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) is a
that is obtained from the leaves of the
plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix
, forming
. It is a
of the
central nervous system
and an
appetite suppressant
. Specifically, it is a
serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor
, which mediates functionality of such as an
catecholamine transporter
. Because of the way it affects the
mesolimbic reward pathway
, cocaine is
Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non-medicinal and non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world. Although its free commercialization is illegal and has been severely penalized in virtually all countries, its use worldwide remains widespread in many social, cultural, and personal settings.
Coca leaf
For over a thousand years
South American
indigenous peoples
have chewed the coca leaf (
Erythroxylon coca
), a plant that contains vital nutrients as well as numerous
, including cocaine. The leaf was, and is, chewed almost universally by some
indigenous communities
—ancient Peruvian mummies have been found with the remains of coca leaves and pottery from the time period depicts humans, cheeks bulged with the presence of something on which they are chewing. There is also evidence that these cultures used a mixture of coca leaves and saliva as an anesthetic for the performance of
The coca plant,
Erythroxylon coca
When the
Spaniards conquered South America
, they at first ignored aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the
. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% off the value of each crop. In 1569,
Nicolás Monardes
described the practice of the natives of chewing a mixture of tobacco and coca leaves to induce "great contentment":
In 1609,
Blas Valera
Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine
was not achieved until 1855. Various
scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and the cocaine was worsened because coca does not grow in the
region and ruined easily amidst transcontinental shipping.
The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the German
Friedrich Gaedcke
in 1855. Gaedcke named the alkaloid "erythroxyline", and published a description in the journal
Archiv der Pharmazie
In 1856,
Friedrich Wöhler
asked Dr.
Carl Scherzer
, a scientist aboard the
sent by Emperor
Franz Joseph
to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America.
In 1859, the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca.
Wöhler passed on the leaves to
Albert Niemann
, a
student at the
University of Göttingen
in Germany, who then developed an improved purification process.
Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his
Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern
On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves
), which was published in 1860—it earned him his Ph.D. and is now in the
British Library
He wrote of the alkaloid's "colourless transparent prisms" and said that, "Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue." Niemann named the alkaloid "cocaine"—as with other
its name carried the "-ine"
The first synthesis and elucidation of the structure of the cocaine molecule was by
Richard Willstätter
in 1898. The synthesis started from
, a related natural product and took five steps.
With the discovery of this new alkaloid, Western medicine was quick to exploit the possible uses of this plant.
In 1879,
Vassili von Anrep
, of the
University of Würzburg
, devised an experiment to demonstrate the analgesic properties of the newly-discovered alkaloid.
He prepared two separate jars, one containing a cocaine-salt solution, with the other containing merely salt water. He then submerged a frog's legs into the two jars, one leg in the treatment and one in the control solution, and proceeded to stimulate the legs in several different ways. The leg that had been immersed in the cocaine solution reacted very differently than the leg that had been immersed in salt water.
Carl Koller
(a close associate of
Sigmund Freud
, who would write about cocaine later) experimented with cocaine for
usage. In an infamous experiment in 1884, he experimented upon himself by applying a cocaine solution to his own eye and then pricking it with pins. His findings were presented to the
Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society
. Also in 1884, Jellinek demonstrated the effects of cocaine as a
respiratory system
anesthetic. In 1885,
William Halsted
demonstrated nerve-block anesthesia, and
James Corning
anesthesia. 1898 saw
Heinrich Quincke
use cocaine for
spinal anesthesia
Today, cocaine has very limited medical use.
See the section
Cocaine as a local anesthetic
In 1859, an Italian
Paolo Mantegazza
, returned from
, where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the natives.
He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to
he wrote a paper in which he described the effects.
In this paper he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of "a furred tongue in the morning,
, [and] whitening of the teeth."
A chemist named
Angelo Mariani
who read Mantegazza's paper became immediately intrigued with coca and its economic potential. In 1863, Mariani started marketing a
Vin Mariani
, which had been treated with coca leaves, to become
. The
in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink's effect. It contained 6 mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2 mg per ounce, to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A "pinch of coca leaves" was included in
John Styth Pemberton
's original 1886 recipe for
, though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the
Pure Food and Drug Act
was passed. The actual amount of cocaine that Coca-Cola contained during the first twenty years of its production is practically impossible to determine.
In 1879 cocaine began to be used to treat
addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a
local anesthetic
in Germany in 1884, about the same time as
Sigmund Freud
published his work
Über Coca
, in which he wrote that cocaine causes
Cocaine was marketed as a fast-acting anesthetic.
1885 the U.S. manufacturer
sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user's veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would "supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain."
By the late
Victorian era
cocaine use had appeared as a vice in
. For example, it was injected by
Arthur Conan Doyle
's fictional
Sherlock Holmes
In early 20th-century
Memphis, Tennessee
, cocaine was sold in neighborhood drugstores on
Beale Street
, costing five or ten cents for a small boxful.
Stevedores along the Mississippi River used the drug as a stimulant, and white employers encouraged its use by black laborers.
In 1909,
Ernest Shackleton
took "Forced March" brand cocaine tablets to
, as did
Captain Scott
a year later on his ill-fated journey to the
South Pole
By the turn of the twentieth century, the addictive properties of cocaine had become clear, and the problem of cocaine abuse began to capture public attention in the United States. The dangers of cocaine abuse became part of a
moral panic
that was tied to the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day.
In 1903, the
American Journal of Pharmacy
stressed that most cocaine abusers were "
, gamblers, high- and low-class
, night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers." In 1914, Dr. Christopher Koch of
's State Pharmacy Board made the racial innuendo explicit, testifying that, "Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain." Mass media manufactured an epidemic of cocaine use among
African Americans
in the
Southern United States
to play upon racial prejudices of the era, though there is little evidence that such an epidemic actually took place.
In the same year, the
Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
outlawed the sale and distribution of cocaine in the United States. This law incorrectly referred to cocaine as a
, and the misclassification passed into popular culture. As stated above, cocaine is a stimulant, not a narcotic. Although technically illegal for purposes of distribution and use, the distribution, sale and use of cocaine was still legal for registered companies and individuals. Because of the misclassification of cocaine as a narcotic, the debate is still open on whether the government actually enforced these laws strictly. Cocaine was not considered a controlled substance until 1970, when the United States listed it as such in the
Controlled Substances Act
. Until that point, the use of cocaine was open and rarely prosecuted in the US due to the moral and physical debates commonly discussed.
Modern usage
In many countries, cocaine is a popular
recreational drug
. In the United States, the development of
"crack" cocaine
introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. Use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late 1990s and early 2000s in the U.S., and has become much more popular in the last few years in the UK.
Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood.
The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded
70 billion in street value for the year 2005, exceeding revenues by corporations such as
. There is a tremendous demand for cocaine in the U.S. market, particularly among those who are making incomes affording
spending, such as single adults and professionals with discretionary income. Cocaine's status as a
club drug
shows its immense popularity among the "party crowd".
In 1995 the
World Health Organization
(WHO) and the
United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
(UNICRI) announced in a press release the publication of the results of the largest global study on cocaine use ever undertaken. However, a decision in the
World Health Assembly
banned the publication of the study. In the sixth meeting of the B committee the US representative threatened that "If
activities relating to drugs failed to reinforce proven drug control approaches, funds for the relevant programs should be curtailed". This led to the decision to discontinue publication. A part of the study has been recuperated. Available are profiles of cocaine use in 20 countries.
A problem with illegal cocaine use, especially in the higher volumes used to combat fatigue (rather than increase euphoria) by long-term users, is the risk of ill effects or damage caused by the compounds used in adulteration. Cutting or "stamping on" the drug is commonplace, using compounds which simulate ingestion effects, such as
(procaine) producing temporary anesthaesia as many users believe a strong numbing effect is the result of strong and/or pure cocaine, ephedrine or similar stimulants that are to produce an increased heart rate. The normal adulterants for profit are inactive sugars, usually mannitol, creatine or glucose, so introducing active adulterants gives the illusion of purity and to 'stretch' or make it so a dealer can sell more product than without the adulterants. The adulterant of sugars therefore allows the dealer to sell the product for a higher price because of the illusion of purity and allows to sell more of the product at that higher price, enabling dealers to make a lot of revenue with little cost of the adulterants. Cocaine trading carries large penalties in most jurisdictions, so user deception about purity and consequent high profits for dealers are the norm. A study by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction in 2007 showed that the purity levels for street purchased cocaine was often under 5% and on average under 50% pure.
The first synthesis and elucidation of the
molecule was by
Richard Willstätter
in 1898. Willstätter's synthesis derived cocaine from
. Since then,
Robert Robinson
and Edward Leete have made significant contributions to the mechanism of the synthesis.
