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Arcadian Cinema I & II
240 S. Highland Avenue,
240 S. Highland Avenue,Ossining, NY 10562
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Showing 2 comments
Roger Katz on February 18, 2015 at 7:27 am
Address was 240 S Highland Ave.
markp on January 27, 2008 at 9:55 am
This theatre was twinned in 1975 by General Cinema. I know this because its sister twin in Old Bridge N.J. (then Madison Twp.) the Madison Cinema was twinned at the same time. I don't know how the Arcadian turned out, but the Madison became two long narrow theatres with 400 seats each, and the screens were only about 18 feet wide, with a projection throw of about 85 feet. Horrible to watch any movie there. Madison was demolished in 1989.


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Sunday, April 25, 2010
Random Fat Thoughts... Or Thoughts On Fats And Weight Loss
And I was really excited in January when I had more free time than usual... I spent alot of time working out and was losing weight. I was also eating about 25% more than my allowance of ww points and sort of lost faith in tracking foods and sticking to the points allowance, since I was losing weight and getting stronger and smaller while eating more.
After January I didn't have that spare time for extra workouts anymore, but I didn't go back to the more restrictive way of eating, and I continued to enjoy healthy fats and unfortunately, some serious fast food. I had some starts and stops with weight loss and now have pretty much gained all the weight back.
I have two thoughts here. One is that cutting fast food out of my life is not realistic. As much as I would like to be a healthy super-woman, if I draw the line and mandate "no more fast food, never again" then with deprivation on my mind, I am even more likely to say "honey, how about Hardee's tonight?" and say it often. The other thought is that I would like to accomplish weight loss while incorporating real, healthy fats into my diet.
I'm going to have to start planning meals again, writing down dinner for the whole week and shopping accordingly. And planning out breakfast, lunch and snacks. And to do it the way I want to, I'm going to have to figure out how to eat real foods and real fats but keep the total fat and calories down to a reasonable level to allow for weight loss. And plan for good choices with the occasional burger joint take-out: maybe eat half the burger and a small order of fries, for starters.
Sheesh, it all sounds so complicated. Maybe I will just concentrate this week on doing SOME planning, SOME exercising, making sure to eat fruits and veggies and get plenty of water. Back to baby steps, people.
Have a fab day.
3 comments:
- Agnes said...
I agree with you Liz. And I think women on 100% fat-free diets look like dry leaves (dry skin + wrinkles).
- April 25, 2010 at 3:32 PM
- Anonymous Fat Girl said...
I don't like "all or nothing" and if you completely cut out something (like fast food) and didn't ever have it that would be "all or nothing" and I just don't think it's realistic. Rather the approach of changing small things in your life seems more attainable, such as Cammy @ Tippy Toe Diet recommends. A lot of wisdom there she has.
- April 26, 2010 at 2:27 PM
- carriebojo said...
eating clean has made a huge difference for me. i have been reading some books on clean eating and have also recently watched Food Inc. on PBS. that documentary was certainly enough to help me steer clear of fast food. i still will eat meat but only organic or locally farm raised.
eating has never been easier for me. i am a WW devotee and have learned a lot from WW but i no longer need to count points with clean eating.
- April 28, 2010 at 9:52 AM

