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Quick access - pgi powerboat water. welcome to this competitively priced home-featuring... Read More
Exceptional waterfront pgi location with direct sailboat access, only 15 minutes to open water.... Read More
Wow! over 2560sqft of living space in this "true" 4 bedroom home, freshly painted inside and out,... Read More
Stunning split floor plan with a rare find having four bedrooms and three bathrooms in punta... Read More
Beautiful 4 bedroom 2 bathroom 2 car garage home located in the much sought after creekside... Read More
Custom adam built home just 12 yrs old. over 3,000 sq. ft enough room for everyone to have their... Read More
Under construction. welcome to your brand new home!! this is our cairn floor plan at 2090 square... Read More
Attention to detail in this well appointed waterfront home w/access to beautiful charlotte harbor... Read More
Spacious, 4 bed/3 bath, waterfront home in pgi on oversized lot w/large, 3.5-car garage & lovely... Read More
Punta gorda isles! beautiful long water views with quick access in minutes to charlotte harbor... Read More
Under construction. builder owned 4/2 split planned spec home with expected completion date of... Read More
Under construction. brand new builder owned 4/2 spec home with estimated completion date of march... Read More
Wow, a cali on the lake/pond in wonderful gated community! just a couple miles to downtown... Read More
Bank owned property. true 4 bedroom pool home is situated on half acre double lot with greenbelt... Read More
Under construction. new construction! come see our "st. augustine" floor plan. beautiful 4... Read More
Under construction. welcome to your brand new home!! this is our destin floor plan at 2,368... Read More
Fully remodeled 4 bedroom, 4 bathroom pool home on a sparkling freshwater lake on 12.76 acres,... Read More
Fully remodeled 4 bedroom, 4 bathroom pool home on a sparkling freshwater lake on 12.76 acres,... Read More
Great family home! 4 bedroom, 2 bathroom, 1 car garage home located in the desirable deed... Read More
Turn key, like new home in pgi- 2 minutes to harbor through ponce inlet with sailboat access!... Read More
|Average Price
|1 Bed Homes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (5)
|$ 158,060
|2 Bed Homes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (143)
|$ 212,233
|3 Bed Homes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (429)
|$ 387,218
|4 Bed Homes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (140)
|$ 507,414
|5+ Bed Homes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (25)
|$ 1,108,595
$ 474,704
$ 180
|Average Price
|1 Bed Condos For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (4)
|$ 144,650
|2 Bed Condos For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (101)
|$ 227,425
|3 Bed Condos For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (59)
|$ 334,884
|4 Bed Condos For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (1)
|$ 400,000
$ 386,720
$ 173
|Average Price
|2 Bed Townhomes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (4)
|$ 137,775
|3 Bed Townhomes For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (4)
|$ 343,029
$ 360,117
$ 144
|Average Price
|1 Bed Multifamily For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (7)
|$ 253,700
|2 Bed Multifamily For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (3)
|$ 202,735
|3 Bed Multifamily For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (1)
|$ 279,900
$ 335,544
$ 129
|Average Price
|2 Bed Villa For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (14)
|$ 205,035
|3 Bed Villa For Sale in PUNTA GORDA (14)
|$ 246,936
$ 321,849
$ 152
|Average Price
|Land in PUNTA GORDA (1572)
|$ 183,087
$ 313,687
Currently there are 747 homes for sale, 165 condos and apartments for sale, 1,572 vacant land for sale, 28 villa for sale and 8 townhomes for sale in Punta Gorda
Learn More About Punta Gorda
Punta Gorda is a small coastal city in Charlotte County on Florida's Gulf coast. It is nestled on the southern bank of the Peace River and the eastern shore of Charlotte Harbor. It has a population of 16,641 however, it is part of the Tri-City area also consisting of Sarasota and Bradenton.
Given its coastal location, it's not surprising Punta Gorda is considered one of the boating and yachting centre of the southern United States. In fact, the city's slogan is "it's happening on the harbor." The city has an extremely liveable climate with temperatures averaging 75° in January up to 92° in July. The cool breeze coming off the water makes it feel more comfortable when the temperatures rise.
If your idea of fun is hours spent out on the open water, there's probably no better place for you to live then Punta Gorda, Florida. With the multiple points of open water, the area draws sailboats, sport-fishermen, yachts and motor boats, as well as kayakers and paddle borders. The city has marinas, boat launches, fishing piers to serve the water-hobby aficionados. This is why Punta Gorda has been recognized as a top 10 places to sail as well as ranking number 15 on the list of best yachting towns.
Perhaps there is no greater symbol of Ponta Gordo's beautiful natural scenery and laid-back lifestyle then they're famous Harborwalk. The Harborwalk runs for 2 ½ miles along side Charlotte Harbour and connects Bayfront Health to Fisherman's Village. This incredible pathway takes you a long breathtaking scenery with mangrove forests on one side and shops, restaurants, and public parks along the way. You simply cannot spend any time in Punta Gorda without taking a leisurely scenic stroll along the Harbourwalk
There is a rich sense of community that fills Punta Gorda that is evident in the way they embrace their public spaces. For example, you can head to Gilchrist Park on any Thursday evening and enjoy the weekly guitar army which features local musicians entertaining the public in an acoustic collaboration.
Schools in Punta Gorda are administered by the Charlotte County Public School system. There are five public schools located within the city limits: Charlotte High School, Punta Gorda Middle School, Sally Jones Elementary school, East Elementary school, and Baker Pre-K Center.
There is one private grade school and Punta Gordon, Good Shepherd Day School and Florida Southwestern Collegiate High School is the district's only charter school.
For the final word on why Punta Gorda is an ideal place to move to, who better than the Mayor Rachel Keesling: "One might ask 'Why is Punta Gorda one of the most desirable places to live, work and visit?' The answer is because our City is dedicated to serving its citizens and visitors, and maintaining a high quality of life. This customer service commitment starts at the top and filters down through all of our 265 dedicated employees."
ByOwner.com offers For Sale By Owner listing services throughout the country. By posting home with ByOwner your property will get the same exposure you'd receive from a traditional real estate company. Our Punta Gorda, Florida Flat Fee MLS listing Service saves you from paying the traditional 6% commission charged by most real estate offices, but gives you the same worldwide exposure.
Your home will be found on the local MLS, plus all the major search engines and popular real estate portal sites, including: Trulia, Zillow, Realtor.com, MSN, AOL, Bing, Yahoo, and of course Google. Additionally when your home gets added to the MLS, your FSBO listing will listed alongside of the homes listed by ReMax, C-21, Coldwell Banker, ERA, Redfin, Movoto, Keller Williams and all the other nationwide brokerage sites. These sites often display "all" of the MLS postings, not just their own, which means your home will be on these sites also.
The average seller who uses our Flat Rate MLS Listing, will save over $15,000. We give you the tools and exposure you need as a ForSaleByOwner to compete with every other listing in the MLS. But you are in control of the savings and the fees you pay.
Currently Punta Gorda has 2,531 properties on the market for sale. The inventory was last updated 12/07/2019. Of these properties, 747 single family homes are for sale by their owners in Punta Gorda, and 165 condos are for sale by their owners in Punta Gorda. The average price of the single family homes for sale in Punta Gorda, is $474,704, the average condo price in Punta Gorda, is $386,720. The average price per square foot of the active inventory is $130. This is based the living area square footage.
Over the last year, there have been 17,430 of properties sold in Punta Gorda. Of these properties, 9,239 single family homes have sold by their owners in Punta Gorda, and 2,922 condos have sold by their owners in Punta Gorda. The average sales price of the single family homes sold in Punta Gorda, is $327,876. Single family homes have been selling for 177 per square foot of living area. The average sales price of the condos for sale in Punta Gorda, is $271,340. Condos have been selling for 137 per square foot of living area.
The most active subdivisions with listings for sale in Punta Gorda, are: Punta Gorda Isles Sec 21 (206 For Sale), Trop G A (163 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 20 (100 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 15 (93 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 23 (92 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 16 (90 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 12 (88 For Sale), Hrbr Heights (77 For Sale), Tropical Gulf Acres (65 For Sale), Punta Gorda Isles Sec 18 (43 For Sale)
If you are thinking of selling your Punta Gorda home, try our flat fee listing service, Our list fees start at $449, and may save you $15,000 in real estate commissions. Click here to start saving.
Disclaimer: Listing broker has attempted to offer accurate data, but buyers/lessees are advised to confirm all information IDX information is provided exclusively for consumers' personal, non-commercial use that it may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing, and that data is deemed reliable but is not guaranteed accurate by the MLS. The MLS may, at its discretion, require use of other disclaimers as necessary to protect Participants and/or the MLS from liability.
This data up-to-date as of 12/07/2019


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Nov 27, 2016
Its been a great course, many info and points that are fantastic in the learning or adding new knowledge always. I will always recommend this course for those who want to know more and learn design.
Dec 05, 2016
Loved it and all the examples the teachers put into it, as well as the organization and evolution of themes. Big thank you to the teacher ladies. I learned a lot and enjoyed the lessons very much.
