Brastad, Sweden
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) facilitate access to epidemiological data through visualization and may be consulted for the development of mathematical models and analysis by spatial statistics. Variables such as land-cover, land-use, elevations, surface temperatures, rainfall etc. emanating from earth-observing satellites, complement GIS as this information allows the analysis of disease distribution based on environmental characteristics. The strength of this approach issues from the specific environmental requirements of those causative infectious agents, which depend on intermediate hosts for their transmission. The distribution of these diseases is restricted, both by the environmental requirements of their intermediate hosts/vectors and by the ambient temperature inside these hosts, which effectively govern the speed of maturation of the parasite. This paper discusses the current capabilities with regard to satellite data collection in terms of resolution (spatial, temporal and spectral) of the sensor instruments on board drawing attention to the utility of computer-based models of the Earth for epidemiological research. Virtual globes, available from Google and other commercial firms, are superior to conventional maps as they do not only show geographical and man-made features, but also allow instant import of data-sets of specific interest, e.g. environmental parameters, demographic information etc., from the Internet.
Key words: GIS - remote-sensing - satellite - spatio-temporal epidemiology - parasite - climate change
The idea to of linking diseases and geographical locations was first mentioned by Hippocrates (460-377 BC) in his "Airs, Waters and Places". However, it was not until modern technology made it possible to collect extensive data-sets and visualize them in the form of maps that this approach became widely used (Rinaldi et al. 2006). While sporadic progress had been made in the XVIII century, the most famous example was the tracing of a cholera outbreak in London to a particular well in the Soho district (Snow 1855). Surprisingly, in spite of the germ theory making headlines about the same time, the causal relationship between the cholera bacterium and the disease it causes was never fully verified in this case. The invention of the microscope almost 200 years earlier notwithstanding, another three-four decades passed until the role of bacteria as infectious agents became fully appreciated.
However, it was not until Geographical Information Systems (GIS) data from satellites and computer-assisted applications joined forces that the true versatility of GIS and remote sensing came into its own. The progress is just as impressive with respect to mathematical modelling and spatial statistics. Indeed, modern stochastic modelling provides a powerful approach to study historic disease outbreaks that was previously unattainable due to lost information and multi-sourced databases. For example, in their study of the epidemic of bubonic plague in India, 1896-1906, Yu and Christakos (2006) could generate informative spatio-temporal maps of mortality rates and use them to provide a novel perspective on the distribution and propagation of this epidemic. This methodology can also be applied to evaluate the risk for plague today as shown in the central highlands of Madagascar by Rahelinirina et al. (2010). They could correlate the spatio-temporal variability in the distribution of this disease with augmented activity in the endemic foci coupled with increased populations of Rattus rattus, the main rodent host of Yersinia pestis.
Air-borne photography revolutionized cartography but the breakthrough that made the technique useful also for other applications did not come until standardized views of the terrain could be shown and the instruments could cover the full electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet to radio wavelengths. Indeed, the convergence of spectral physics, earth sciences, computer technology and advanced statistics has resulted in an array of advanced tools suitable for epidemiological investigation (Brooker & Michael 2000). These techniques are particularly useful for the study of parasitic infections, which rely on intermediate hosts to complete their lifecycles and vectors for expanding the distribution. Since not only their hosts/vectors, but also the parasites themselves, are sensitive to changes in many variables, the temperature in particular, the limits for the distribution can be estimated with a good level of accuracy. Therefore, remotely-sensed terrestrial variables, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, vegetation etc., effectively decide the distribution of leishmaniasis, malaria and schistosomiasis and other organisms, whose lifecycles involve many steps that cannot be rapidly adjusted. The number of publications in which these methods are described is increasing exponentially (Hendrickx et al. 2004, Cringoli et al. 2005, Rinaldi et al. 2006, Bergquist & Rinaldi 2010).
Due to changes in climate and environment, several vector-borne diseases have (re)-emerged and spread into new (or previously controlled) areas (Hendrickx et al. 2004, Rogers & Randolph 2006). Areas into which certain diseases can be expected to expand have been noted for schistosomiasis in Northern China (Yang et al. 2006) and for malaria, leishmaniasis and dirofilariasis in Northern Europe (Genchi et al. 2005, 2009). Other important factors driving the (re)-emergence and spread of vector-borne parasites include vector habitat changes (Bhunia et al. 2011), pollution, resistance to pesticides and drugs and the general fall-out from globalization (Harrus & Baneth 2005). The changing distribution of previously strictly localized endemic veterinary and human infections include Babesiosis, bluetongue viral infection, chikungunya, dengue fever, Lyme disease, tick-borne encephalitis, trypanosomiasis, West Nile virus disease and many more (Takken & Knols 2007).