Biosynthesis of
-methyl-pyrrolinium cation
Biosynthesis of
-methyl-pyrrolinium cation
begins with L-
, which is derived to L-
in plants. The major contribution of L-ornithine and L-
as a precursor to the
ring was confirmed by Edward Leete. Ornithine then undergoes a
Pyridoxal phosphate
-dependent decarboxylation to form putrescine. In animals, however, the urea cycle derives putrescine from ornithine. L-ornithine is converted to L-arginine, which is then decarboxylated via PLP to form agmatine. Hydrolysis of the imine derives
-carbamoylputrescine followed with hydrolysis of the urea to form putrescine. The separate pathways of converting ornithine to putrescine in plants and animals have converged. A SAM-dependent
-methylation of putrescine gives the
-methylputrescine product, which then undergoes oxidative deamination by the action of diamine oxidase to yield the aminoaldehyde. Schiff base formation confirms the biosynthesis of the
-pyrrolinium cation.
Biosynthesis of cocaine
Biosynthesis of cocaine
The additional carbon atoms required for the synthesis of cocaine are derived from acetyl-CoA, by addition of two acetyl-CoA units to the
-pyrrolinium cation . The first addition is a
-like reaction with the enolate anion from acetyl-CoA acting as a
towards the pyrrolinium cation. The second addition occurs through a Claisen condensation. This produces a racemic mixture of the 2-substituted pyrrolidine, with the retention of the thioester from the Claisen condensation. In formation of
ethyl [2,3-13C2]4(Nmethyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)-3-oxobutanoate there is no preference for either stereoisomer . In the biosynthesis of cocaine, however, only the (S)-enantiomer can cyclize to form the tropane ring system of cocaine. The stereoselectivity of this reaction was further investigated through study of prochiral methylene hydrogen discrimination . This is due to the extra chiral center at C-2 . This process occurs through an oxidation, which regenerates the pyrrolinium cation and formation of an enolate anion, and an intramolecular Mannich reaction. The tropane ring system undergoes
, SAM-dependent methylation, and reduction via
for the formation of methylecgonine. The
moiety required for the formation of the cocaine diester is synthesized from phenylalanine via cinnamic acid . Benzoyl-CoA then combines the two units to form cocaine.
Robert Robinson's acetonedicarboxylate
Robinson biosynthesis of tropane
The biosynthesis of the
tropane alkaloid
, however, is still uncertain. Hemscheidt proposes that Robinson's acetonedicarboxylate emerges as a potential intermediate for this reaction . Condensation of
-methylpyrrolinium and acetonedicarboxylate would generate the oxobutyrate. Decarboxylation leads to tropane alkaloid formation.
Reduction of tropinone
The reduction of tropinone is mediated by
-dependent reductase enzymes, which have been characterized in multiple plant species . These plant species all contain two types of the reductase enzymes, tropinone reductase I and tropinone reductase II. TRI produces tropine and TRII produces pseudotropine. Due to differing kinetic and pH/activity characteristics of the enzymes and by the 25-fold higher activity of TRI over TRII, the majority of the tropinone reduction is from TRI to form tropine .
A pile of cocaine hydrochloride
A piece of compressed cocaine powder
Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a
, typically cocaine
53-21-4). Street market cocaine is frequently adulterated or "cut" with various powdery fillers to increase its weight; the substances most commonly used in this process are
baking soda
; sugars, such as
, and
; and local anesthetics, such as
, which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect on mucous membranes. Cocaine may also be "cut" with other stimulants such as
. Adulterated cocaine is often a white, off-white or pinkish powder.
The color of
"crack" cocaine
depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation – with
baking soda
– and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from white to a yellowish cream to a light brown. Its texture will also depend on the adulterants, origin and processing of the powdered cocaine, and the method of converting the base. It ranges from a crumbly texture, sometimes extremely oily, to a hard, almost crystalline nature.
Forms of cocaine
Cocaine, like many alkaloids can form many different salts, such as hydrochloride (HCl) and sulfate (-SO4). Different salts have different solvency in solvents. Its hydrochloride, like many alkaloid hydrochloride is polar and is soluble in water.
As the name implies, "freebase" is the
form of cocaine, as opposed to the
form. It is practically insoluble in water whereas hydrochloride salt is water soluble.
Smoking freebase cocaine has the additional effect of releasing
into the user's system due to the
of the substance (a side effect which insufflating or injecting powder cocaine does not create). Some research suggests that smoking freebase cocaine can be even more cardiotoxic than other
routes of administration
because of methylecgonidine's effects on lung tissue and liver tissue.
Pure cocaine is prepared by neutralizing its compounding salt with an alkaline solution which will precipitate to non-polar basic cocaine. It is further refined through aqueous-solvent
Liquid-liquid extraction
Crack cocaine
A woman smoking crack cocaine.
Crack is a lower purity form of free-base cocaine and contains sodium bicarbonate as impurity. Freebase and crack are often administered by smoking. The origin of the name is from the crackling sound (hence the
"crack") produced when cocaine containing impurities are heated.
Coca leaf infusions
Coca herbal
(also referred to as
Coca tea
) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world.
The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of
for many years as a drink having medicinal powers.
Visitors to the city of
in Peru, and
La Paz
in Bolivia are greeted with the offering of coca leaf infusions (prepared in tea pots with whole coca leaves) purportedly to help the newly-arrived traveler overcome the malaise of high altitude sickness.
The effects of drinking coca tea are a mild stimulation and mood lift. It does not produce any significant numbing of the mouth nor does it give a rush like snorting cocaine. In order to prevent the demonization of this product, its promoters publicize the unproven concept that much of the effect of the ingestion of coca leaf infusion would come from the secondary alkaloids, as being not only quantitatively different from pure cocaine but also qualitatively different.
It has been promoted as an adjuvant for the treatment of cocaine dependence.
In one controversial study, coca leaf infusion was used -in addition to counseling- to treat 23 addicted coca-paste smokers in
, Peru.
Relapses fell from an average of four times per month before treatment with coca tea to one during the treatment. The duration of abstinence increased from an average of 32 days prior to treatment to 217 days during treatment. These results suggest that the administration of coca leaf infusion plus counseling would be an effective method for preventing relapse during treatment for cocaine addiction. Importantly, these results also suggest strongly that the primary pharmacologically active metabolite in coca leaf infusions is actually cocaine and not the secondary alkaloids.
The cocaine metabolite
can be detected in the urine of people a few hours after drinking one cup of coca leaf infusion.
Routes of administration
A spoon containing baking soda, cocaine, and a small amount of water.
Used in a "poor-man's" crack-cocaine production
Many users rub the powder along the gum line, or onto a cigarette filter which is then smoked, which numbs the gums and teeth - hence the colloquial names of "numbies", "gummers" or "cocoa puffs" for this type of administration. This is mostly done with the small amounts of cocaine remaining on a surface after insufflation. Another oral method is to wrap up some cocaine in rolling paper and swallow it. This is sometimes called a "snow bomb."
Coca leaf
Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the mouth between gum and cheek (much in the same as
chewing tobacco
is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Ingesting coca leaves generally is an inefficient means of administering cocaine. Advocates of the consumption of the coca leaf state that coca leaf consumption should not be criminalized as it is not actual cocaine, and consequently it is not properly the illicit drug. Because cocaine is hydrolyzed and rendered inactive in the acidic stomach, it is not readily absorbed when ingested alone. Only when mixed with a highly alkaline substance (such as lime) can it be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach. The efficiency of absorption of orally administered cocaine is limited by two additional factors. First, the drug is partly catabolized by the liver. Second, capillaries in the mouth and esophagus constrict after contact with the drug, reducing the surface area over which the drug can be absorbed. Nevertheless, cocaine metabolites can be detected in the urine of subjects that have sipped even one cup of coca leaf infusion. Therefore, this is an actual additional form of administration of cocaine, albeit an inefficient one.
Orally administered cocaine takes approximately 30 minutes to enter the bloodstream. Typically, only a third of an oral dose is absorbed, although absorption has been shown to reach 60% in controlled settings. Given the slow rate of absorption, maximum
effects are attained approximately 60 minutes after cocaine is administered by ingestion. While the onset of these effects is slow, the effects are sustained for approximately 60 minutes after their peak is attained.
Contrary to popular belief, both ingestion and insufflation result in approximately the same proportion of the drug being absorbed: 30 to 60%. Compared to ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes, however, a more realistic activation period is closer to 5 to 10 minutes, which is similar to ingestion of cocaine. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40 – 60 minutes after the peak effects are attained.