By Vikram•
Oct 01, 2019
By namrata•
Nov 21, 2019
This Course history of graphic design was wonderful . It took me back at early history of Graphics design. Thank you and I truly appreciate it.
By Egle H•
Dec 03, 2019
Great course, learned a lot.
By Valentina S•
Dec 05, 2019
That was very informative and inspiring. I wish all the courses could be like this one.
By Bamprasetio•
Dec 04, 2019
this is really great, small bites at a time
By John M•
Dec 06, 2019
This was a great foundation course to graphic design. I enjoyed it.
By Alexandra K M•
Mar 06, 2019
I't was good
By Joly F Z•
Aug 08, 2018
It gives a quick overview of key milestones in graphic design history through examples. It is very enjoyable and I have learnt to analyse the design thinking behind different work and appreciate design more.
By Tereza K•
Aug 13, 2018
I've learned a lot thanks to this course. It is a great part of whole specialization because of the brief introduction to the history. It is very clearly described and inspiring. Actually I would appreciate to continue with my education about history :) So I can just recommend this course.
By Teri L•
Jul 21, 2018
A really nice set of lessons to teach you about what brought about graphic design in the first place. Peer-reviewed assignments and quizzes make sure you're understanding every part (especially the most essential). Really enjoyed it!
By Joy S•
Oct 01, 2018
I am not into art. Nevertheless, this class and the others in this specialty were surprisingly interesting.
By 当英直•
Oct 24, 2016
Clear pattern of graphic design history!
By Olena•
Jun 29, 2017
The course is informative and develops analysis skills.
By Clara•
Jul 27, 2016
it gives a good understanding of graphic design evolution from post second WW to contemporary time. Very focused on American design.
By Lauren M•
Jul 18, 2017
I didn't feel like I learned much from this course that I didn't learn in the intro course. I understand there are a lot of way to make and display images, but I didn't think the assignments were that helpful.
By Elizabeth O•
Dec 18, 2017
Interesting and informative. More historic and research based than creating and doing. The professeur's lectures were bit fragmented and scattered at times which made it more difficult to follow, but great information overall.
By MARISOL P V•
Oct 04, 2017
By E. C C•
Apr 06, 2017
Solid, if minimal introduction to some points from the History of Graphic Design.
By Maria B•
Sep 12, 2017
i would prefer more insight into the european design
By Egle•
Sep 01, 2016
Really interesting and useful. Although some more information about the more post-modern approaches would be also great.
By Aishwarya V•
Dec 08, 2016
Great content. There is a lot to learn from this course. Excellent lectures.
By Sushen W•
Sep 05, 2017
It was great learning all about the foundation of Graphic Design,how it originated,where it started,about Bauhaus,about all the famous graphic designers of the 19th century,about the subcultures etc. It was a course that made me take a step back and learn about history.:)
By Maneesh P•
Jun 04, 2017
It was interesting learning about the history of graphic design the only reason I didn't give the course 5 stars is the course didn't really have many opportunities for students to work on their own graphic design. Courses 1 through 3 were all about creation this felt more like a survey course studying the history of the field, while interesting I am more fascinated with the art of making.
By Karen•
Sep 21, 2016
Good start for learning History of GD.
By Christine•
Jun 22, 2016
Excellent presentation, engaging content, interesting and relevant assignments and quizes.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Purple Christmas Trees. Product - Holiday Time Pre-Lit 2' Noble Fir Purple Artificial Christmas Tree, Clear Lights. Product Image. Price. In-store purchase only. Product Title. 4' Purple LED Lighted Show Cone Christmas Tree Outdoor Decoration. Product Image. Price $ 130. 49.
Make holiday memories with your family by decorating your tree with dazzling ornaments and other tree décor items. A Christmas village with a train set is a charming addition beneath your tree. Make your home the most festive house on the block! Our selection of outdoor décor and Christmas lights will turn your home into a winter wonderland.
Mr Crimbo 6ft (180cm) Silver Mixed Pine Artificial Christmas Xmas Tree With Glistening Silver Glitter PVC Needles, 587 Branch Tips, Folding Metal Base. 4.8 out of 5 stars 9. "silver christmas decorations" PACK OF 12 ICICLE CHRISTMAS TREE DECORATIONS .
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Shop our best selection of Blue Artificial Christmas Trees to reflect your style and inspire your home this time of year. Find the perfect seasonal decor at Hayneedle, where you can buy online while you explore our room designs and curated looks for tips, ideas & inspiration to help you along the way.


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Technical Support
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E8257D, E8257N, E8267D, E8663D PSG Signal Generator Firmware
Updates include: Resolved an issue with self-test 725 on units with option UNY, Enhanced Ultra Low Phase Noise and no step attenuator.Previous Versions
Instrument Firmware/Software Current Version: C.06.26 | 2018-04-11
Signal Generator | MXG X-Series, PSG, ESG Download Assistant and MATLAB
Enables you to download your custom I/Q data into the baseband generator of any vector signal generator and use a single MATLAB command to play it back. Also provides automatic data formatting and playing back sequences of arbitrary waveform samples. Resource page includes download and installation instructions for Waveform Download Assistant.Previous Versions
Instrument Firmware/Software Current Version: 2.0 | 2009-10-30


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Description : What up Loop !
Back at it with a new track, this time experimenting with a new style, leaving the rock behind a bit.
Would love to know what you guys think and if there's someone who want a collab on this track , i'd be down for it.
Description : track
Description : This instrumental is allowed for non-profit use, it's by Prod. beatwoski, called rat race, I loved the track as soon as I heard it, wrote some quick/simple lyrics and decided to sing something, just indulging myself though it's not a great mix, a little glitchy too in some parts, but I sing for the love of singing/music, may re-do but kinda busy, anyways, it's all for enjoyment. Stay original.
Description : Description : If you wanna use this beat for commercial purpose sumbit at my mail: nikolas.mona at gmail.com
if not, just write (Prod.KimbleGrave) in the name of your track.
Description : My third track off my second album, "Trap Is Dead"
Description : i made this track on the 2nd of december but i finished it today , it is 10 day left before my birthday , i hope you gonna like it , thank you
Description : A good ambient bell track, mastered on LANDR engine
Description : I decided to write some quick lyrics to this free to use for non-profit Lofi-ish instrumental by Martie Beatz. My lyrics are based on what I have heard other friends say/do one thing i'll never do is get involved in anyones affairs or pick a side, when their issues resolved you are left out in the cold, don't get involved lol..rough draft, something i'm working on, need more work, love the track.
Description : This is remake on Rockstar instrumental
For full info about track, contact me on instagram
Description : One of a few tracks I've done. Beat is Pete Rock - Little Soul.
This will be part of a small mix tap drooping in 2020.
Vocals and track produced by Conor Walsh.
Feed back welcome.
Description : (Unfinished) Just looking for opinions on mixing! Need fresh ears on this track.
Description : A slow, smooth track with some guitar noodling. Sit back and relax.
Description : I'm Back!!
Let me know how this beat sounds
If you use it, Link your track below
Leave credit if you use it
Description : The first track under a new name, and in a new direction for me
Description : Kind of a laid back, funky sort of track I guess... wrote all the music part first then decided to add a vocal, and got lucky with this one from freevocals.com which fitted perfectly after a pitch shift to the right key.
Anyway comments and feedback always welcome guys - thanks for listening!
Description : Dope track
Just listen
Wake up smoke
Wtf PRODUCTIONZ
Made using Looperman
and FL Studio Mobile
Looking for rappers, singers
And other artists to
Collab with ..
Hit me up..
Description : my beat titled elevator that i posted in august.
you can find me on youtube if you search ' nk music beats' , leave a comment there letting me know you made it.
you can download it from my youtube page
let me know what you think of the track
Description : enjoy the track
Description : I'm looking for a vocalist for the track, I plan to release on STMPD RCRDS, the track is already protected by copyright, so do not try to release it =)
I'm waiting for your demos on email: scvdlmusic [at] gmail [dot] com
Description : Nice sounding track, fast-pace, reposted because I dint't like the title
Description : Beatzamill Track
Description : NEED 2 FEMALE RAPPER(S) or ONE MALE AND FEMALE! 16s. i really don't hear a lot of female emcees up here and wanna bring them to the front. fr. Track is not completely mixed and mastered, but this rough version is what Im sending to interested parties.
Description : A melody came to me yesterday afternoon and head straight to me Sony acid to create the track happy and sad at the same time typical of how I work ecteronic ambient atmosphere
Description : A track based in Bass Nation songs. Pretty simple
Description : I made this track, still tryna find my sound, I'm thinking about some dubstep sound, but I was wondering if anyone would like to collab with me to maybe guide me on my way or just try and make a great track with me


text:
NEW YORK (Reuters) – Oil futures gained over 1% on Monday on hints the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and its allies may agree to deepen output cuts at a meeting this week and as rising manufacturing activity in China suggested stronger demand.