Geographical Information Science/Geographical Information Systems - The "S" in GIS could just as well stand for "Science" as for "Systems" and even if the former would be preferable (Goodchild 2000, Kistemann et al. 2002), most people use the latter. However, rather than dwell on semantics, the GIS acronym has become the nomen proprium for the tool that few medical and veterinary epidemiologists can manage without. Depending on its application, slightly different definitions of GIS appear (Brooker & Utzinger 2007, Simoonga et al. 2008), but the most common understanding of the term can be summed up as "a powerful set of tools for collecting, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world" as proposed by Burrough (1986) early on. In my opinion, one of the exceptional capabilities of GIS is the simultaneous visualization of various pieces of information, e.g. data related to health and data related to the environment.
Classical geographic maps provide a finite set of data, e.g. the roads and cities, whereas GIS delivers flexible, digital cartography with data processing and analysis included. For example, it can show qualitative, general distribution maps and point-maps as well as quantitative maps with proportioned peaks. In addition, representations such as proportional circle maps, choroplethic maps and isoplethic maps, display the number of cases of a disease, the population at risk, the prevalence, the incidence, the intensity of infection etc. (Thrusfield 1995, Cringoli et al. 2005). GIS can also be used for "transect sampling" of fixed, immobile objects. This involves choosing a line, or a series of lines, along which the counts take place as used by Biggeri et al. (2006). Another useful GIS function is Kriging, which is a linear interpolation method based on a random-function covariance model utilized for predicting the values of a variable at unsampled points based on observations at known locations (Berke 2004). Kriging is widely used for the interpolation of climate data from meteorological stations and for modelling the distribution of various parasites and vectors, e.g. Ixodes scapularis (Nicholson & Mather 1996), malaria (Kleinschmidt et al. 2000), alveolar echinococcosis (Pleydell et al. 2004), tsetse (Sciarretta et al. 2005), Calicophoron daubneyi (Biggeri et al. 2004) and Oncomelania hupensins (Zhang et al. 2005).
GIS data can be visualized by using either vectors or rasters. The former is based on storing tables containing the coordinates of points together with instructions how to find points that are independent and which ones belong to a common set. All lines are represented by vector chains and all areas by polygons, while the attributes can be entered into separate tables using alphanumeric characters to label the specific classes or categories of properties. The raster data model, on the other hand, uses a net of adjacent polygons (or cells) to provide a virtual cover of a given part of a territory. These pixels will eventually contain the attributed values of the objects they are assigned to represent. This type of visualization is typically utilized to represent continuous phenomena, e.g. land cover maps, digital elevation models and climate distributions.
Remote sensing - Even if Earth-orbiting satellites and their instruments were originally put in place for military purposes, remotely-sensed information provides also useful insights on geo-climatic, ecological and anthropogenic factors related to transmission levels and patterns of many communicable diseases. Although Cline (1970, 2006) first realized the possibilities on offer for epidemiological research more than 40 years ago, it took more than a decade before medical and veterinary research papers in this area started to appear more than sporadically. The situation is totally different today: the satellite technology assists both control activities and epidemiological research at all levels, in particular as health-related research is increasingly dependent on near-real time information. Still, there are many traps that need to be avoided when applying remote-sensing (Herbreteau et al. 2005).
The number of active satellites in use for the support of communication, broadcasting and surveillance varies between 900-1,000. A detailed list of past and present orbiting satellites can be found at the website of the Geospatial Data Service Centre (gdsc.nlr.nl/gdsc/information/earth_observation/satellite_database). Geostationary satellites, such as the Geosynchronous Orbiting Environmental Satellites launched by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), are used for communication and meteorology. These satellites are of limited use for epidemiological purposes as they "sit still" at high altitudes (around 36,000 km), while those passing over the Polar Regions relay longitudinal sweeps, eventually covering the whole surface of the globe. These satellites follow 50 times lower elliptical orbits of about 100 min with "revisit" periods between one-41 days. For the epidemiological point of view, the sensors must be capable of producing high-resolution images, yet show large areas at different wavelengths. In fact, the resolution capabilities, be it spatial, temporal or spectral, effectively restrict data collection since a high spatial resolution is always associated with a low spectral resolution and vice versa.