Mate de coca
or coca-leaf infusion is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended in coca producing countries, like Peru and Bolivia, to ameliorate some symptoms of
altitude sickness
. This method of consumption has been practiced for many centuries by the native tribes of South America. One specific purpose of ancient coca leaf consumption was to increase energy and reduce fatigue in messengers who made multi-day quests to other settlements.
In 1986 an article in the
Journal of the American Medical Association
revealed that U.S. health food stores were selling dried coca leaves to be prepared as an infusion as "Health Inca Tea." While the packaging claimed it had been "decocainized," no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild
, increased
heart rate
, and
elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless.
Despite this, the
seized several shipments in
Chicago, Illinois
, and several locations on the
East Coast of the United States
, and the product was removed from the shelves.
(known colloquially as "snorting," "sniffing," or "blowing") is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine in the Western world. The drug coats and is absorbed through the
mucous membranes
lining the
. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60%, with higher doses leading to increased absorption efficiency. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in
and swallowed (this "drip" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is because cocaine highly constricts blood vessels and therefore blood and oxygen/nutrient flow to that area.
Prior to insufflation, cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into fine dust very easily, except when it is moist (not well stored) and forms "chunks," which reduces the efficiency of nasal absorption.
Rolled up
, hollowed-out
, cut
, pointed ends of keys, specialized
, long
, and (clean) tampon applicators are often used to insufflate cocaine. Such devices are often called "tooters" by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a
, CD case or book) and divided into "bumps", "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated. As tolerance builds rapidly in the short-term (hours), many lines are often snorted to produce greater effects.
A study by Bonkovsky and Mehta reported that, just like shared needles, the sharing of straws used to "snort" cocaine can spread blood diseases such as
Hepatitis C
In the United States, as far back as 1992 many of the people sentenced by federal authorities for charges related to powder cocaine were
; more Hispanics than non-Hispanic
and non-Hispanic
people received sentences for crimes related to powder cocaine.
Drug injection
provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest amount of time. Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears moments after injection (usually when in excess of 120 milligrams) lasting 2 to 5 minutes including
& audio distortion. This is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory
from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all injected illicit substances, there is a risk of the user contracting blood-borne infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used.
An injected mixture of cocaine and
, known as "
" is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as
John Belushi
Chris Farley
Mitch Hedberg
River Phoenix
Layne Staley
Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as
fruit flies
to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.
Inhalation or smoking is one of the several means cocaine is administered. Cocaine is smoked by inhaling the vapor by sublimating solid cocaine by heating. In a 2000 Brookhaven National Laboratory medical department study, based on self reports of 32 abusers who participated in the study,"peak high" was found at mean of 1.4min +/- 0.5 minutes.
Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from "
Love roses
," small glass tubes with a paper rose that are promoted as romantic gifts. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters". A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring pad often called a
(actual Brillo pads contain soap, and are not used), or
, named for
Chore Boy
brand copper scouring pads, serves as a reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and boiled to vapor. Crack smokers also sometimes smoke through a
soda can
with small holes in the bottom.
Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects, felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long usually five to fifteen minutes.
When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as
, often rolled into a joint or
. Powdered cocaine is also sometimes smoked, though heat destroys much of the chemical; smokers often sprinkle it on
The language referring to paraphernalia and practices of smoking cocaine vary, as do the packaging methods in the street level sale.
Physical mechanisms
The pharmacodynamics of cocaine involve the complex relationships of neurotransmitters (inhibiting
uptake in rats with ratios of about:
= 2:3, serotonin:
= 2:5) The most extensively studied effect of cocaine on the
central nervous system
is the blockade of the
dopamine transporter
protein. Dopamine
released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.e., the transporter binds the transmitter and pumps it out of the synaptic cleft back into the
neuron, where it is taken up into storage
. Cocaine binds tightly at the dopamine transporter forming a complex that blocks the transporter's function. The dopamine transporter can no longer perform its reuptake function, and thus
accumulates in the
synaptic cleft
. This results in an enhanced and prolonged postsynaptic effect of
signaling at dopamine receptors on the receiving neuron. Prolonged exposure to cocaine, as occurs with habitual use, leads to homeostatic dysregulation of normal (i.e. without cocaine) dopaminergic signaling via down-regulation of dopamine receptors and enhanced
signal transduction
. The decreased dopaminergic signaling after chronic cocaine use may contribute to depressive mood disorders and sensitize this important brain reward circuit to the reinforcing effects of cocaine (e.g. enhanced dopaminergic signalling only when cocaine is self-administered). This sensitization contributes to the intractable nature of addiction and relapse.
Dopamine-rich brain regions such as the ventral tegmental area,
nucleus accumbens
, and prefrontal
are frequent targets of cocaine addiction research. Of particular interest is the pathway consisting of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area that terminate in the nucleus accumbens. This projection may function as a "reward center", in that it seems to show activation in response to drugs of abuse like cocaine in addition to natural rewards like food or sex. While the precise role of dopamine in the subjective experience of reward is highly controversial among neuroscientists, the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is widely considered to be at least partially responsible for cocaine's rewarding effects. This hypothesis is largely based on laboratory data involving rats that are trained to self-administer cocaine. If dopamine antagonists are infused directly into the nucleus accumbens, well-trained rats self-administering cocaine will undergo extinction (i.e. initially increase responding only to stop completely) thereby indicating that cocaine is no longer reinforcing (i.e. rewarding) the drug-seeking behavior.
Cocaine's effects on serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) show across multiple serotonin receptors, and is shown to inhibit the re-uptake of
specifically as an important contributor to the effects of cocaine. The overabundance of 5-HT3 receptors in cocaine conditioned rats display this trait, however the exact effect of 5-HT3 in this process is unclear. The
5-HT2 receptor
(particularly the subtypes 5-HT2AR, 5-HT2BR and 5-HT2CR) show influence in the evocation of
displayed in cocaine use.
In addition to the mechanism shown on the above chart, cocaine has been demonstrated to bind as to directly stabilize the DAT transporter on the open outward-facing conformation whereas other stimulants (namely phenethylamines) stabilize the closed conformation. Further, cocaine binds in such a way as to inhibit a hydrogen bond innate to DAT that otherwise still forms when amphetamine and similar molecules are bound. Cocaine's binding properties are such that it attaches so this hydrogen bond will not form and is blocked from formation due to the tightly locked orientation of the cocaine molecule. Research studies have suggested that the affinity for the transporter is not what is involved in habituation of the substance so much as the conformation and binding properties to where & how on the transporter the molecule binds.
Sigma receptors
are effected by cocaine, as cocaine functions as a sigma ligand agonist. Further specific receptors it has been demonstrated to function on are
and the D1 dopamine receptor.
Cocaine also blocks
sodium channels
, thereby interfering with the propagation of
action potentials
; thus, like
, it acts as a local anesthetic. It also functions on the binding sites to the dopamine & serotonin sodium dependent transport area as targets as separate mechanisms from its reuptake of those transporters; unique to its local anesthetic value which makes it in a class of functionality different from both its own derived phenyltropanes analogues which have that removed and the amphetamine class of stimulants which as well altogether lack that. In addition to this cocaine has some target binding to the site of the Kappa-opioid receptor as well. Cocaine also causes
, thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the
substantia nigra
. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms and
clock genes
in behavioral actions of cocaine.
increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of
products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable
chain smoking
during cocaine use (even users who do not normally smoke
have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco.
In addition to irritability, mood disturbances, restlessness, paranoia, and auditory hallucinations, cocaine use can cause several dangerous physical conditions. It can lead to disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks, as well as chest pains or even respiratory failure. In addition, strokes, seizures and headaches are common in heavy users.
Cocaine can often cause reduced food intake, many chronic users lose their appetite and can experience severe malnutrition and significant weight loss. Cocaine effects, further, are shown to be potentiated for the user when used in conjunction with new surroundings and stimuli, and otherwise novel environs.
Metabolism and excretion
Cocaine is extensively
, primarily in the
, with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. The metabolism is dominated by
cleavage, so the eliminated metabolites consist mostly of
(BE), the major
, and other significant metabolites in lesser amounts such as ecgonine methyl ester (EME) and
. Further minor metabolites of cocaine include
, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine (pOHBE), and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine. These do not include metabolites created beyond the standard metabolism of the drug in the human body, like for example by the process of pyrolysis such as is the case with methylecgonidine.
Depending on liver and kidney function, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine intake and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 150 ng/ml typically for up to eight days after cocaine is used. Detection of accumulation of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.