FILE PHOTO: Oil pump jacks at sunset near Midland, Texas, U.S., August 21, 2019. REUTERS/Jessica Lutz/File Photo
Brent futures for the most active contract for February delivery were up 76 cents, or 1.3%, to $61.25 a barrel by 11:39 a.m. EST (1639 GMT), while U.S. West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude was up 89 cents, or 1.6%, to $56.06.
That is down a bit from earlier in the day following the release on Monday of data showing U.S. factory activity contracted further in November amid a slump in new orders while construction spending unexpectedly fell.
The U.S. reports came on the heels of upbeat October data on the goods trade deficit, housing and manufacturing that led economists to boost their gross domestic product estimates for the fourth quarter.
OPEC and its allies including Russia, meanwhile, are expected to extend output cuts this week and could increase the size of the curb by at least 400,000 barrels per day (bpd), two sources said.
"There is a discussion about a deeper cut taking place," an OPEC source said, citing forecasts of oversupply in the first six months of 2020. "There is a big stock build in the first half of the year – we need to keep an eye on that."
The so-called OPEC+ group has coordinated output for
Keep reading this article on Reuters Business.


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Heavy Rains Bring Respite As People Enjoy Sunday Showers In Delhi-NCR
Monsoon has been picking up in Delhi for the past couple of days and has brought some much-needed respite from the heat.
Heavy rains lashed Delhi and NCR region of Sunday.
The city has been experiencing humid weather since morning. The rains also brought the temperatures to around 36 and 27 degrees Celsius, respectively.
With the rains, the air quality of Delhi has also improved to and was at 101, which is classified as moderate.
According to SAFAR, a body under the ministry of earth sciences the AQI is likely to remain the same category for the next three days.
According to Skymet Weather, there is still lots of moisture available in the atmosphere that may lead to the development of thunder clouds as the temperatures rise, followed by rains. If this happens, it would during the afternoon hours.
These rains can be attributed to the oscillation of the Monsoon trough, which was earlier running south of Delhi and now moving north towards the foothills of Himalayas.
#DelhiRains just a glimpse of what's happening in #Delhi and #Gurugram #Iffcometro pic.twitter.com/eqa0TUf8KC— Critics critic (@bhagnapremikudu) July 21, 2019
Rains have to be my first love. ❤#delhirains #delhimonsoons #delhi @SoDelhi @IndiaTourism_EU @incredibleindia @realmemobiles @realmecareIN pic.twitter.com/d5PRW0R21V— Bobby Roy (@theCanonFanboy) July 21, 2019
Delhi NCR witnessing rains at isolated places. User generated video of #Rains lashing #Gurgaon #DelhiRains pic.twitter.com/EiHqn1FkOv— SkymetWeather (@SkymetWeather) July 21, 2019
#delhirains ❣❣😍😍 pic.twitter.com/ayQjJiwFgm— प्रMEघ Miश्र (@prameghsome) July 21, 2019
#DelhiRains ☔😊 pic.twitter.com/AOWe18aBb3— Harleen Kaur (@HarleenParmar) July 21, 2019
Weather 😍#Delhirains #DelhiMonsoon #sundaymood pic.twitter.com/M3Kd65jbfA— Tanya Gupta (@tanyag5) July 21, 2019
As per weathermen, the monsoon trough is once again expected to move south by July 24. Thus, another round of moderate to heavy rains is expected over Delhi NCR around then.
just in
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'Now Nobody Can Touch Me': Hiding In Kailaasa, Video Of Rape Accused Nithyananda Surfaces
Bihar CM Blames Porn Sites For Rapes & Wants Complete Ban. People Say Ban Bhojpuri Movies First
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Fittler names huge squad for Blues camp
NSW coach Brad Fittler has invited a whopping 64 players to take part in a State of Origin camp in Sydney this month as he begins preparations for a three-peat in 2020. NRL premiership stars Latrell Mitchell, Luke Keary and Victor Radley are among 34 players named and in line to...
NQ's McGuire off social media after abuse
Josh McGuire of the Cowboys is tackled during the Round 25 NRL match between the Melbourne Storm and the North Queensland Cowboys at AAMI Park in Melbourne, Friday, September 6, 2019. (AAP Image/Scott Barbour) After copping vile abuse, North Queensland NRL enforcer Josh McGuire says he has ditched social media but...
Croft welcomed as Broncos NRL leader
Prized Brisbane recruit Brodie Croft is buzzing after being slotted straight into the NRL club's leadership group since his arrival from Melbourne. The 22-year-old halfback had his first hit-out with the Broncos on Monday at Red Hill in a brutal two-hour training session in hot conditions under coach Anthony Seibold. At times,...
Dragons' Zac Lomax to make NRL call soon
They've already promised him first crack at the crucial fullback spot next year, but St George Illawarra might soon find out if Zac Lomax is the long-term answer. Having entered the final year of his Dragons contract, Lomax is weighing up his NRL future after meeting a number of rival clubs...
Sezer leaves Raiders, joins Super League
Aidan Sezer, a key figure in Canberra's run to the NRL grand final, has signed with Super League club Huddersfield on a two-year deal. The 28-year-old was a key target for Huddersfield head coach Simon Woolford and brings with him more than 150 NRL appearances. "It's been a drawn-out process for most...
Hornby re-unites with Bennett at Souths
Premiership-winning captain Ben Hornby (pictured) will re-unite with Wayne Bennett after scoring a job as a development coach (AAP Image/Action Photographics, Renee McKay) St George Illawarra premiership-winning captain Ben Hornby will re-unite with Wayne Bennett after scoring a job as a development coach at South Sydney. The South Sydney Rabbitohs are excited...
Tigers withdraw NRL offer to Mitchell
Once considered favourites to sign Latrell Mitchell, Wests Tigers have surprisingly withdrawn their offer to the NRL star. Tigers CEO Justin Pascoe told News Corp Australia they had notified the Sydney Roosters X-factor's management on Thursday morning they would be pursuing other interests. The Tigers appeared to be front runners in the...
Scott recovery may take two years: Parr
It may take up to two years for Matt Scott to fully recover from the mild stroke that struck down the ex-Test prop three months ago, North Queensland football boss Peter Parr says. While Parr admitted the Cowboys great had been frustrated by his slow progress, he said Scott was still...
More Articles ...
- Papenhuyzen extends contract with Storm
- Hodges wants Origin fight with Gallen
- Souths cap call could come next year: NRL
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- Broncos need NRL veteran Boyd: Hodges
- Dragons sign Flanagan as assistant
- NRL teams up with Harvard on concussion
- Knights' Watson to fight for new NRL deal
- Lockyer confirms Broncos deal for Croft
- NRL consider golden point tweak
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The adoption of the Constitution did not create a new government: it unified and strengthened an old one. The colonies that became the States had gone through a long period of preparatory discipline. The hardship of settlement, the meddlesomeness of the mother country, the strain and stimulus of war, and the reign of sectional feeling and interests had successively worked to develop in them both a genius for self-government and the means and method of its employment. To be sure, some new names were assumed, some new forms shaped; but the substance beneath and within them, — the principles of government and the institutions of society, — could be traced far into the past.
This continuity of growth, while existing in the political system, was to be observed particularly in the social and legal institutions, including the celebration of marriage. In the preceding number of The Atlantic, it was shown that the colonists, at one point discarding the common law, and at another gradually superseding it, built up for themselves, by custom and by statute, a system adapted to the various phases of society and of religion that existed among them. That system was the optional civil celebration. It enjoined the observance of the formalities of publication or license, parental consent and registration; but these formalities it did not in general make indispensable. The one thing everywhere, without which the marriage tie could not be constituted, was a solemnization in the presence of an authorized third person. Of course, this system, largely moulded by circumstances and dictated by convenience, — varying somewhat in each section with its social and religious development, — was complex, crude, and inadequate. It seemed devised more to facilitate and encourage nuptials than to guard and sanctify them. That it failed to protect individuals from haste and improvidence, and did not give to society security and certainty in the formation of the marriage relation, is abundantly evidenced by the constant concern of the legislatures as well as by the terms of their statutes. Nevertheless, its central principle—the interposition and supervision of the state through its agents, civil or religious—was salutary; it was a sound basis for future improvement as required by the progress of society.
The colonial system of celebration was continued in the States, and for many years, under the Constitution, remained essentially unchanged. The Territories that became States adopted its features, and it seemed firmly established as part of our legal economy. But in the early part of this century there arose in the courts a discussion regarding the nature of our common law, and the relation of that law to our statute law in governing the celebration of marriage, — a discussion which since then has constantly increased, and has gradually brought about a revolution unparalleled in the history of our subject. The other great changes brought some needed reform. The Council of Trent emphasized the religious aspect of the celebration; the Independent movement in England and the American colonies asserted its property as a personal, though civil right and the French Revolution declared its paramount importance as an institution of society. But this revolution, in the United States, has brought no reform. On the contrary, it has destroyed the colonial system, and has introduced into our law much of the insecurity, the irreverence, the license, of the Middle Ages. Our common law to-day is the canon law that existed prior to the Council of Trent.