subset: commoncrawl


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Hormone Replacement Therapy – Feel Balanced Again
Hormone imbalance can create a whole array of unpleasant symptoms for women as well as men. These symptoms include mood swings, weight gain, exhaustion, depression and hair loss, to mention a few.
Although the main culprit of hormone imbalance is the natural aging process, nutrition and lifestyle habits also contribute to the lack of production of hormones in the body.
Fortunately, there is a way to balance your hormones to more normal levels. It's called SottoPelle® Therapy.
What Is SottoPelle Therapy?
SottoPelle® therapy is a highly effective form of Bioidentical Hormone Replacement Therapy (BHRT) developed and refined by internationally recognized leader in the field of bioidentical hormones, Dr. Gino Tutera. A board certified OB/GYN, Dr. Tutera opened his first PMS clinic in 1982 and since then, has specialized in treating hormone imbalances.
Dr. Tutera's years of research lead to the creation of SottoPelle therapy. Unlike traditional BHRT, this treatment method is based on prescribing a customized dose of hormones for each patient, administered through the most effective hormone delivery system. The SottoPelle dosage management system takes into account the patients physical and emotional manifestations, as well as, lab evaluation; which are then entered into a formula that effectively calculates the exact needed dosage for your body.
SottoPelle therapy uses the most effective hormone delivery system… pellets, which deliver the hormones directly into your bloodstream.
Are Bioidentical Hormones Safe?
Bioidentical hormones have been available since 1935 and their effectiveness to treat a variety of hormonal disorders have been documented for decades. Numerous studies indicated that women with menopausal symptoms — including surgically induced medical menopause — should consider hormone replacement.
Bioidentical hormones are plant-based compounds. They are referred to as bioidentical because their molecular structure mimic the hormones that are naturally produced in your body.
Although the SottoPelle method of administration of bioidentical hormones are pellets, other delivery methods exist, including:
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The Ideal Hormone Delivery System
Getting the right amount of hormones to the body, exactly when the body requires them is complex. Creams, pills and patches are unable to deliver consistent amounts of hormones throughout the day mimicking how the body naturally delivers hormones.
Each pellet is produced at a compounding pharmacy and is customized to meet your needs. The pellet is designed to release hormones slowly and throughout the day. Each pellet is approximately the size of a grain of rice, and is inserted under the skin. For women pellet placement is usually once every 3 to 4 months and for men every 6 months.
When pellets are used in patients, the pellet is inserted into the fatty tissue, which allows the hormones to be introduced directly into the bloodstream, without having to go through the skin or digestive system. Because your body's circulation regulates how the pellet dissolves, the dose will be constant and will be available as you need it.
Who Is A Candidate For Bioidentical Hormones?
The symptoms of hormone deficiency are varied and many. Below are some of the more common symptoms for both men and women:
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Should you and Dr. Fulton decide Bioidentical Hormone Replacement Therapy is right for you, you will receive a prescription that is customized based on your medical tests and health needs.
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The voice of Southeast Europe has to be heard when formulating the European approach towards the current unprecedented migration flow because this region has much to offer. Geographically located on a crossroads, and through history marked by intense population movements, the culturally and religiously diverse Southeast is now set to provide common European policy options to help both national and European stakeholders in light of the greatest migration challenge in the continent`s recent history.
Over a hundred policy makers, politicians, academics, journalists, and activists gathered in Blagoevgrad, on 7th and 8th April 2016, to participate in an international conference on migration, first of its kind in Bulgaria, and to develop together liberal-democratic responses to what Dr Rainer Adam, Regional Director of the Friedrich Naumann Foundation East and Southeast Europe, called "the topic keeping Europe on its toes". The conference, titled "Migration Challenges in Southeast Europe: Policy Options for Building a Strong and Free Europe", was organised by the Friedrich Naumann Foundation East and Southeast Europe, in close collaboration with the American University in Bulgaria (AUBG), the Centre for Legal Aid – Voice in Bulgaria, and the Refugee Support Group, with the purpose of creating a framework of concrete policy recommendations for policy-makers on the European and regional levels.