If consumed with
, cocaine combines with alcohol in the
to form
. Studies have suggested cocaethylene is both more
, and has a higher
toxicity than cocaine by itself.
A study in mice has suggested that
found in
pepper spray
may interact with cocaine with potentially fatal consequences. The method through which they would interact however, is not known.
Effects and health issues
Cocaine is a powerful nervous system stimulant. Its effects can last from 15-30 minutes to an hour, depending upon the method of ingestion.
Cocaine increases alertness, feelings of well-being and euphoria, energy and motor activity, feelings of competence and sexuality. Athletic performance may be enhanced. Anxiety, paranoia and restlessness are also frequent. With excessive dosage, tremors, convulsions and increased body temperature are observed.
Health problems from the use of legal substances, particularly alcohol and tobacco, are greater than health problems from cocaine use and occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social problems.
With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause
, and
paranoid delusions
. Overdoses cause
and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life-threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems. The
of cocaine when administered
to mice is 95.1 mg/kg. Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from
respiratory failure
cerebral hemorrhage
, or
-failure. Cocaine is also highly
, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense
. Cocaine-induced
may cause muscle cell destruction and
resulting in
renal failure
. Emergency treatment often consists of administering a
sedation agent, such as
(Valium) to decrease the elevated heart rate and blood pressure. Physical cooling (ice, cold blankets, etc...) and
(acetaminophen) may be used to treat hyperthermia, while specific treatments are then developed for any further complications. There is no officially approved specific
for cocaine overdose, and although some drugs such as
have been found to be useful for treating cocaine overdose in animal studies, no formal human trials have been carried out.
In cases where a patient is unable or unwilling to seek medical attention, cocaine overdoses resulting in mild-moderate
(i.e.: a resting pulse greater than 120 bpm), may be initially treated with 20 mg of orally administered diazepam or equivalent benzodiazepine (eg: 2 mg lorazepam). Acetaminophen and physical cooling may likewise be used to reduce mild hyperthermia (<39 C).="" However,="" a="" history="" of="" high="" blood="" pressure="" or="" cardiac="" problems="" puts="" the="" patient="" at="" risk=""
cardiac arrest
, and requires immediate medical treatment. Similarly, if benzodiazepine sedation fails to reduce heart rate or body temperatures fails to lower, professional intervention is necessary.
Cocaine's primary acute effect on brain chemistry is to raise the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the
nucleus accumbens
(the pleasure center in the brain); this effect ceases, due to
of cocaine to inactive compounds and particularly due to the depletion of the transmitter resources (
). This can be experienced acutely as feelings of depression, as a "crash" after the initial high. Further mechanisms occur in chronic cocaine use. The "crash" is accompanied with muscle spasms throughout the body, also known as the "jitters", muscle weakness, headaches, dizziness, and suicidal thoughts.
Studies have shown that cocaine usage during pregnancy triggers
premature labor
and may lead to
abruptio placentae
Main effects of chronic cocaine use.
Chronic cocaine intake causes brain cells to adapt functionally to strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it, resulting more or less in an "off" or "working mode" respectively, or they change their susceptibility for binding partners (ligands) mechanisms called
. However, studies suggest cocaine abusers do not show normal age-related loss of
striatal DAT sites
, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective properties for dopamine neurons. The experience of insatiable hunger, aches, insomnia/oversleeping, lethargy, and persistent runny nose are often described as very unpleasant. Depression with suicidal ideation may develop in very heavy users. Finally, a loss of
vesicular monoamine transporters
, neurofilament proteins, and other morphological changes appear to indicate a long term damage of dopamine neurons. All these effects contribute a rise in tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect.
The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. Physical withdrawal is not dangerous, and is in fact restorative. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal are characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, erectile dysfunction, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety.
Physical side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include hemoptysis, bronchospasm, pruritus, fever, diffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic
, chest pain, lung trauma, sore throat, asthma, hoarse voice,
(shortness of breath), and an aching,
-like syndrome. A common but untrue belief is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down
tooth enamel
and causes
tooth decay
. However, cocaine does often cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as
, which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to
Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the
separating the
septum nasi
), leading eventually to its complete disappearance. Due to the absorption of the cocaine from cocaine hydrochloride, the remaining hydrochloride forms a dilute hydrochloric acid.
Cocaine may also greatly increase this risk of developing rare autoimmune or connective tissue diseases such as
Goodpasture's disease
Stevens-Johnson syndrome
and other diseases. It can also cause a wide array of kidney diseases and renal failure.
Cocaine abuse doubles both the risks of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes, as well as increases the risk of other infarctions, such as
myocardial infarction
Cocaine dependence
) is physical and psychological dependency on the regular use of cocaine. Cocaine dependency may result in physiological damage, lethargy, psychosis, depression, and fatal overdose.
Cocaine as a local anesthetic
Cocaine hydrochloride for medicinal use.
Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery, although it is now predominantly used for nasal and
lacrimal duct
surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense
activity and potential for
toxicity. Cocaine has since been largely replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anesthetics such as
, and
though it remains available for use if specified. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as
. In Australia it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung ulcers. Some
specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when performing procedures such as nasal
. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10–15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction. Even when used this way, some of the used cocaine may be absorbed through oral or nasal mucosa and give systemic effects.
In 2005, researchers from
Kyoto University Hospital
proposed the use of cocaine in conjunction with
administered in the form of an
eye drop
as a diagnostic test for
Parkinson's disease
The word "cocaine" was made from "coca" + the
"-ine"; from its use as a
local anesthetic
a suffix "-caine" was extracted and used to form names of synthetic
local anesthetics
Current prohibition
The production, distribution and sale of cocaine products is restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries as regulated by the
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
, and the
United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
. In the United States the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine is additionally regulated by the 1970
Controlled Substances Act
Some countries, such as Peru and Bolivia permit the cultivation of coca leaf for traditional consumption by the local
indigenous population
, but nevertheless prohibit the production, sale and consumption of cocaine. In addition, some parts of Europe and Australia allow processed cocaine for medicinal uses only.
In 2004, according to the
United Nations
, 589
metric tons
of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities.
seized 188 tons, the United States 166 tons, Europe 79 tons, Peru 14 tons, Bolivia 9 tons, and the rest of the world 133
Illicit trade
Bricks of cocaine, a form in which it is commonly transported.
Because of the extensive processing it undergoes during preparation, cocaine is generally treated as a '
hard drug'
, with severe penalties for possession and trafficking. Demand remains high, and consequently black market cocaine is quite expensive. Unprocessed cocaine, such as
coca leaves
, are occasionally purchased and sold, but this is exceedingly rare as it is much easier and more profitable to conceal and smuggle it in powdered form. The scale of the market is immense: 770 tonnes times $100 per gram retail = up to $77 billion.
Colombia is the world's leading producer of cocaine.Due to Colombia's 1994 legalization of small amounts of cocaine for personal use, while sale of cocaine was still prohibited, the result was the spread of local coca crops, partly justified by the local demand.
Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine has been produced in Colombia, both from cocaine base imported from Peru (primarily the
Huallaga Valley
) and Bolivia, and from locally grown coca. There was a 28% increase from the amount of potentially harvestable coca plants which were grown in Colombia in 1998 . This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mid-1990s. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade.
Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. Although production fell temporarily, coca crops rebounded as numerous smaller fields in Colombia, rather than the larger plantations.
The cultivation of coca has become an attractive, and in some cases even necessary, economic decision on the part of many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the persistence of worldwide demand, the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, and the spread of new strains of the coca plant.
Synthetic cocaine would be highly desirable to the illegal drug industry, as it would eliminate the high visibility and low reliability of offshore sources and international smuggling, replacing them with clandestine domestic laboratories, as are common for illicit
. However, natural cocaine remains the lowest cost and highest quality supply of cocaine. Actual full synthesis of cocaine is rarely done. Formation of inactive
(cocaine has 4 chiral centres - 1R,2R,3S,5S - hence a total potential of 16 possible enantiomers and disteroisomers) plus synthetic by-products limits the yield and purity.Note, names like 'synthetic cocaine' and 'new cocaine' have been misapplied to
(PCP) and various
designer drugs
Trafficking and distribution
Organized criminal
gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade.
Most cocaine is grown and processed in
South America
, particularly in
, and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the worlds largest consumer of Cocaine, where it is sold at huge markups; usually in the US at $80–$120 for 1 gram, and $250–300 for 3.5 grams (1/8th of an ounce, or an "eight ball").
Caribbean and Mexican routes
Cocaine shipments from
South America
transported through
Central America
are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico.
The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the
U.S.–Mexico border
The primary cocaine importation points in the United States are in
, southern
, southern
, and
Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border. Sixty five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida.
Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently
, have also established a labyrinth of
routes throughout the
, the
Island chain, and South
They often hire traffickers from
or the
Dominican Republic
to transport the drug.
The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets.
These include airdrops of 500–700 kg in the
Bahama Islands
or off the coast of
Puerto Rico
, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000 kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of
Chilean route
Another route of cocaine traffic goes trough Chile, this route is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lies in northern Chile.
The arid Bolivia-Chile border is easily crossed by 4x4 vehicles that then heads to the seaports of
While the prize of cocaine is higher in Chile than in Peru and Bolivia the final destination is usually Europe, specially
where drug dealing networks exists among South American immigrants.
Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as "
" (or "mulas"), who cross a border either legally, e.g. through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere. The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If he or she is caught however, gangs will sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone.
Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western
Gulf of Mexico
These vessels are typically 150–250-foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as
go-fast boats
, as those used by the local populations.
drug subs
are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on March 20, 2008. Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them.
Sales to consumers
Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the
Summer 1998 Pulse Check,
published by the U.S.
Office of National Drug Control Policy
, cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in
San Diego
, and
In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be due to a switch to
among some users; methamphetamine is cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among urban youth.
In addition to the amounts previously mentioned, cocaine can be sold in "bill sizes": for example, $10 might purchase a "dime bag," a very small amount (0.1–0.15 g) of cocaine. Twenty dollars might purchase .15–.3 g. However, in lower Texas, it's sold cheaper due to it being easier to receive: a dime for $10 is .4g, a 20 is .8-1.0 gram and a 8-ball (3.5g) is sold for $60 to $80 dollars, depending on the quality and dealer. These amounts and prices are very popular among young people because they are inexpensive and easily concealed on one's body. Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on supply and demand, and on geographic region.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
reports that the typical retail price of cocaine varied between 50€ and 75€ per gram in most European countries, although Cyprus, Romania, Sweden and Turkey reported much higher values.
Bags of cocaine, adulterated with fruit flavoring.
World annual cocaine consumption currently stands at around 600
metric tons
, with the United States consuming around 300 metric tons, 50% of the total, Europe about 150 metric tons, 25% of the total, and the rest of the world the remaining 150 metric tons or 25%.
Cocaine adulterants
Cocaine is "cut" with many substances such as:
Baking soda
According to a 2007 United Nations report, Spain is the country with the highest rate of cocaine usage (3.0% of adults in the previous year). Other countries where the usage rate meets or exceeds 1.5% are the United States (2.8%), England and Wales (2.4%), Canada (2.3%), Italy (2.1%), Bolivia (1.9%), Chile (1.8%), and Scotland (1.5%).
In the United States
General usage
Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the U.S. (behind
) and the U.S. is the world's largest consumer of cocaine. Cocaine is commonly used in middle to upper class communities. It is also popular amongst college students, as a party drug. Its users span over different ages, races, and professions.
In the 1970s and 80's, the drug became particularly popular in the
culture as cocaine usage was very common and popular in many discos such as
Studio 54
The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in 1999 that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7% of the household population age 12 and older. Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community.
Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went up from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s.
Usage among youth
The 1999
Monitoring the Future
(MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powdered cocaine rose during the 1990s. In 1991, 2.3% of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7% in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3% to 7.7% for tenth-graders and from 6.1% to 9.8% for high school seniors. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2% in 1991 to 3.9% in 1999.
Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18–25 at 1.7%, an increase from 1.2% in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26–34, while rates slightly increased for the 12–17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998.
In Europe
General usage
Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in Europe (behind
). Since the mid-1990s, overall cocaine usage in Europe has been on the rise, but usage rates and attitudes tend to vary between countries. Countries with the highest usage rates are: The United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, and Ireland.
Approximately 12 million Europeans (3.6%) have used cocaine at least once, 4 million (1.2%) in the last year, and 2 million in the last month (0.5%).
Usage among young adults
About 3.5 million or 87.5% of those who have used the drug in the last year are young adults (15–34 years old). Usage is particularly prevalent among this demographic: 4% to 7% of males have used cocaine in the last year in Spain, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The ratio of male to female users is approximately 3.8:1, but this statistic varies from 1:1 to 13:1 depending on country.
See also
Biosynthesis of cocaine
Black cocaine
Coca eradication
Coca Museum
Cocaine: An Unauthorized Biography
Cocaine paste
Colombia in Popular Culture
Crack baby
Crack epidemic
Crack lung
Crack pipe
Drug addiction
Drug injection
Drugs and prostitution
Ecgonine benzoate
The Great Binge
List of cocaine analogues
Methylecgonine cinnamate
Psychoactive drug
Route 36
, cocaine bar in Bolivia
Take a Whiff On Me
Aggrawal, Anil.
Narcotic Drugs
. National Book Trust, India (1995), p. 52-3. ISBN 81-237-1383-5.
Barlow, William.
"Looking Up At Down": The Emergence of Blues Culture
. Temple University Press (1989), p. 207. ISBN 0-87722-583-4.
Apple Sanity - Fetish - Blow: War on Drugs VS. Cocaine
Cocaine Market
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Methylecgonidine, a Crack Cocaine Pyrolyzate - Scheidweiler et al. 307 (3): 1179 Figure IG6 - Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental...
"Substances - Cocaine" The Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development
accessed August 2009
George, Nelson. "Hip Hop America". 1998. Viking Penguin.(Page 40)
G. Barnett, R. Hawks and R. Resnick, "Cocaine Pharmacokinetics in Humans," 3 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 353 (1981); Jones, supra note 19; Wilkinson
et al.
, Van Dyke
et al.
- Cocaine terminology
- Cocaine, Bits & Pieces
White powder cocaine no longer just for yuppies
Urban Dictionary: Bell ringer
Appendix B: Production of Cocaine Hydrochloride and Cocaine Base
, US Justice Dep.
Rothman, et al. "Amphetamine-Type Central Nervous System Stimulants Release Norepinepehrine more Potently than they Release
." (2001): Synapse
, 32-41 (Table V. on page 37)
The binding sites for cocaine and dopamine in the dopamine transporter overlap.
Nature Neuroscience
, 780 - 789 (2008) Published online: 22 June 2008
Sigma Receptors Play Role In Cocaine-induced Suppression Of Immune System
Drugbank website "drug card", "(DB00907)" for Cocaine: Giving ten targets of the molecule in vivo, including dopamine/serotonin sodium channel affinity & K-opioid affinity
World Health Organization (2004).
Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence
World Health Organization (2007).
International medical guide for ships
- re.
International study on cocaine executed by the World Health Organization
Biological Psychiatry By H. A. H. D'haenen, Johan A. den Boer, Paul Willner
Field Listing - Illicit drugs (by country)
Jacobson, Robert. "Illegal Drugs: America's Anguish". Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2006
"Pricing powder"
The Economist
, June 28, 2007, Prices: USA around $110/g, Israel/ Germany/ Britain around $46/g, Colombia $2/g, New Zealand recordbreaking $714.30/g.
, p243.
, p58-62.
External links
Cocaine in Egyptian Mummies
EMCDDA drugs profile: Cocaine(2007)
Erowid -> Cocaine Information
— A collection of data about cocaine including dose, effects, chemistry, legal status, images and more.
Slang Dictionary for Cocaine.
Cocaine content of plants
Cocaine - The History and the Risks at h2g2
Cocaine Frequently Asked Questions
Cocaine users are destroying the rainforest - at 4 square metres a gram|World news|The Guardian
Estimated Andean region coca cultivation and potential pure cocaine production, 2000–2004.
Net cultivation (km
Potential pure cocaine production (
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Massively Parallel Automated Software Tuning," 48th International Conference on Parallel Processing (ICPP 2019), Kyoto, Japan, ACM Press, August 2019."