The discussion arose in this wise. Cases came before the courts, in which it was attempted to establish the validity of marriages celebrated not by the statutory formalities, but simply by the parties' private agreement to be husband and wife; and the ground taken was that such marriages were valid by the primary or common law. It was argued that the mediæval canon law of the Continent (which to constitute matrimony required merely the consent of the parties,) became the English common law, and, brought as such to this country by the English colonists, was our primary, fundamental, or common law; that, as a general principle, a statute is not effective to repeal the common law unless it indicates such intent in express terms, and hence, as the statutes prescribing formalities did not expressly declare void a marriage celebrated without them, such informal celebration (the mere agreement of the parties) constituted marriage at common law.
Chancellor Kent was, it seems, the first to present this view; and his learning and reputation contributed to its prominence and circulation. In 1809, as chief-justice of New York, he held that "no formal solemnization of marriage was requisite. A contract of marriage made per verba de prœsenti amounts to an actual marriage, and is as valid as if made in facie ecciesœ." This statement was an obiter dictum; and, as usually interpreted, it would seem hardly to have been borne out by the English cases cited. It was based on no American authority. In fact, this doctrine was novel to American courts. It was also inconsistent with the statutory system that had come down from colonial times, — especially with that system as it existed in New York prior to the Revolution. Yet this case went far to settle the law of New York, and has been cited throughout this country with the spread, and in support, of the doctrine which it introduced. In 1814, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania concurred with that of New York. "Marriage," it declared, "was a civil contract, which might be completed by any words in the present time, without regard to form;" and "it was not absolutely necessary to be done before a clergyman or a magistrate." In 1816, Kent was substantially followed by Tapping Reeve, formerly chief-justice of Connecticut, in his important treatise on the law of the domestic relations. In 1820, Judge Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, later a justice of the United States Supreme Court, citing Kent, declared that "the form of the contract of marriage, as a mere civil transaction, is well enough established. … If the contract be per verba de præsenti, the marriage is complete." So in the following year, upon the same authority, Chief-Justice Boyle, of Kentucky, held that "neither the statute of Indiana nor that of this State avoids a marriage not celebrated according to its provisions."
In 1826, Chancellor Kent, in his Commentaries, stating his doctrine more fully, laid the foundation upon which mainly the later authorities rest: "No peculiar ceremonies are requisite by the common law to the valid celebration of marriage. The consent of the parties is all that is required. …This is the doctrine of the common law, and also of the canon law, which governed marriages in England prior to the Marriage Act [Lord Hardwicke's Act, 1753] of 26 George II.; and the canon law is also the general law throughout Europe, except where it has been altered by the local municipal law." In 1832, the Kent doctrine was accepted as law by the Court of Appeals of South Carolina. In 1842, its spread was accelerated through its acceptance by Professor Simon Greenleaf in his learned treatise, The Law of Evidence. His statement is lucid and authoritative as touching the relation of the statute to the common law. "Marriage," he declared, "is a civil contract, jure gentium, to the validity of which the consent of parties able to contract is all that is required by natural or public law. … And though in most, if not all, the United States there are statutes regulating the celebration of the marriage rites, and inflicting penalties on all who disobey the regulations, yet it is generally considered that, in the absence of any positive statute declaring that all marriages not celebrated in the prescribed manner shall be absolutely void, or that none but certain magistrates or ministers shall solemnize a marriage, any marriage, regularly made according to the common law, without observing the statute regulations, would still be a valid marriage." This doctrine was adjudged to be the law of Louisiana in 1846; for this State being under the civil law, a marriage celebrated per verba de præsenti was held valid there according to the canon law, — the Decrees of Trent, though adopted by Spain, not having been applied to the colony of Louisiana. California accepted the Kent doctrine in 1852. In the latter year, also, Joel Prentiss Bishop, in his valuable treatise on Marriage and Divorce, after an exhaustive review of the authorities, concurred with Kent, Reeve, and Greenleaf regarding the nature of our common law and its relation to legislative enactment.
The consensus of so many of our ablest writers and judges caused, in the succeeding years, the rapid spread of their view. It was adopted as the law of Mississippi in 1856, of Georgia in 1860, of Ohio in 1861, of Alabama in 1869, and of Illinois in 1873. In 1875, Judge Cooley held it to be the law of Michigan, thus lending to its support his great scholarship and reputation. He even declared it to be "the settled doctrine of the American courts, the few cases of dissent, or apparent dissent, being borne down by the great weight of authority in favor of the rule as we have stated it." In 1876 it was accepted by the Supreme Courts of Iowa and of Missouri, and in 1877 by the Supreme Court of Minnesota. In the latter year, also, the Supreme Court of the United States took the same position. Before that, in 1843, upon the question whether mere consent made marriage at common law, Kent's opinion being before them, this court was equally divided, and hence no decision was reached. But in 1877, when the question again came before them, the court seemed deeply impressed by the evident drift of the law, and by the great weight of authority in favor of the Kent doctrine. In the course of the opinion, delivered by Justice Strong, it was said: "A statute may declare that no marriages shall be valid unless they are solemnized in a prescribed manner; but such an enactment is a very different thing from a law requiring all marriages to be entered into in the presence of a magistrate or a clergyman, or that it be preceded by a license or publication of banns, or be attested by witnesses. Such formal provisions may be construed as merely directory, instead of being treated as destructive of a common-law right to form the marriage relation by words of present consent." This decision of the Supreme Court has had great influence upon the state courts. The Kent doctrine was accepted in 1879 by the Supreme Court of Wisconsin, in 1880 by the Supreme Court of Florida, in 1884 by the United States Circuit Court, district of Rhode Island, in 1885 by the Supreme Court of Indiana, and in 1887 by the Supreme Court of Kansas.
On the other hand, from the first there has been a small but respectable body of judges and writers who have constantly and consistently questioned the Kent doctrine, and opposed its acceptance. Not only do they deem it pernicious to society, but they also attack the historical premises upon which the argument in its support is based. They deny that the mediæval canon law of the Continent ever became the English common law, and hence that mere consent was ever sufficient in England, though it was on the Continent, to constitute complete marriage. They assert that by the English common law mere consent could constitute only an inchoate union, — indissoluble, to be sure, but requiring, to compel its completion, the interposition of the ecclesiastical court; that this ecclesiastical jurisdiction, being inconsistent with the spirit and the nature of the colonial institutions, was never introduced here as part of our common law, and its function has never been assumed by any statutory substitute; and hence that such inchoate unions in this country—there being no means of compelling their completion—have never possessed the attributes of complete matrimony. Furthermore, assuming that by our common law such marriages were ever valid, they affirm that where, from a comparative study of the whole course of legislation as well as of the terms of the various statutes, it is the plain intent to make conformity to any statutory formality indispensable to the constitution of marriage, such common law is ipso facto repealed, and a marriage celebrated by mere consent, without this formality, has no validity whatever in law. One such indispensable formality, at least, they find in the intent of the statutes, namely, the presence at the celebration of an authorized third person.
This side of the question was also fortunate in having for its earliest advocate a jurist of distinguished learning, ability, and reputation. In 1810, the year after Kent presented his view, Theophilus Parsons, then chief-justice of Massachusetts, delivered an opinion upon the validity of a marriage celebrated by the exchange of consent between the parties, but without also the concurrence of a minister or magistrate required by the statute. He stated first his opinion of the common law: "When our ancestors left England, and ever since, it is well known that a lawful marriage there must be celebrated before a clergyman in orders." Then, after reviewing the legislation of the colony and the commonwealth, he held that the mere agreement of the parties did not constitute "a lawful marriage pursuant to the statute." "A marriage merely the effect of a mutual engagement between the parties, or solemnized by any one not a justice of the peace or an ordained minister, is not a legal marriage, entitled to the incidents of a marriage duly solemnized." Finally, he points out an apparent absurdity in the Kent doctrine: "A marriage engagement of this kind is not declared void by any statute. But we cannot thence conclude that it is recognized as valid, unless we render in a great measure nugatory all the statute regulations on this subject." This decision was of great importance; for it went far toward settling the law in Massachusetts, and afforded considerable resistance to the spread of the Kent doctrine.
In 1829, the Supreme Court of Tennessee went to the extent of holding that a review of their legislation manifested an intent to make indispensable not only a ceremony before an authorized third person, but also the publication of banns or the obtaining of a license, if not the observance of the other statutory formalities. This decision has been at least once reaffirmed and thrice questioned, but not directly overruled. Hence the law in this State seems unsettled. In North Carolina, also, though in a more moderate form, the Parsons view was early adopted. It has never been seriously questioned, and it seems to be settled law. It was there held, in 1836, that by constant usage and from the earliest period of legislation it had been required as "an essential requisite of a legal marriage that it should either be celebrated by some person in a sacred office. or be entered into before some one in a public station and judicial trust." In 1848, two New England States, Vermont and New Hampshire, took strong ground in favor of the Parsons doctrine. In the former, Judge Redfleld, a distinguished writer and jurist, overruling an earlier decision to the contrary, declared that the Kent doctrine "could hardly be regarded as law in this State without virtually repealing our statute upon that subject." So in New Hampshire, Chief-Justice Gilchrist distinctly repudiated that doctrine, discarding Judge Woodbury's opinion, given above, as a mere obiter dictum. In neither State, since 1848, has this question directly arisen.