Security and migration after the closure of the Western Balkans Route
According to Ognyan Zlatev, Head of the European Commission Representation in Bulgaria, Europe faces two overlapping but distinct crises: a crisis of security and a crisis of migration. Thus, there is a need to find a solution that respects both the borders and our values in regards to people's search for better lives. The EU-Turkey refugee deal is the current best EU response, since it closes the irregular migration route while opening safe and legal channels for refugees to enter and seek shelter.
The closure of the Western Blanks route is, however, another challenge for the common European approach. Due to the political and institutional shortcomings, the Western Balkan countries could not handle the migrant influx and therefore closed their borders, hoping that would lead to stronger EU involvement and regional cooperation, concluded Zoran Blazekovic, from the Croatian People`s Party, Dusan Gamser, representative of the Liberal Democratic Party of Serbia, and Jasmina Golubovska, from the Open Society Foundation in Macedonia, during the first discussion panel. A policy of "Admit those who need to be admitted" while tightening border security to prevent irregular migration was proposed during the same panel by Zoran Đoković, Adviser on Freedom of Movement and Human Contacts at OSCE/ ODIHR. Moreover, he argued, integration conditions must be synchronized throughout Europe to prevent the secondary migration of refugees and to ensure the best conditions for those who meet all legal requirements. At the same time, "solidarity is fundamental and measures should be imposed on countries which refuse to take in refugees," added Nikolaus Scherak, Vice-President of the Parliamentary fraction of the Austrian NEOS Party, calling for a jointly coordinated EU resettlement approach.
Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria addressing smuggling and trafficking
In his opening speech on the second conference day, Yavor Siderov, a representative from the Council of Ministers of Bulgaria, called for a solution that combines "humanitarian aid, border integrity, and the interests of the European Union" with the long-term goal of maintaining stability and ensuring the security of external borders. He added that "Keeping Schengen alive," while fulfilling our humanitarian obligations is fundamental to this. Outlining the topic of the following panel, "EU`s buffer zone", Siderov was critical of the financial aid to Turkey, as the EU-Turkey refugee deal would not prevent but rather encourage organised human smuggling within the EU. Therefore, a focused effort to identify victims of trafficking among asylum seekers should be initiated and trustworthy collaboration undertaken to combat these negative processes, noted Kamelia Dimitrova, Acting Secretary General of the Bulgarian Commission for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings. The other two panel participants, Sandy Protogerou from the Greek Council of Refugees and Hakan Ataman from the Helsinki Citizens' Assembly in Turkey, provided insights on the refugee and migration situation in their respective countries, with both speakers expressing concerns over the integrity of the asylum procedure and respect for the human rights of the refugees, with regards to their return to Turkey and that country's identification as a "Safe Third Country."
Multiflow approach: borders, media, hate crimes, and civil society
Four workshops on the topics: Border Management, The role of media, Hate crimes and hate speech, and Civic involvement, complemented the panel discussions during this two-day conference, to provide a practical approach to identifying concrete policy recommendations to the most pressing challenges brought by the increased migration in, and through, Southeast Europe. These working sessions were led by practitioners from Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Croatia, and Hungary, and provided a basis for the last part of the event – the adoption of a policy paper outline, moderated by Daniel Kaddik, FNF Southeast Europe Project Director. The policy paper itself will be developed further online by all the conference participants and published as a follow-up in May 2016.
The event photo album is available below.