The Marketplace for High-Performance Computers," Parallel Computing, vol. 25, no. 13-14, pp. 1517-1545, October 2002. (285.78 KB)"
MAGMA-sparse Interface Design Whitepaper," Innovative Computing Laboratory Technical Report, no. ICL-UT-17-05, September 2017. (1.28 MB)"
MagmaDNN: Towards High-Performance Data Analytics and Machine Learning for Data-Driven Scientific Computing," ISC High Performance, Frankfurt, Germany, Springer International Publishing, June 2019. (1.37 MB) (8.72 MB)"
MagmaDNN – High-Performance Data Analytics for Manycore GPUs and CPUs , Knoxville, TN, 2017 Summer Research Experiences for Undergraduate (REU), Presentation, December 2017. (5.06 MB)
MagmaDNN 0.2 High-Performance Data Analytics for Manycore GPUs and CPUs : University of Tennessee, January 2019. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14906.64961 (7.84 MB)
MAGMA MIC: Optimizing Linear Algebra for Intel Xeon Phi , Frankfurt, Germany, ISC High Performance (ISC15), Intel Booth Presentation, June 2015. (2.03 MB)
MAGMA MIC: Linear Algebra Library for Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessors , Salt Lake City, UT, The International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage, and Analysis (SC12), November 2012. (6.4 MB)
MAGMA - LAPACK for HPC on Heterogeneous Architectures , Oak Ridge, TN, Titan Summit at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Presentation, August 2011. (20.43 MB)
MAGMA Embedded: Towards a Dense Linear Algebra Library for Energy Efficient Extreme Computing," 2015 IEEE High Performance Extreme Computing Conference (HPEC '15), (Best Paper Award), Waltham, MA, IEEE, September 2015. (678.86 KB)"
MAGMA: A New Generation of Linear Algebra Library for GPU and Multicore Architectures , Salt Lake City, UT, The International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage, and Analysis (SC12), Presentation, November 2012. (4.69 MB)
MAGMA: A Breakthrough in Solvers for Eigenvalue Problems , San Jose, CA, GPU Technology Conference (GTC12), Presentation, May 2012. (9.23 MB)
LU, QR, and Cholesky Factorizations: Programming Model, Performance Analysis and Optimization Techniques for the Intel Knights Landing Xeon Phi," IEEE High Performance Extreme Computing Conference (HPEC'16), Waltham, MA, IEEE, September 2016. (943.23 KB)"
LU Factorization with Partial Pivoting for a Multicore System with Accelerators," IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol. 24, issue 8, pp. 1613-1621, August 2013. DOI: http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/TPDS.2012.242 (1.08 MB)"
LU Factorization of Small Matrices: Accelerating Batched DGETRF on the GPU," 16th IEEE International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications (HPCC), Paris, France, IEEE, August 2014. (684.73 KB)"
LU Factorization for Accelerator-Based Systems," IEEE/ACS AICCSA 2011, Sharm-El-Sheikh, Egypt, December 2011. (234.86 KB)"
Looking Back at Dense Linear Algebra Software," Perspectives on Parallel and Distributed Processing: Looking Back and What's Ahead (to appear), 00 2012. (235.91 KB)"
Looking Back at Dense Linear Algebra Software," Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol. 74, issue 7, pp. 2548–2560, July 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpdc.2013.10.005 (1.79 MB)"
A Look Back on 30 Years of the Gordon Bell Prize," International Journal of High Performance Computing and Networking, vol. 31, issue 6, pp. 469–484, 2017."
Logistical Quality of Service in NetSolve," Computer Communications, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 1034-1044, January 1999. (168.39 KB)"
Logistical Computing and Internetworking: Middleware for the Use of Storage in Communication," submitted to SC2001, Denver, Colorado, November 2001. (41.79 KB)"
Locality and Topology aware Intra-node Communication Among Multicore CPUs," Proceedings of the 17th EuroMPI conference, Stuttgart, Germany, LNCS, September 2010. (327.01 KB)"
LINPACK on Future Manycore and GPu Based Systems," PARA 2010, Reykjavik, Iceland, June 2010."
The LINPACK Benchmark: Past, Present, and Future," Concurrency: Practice and Experience, vol. 15, pp. 803-820, 00 2008. (94.86 KB)"
Linear Systems Performance Report," SLATE Working Notes, no. 8, ICL-UT-18-08: Innovative Computing Laboratory, University of Tennessee, September 2018. (1.64 MB)"
Limitations of the Playstation 3 for High Performance Cluster Computing," University of Tennessee Computer Science Technical Report, UT-CS-07-597 (Also LAPACK Working Note 185), 00 2007. (171.01 KB)"
Level-3 Cholesky Kernel Subroutine of a Fully Portable High Performance Minimal Storage Hybrid Format Cholesky Algorithm," ACM TOMS (submitted), also LAPACK Working Note (LAWN) 211, 00 2010. (190.2 KB)"
Level-3 Cholesky Factorization Routines Improve Performance of Many Cholesky Algorithms," ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS), vol. 39, issue 2, February 2013. DOI: 10.1145/2427023.2427026 (439.46 KB)"
Least Squares Solvers for Distributed-Memory Machines with GPU Accelerators," ACM International Conference on Supercomputing (ICS '19), Phoenix, Arizona, ACM, June 2019. DOI: 10.1145/3330345.3330356 (1.63 MB)"
Least Squares Performance Report," SLATE Working Notes, no. 9, ICL-UT-18-10: Innovative Computing Laboratory, University of Tennessee, December 2018. (1.76 MB)"
Leading Edge Hybrid Multi-GPU Algorithms for Generalized Eigenproblems in Electronic Structure Calculations," International Supercomputing Conference (ISC), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 7905, Leipzig, Germany, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 67-80, June 2013. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-38750-0_6 (2.14 MB)"
LAWN 294: Aasen's Symmetric Indenite Linear Solvers in LAPACK," LAPACK Working Note, no. LAWN 294, ICL-UT-17-13: University of Tennessee, December 2017. (854.1 KB)"
LAPACK Users' Guide, 3rd ed.," Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, January 1999."
LAPACK for Clusters Project: An Example of Self Adapting Numerical Software," Proceedings of the 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS 04'), vol. 9, Big Island, Hawaii, pp. 90282, January 2004. (80.97 KB)"
LAPACK 2005 Prospectus: Reliable and Scalable Software for Linear Algebra Computations on High End Computers : LAPACK Working Note 164, January 2005. (172.59 KB)
LAPACK," Handbook of Linear Algebra, Second, Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 2013. (223.21 KB)"
L2 Cache Modeling for Scientific Applications on Chip Multi-Processors," Proceedings of the 2007 International Conference on Parallel Processing, Xi'an, China, IEEE Computer Society, January 2007. (654.11 KB)"
Kernel-assisted and topology-aware MPI collective communications on multi-core/many-core platforms," Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol. 73, issue 7, pp. 1000-1010, July 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpdc.2013.01.015 (1.4 MB)"
Kernel Assisted Collective Intra-node MPI Communication Among Multi-core and Many-core CPUs," Int'l Conference on Parallel Processing (ICPP '11), Taipei, Taiwan, September 2011."
Kernel Assisted Collective Intra-node Communication Among Multicore and Manycore CPUs," University of Tennessee Computer Science Technical Report, UT-CS-10-663, November 2010. (384.75 KB)"
Keeneland: Computational Science Using Heterogeneous GPU Computing," Contemporary High Performance Computing: From Petascale Toward Exascale, Boca Raton, FL, Taylor and Francis, 2013. (2.7 MB)"
JLAPACK - Compiling LAPACK Fortran to Java," Scientific Programming, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 111-138, October 2002. (307.46 KB)"
A Jaccard Weights Kernel Leveraging Independent Thread Scheduling on GPUs," SBAC-PAD, 2018. (237.68 KB)"
Iterative Sparse Triangular Solves for Preconditioning," EuroPar 2015, Vienna, Austria, Springer Berlin, August 2015. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-48096-0_50 (322.36 KB)"
Iterative Solver Benchmark (LAPACK Working Note 152)," Scientific Programming, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 223-231, 00 2001. (168.05 KB)"
An Iterative Solver Benchmark," Scientific Programming (to appear), 00 2002. (142.67 KB)"
I/O Performance Analysis for the Petascale Simulation Code FLASH," ISC'09, Hamburg, Germany, June 2009. (88.88 KB)"
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An Introduction to the MAGMA project - Acceleration of Dense Linear Algebra : NVIDIA Webinar, June 2010.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Papercrafts Blogs
A view of my life as I relax on the back porch... Relax???? Well maybe for just a minute when I'm not busy being a wife, mother of two, CPA,.. demonstrator for The Angel Company or obsessed papercrafter.
Owner: mybackporch
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: card making, rubber stamping
Weekly sketch challenge blog with awesome sponsors and GREAT prizes!! We also have monthly guest.. design team challenges and often conduct extra "second chance challenges" which are.. additional chances to win amazing prizes that don't disapp
Owner: heidimyers
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: sketches, challenges, scrapbooking, photos
3. Kristi B.
A blog all about me & my scrap happy days.
Owner: KristiB
Listed in: Personal
Other Tags: scrapbooking, crafts, cardmaking
An Inspiring Scrapbook Blog ... At CCAS, prepare to be inspired. Each week we will post challenges, tips, sketches, tutorials, free.. fonts and more. Join us as we celebrate scrapbooking and papercrafts!