In 1853, this side of the question was reinforced and ably expounded by Theophilus Parsons the younger, Dane Professor of Law in Harvard University, in his book, The Law of Contracts. To the same effect, the Maryland Court of Appeals gave a unanimous and decisive opinion in 1872, emphasizing the argument from the popular custom and the absence of ecclesiastical courts: "We have no tribunal, as in England, clothed with power and jurisdiction to enforce the solemnization of marriages between parties contracting per verba de præsenti. Further, there is nothing in the law of this State apart from the common law of England which renders such contracts valid without solemnization. … There never has been a time in the history of the State, whether before its independence of Great Britain or since, when some ceremony or celebration was not deemed necessary to a valid marriage. It is true the Act contains no express prohibition or declaration of absolute nullity of marriages contracted per verba de præsenti; but … the practice and custom of the people of the State have been so universally in conformity with what would appear to have been the policy and requirement of the law that such custom has acquired the force and sanction of law." If in Massachusetts the question needed further discussion, this was amply afforded in an opinion, by Chief-Justice Gray in 1879, remarkable, like the Maryland case, for exhaustive research and forcible argument. Affirming that "in Massachusetts, from very early times, the requisites of a valid marriage have been regulated by statutes of the colony, province, and commonwealth," he proceeded to review "the history of the legislation upon the subject, the whole of which, whether repealed or unrepealed, is, by a familiar rule, to be considered in ascertaining the intention of the legislature." With Chief-Justice Parsons he held that "our statutes, by necessary implication, prohibited persons from solemnizing their own marriages by any form of mutual engagement." He then made an authoritative statement of the law: "It has always been assumed in this commonwealth … that (except in the single case of Quakers or Friends …) a marriage which is shown not to have been solemnized before any third person, acting, or believed by either of the parties to be acting, as a magistrate or minister, is not lawful or valid for any purpose."
It should be observed that these cases simply bold that it was the intent of the statutes to make some solemnization essential; but there has long been in some Southern courts a tendency to go further, and (like the Tennessee decision of 1829 above referred to) to find in the statutes an intent to make the constitution of marriage dependent upon a strict compliance with the statutory forms, — not merely solemnization, but also license, and other formalities. The most recent decision in favor of the Parsons view not only confirms that tendency, but also shows how irreconcilable are the two doctrines when carried to their extremes. In June, 1887, the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia ruled as follows: "Our statute has wholly superseded the common law, and in effect, if not in express terms, renders invalid all attempted marriages contracted in this State, which have not been solemnized in compliance with its provisions. … When the terms of the statutes are such that they cannot be made effective, to the extent of giving each and all of them some reasonable operation, without interpreting the statutes as mandatory, then such interpretation should be given to them."
Thus, by judicial inference from the statutes, in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Maryland, North Carolina, Tennessee, and West Virginia, a ceremony before some duly authorized officer, civil or religious, seems essential to constitute marriage. But in one State, Kentucky, such formality is made necessary by the express terms of the statute; for the decision of Chief-Justice Boyle in 1820, given above, was superseded in 1852 by a positive statutory enactment that "marriage is prohibited and declared void when not solemnized or contracted in the presence of an authorized person or society."
Moreover, the Parsons view of the requisites of a valid celebration by the English common law prior to Lord Hardwicke's Act, at the settlement of the American colonies, is supported by the highest English authorities. In 1843, this question was argued before the House of Lords with such learning and ability as is rarely to be found in legal history. The Lords being equally divided, it was held by the unanimous opinion of the judges, delivered by Lord Chief-Justice Tindal, that "by the law of England, as it existed at the time of the passing of the Marriage Act, a contract of marriage per verba de præsenti was a contract indissoluble between the parties themselves, affording to either of the contracting parties, by application to the spiritual court, the power of compelling the solemnization of an actual marriage. … It was essential to the constitution of a full and complete marriage … that both modes of obligation should exist together; … that, besides the civil contract, that is, the contract per verba de præsenti, … there has at all times been also a religious ceremony."
In the following States the question whether mere consent can constitute marriage has not yet been decided: Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, and Virginia. Were it directly to arise, it is probable from the inclination of the courts that the Parsons doctrine would be accepted in Delaware, Maine, Texas and Virginia, and the Kent doctrine in the rest.
To sum up: in the Eastern States, the Parsons doctrine is the prevailing law, being held in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont, favored in Maine, and not yet rejected in Connecticut and Rhode Island; in the Middle States, the Kent doctrine is the prevailing law, being held in New York and Pennsylvania, favored in New Jersey, and not yet directly repudiated in Delaware; in the Southern States, neither doctrine predominates, — Kent being followed in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and Parsons being followed in Maryland, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia, and favored in Texas and Virginia; and in the Western States, the Territories, and the District of Columbia, the Kent doctrine prevails without dissent, being held in ten States and in the District, and being favored in the remaining States and the Territories. In short, in eighteen States and in the District it is already accepted as law that mere consent may constitute marriage; to the same effect it will probably soon be decided in eight States more and in all the Territories; while apart from Kentucky, in only three States of the Union, namely, Maryland, Massachusetts, and West Virginia, are there decisions so recent and decisive as to establish beyond a doubt that more than mere consent is essential. In Massachusetts, Maryland, West Virginia, and Kentucky alone, there is not the least doubt that to constitute marriage the interposition of an authorized third person is indispensable.
In view of these facts, the Kent doctrine may be said to be the prevailing common law; and its recent explicit statement in the State of its origin would be accepted as law in the most of the United States. "A man and a woman," said Chief-Justice Folger, of New York, in 1880, "who are competent to marry each other, without going before a minister or magistrate, without the presence of any person as a witness, with no previous public notice given, with no form or ceremony, civil or religious, and with no record or written evidence of the act kept, and merely by words of present contract between them, may take upon themselves the relation of husband and wife, and be bound to themselves, to the State, and to society as such; and if after that the marriage is denied," proof of the subsequent conduct of the parties married, their "acknowledgment and recognition of each other to friends and acquaintances and the public as such, and the general reputation thereof will enable a court to presume that there was in the beginning an actual and bona fide marriage."
Such being the predominant common law, one practical result is that, in the words of Judge Redfield, "it is clearly a dispensation with all the requisitions of the statutes upon the subject." During the colonial period care was constantly taken to secure the observance of the formalities of publication or license, parental consent, registration, and solemnization. At first some colonies seem to have made essential a strict conformity to these statutes. But later it was sought to enforce their observance rather by imposing penalties for their infringement than by making void marriages contracted without them. To this course, however, there was one uniform exception. The exchange of matrimonial consent in the presence of an authorized third person was still indispensable. Under the Constitution, also, these statutory forms were retained, together with penalties for their infringement. At the same time, as formerly, an informal marriage seems not to have been void if only it were solemnized before the magistrate or minister authorized by law. Even in recent legislation, these and other forms are prescribed with such minuteness and comprehensiveness as almost to warrant the inference that their strict observance was intended to be essential. But their terms do not, as a rule, expressly nullify a marriage informally celebrated; and hence the courts refuse to consider their intent. With the general acceptance of the Kent doctrine the last safeguard—the interposition of the State through its agents, civil or religious—has been broken down; and the colonial system, of which this was the distinguishing and vital feature, is finally and essentially overthrown. The present statutory regulations being generally adjudged only "legislative recommendation and advice," their further consideration is without the scope of this article.
As another consequence, the general acceptance of the Kent doctrine has carried our law back to the Middle Ages. Ours is the Roman law of Justinian minus the element of parental consent. In Rome, the bridegroom went openly in the daytime to the house of the bride's father, and with his consent led her away to his own home. In most of the United States, he may go by stealth at night, and carry her off without the knowledge or consent of her parents. If, during the proceeding, the runaways seriously and voluntarily agree eo instanti to be husband and wife, ipso facto they become such in law. As the Roman law passed into the church or canon law, the element of parental consent was dropped, and the consent of the parties alone was retained. Hence our law is the same as the mediæval canon law. The reform of the latter, through the Council of Trent, in the direction of religious sanctions gradually spread over the most of Western Europe, and prepared the way for the modern development of civil forms. But in the course of this development the current of law in the New World parted from that in the Old. In Europe, especially upon the Continent, the marriage celebration began to be studied particularly in its aspect as creating a social status, — in its relation and consequences to society. In this respect its careful definition and regulation began to be recognized as fundamental to the welfare of the State. Consequently, the State assumed full and primary control: it inquired first of all what safeguards were essential to protect the celebration as a social bulwark (with but little regard to the restriction or limitation that might result to the individual); and at the entrance of the legal status it placed strict, comprehensive, many of them indispensable, formalities, looking to the protection first of the community, and then of the families to which the contracting parties belonged.