The first satellites were sent up in the late 1950s by the Russians. Their successful Sputnik programme forced the United States of America (USA) to embark on an ambitious space programme, a large part of which was focused on collecting spectral information from the Earth's surface. The remote-sensing science, consisting of a series of satellite missions jointly managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Geological Survey, originated and matured with the Landsat Program, was initiated in 1972. Its sensors have a moderate spatial resolution, coarse enough for global coverage yet detailed enough to characterize human-scale constructions. The multispectral scanner and thematic mapper are the most useful sensors for epidemiological approaches. Landsat-7, the latest satellite in this series has eight spectral bands with a spatial resolution ranging from 15-60 m and was launched on April 15, 1999. The next satellite planned, the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM), is scheduled to be launched in December 2012. It will monitor land and water use, support disaster response and provide evaluations of the collected data. The LDCM measurements will also serve National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) research in the areas of climate, carbon cycle, ecosystems, water cycle, biogeochemistry and Earth observation. The timeline of the Landsat programme is provided at (landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/timeline.html).
The satellite-borne sensors permit calculation of vegetation indices, land surface temperatures, atmos-pheric and soil moisture, rainfall etc. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is among the most common vegetation indices used. It is defined as the difference between the visible (RED) and near-infrared (NIR) bands over their sum, i.e. (NIR - RED)/(NIR + RED), which is a specific measure of chlorophyll abundance and light absorption. However, The NDVI can be extended to quantify herbaceous vegetation biomass, vegetation primary productivity, vegetation coverage and growth periodicity, including the impact of all these factors on parasite lifecycles. Apart from topography, water-bodies, soil, predominant vegetation, rainfall, humidity etc., information of interest for the epidemiologist also includes indicators of human activities such as land use, cities, roads, bridges and other infrastructures. The Corine Land Cover provides all this on a map of the European landscape at the spatial resolution of 100 m based on visual interpretation of widely used satellite images. The land cover categories are hierarchically organized into three levels: (i) artificial areas, agricultural areas, forests/semi-natural areas, wetlands and water bodies, (ii) physical and physiognomic entities at a higher level of detail, e.g. urban zones, forest types, lake types etc. and (iii) a number of subcategories based on further, less pronounced details (eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-2000-clc2000-seamless-vector-database).
NOAA satellites and their instruments - The primary sensor on board the Landsat satellites is the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) instrument. Since 1981, this imager has been able to determine the temperature of cloud covers and surfaces such as land, water or the upper surfaces of clouds at the resolution of about 1 km (noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/avhrr.html). NOAA has at least two polar-orbiting satellites in orbit at all times with one satellite crossing the equator in the early morning and early evening, the other in the afternoon and late evening. Together they provide twice-daily global coverage and ensure that data for any region of the earth are never more than six hours old, a very high temporal resolution. Morning-satellite data are used for land studies, while data from both satellites facilitate atmosphere and ocean studies. The first AVHRR was a four-channel radiometer launched in October, 1978 with a swath width of approximately 2,500 km (ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/pod-guide/ncdc/docs/klm/html/c1/sec1-2.htm). The current version is the six-channel AVHRR/3 on board NOAA-19 launched in February, 2009 (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA-19), which permits multi-spectral analysis for more precisely defining hydrologic, oceanographic and meteorological parameters. Comparison of data from two channels can be used to observe features or measure various environmental parameters.
Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT) - The French SPOT satellite programme is a series of high-resolution, optical imaging system, which primarily explores Earth resources, but also supports studies of the climate, the oceans, human activities and natural phenomena (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPOT_satellites). The SPOT programme was initiated by the French space agency Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales in the 1980s and developed in association with the Belgian Scientific, Technical and Cultural Services (SSTC) and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB). The system includes ground control resources for satellite control and programming, image production and distribution run by SPOT Image, Toulouse, France. SPOT 5, with multi-spectral picture resolution capabilities of 10, 5 and 2.5 m, is the latest satellite in the series. However, a new constellation, consisting of SPOT 6 and SPOT 7, is planned for launch by 2012 and 2013, respectively. These satellites will have a footprint of 60 m2 and feature 1.5 m resolution (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPOT_(satellite)#SPOT_6_and_SPOT_7).