Owner: creative
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: scrapbook, scrapbooking, cards, challenges
PaperCraftSquare is a free papercraft site. Here you can find free paper crafts, paper models and.. paper toys to download, and also appreciate many paper arts.
Owner: papercraftsquare
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: papercraft, paper model, paper toy, free papercrafts, paper models download
A quirky blog for easy and cheap DIY crafts (:
Owner: lianewinkels
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: Craft, DIY, Crochet, Scrapbooking
Samples of handmade cards, scrapbooks, tips and techniques, and products.
Owner: tsudduth02
Listed in: Personal
Other Tags: cardmaking, scrapbooking, stamping, Stampin' Up!
If you love cardmaking, scrapbooking, or other crafts, this is the site for you! Enjoy samples of.. cards, scrapbooks, etc. and directions for making them. Get tutorials and kits to make your own!
Owner: tsudduth02
Listed in: Lifestyle
Other Tags: cardmaking, scrapbooking, altered art, crafts
I love papercrafting! Come visit me and see what I am up to. I also offer classes and kits to go!
Owner: tangiink
Listed in: Arts
Other Tags: Card kits, stamping, Stampin Up, stamping kits


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"Experts are warning that unless a comprehensive program to empower and rehabilitate the country's affected youth is implemented, poverty levels in many parts of the country are set to increase. Findings by government agencies paint a picture of a lost generation.
"According to the findings, more than 70 per cent of young people under the age of 29 are abusing alcohol.
"[. . . ] The government admits that the country is sitting on a time bomb unless the problem of idle youth is dealt with urgently. 'When the youth are idle they are easily lured to crime. We have seen the consequence of having idle youth. The post-election violence was mainly driven by idle youth. This year we have seen youth disrupt transport and paralyse business in market centres,' Youth Affairs assistant minister Kabando wa Kabando said."
– Excerpt taken from "How Kenya's 'lost generation' could bring the economy to its knees" (published April 5, 2009 in The Nation).
Only a few years after beginning the Skills for Life training strategy, we recognized that alcohol abuse was a significant and growing problem that had to be addressed. Young people who should be in their prime were often found in a drunken stupor, sleeping on roadsides and ditches. Men who "lead" their homes were taking any money gained and using it to fuel their own addictions.
ELI began with a prayer campaign and a village-wide survey, and then – through God's providence – volunteers from the USA like Dave Kentish came and helped establish accountability groups that eventually led to a necessary Christian rehabilitation program.
Today, over 1,000 people have come out of their addiction and are finding new freedom and purpose in life. They are contributing members of the society and many have found Christ as their true higher power. In most cases, when a person gains victory over their alcoholism, progress reaches an even greater level of success when they enter and complete one or more of our Skills for Life training programs.


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Together with my doctor, Dr Chow from The Clifford Clinic!
What is Ultra V Hiko Nose Threadlift?
The Ultra V Hiko Nose Threadlift is a non-invasive procedure which is an alternative to traditional nose fillers. The Clifford Clinic is also one of the first few clinics in Singapore to provide this service as it is really important for the doctors to have surgical qualifications. The doctors in The Clifford Clinic are Members of the Royal College of Surgeons so you can be assured that you will be in safe hands!
As shown on the picture, 2 things I am unhappy with my nose:
A selfie while waiting for the numbing cream to take its effect~
All smiles before starting with the procedure!
Dr Chow explaining to me what he'll be doing/how's the procedure like to give me a heads up!
Okay and here goes! First, Dr Chow administers a few injections of local anesthesia all around my nose to prevent me from feeling any pain during the Ultra V Hiko Nose Threadlift procedure.
Honestly speaking, this local anesthesia was painful to me! My threshold for pain is kinda low so while it is painful to me, it might not be as painful to some of you guys, so it really depends! That said, it was still bearable, especially when the local anesthesia effect kicks in! My entire nose became numb almost instantly so... PHEW!
Once Dr Chow has double confirmed with me that I no longer feel anything on my nose, he proceeded on with the procedure!
Okay so basically, the thread is kinda like hooked onto the needle which is then being inserted into my nose through the tip. Once the needle is in, Dr Chow will then dislodged the thread, so that the thread will stay in my nose before removing the needle.
And yes, I know it looks painful and really disturbing but TRUST ME!!!
Thank God for the local anesthesia man!!
See!! I could even smile and pose for a picture halfway through the procedure! LOL
Always camera-ready
Dr Chow accessing my nose situation. This was after inserting 6 threads already - 4 on my entire nose bridge and 2 on the nose tip!
Checking myself outAnd by now, I could already see the difference!
Dr Chow then suggested inserting another 4 threads into my nose tip to lift it up further. Like I mentioned, my nose tip is very rounded so by lifting it up, it'll look sharper, slender and smaller!
In the process of inserting yet another thread into my nose!
And btw, here's how the thread looks like:
These are threads which are used in surgeries to stimulate collagen growth in the nose to get an increase in nose bridge height. As shown in the picture, this is a shorter thread used for the nose tip. For the entire nose bridge, the thread will be longer!
A clear picture of the nose thread procedure
And yes..... we were done in about 30mins? Such a fast procedure isn't it! And the results were immediate!
Happy me together with Dr Chow!
A week later, I was back at The Clifford Clinic again for my nose review to see if everything was fine!
Dr Chow was really satisfied with the outcome of the nose! He also then suggested that I should do botox around my double chin area to make my face look even sharper! Well..... my double chin is really T_T
This was not painful at all. A mere ant bite feeling! And this is coming from a person with a low threshold of pain ok!
Was even caught on camera for taking a selfie LOL
While the difference is not that big if you look at it from the front view, but there's definitely a significant difference from the side view! Just compare picture 3a and 3c as well as 5a and 5c.
And here's the BEFORE vs AFTER pictures for the botox procedure at my double chin!
My chin is significantly SHARPER ALOT!! LOVE IT!!!!!
Thank you Dr Chow from The Clifford Clinic!
It is very important to have a good doctor as they will be able to make the best judgement! Furthermore, using the wrong number of threads/wrong technique or if the threads are too thick, it might even cause a scar and I know we all definitely do not want any scars on our nose right!!
So happy with my new face! It's a subtle change that no one would have realised if I didn't say anything (it's not as obvious as plastic surgery, hence it's very natural looking) yet it is enough to make me look so much better!


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By Daniel Wu – An ideal PRD discusses users, shows features in a visual prototype, and includes key hypotheses. Product Requirement Documents (PRDs) are documents product managers use to achieve several important objectives. They (1) create purpose and context for the teams they work with, allowing key stakeholders to feel heard; and (2) clearly communicate the vision.
Experts in the industry, however, believe PRDs should be eliminated for several reasons. PRDs, they believe suffer from two big problems. The first is bloat. Product managers (PMs) collect discussions about product and long documents are rarely read. The second is rigidity. PRDs are also seen as inflexible documents tied to the "waterfall" development method. PRDs assume a number of features that users want, and are not updated quickly enough to create a useful product.
Given these criticisms, PRDs should change in two ways:
- To address bloat, PRDs should clarify that a clear vision also implies concision and relevance. PRDs should not exceed 6 pages — in fact some, such as Atlassian, advocate for single-page PRDs. These PRDs also have prototypes that lay out the user flow and a visual prototype, creating further clarity. Furthermore, PRDs should be relevant, with different levels of detail and content for different stakeholders.
- To address rigidity, PRDs should be the opposite: flexible. In order to match what users want, risky assumptions should be constantly validated and features updated. Furthermore, PRDs should be combined with adept project management tools that adapt to new information.
To optimize these objectives, I outlined the core features of the ideal PRD and suggest that Atlassian's 1-page PRD (see screenshots below) is a great starting point.
Create shared purpose. We create products to help users and solve their problems. Without a description of those users' use cases, team-members will not clearly understand what they are building for. In other words, the objectives section summarizes the key components of what product managers call a "market requirements document." Atlassian's PRD discusses those user stories and clearly prioritizes that features that come out of that story under the "Requirements" table on the first page. Furthermore, the section "Not Doing" on the second page provides rationales for feature choices that were explicitly discarded. By making those clear, teammates will not go backward on those choices, increasing efficiency and sharpening the product vision. Finally,
Communicate the vision clearly. What better way to communicate product vision than to literally draft a very basic prototype of the product. The PRD can include a user flow that shows how users interact with the product; a marvel prototype would be helpful here. Additionally, the PRD should consider corner cases, but not let these define the product. By corner cases, I mean low-probability set of user choices that can harm a user's experience. Atlassian's PRD also addresses this concern. The section "User Interaction and Design" features the prototype mockup. This prototype can be made even clearer by using tools like Invision or Marvel that allow users to interact with the prototype dynamically.