In America, on the other hand, the marriage celebration has been treated more in its aspect as the exercise of a personal right, — the right to marry. Its relation and consequences to society have been comparatively neglected. To be sure, it has never been authoritatively denied that society could, for its own protection, prescribe formalities through which alone this right should legally be exercised; and in the earliest period of our history the State did, it seems, make such forms indispensable. But the Puritans firmly implanted in our social soil "the strict Protestant principle that marriage is purely a civil right," and there has always been a tendency to interpret strictly all legislative restriction or limitation upon the exercise of that right. During the present century this tendency has rapidly increased with the spread, and as a consequence, of the Kent doctrine; and it found its fullest expression in 1877 in the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, that unless a statute shall expressly declare void a marriage not celebrated according to its provisions, "such formal provisions may be construed as merely directory, instead of being treated as destructive of a common-law right to form the marriage relation by words of present consent." In other words, in this country it is judicially declared that the act of entering the marriage state is, in its legal aspect, primarily the execution or conclusion of the parties' contract or engagement to marry; that they have, a right at common law to execute this contract by their private agreement presently to be husband and wife; that society has the paramount right through legislation to make indispensable to this execution such additional formalities as it deems necessary to its own welfare, but by the statutes as at present worded has not yet exercised such superior right, and has merely given "legislative recommendation and advice;" and hence that the function of the courts, as the law now stands, is simply to interpret the will and intent of the contracting parties; and if, in any case, a time is found when these bona fide expressed to each other an intent presently to be husband and wife, to declare that at that time they became such in law.
This, then, is the extreme to which our law of the marriage celebration has been tending, — indeed, has already reached, — the assertion of the rights of the individual at the expense of the rights of society. But these respective interests are not essentially conflicting. They are reconcilable, and also interdependent. It is a truism that what injures society injures each of its members. It is of the highest importance to the welfare of the contracting parties, and they have a right to demand, that in the legal form by which they enter the marriage relation adequate consideration and protection shall be given to the rights of society as well as of themselves. But, in fact, is this attitude of the law, toward the individual, as much an assertion of right as a denial of protection? True, the rights of the two persons—husband and wife—receive equal consideration as regards the insistence that before either shall be confirmed judicially in the title of spouse a contract, duly executed by each, shall be established. But what slender protection is this, when bare circumstances are sufficient to establish such contract, causing momentous consequences to the parties, as well as to their respective families and to society! Moreover, where in life, if not in forming the marriage relation, does the individual need sobering, warning, and restraint? And to this end what but the arm of the law is adequate? Yet what barrier does this scanty legal requirement afford against haste, indiscretion, and improvidence? Indeed, at this point the courts not only refuse all protection, but also disclaim all responsibility. "For the policy of the law," said a learned judge, "we are not responsible. It is for the legislature to change it, should it see fit to do so."
But, our common law fails to protect not only the contracting parties, but also the families to which they belong. Indeed, to protect the latter it makes not the least attempt, and in this respect it is far behind the law of Western Europe. In The Atlantic for February of the current year were described the main features of the French system of celebrating marriage (le rnariage civil obligatoire), and the rapid spread of that system over Continental Europe. According to the French civil code, "a marriage contracted without the consent of the father and mother, of the ascendants [des ascendants], or of the family council, in cases where such consent was necessary, may be impeached" for nullity. So according to the system of optional civil celebration now existing in England, also described in the article above referred to, "in case such parents or guardians, or one of them, shall openly and publicly declare or cause to be declared in the church or chapel where the banns shall be so published, at the time of such publication, his, her, or their dissent to such marriage, such publication of banns shall be absolutely void." If the marriage is to be celebrated by Episcopal rites, but upon license, and not upon banns, as in the preceding case, or by civil forms upon the registrar's certificate or license, such license or certificate cannot be granted until each party that is under the age of twenty-one years, and has not previously been married, shall take oath that the consent of the proper persons has been obtained.
Indeed, with regard to the protection of the families to which the contracting parties belong, our law would seem to be inferior not only to that of leading civilized nations, but to that even of our savage Indian tribes. For as to this element of parental consent, in ruling upon the existence of a marriage our courts apparently make not the least inquiry. But among some of the American Indians, the consent of the bride's parents, at least, seems to be the foremost requisite to the marriage celebration. By the Indian custom, after the bride's parents have signified their consent by accepting the bridegroom's presents and sending the bride to him to be his wife, then the marriage state is constituted.
While our law is thus deficient in protecting the parties and their respective families, even more noticeable is its total failure to protect society; and in this respect, also, — in dealing with the marriage celebration as creating a social status, a family, an integral part of society, — the United States are far behind the leading nations of Europe. In the French civil code, under the head Of Petitions for Nullity of Marriage, it is declared: "Every marriage not publicly contracted, and not celebrated before the competent public officer, may be impeached by the married parties themselves, by the father and mother, by the ascendants, and by all those who have an actual and existing interest therein, as well as by the public prosecutor." So as to legal evidence of marriage, in striking contrast to Judge Folger's statement above, is the provision of the French code that "no person shall be at liberty to claim the title of spouse and the civil consequences of marriage unless upon the production of an act of celebration inscribed upon the register of the civil power;" and "the actual existence of marriage shall not discharge the pretended spouses, who shall respectively claim to be such, from producing the act of celebration of marriage before the officer of the civil power."
Under the English system, the interests of society are guarded with equal care. In the case of a celebration by Episcopal rites, "if any persons shall knowingly and willfully intermarry in any other place than a church, or such public chapel where banns may lawfully be published, unless by special license as aforesaid, or … without the publication of banns or license from a person having authority to grant the same, or shall knowingly and willfully consent to or acquiesce in the solemnization of such marriage by any person not being in holy orders, the marriages of such persons shall be null and void to all intents and purposes whatsoever." In a celebration by civil forms, it is provided that if any persons shall knowingly and willfully intermarry in any place other than the church, or other place specified in the notice and certificate, or without due notice to the superintendent registrar, or without certificate of notice duly issued, or without license in case license is necessary, or in the absence of a registrar or superintendent registrar where the presence is necessary, the marriage of such persons shall be null and void.
Thus, under these systems, a marriage cannot be constituted without the observance of the formalities specified, and the intent of the legislature is expressed in such terms as to avoid any misinterpretation by the courts. Whether these forms afford a proper freedom to the individual, whether they are suited to our needs and conditions, social and legal, is not here under discussion. But it is evident that the marriage celebration as it touches society, while carefully guarded abroad, is shamefully neglected in the United States.
Yet this is a time in many respects critical in our history. In the earliest period, when population was small, scattered, and agricultural, when society was simple, frugal, and conservative, respect for law and conformity to civil regulations were almost universal. Moreover, as settlers of the same race and faith usually dwelt together, there was unanimity of sentiment in the protection of the common interest and the maintenance of social order. Hence the statutory forms for the celebration of marriage were generally observed. Though not all essential, the impartiality with which they were enforced spread abroad the salutary impression that they were equally indispensable to constitute matrimony.
Now, this is a great, a rapidly growing nation. There exists the widest diversity of race, religion, and sentiments. Population is congregating in cities. Labor, forsaking the fields, is crowding into factories and tenements. In the shops, in the factories, in nearly every occupation, at great odds and under peculiar temptations, women compete with men in the selfish, exacting struggle for preferment, for daily bread. Industrial struggle and discontent and social evils are rife in the community. In view of these facts, are we fortifying our social institutions, and strengthening the foundations of social order? And the family, — the unit and the source of society, — are we guarding its dignity and confirming its approaches by the sanctities of religion and the safeguards of law? Nay, our courts are forsaking, not protecting, are tearing down, not building up, "the very basis of the whole fabric of civilized society." For the knowledge is rapidly spreading from the highest courts of this country that in forming the marriage relation there is no need of magistrate or minister, or of any formality whatever. "It is singular," said Chief-Justice Gilchrist, of New Hampshire, "that the most important of all human contracts, on which the rights and duties of the whole community depend, requires less formality for its validity than a conveyance of an acre of land, a policy of insurance, or the agreements which the statute of frauds requires should be in writing." What wonder, then, that the disregard of the "legislative recommendation and advice" is constantly increasing, and the evil of clandestine marriages and secret unions, by destroying the integrity of the family, is sapping the foundations of society! Can the courts deny an easy termination to the relation to which they permit so easy an entrance?
"The contract of marriage is the most important of all human transactions;" yet, the form and circumstances of its execution being left to the will and caprice of the parties, its existence may be involved in the utmost uncertainty and obscurity. "Whether the relation of husband and wife lawfully exists never should be left uncertain." These are the words of Chancellor Kent; and yet it is a corollary of the doctrine which he introduced that the existence of this contract, when judicially called in question, may be established merely by evidence of the subsequent conduct of the parties and of their reputation in the community.