The international Earth Observing System (EOS) asks you to take the A Train - Terra is the first satellite in the EOS Program, which is a major component of the Earth Science Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate. EOS represents a coordinated series of polar-orbiting satellites observing the oceans, land cover, biosphere and atmosphere. Terra was sent up in 2000 and began collecting what will ultimately become a 15-year global set of data representing Earth as an integrated whole. Terra carries a payload of five sensors designed to monitor the state of the environment and ongoing changes in its climate systems (terra.nasa.gov/About/). In 2002, this satellite was joined by Aqua, the first of a fleet of seven satellites flying in a formation called the "A Train" (csc.gallaudet.edu/soarhigh/A-TrainExplain.html) designed to collect information on climate parameters with special reference to how extreme events develop. The A-Train formation provides coordinated measurements, i.e. data from several different satellites are used together to obtain comprehensive information about atmospheric components and processes (Table I).
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the sensor investigating the Clouds and Earth Radiant Energy System are the only instruments onboard both Terra and Aqua. MODIS is one of the most useful multi-purpose sensors as it acquires data in 36 spectral bands, or groups of wavelengths, from the entire surface of the Earth every one-two days. It is probably the instrument with the greatest utility for biological research. The orbits of these two twin satellites are chosen so that Terra passes from north to south across the equator in the morning with Aqua moving in the opposite direction in the afternoon. In this way, a high temporal resolution is obtained without loss of image quality. Tables II and III provide a summary of the sensors onboard Terra and Aqua and their foci of data collection.
IKONOS and GeoEye - When the USA Company Space Imaging, launched IKONOS in 1999, it was the first commercial satellite designed to collect and sell high-resolution optical imagery. The launch was then heralded as one of the most significant developments in the history of the space age. For the first time, panchromatic (black and white) and multispectral imagery of high resolution became available for researchers, as well as to the general public (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IKONOS). The IKONOS satellite, deriving its name from the Greek word eikŌn (image), marks the beginning of a new industry, which has amazingly transformed the world in just a decade. In September, 2005, Space Imaging was acquired by another USA company, Orbital Imaging Corporation, and renamed GeoEye (www.geoeye.com/).
The integrated imaging payload onboard IKONOS enables the satellite to collect panchromatic (black and white) images at the 1 m resolution and multi-spectral data at the 4 m resolution. At this level, buildings and other man-made structures are clearly visible. The sensors capture imagery across an 11 km swathe of the Earth's surface. Once an image is obtained, a digital processing unit compresses and formats the digital imagery for transmission to ground stations located throughout the world. In 2008, GeoEye-1 was launched. It can identify objects half a meter wide but is capable of reaching a ground resolution of 0.41 m in the panchromatic mode, which means that individual people can be spotted. However, due to licensing restrictions, customers other than the USA government are only allowed to purchase images that have been blurred to the half-meter resolution (launch.geoeye.com/LaunchSite/assets/documents/GeoEye_Popular_Science.pdf).
QuickBird and WorldView - QuickBird constitutes the next step in visible, high-resolution surface scanning. This satellite was launched in 2001 as the first of a planned constellation of three. It orbits at a 450 km high, sun-synchronous orbit and displays panchromatic imagery at the 0.6-0.7 m resolution and multi-spectral imagery at 2.4 and 2.8 m. The imagery can be imported for analysis into most GIS software packages. A USA commercial company, DigitalGlobe (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DigitalGlobe) launched and owns QuickBird and its customers range from urban planners to USA federal agencies. For example, much of the high-resolution imagery available from Google Earth and Google Maps is provided by DigitalGlobe.
DigitalGlobe also owns WorldView-1, a satellite built by the Ball Aerospace company (.ballaerospace.com/) and launched in 2007. This satellite has a camera with a panchromatic 50-cm maximum-resolution capability, while the next satellite in this series that was launched in 2009, WorldView-2, provides 0.46 m panchromatic mono and stereo satellite image data (.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0701/07worldview2/). With its improved agility, WorldView-2 is able to sweep back and forth to collect very large areas of multispectral imagery in a single pass. In this way, the instruments onboard WorldView-2 can collect nearly 1 million km2 every day, doubling the collection capacity of WorldView-1. The combination of this capacity and its relatively high altitude enables the satellite to reach a revisit time of just over one day.