Embrace flexibility. Lean startup method advises founders to consider and test risky assumptions. PRDs can draw from this insight and create a plan or even use data to start testing these assumptions. These prototypes can also be subjected to user interviews, with the PM sitting down with users and observing how they use the prototype.
The section "Questions" on the second page addresses these concerns. For instance, after analyzing the data linked under the first page "Customer research," the team noted that the lack of demand for Blackberries or offline modes for the app.
Atlassian's PRD document, part 1.
Atlassian's PRD document, part 2
Case in point
In one example to develop roommate software, inspired by Lean Startup and Agile methods, my developer and I recognized the downsides discussed above. Users may not know what they want and then ultimately be dissatisfied with what they receive.
Thus we drew from the principles of Atlassian's PRD. Test our visual prototypes as early as possible. Then adjust our prototype. This way, we could feel confident about when we increased the fidelity (and corresponding cost) of our prototype.
As the product lead, I first used various qualitative methods, such as social listening of forums and interviews, to understand what our target user — recent university graduates — wanted in their roommates. After brainstorming a set of key methods after listening to people's problems, I used a larger survey and google ads to test which features people cared about the most and whether these problems were generalizable.
Example finding from social listening
Through this, I discovered that users distrusted many existing roommate websites, and were especially concerned about verifying whether roommates were trustworthy.
That's how the "must have" requirement of verification emerged.
Here's the user story premise: "When roommates evaluate strangers to room with, they use various techniques to verify trustworthiness. They use social proof, such as referrals from friends or university-based facebook groups, and see if there is a cultural match, using video or in-person interviews.
Using Sketch, I drafted mockups in about a week and showed our key user who we examined using the product and gave us further feedback. This mockup, of course, also achieved clarity in communication with my developer. He knew exactly what we wanted to build. I adjusted these designs to make them more feasible, given his skill and resources.
Example visual mockup I created and showed to user – akin to Atlassian's visual mockup.
We rinsed and repeated until we kept receiving similar set of comments from our target user. Using this feedback, we ultimately layered on more functionality to create a working website.
Functional fidelity prototype, after balancing feasibility and user needs
This helped us create something our target user enjoyed. Friends of mine shared this with their own networks — strangers I had never spoken to — but would likely be a target user. Fortunately, we received positive feedback, helping us feel more comfortable we were building something people needed.
Positive feedback from strangers who were our target user.
Ultimately, a PRD is a tool that helps teams — with different jargon and priorities — to communicate better with each other and their target users. The PRDs are in need to be sharpened, and Atlassian's example is a great model on which to remind ourselves to test prototypes early.
Header image photo courtesy of Ylanite Koppens from Pexels.
Daniel Wu's bio – I'm a startup lawyer and have my JD/PhD from Harvard. I'm passionate about the way law, technology, and design can advance affordability in housing. Please see my linkedin for more details and other writings on medium here.


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WATTROUTER® CWx MAX
This product has been discontinued. It is no more available for purchase.
WATTrouter CWx MAX is programmable controller to optimize self-consumption of energy produced by photovoltaic or wind power plant. Current measurement range is 3x100A, load capacity 3x125A. There is possible to connect 2 external solid state relays (SSR). When properly installed and configured, this controller maximizes the usage of produced surplus energy in your house by "routing" it to your loads.According to the price differences between feed-in tariff and normal electricity tariff in respective country and the amount of energy the customer can self-consume the device can pay itself within less than 4 months!
WATTrouter CWx MAX consists of 2 modules - current sensing module and regulator. It can be configured and monitored from any IBM compatible computer or noteebook over the USB interface.


text:
Home > Eyeglasses > Calvin Klein > CK5469 (714)
CK 5469 is available in 2 additional attractive styles
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CK5469/714 Eyewear
As a customer of Edel-Optics, you are totally aware that eyewear can crown your style. This accessory makes you look very smart when you are out and about and convincing in the office and in your leisure time. The new Calvin Klein underlines that you are a trendsetter. For the current season the renowned label sets the standards with its collection for 2018. The CK5469 is available in the Edel-Optics online shop in other styles from Calvin Klein collections 2017 and 2018.
Full rim frames completely enclose the lenses within the frame. For a convinced eyeglass wearer, any other frame style is ruled out, with very few exceptions. Gold-coloured eyewear always looks noble and is currently heavy in fashion. It can be combined with any outfit and makes you look radiant.
With the help of our digital dispensing optician, your prescription lenses can be configured according to your own requirements. Anti-reflective and cleaning coatings, antistatic and lotus effect are included as standard for plastic lenses.
The model is in stock. If you order now with the express shipping option, we can even guarantee the time of delivery. And because Edel-Optics is a paradise for bargain hunters, you can get this top model at an incredibly low price. What is labelled as "in the sale" at other online shops, is for us "all-day-everyday" prices.
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text: Some counties in the nation are too small to have reliable measurements for health outcome measures. Those counties are not ranked. If a county has data for enough measures to be ranked but is missing data for any individual measure, we assign the county the same value as the state mean for that measure. One way to overcome unstable and unreliable estimates due to small numbers, such as with the measures from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), is to combine multiple years of data. This means that although the Rankings are useful for differentiating between places that are and are not healthy, they are not a good tool for setting objectives and tracking progress from year to year.


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Sometimes I dream with such intensity that I wake up feeling like I've been in some kinda fist fight. That's what I thought upon waking this morning. I don't quite remember the dreams from last night, but they felt significant and I don't feel rested on a true level. I got 7.5 hours and I feel good enough, but I'm wondering:
if all this psychic energy has been running through me all this time, it's no wonder I've self-medicated a lot ~ this kind of intensity is hard to live with;
or maybe the intensity has picked up since the major restructuring has been happening.
I read something about the cosmology of the Hopi people ~ they understand that as we evolve, things/evolution become/s harder, more challening.
I really like that context. Combined with the idea of Home evolutis, it helps me accept the challenges of modernity. It helps me to stop feeling woe that we have lost the old ways and start feeling excited that we are pioneering something new … not quite unwittingly, but we can't really know this is going on unless we learn the idea, and only then can we embrace it. Makes sense right?
If as we evolve, things/evolution become/s harder, more challening … then surely things will become more rewarding, because nothing good ever comes easy.


text:
Download our FREE on-the-go iPhone app for easy access to current wait times, preset and custom touring plans, and daily park activities.Learn More
Source: Undercover Tourist
Join Gru, his daughters, and the mischievous Minions on an unpredictable 3-D ride, Despicable Me Minion Mayhem®. Join the ranks of the Minions, literally, as part of Gru's latest scheme. But when things don't go as planned, you're launched into an unforgettable journey through his super-villain laboratory. It's heartwarming and humorous family fun for everyone!
Source: Undercover Tourist
Universal elements and all related indicia TM & © 2019 Universal Studios. All rights reserved.
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- No Offers currently.
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Flaberry Price
- Delivered in 4 days across Delhi/NCR
- Delivered in 7 business days outside Delhi/NCR
DescriptionThis bonsai is made by the process of grafting ficus on the root of macrocarpa.Its most attractive feature is the foliage and as the grafting is done by joining two different entities, this particular kind of bonsai also depicts harmony and togetherness.
Caring InstructionsCaring instructions: Water it half a cup once every day and make sure that the soil is a bit moist. Put it near the window so that it receives some indirect sunlight during the day. Once a week, put it out in the balcony for 3-4 hours of morning sun.


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Live Music: Rebel Highway Unplugged
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Join us just off historic Bourbon Street in Jambalaya at Pheasant Run Resort for live music from Rebel Highway - nothing too heavy, just classic top 40 songs with a great groove, two to three-part harmonies, from the 60s, 70s, and 80s. 9pm-12m. Doors open at 5pm with all you care to eat Rib Fest from 5pm-8pm for $16.95. Come on out for some fun at the Run!
- Start:September 30, 2017
- End:September 30, 2017
- Where:Jambalaya at Pheasant Run Resort, 4051 E Main St, St Charles, IL, United States, 60174
- Phone:(630)-584-6300
- Event Type: Concerts & Music
- Ticket Price:0


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One of the many things I didn't anticipate about 3D printing is its accompanying sounds. I don't know what I expected, but I probably hadn't even thought about the fact that the machines would, well, sing.
It reminds me of the popular sounds of whales many years ago – no one expected them, either.
Now that I've been running three different 3D printers for a while, I'm starting to recognize some nuances. For instance, each machine seems to have its own sounds, and the sounds change depending upon what I'm printing ….