But it may be said that, in fact, secrecy and uncertainty are rare in forming the marriage relation, because custom and public sentiment are as a rule able to secure the observance of civil or religious forms. This assertion, even if admitted to be true, is not pertinent. For the law must be shaped so as to control, not those who follow, but those who disregard, custom and public sentiment. "The system of irregular marriage now permitted by the law in Scotland," says the report of the Royal Commission on the Laws of Marriage, "appears to us to be irreconcilable with the principle that, in a contract of this importance, the law should aim at the attainment of the greatest possible degree of certainty. To whatever extent its operation may be narrowed or corrected by the sentiments and habits of the people, it seems to us undeniable that it opens the door to much doubt and uncertainty."
By the law of nature, marriage may be constituted by the mutual present consent of competent persons, without the addition of any formality. Such is our prevailing unwritten or common law to-day. Hence upon this matter of vital and universal concern the United States has the minimum of civil regulation and requirement, — the law of nature as it exists among savage tribes, and as it was in the Middle Ages, the darkest period of modern times.
But in the United States this law exists not only at a critical period, but also at critical points. The above summary of States discloses the fact that the Kent doctrine is spreading without dissent throughout our Western States and our Territories. In many, if not in most, of these, society is still in its formative stage. Its constructive, healthful forces are already severely taxed in their struggle toward order, law, morality, and religion. As in all communities, society in the West must centre about the family; and upon the fate of the latter the fate of the former must rest. What a risk, then, is run, while the courts disclaim, and the legislatures disregard, all responsibility!
Another significant and startling fact is that this is the law also in localities possessing the largest negro population, — in South Carolina, Georgia, and all the Gulf States except Texas. Even in the last it is not yet judicially rejected. The worst effects of slavery upon the negro were not material, but intellectual and moral. Since the war, his material condition has been rapidly improving. Has his social condition made equal progress? The responsibility of the community for its weaker classes is generally recognized. How can it be better discharged than by a speedy and adequate amendment of the law of the celebration of marriage?
But it is a fact still more grave and portentous, revealed by the summary above, that in our great centres of population, in nearly all our great cities, the legal status of marriage may be constituted simply by a private agreement between competent persons. New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco are all situated in States that adhere to the Kent doctrine. Indeed, in only two cities of the larger class in the United States, namely Boston and Baltimore, would anything more than such agreement be necessary; and even in them, apparently, nothing additional except a ratification of the agreement before a third person duly authorized. Moreover, the population congested in these cities is largely, in some mainly, foreign born; and the swelling tide of immigration bears to us, unfortunately, not the protective, conservative spirit displayed abroad toward the marriage celebration, but the social evils that fester and threaten in Europe. Much is said of the imminent danger to the State through the political corruption of the cities; and of their social condition a vivid though limited impression was received from the recent anarchist disturbances. Though their actual condition is not and cannot be described, sufficient is known to make their reclamation a work of immediate necessity. To be sure, society cannot be reformed by act of legislature. But a law should embody the truths of experience and should express the better sentiment of the community; in both respects our law of the celebration of marriage is shamefully deficient, and can be rectified only by legislation. Whether the evil has resulted from the blunders of legislatures or from the misinterpretations of courts is not at present the chief concern. The evil exists; the remedy is clear. In theory, the legislature makes, and the courts interpret, the law. In this case, the courts have so interpreted the law that it must be made over by the legislature.
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The comedic actor has his summer movie plans set but has catching up to do when it comes to the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Watch now. Start your free trial.
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General Data Protection Regulation
Twitter makes global changes to comply with privacy laws
The California law requires large businesses to give consumers more transparency and control over their personal information, such as allowing them to request that their data be deleted and to opt out of having their data sold to third parties.
Google to let sites block personalized ads under California privacy law
Websites and apps using Google's advertising tools will be able to block personalized ads to internet users in California and elsewhere as part of the Alphabet Inc unit's effort to help them comply with the state's new privacy law, it told clients this week.
Personal? Private? No such thing in data-hungry world
Personal data reveals a slew of secrets about friends and family so regulators should stop fixating on individual privacy and safeguard society instead, data experts said on Thursday.
Kenya passes data protection law crucial for tech investments
Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta on Friday approved a data protection law which complies with European Union legal standards as it looks to bolster investment in its information technology sector.
Need to find 'critical balance' between data analytics and data protection: Industry experts
Data can be used for value creation through use of analytics but there is also a fear of it being misused, so India should have robust data protection laws, according to industry experts.
Google secretly sharing users' data with advertisers: Report
Google is allegedly relaying your personal information to advertisers via hidden web pages, allowing it to circumvent the European Union privacy regulations, new evidence submitted to Ireland's Data Protection Commission has revealed.
New bill lacks teeth to ensure data protection of Indians: Experts
With data now being the "new oil" and the government planning to bring a new data protection law to ensure security and privacy of its citizens in the digital economy, experts have warned that there are key gaps on fixing accountability for data breaches.
India to approach the EU seeking 'adequacy' status with the GDPR
The EU Commission and Japan signed a similar deal of equivalency to enable safe data transfers, based on a high level of protection of personal data.
Huawei's Czech unit secretly collected data: report
Two former Huawei managers who spoke on condition of anonymity told the radio that Huawei required them to enter the data into computer systems that could be accessed from China.
Localisation won't translate into enhanced data security: US envoy
a US diplomat said data localisation does not necessarily mean enhanced security of data.
Microsoft Office 365 banned in German schools over data privacy
In a first such case globally, schools in Germany have banned the use of Microsoft Office 365, after a data privacy authority for the state of Hesse ruled that using the popular software exposes personal information of students and teachers "to potential access by US authorities".
Cannes Lions 2019: Facebook's Sheryl Sandberg on protecting user data is a 'top' priority
While there had been oversights such as the Russian interference during the US Elections, going forward, Facebook claims it will be extra vigilant.
The worst data breaches and hacks in the ASEAN region
ASEAN countries have emerged as launchpads for cyber attacks
Why ASEAN CIOs must understand GDPR
If a firm performs data processing activities in the European Union, the General Data Protection Regulation applies to them, even if that firm is not headquartered in the EU.
Facebook 'labels' posts by hand, posing privacy questions
The work is aimed at understanding how the types of things users post on its services are changing to help it develop new features, potentially increasing usage and ad revenue.
Quantcast latest tech company to face Irish privacy probe
The new rules give regulators the power to impose fines for violations of up to 4 percent of a company's global revenue or 20 million euros, whichever is higher.
Irish regulator opens inquiry into Facebook over password storage
Facebook's lead regulator in the European Union, Ireland's Data Protection Commissioner said it had launched an inquiry into whether the company violated EU data rules by saving user passwords in plain text format on internal servers.


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- Server 1
Movie Valmont was released on 11.17.1989. Directed by Miloš Forman and lasts 137 min. The IMDB rating of Valmont at the moment is 7,0. On 123Movies you can watch online official trailer of Valmont as well as the full movie for free.
Views: 24
Genre: Uncategorized
Director: Miloš Forman
Actors: Aleta Mitchell, Annette Bening, Colin Firth, Fabia Drake, Fairuza Balk, Henry Thomas, Ian McNeice, Isla Blair, Jeffrey Jones, Meg Tilly, Ronald Lacey, Siân Phillips, T.P. McKenna, Vincent Schiavelli
Country: France, United States of America
Duration: 137 min
Release: 1989
IMDb: 7.0
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Fermont real estate guide & listings for sale
Fermont is very good for those who prefer a quiet atmosphere, as noise from streets and other parts of the city is rarely an issue.
The best means of transportation in Fermont is very often a car. Coming across a parking spot is generally easy. Many of the houses for sale in this city are located in areas that are not very convenient for walking because carrying out daily needs is very inconvenient on foot.
Single detached homes are the predominant housing type, representing around 45% of dwellings in Fermont, while the remainder are mainly large apartment buildings and townhouses. A majority of the housing growth in this city occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. This city is primarily composed of two bedroom and three bedroom homes. Homeowners occupy about 60% of the units in the city and 40% are rented.
A vehicle is almost always needed in Fermont to reach the closest supermarket. In terms of education, families may consider it very difficult to access high schools and primary schools as pedestrians. Furthermore, there are only a very small number of daycares and thus they can be a very long walk away.
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UK voluntary opportunities
Christmas closing dates:
Please note that the last day for submitting voluntary roles to the website is Fri 20 Dec at 12 noon. Any opportunities submitted over the Christmas period will be uploaded as soon as possible once our office opens again on Thurs 2 Jan 2020.
What is volunteering?
- Volunteering is an activity that someone does freely, by choice, at their convenience
- Volunteering is unpaid (except for reimbursement of expenses incurred whilst volunteering, e.g. food, drink, travel or any equipment you need to buy)1
- Volunteering is not contractual (volunteers can have a volunteering agreement and a role description - to clarify expectations on both sides, but not a contract of employment and a job description)
- Volunteers can receive training and development appropriate to their role
Christian Vocations reserves the right to refuse to advertise any opportunity that, from our perspective, does not meet these requirements.