Spatial-temporal modelling and statistics - Stochastic modelling is becoming increasingly applicable to the study of disease propagation, and spatio-temporal modelling is currently one of the most challenging research areas in epidemiology and environmental health. The number of theoretical papers, as well as methodological development and field application, is growing fast. For vector-borne diseases in particular, the spatial and temporal characteristics of natural transmission play an important role as even minute variations in temperature and rainfall result in almost immediate changes in their distribution. As a consequence, spatio-temporal modelling is increasingly applied for a wide variety of arthropod and snail-borne diseases affecting both humans and animals, e.g. dengue fever (Pongsumpun et al. 2008, Tipayamongkholgul & Lisakulruk 2011), leishmaniasis (Ready 2008, Brandão-Filho et al. 2011), malaria (Mabaso et al. 2006, Dongus et al. 2009, Dogan et al. 2010), Rift Valley fever (Vignolles et al. 2009), bluetongue (Racloz et al. 2008, Willgert et al. 2011), schistosomiasis (Wu et al. 2007, Hu et al. 2010, Martins-Bedê et al. 2010), food-borne trematode infections (Suwannatrai et al. 2011) and plague (Rahelinirina et al. 2010). As mentioned above, applications even include historic epidemics (Yu & Christakos 2006). Methods to quantify excess risk and identify space-time disparities with regard to health interventions for poor children have also emerged and provide useful and detailed information for guiding policy. For example, a spatio-temporal analysis was performed by Sartorius et al. (2011) to identify risk factors associated with child mortality in a rural area in South Africa. A distinct spatial risk pattern was observed with higher risk areas being concentrated in poorer settlements. This study demonstrates the use of Bayesian geostatistical models for accurately quantifying risk factors and producing maps of child mortality risk in a health and demographic surveillance system. A similar approach in the veterinary sciences (bovine Fasciola infection) was also successful (Durr et al. 2005).
Maps based on raw data are generally difficult to interpret due to differences in disease occurrence between areas. This can partly be blamed on "noise" in the sampling process, but the main reason is often that the data derive from the sum of true, structural differences. This problem is well-known in human epidemiology and several statistical analyses have been proposed to filter out the noise from the signal (Elliott et al. 2000). Some of these techniques have been used also in veterinary medicine, e.g. regarding paramphistomosis (Biggeri et al. 2005), echinococcosis (Berke 2004, Budke et al. 2005), bovine spongiform encephalitis (Abrial et al. 2005), dicrocoeliosis and haemonchosis (Biggeri et al. 2007), mastitis (Green et al. 2004) and foot and mouth disease (Lawson & Zhou 2005).
Climate-based forecast systems have been developed using the concept of Growing Degree Days (GDD), a heuristic tool first used by horticulturists to predict flowering. GDD are calculated by taking the average of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures compared to a base temperature, Tbase using the equation GDD = (Tmax + T min)/2 - Tbase. When applied to parasites, the GDD concept can be useful in predicting risk and in deciding on disease intervention. This approach has been used for predicting fasciolosis, schistosomiasis, malaria (Malone 2005) and dirofilariosis (Genchi et al. 2005). Predictive maps can be obtained by application of (i) heuristic statistical algorithms, (ii) standard statistical approaches (extensions of regression modelling, linear discriminate analysis in case of multivariate data, or a generalized linear mixed model in case of unmeasured source of variability) or (iii) Bayesian statistical approaches (e.g. the Markov Chain Monte Carlo technique). This field, including applicatory examples of these techniques, has been reviewed by Pfeiffer (2004).
Ecological analysis - The computational power available today is capable of achieving high prediction accuracy as it allows modelling of detailed physiological and physical processes, including large numbers of species and individuals. As predicted by Levin et al. (1997), the quality and quantity of spatio-temporal data and the data assimilation capabilities are reaching the level where even the complexities of ecology can be approached. The main application field of GIS in veterinary and public health is epidemiological and it benefits from the capability of GIS to integrate different databases into one environment (Herbreteau et al. 2005). This type of analysis is based on a statistical procedure and targets the description of relationships existing between the geographic distribution of diseases and environmental risk factors (Kistemann et al. 2002).