- Advertising for volunteers is FREE for Global Connections members and £10 per opportunity for others.
- Voluntary positions are registered for up to 90 days.
- Voluntary positions are publicised on this website, emailed to individuals specifically seeking voluntary opportunities, and featured in one edition of Jobfile.
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your views on israel lebanon situation?
israel is hitting lebanon with missiles in response to hsezbollah kidnapping 2 israeli soldiers my question is do youi think that this response by israel is too extreme and uncalled for and what israel should have done and what is must do now and keep in mind that this is between israel and hezbollah and not lebanon
lebanon cant put pressure on hezbollah because it has no power over it lebbanon is very weak and the country was already on the verge of a civil war and this might make things worse with the muslims and christians in the country, and hey ask any lebanese and they will tell they dont give a damn if southern lebanon is hit by israelis hezbollah controlls that reagon of the country and no lebanese citizens actually live there its all hezbollah terrorists so i say go ahead israel bomb southern lebanon but when you bomb a christian city like beirut and destroy our airport and isolate the country and bomb the whole country than you are not just going to war with hezbollah but you are also putting innocent christian lebanese and innocent muslims in danger and ill say it again the lebanese government is very weak and can hardly enforce their own traffic laws if you think that it can do anything to stop or put pressure on hezbollah than u are mistaken i think this is in the hands of the UN
11 Answers
- Anonymous1 decade agoFavorite Answer
I think Israel sucks when it kills all these Lebanese civilians pretending to be self defense. I think the Israelis are punishing the Lebanese for not disarming Hezbollah. Well how can you disarm ~1/3 of your population? But anyway if Israel has balls, it should go after Iran and Syria not the poor Lebanese people who suffered 25 years of war and still suffering more. Maybe five years from now, Iran would have a nuclear bomb and would drop it on Israel as well as the Arab countries so they can have the Middle East for themselves. So the real enemy is not the Lebanese people but Iran.
A true Lebanese
- Anonymous1 decade ago
Israel didn't dare before to go on and attack Lebanon (when the Syrian soldiers where in Leb)
I thinks what Israel doing is totally wrong they should keep it between Hezbollah and them, they shouldn't go on and blame the Lebanese government for something they didn't know that Hezbollah was planning for.
The Lebanese don't have the capability to kidnap soldiers, they know that Israel well attack them, they simply have no weapons to protect there country.
And about " Read the Quran...its teaches...convert or kill all Jews and infidels" who the hell told u this ?? its either u made it up or a stupid uninformed told it 2 u believe me the Quran don't teach us to kill Jews and non Muslims 4 your surprise it teach us to address anyone no matter who he was or what religion he follows its those stupid closed minded Muslims do the opposite thing. Don't believe any thing u hear
"Israel left Lebanon six years ago. So what's their pretext now?"
For your info some part of Lebanon is still conquered by Israel (Sheba) so if your talking about it legally (UN OR whatever) Hezbollah can kidnap soldiers even if they took them from Tel Aviv and they are considered hostages because Lebanon is conquered.. don't get me wrong am not justifying what Hezbollah did
- magistra_linguaeLv 61 decade ago
It's ridiculous to suggest that Lebanon has any control over the Hezbollah-backed terrorists. Syria and Iran have far more control over them than the fledgling Lebanese government does. Hell, we can't even put an end to terrorism in a country where we're waging war. What on Earth makes anyone think the Lebanese government has any control over Hezbollah?
I have been to Lebanon on 3 different occasions, and I have relatives who live there as well as my TWO CHILDREN who are currently visiting their grandmother, aunts, uncles, and cousins with their father (my ex-husband). The Lebanese are, with the exceptions of a few nutcases in the Hezbollah, etc..., some of the most gracious, grounded, hospitable, and friendly people I have ever met. Do millions of innocent Lebanese civilians deserve to have their lives hanging in the balance because Israel has placed the blame for the kidnapping of TWO Israeli soldiers on the wrong entity? Do my TWO American-born, American-raised children deserve to be held hostage by the Israeli government when this will in NO WAY result in the freedom of those two Israeli soldiers and will only lead to instability and further violence? What kind of immoral nonsense will the Israeli government think up next?
Don't get me wrong. I blame Hezbollah for their selfish, immoral actions, but Israel is striking back at the WRONG PEOPLE. The Lebanese should not and cannot be held responsible for what a few fundamentalist nutcases backed by the governments of SYRIA and IRAN have done. Why can't Israel embark on a more precise, more stealthy form of coercion and strike at those who are directly responsible for this act of terrorism rather than taking an entire country hostage?
It's ridiculous and unjust. And anyone who says otherwise has no sense of morality, no understanding of Middle Eastern politics, and no grasp of cause and effect. Bombing Lebanon will NOT force Hezbollah to free this two men. All it will do is endanger the lives of millions, reverse the peace and prosperity that the Lebanese have established in the last decade, and put an end to Lebanese efforts to build a stabile democracy in the Middle East.
Way to go, Israel!!! Keep this up, and you could screw up everything we've been fighting for in less than a week!
- 1 decade ago
How would you feel if someone took advantage of you after you tried to make a wrong situation right? How would you feel if somebody cried in the name of injustice but then acted in total contempt of what you did for them?
Hezbollah claimed they came to "Chase Israel out South Lebanon". Israel left Lebanon six years ago. So what's their pretext now?
It's "Chase Israel out of Existence". Just listen to their boss, that vile smurf leading Iran these days.
Israel's response was insane, but its right to should not be questioned for a minute. Not a minute.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- 1 decade ago
I think it's terrible that Lebanon has to suffer because of Hezbollah. If Israel wants to put pressure on the enemies besieging them, they must cross into Syria, which harbors leaders of Hezbollah and Hamas both.
- 1 decade ago
I think you have already answered your question. I too think the reaction is too extreme and not targeted at the right people. However obviously the Hezbollah militia shouldn't just start killing and kidnapping Israeli's either. The whole situation is very worrying.
- 1 decade ago
Lebanon is f*cked. They had better put severe pressure on Hezbollah to return the soldiers and force them to end their terrorist tactics or Israel will flatten Lebanon quickly.
- 1 decade ago
Israel has every right to defend its citizens and borders.
Militant muslims(jihadist) do not want peace, they want Israel(Jews) and all infidels(non muslims) destroyed.
Read the Quran...its teaches...convert or kill all Jews and infidels.
Israel has always been open to concessions of land, etc...in hopes of gaining a peaceful existence with Palestinians and other muslim countries; but every time they give an inch the muslims want a mile.
I say, let Israel do what they feel is best for the safety of their citizens.
The US has always supported Israel and her right to exist and live in peace, and will continue to do so.
- 1 decade ago
You fiilthy RACIST if u r a true lebanese u wouldnt care about a muslim or christian u would care about lebanon and defending it and hesbollah is doin the job. You would be invaded if hebollah is not there
- 1 decade ago
I think Israel has every right to do what it takes to protect its people


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Coming flu season worries health watchers
There's reason to be concerned about the coming flu season, reports the online health newsletter Healthline.
For starters, Australia has already had its season, and it has been bad, producing a record number of cases in summer and autumn. The last bad flu season down under was in 2017. That was followed by an equally bad 2017-18 season in the U.S.
Cases are already being reported in the U.S., including at least one death. The victim was a 4-year-old boy in California who died last month after testing positive for influenza.
Regardless of predictions, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that everyone 6 months old and older be vaccinated for the flu.
"Flu vaccine doesn't provide perfect protection, but it's the best tool we have," said Dr. Andrew Thompson of St. Luke's Infectious Disease Associates in a news release. "It's critical that everyone receive a vaccine before the flu starts circulating."
Flu shots are covered by almost all insurance plans and Medicare, the St. Luke's news release noted.
Health agency is 'breastfeeding friendly'
St. Louis County Public Health won a "breastfeeding friendly" award last year, and then stepped up its game this year.
The agency earned the award from the Minnesota Department of Health for the second straight year, according to a news release from the county. But its level was raised from "bronze" to "silver."
The award acknowledges the county health department is committed "to acting as a model for the community by supporting healthy families and receiving the business benefits of supporting nursing mothers," according to the news release.
Suicide awareness walk is Saturday
Carlton County's 11th annual "Suicide Awareness Memorial Walk" will take place from 9:30 to 11:30 a.m. Saturday at Carlton High School, 405 School Ave., according to a news release from Carlton County Public Health and Human Services.
Last year, the event drew more than 200 walkers, according to the news release.
Neither a competition nor a fundraiser (the event is free), the walk part of the event will take most people about 20 minutes. That's followed by refreshments and a short message from two sisters who are survivors of their brother's death by suicide.
Participants are welcome to wear something with the name and/or picture of the person they are honoring. Information on suicide awareness and prevention will be available.
No registration is required.