The NDVI, land cover, land use, elevation, slope, aspect, lithofacies, lakes, rivers and other water bodies, temperature, rainfall and humidity are the most commonly used environmental and climate features in the data-layers for ecological analysis in veterinary epidemiology. Once this information has been obtained, the ecological analysis is carried out by associating the disease data with the environmental characteristics extracted within the buffer zones constructed around the geographic unit(s) of interest (Cringoli et al. 2005, Rinaldi et al. 2006, Pozio et al. 2009).
Early-Warning Systems (EWS) and surveillance - GIS applications lend themselves to the development of EWS needed to permit preemptive planning to limit risk and impact of emerging new diseases. Early identification is an important first step towards implementing effective interventions to control epidemics and reduce the impact on humans and/or animals (Estrada-Peña et al. 2007). Biology-driven models have a particular potential of assessing current and future risk patterns for vector-dependent parasitic infections. EWS are defined as all initiatives leading to improved awareness and knowledge of the distribution of disease or infection and that might permit forecasting of the further evolution of an outbreak (FAO 1996). The ability to produce frequently updated data on environmental variables pertinent to vector-borne disease transmission makes GIS and remote-sensing useful resources for the development of EWS (Ceccato et al. 2005). However, rather than passive monitoring, a surveillance system should have the capability of transferring new information with regard to the disease in question. To that end, an integrated set of epidemiological measures aiming at the identification and prevention of new cases in the population under control is desirable. Surveillance must feature characteristics independent from the techniques used for case collection, an aspect which is evident when the geographical dimension is considered and where discontinuities in the spatial rate of a disease must be discovered. Naturally, surveillance must include diagnostics with high sensitivity and specificity for the identification of possible new cases of disease, or any variation on the natural rate (Johansen et al. 2010). The difficulty in interpreting clusters of cases of disease lies in determining whether to attribute them to an epidemic or to a minor alteration in the occurrence of the disease in question (Elliott et al. 1992, 2000, Aylin et al. 1999). The development of a GIS infrastructure is a long-term process in which a wide variety of critical issues, such as technological requirements, people, institutional frameworks, inter/intra-institutional relationships and policies, must be considered. Ferre et al. (2011) have produced a most helpful "do-it-yourself" approach, including the aspects mentioned above, for the early warning of emerging and re-emerging diseases.
Virtual globes - Although various virtual globes are now available over the Internet, Google Earth (google.earth.com) currently dominates the market. This portrayal of the world is a virtual, computer-based model of the Earth where the user can freely change area, viewing-angle and position. The views are interchangeable and can denote geographical features, man-made features (roads, buildings etc.) as well as quantitative data-sets on demography, economy or any other measure the user might wish to choose. An overview of the developments in this field during the last decade shows that possible uses for this new representation of the world are almost endless (Elvidge & Tuttle 2008).
World Wind, created by NASA's Learning Technologies project as an open-source 3D interactive world viewer (worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/java/), was released in mid-2004, making it one of the first applications in this field to be made available for public use. Both Google Earth and World Wind permit saving downloaded imagery to the user's hard disk enabling previously accessed areas to be viewed offline. Google Earth, however, must be activated by first logging into its server and its cache size is limited to 2,000 MB, whereas World Wind has no limit on cache size and comes with the complete 500 m resolution Blue Marble imagery. It is also capable of displaying MODIS imagery from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Aqua and Terra satellites. Google Earth, on the other hand, is not only capable of displaying a multitude of urban areas in high-resolution thanks to their private image sources, but acquires also images captured by flights and terrestrial rovers that can show particular views, e.g. street scenes from major cities.
Virtual globe technologies are essentially tools with some of the functionality of applied GIS, which provides a relatively inexpensive, more accessible method to communicate epidemiological data to non-specialists (Stensgaard et al. 2009). Although most applications are general-purpose applications with limited analytic functions, they cannot in any way replace professional GIS software. Still, access to a virtual globe is useful as a complement to traditional GIS and it is therefore not out of place to list some of the tools available besides Google Earth (Table IV).
Thanks to the Internet and the mobile computer technologies, information is now available everywhere, including in the field. Risk-mapping using digital geospatial data resources has become an established analytical tool both for human and veterinary public health. Since a high spatial resolution is associated with a low spectral resolution and vice versa, data collection must be adjusted to each individual application. Disease surveillance systems and EWS are prime examples of systems with immediate practical application, while the construction of virtual globes for epidemiological research are becoming increasingly important for displaying results in an easily understandable manner.
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Received 14 May 2011
Accepted 20 May 2011
+ Corresponding author: email@example.com


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