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Digital Gaggle is a set of talks by five seasoned professionals in the digital marketing / PR space, each of whom has been asked to give you actionable tips and tricks to make your marketing better.
We're really excited about this, the first Digital Gaggle, as it is all about getting more visitors to your website. Future events will be about converting more of them to leads / sales and measuring success.
We're all from Bristol or thereabouts so we're not running it anywhere else and this will be the only opportunity you'll ever have to hear this amazing line up in one place.
As it's the first event we've ever run, it's free. All you pay for are your drinks at the bar afterwards.
Come along to the Arnolfini, in Bristol's harbourside on the afternoon of June 26th 2014 if you'd like to get some amazing tips on these topics: Social Media Marketing, Local Search Engine Optimisation, Google AdWords / Pay Per Click, Mobile Website Testing, or Pitching Your Business Story To A Journo.
With speakers from Microsoft, Bristol Post, Noisy Little Monkey and SearchStar you're in for a feast of tasty tech tips and morsels of social media advice in this exciting industry.


text: Beauty Queen's Death Highlights Surgery Risk If you must have a facelift, here are the biggest dangers By Evann Gastaldo, Newser Staff Posted Dec 3, 2009 1:15 PM CST 2 comments Solange Magnano is shown in a picture from her Facebook profile. (Facebook) (Newser) – It should go without saying that no cosmetic surgery comes without risks—but the death of former Miss Argentina Solange Magnano, following surgery on her buttocks, is leading to a closer look at the greatest dangers. CNN talks to Nigel Mercer, a top doctor pushing for change in the industry, about pressing concerns: Butt implants: If they harden, sitting will be painful—and the hardened implants will be visible when you walk around. Liposuction: If it involves more than 6 liters of fat, it's one of the most dangerous procedures. Infection: Only about 1% of all operations results in an infection—which is not just dangerous but can ruin the cosmetic results. Nerve damage: It's rare, but if it happens after your facelift, the results most definitely won't be what you were looking for. If it occurs after a tummy tuck, the bottom part of your stomach will always be numb. Scarring: You can't count on an unobtrusive white line—about 4% of people end up with a "red, raised, lumpy scar." Minimizing risk: Don't have multiple procedures at the same time, don't smoke, don't fly anywhere to have surgery, and always check your doctor's qualifications. (Read more cosmetic surgery stories.) My Take on This Story Report a story error Show results | 47% Heartbreaking 24% Insane 12% Infuriating 6% Overdone 6% Hilarious 6% Brilliant


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Every Tuesday throughout June and July our team of conservation volunteers have been working with us as part of a long term project to remove Himalayan balsam from the river Valency catchment in Boscastle. Yesterday was our last outing to uproot this non-native, invasive species. Disturbing the seed pods can cause them to explode spreading the seeds several metres so we stop uprooting the plant as soon as the pods are ripe, or we run the risk of making the problem worse.
We have been stung by nettles, scratched by brambles, wilted by the sun and eaten alive by horseflies but we carried on unhindered and I am pleased to say we have made huge progress. It was also very encouraging that in some areas along the valley there has been a marked reduction in the presence and density of the balsam. This year we have concentrated mainly in the upper parts of the catchment but we will only be able to see if our efforts have been rewarded if next year we see a further decrease in the number of balsam plants.
We cannot say thank you enough to everyone who has helped us on this project. We could not attempt to do this with out their help and we are, as ever, hugely grateful for their continued support. I hear they are already looking forward to more of the same next year!


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The offer – subscribe for £30 and you can help to run a real-life farm for a whole year, via an amazing new project run by The National Trust : MyFarm.
The farm in question is in the Trust's Wimpole Estate – and there are three main areas that the 10,000 virtual farmers will help to run: the open access parkland, the farmland, and the farmyard.
In return for your payment, you get a monthly vote where you can help decide on matters concerning the big decisions the farm faces. At the end of a period of conversion to organic farming, the farm hasn't grown anything for a couple of years and the first vote to be cast by farmers will be on what the farm should grow.
You will also get a voucher for one free family visit to the Farm Estate throughout the year and if you choose to join The National Trust membership scheme, you'll get your first 3 months' membership free, and year round access.
The reconnection of everyday people and the land and food it produces is part of the reason behind the project, but I'm sure that the 10,000 Farmers (subscribers) will not be as disconnected from the land and food issues as perhaps some other areas of the populace are.
I'm really intrigued and at the time of writing I'm considering joining as part of our home education projects.
One thing that doesn't seem quite in place yet is a genuine community space for the Farmers and this seems to be somewhat of an oversight by the organisers. What seems like a really innovative online social project might just suffer from it's limited exchange flow of information.
The farm's objective is to be profitable – will majority vote casting throughout help it be so? I guess we'll have to continue to watch with interest. I'm particularly interested in whether its organic status will be used as an argument if it does turn a loss.
Pssst ... Don't forget to sign up to news from Organikal - it's like a backstage pass to our organic lifestyle, including exclusive content, sneak previews and special offers. Complete the form below and receive your free Divine Spa PDF instantly.


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Launched on National Celiac Awareness Day, Blue Diamond Almonds is showing their support for "your gluten-free life."
Blue Diamond Almonds, the makers of Almond Nut Thins and Artisan Nut Thins, launched a gluten-free snack sweepstakes on September 13, 2013 – National Celiac Awareness Day. 30 lucky winners will win gluten-free certified products from the company.
Entering is simple – just fill out the entry form on Facebook and you're good to go! Grab all the details and enter the "We Support Your Gluten-Free Life" sweepstakes here.
Related Content:
Gluten-Free Summer Block Party: Featuring recipes using Blue Diamond and GO Veggie! products
Opt-in to stay up-to-date on the latest news.Yes, I want to advance research No, I'd prefer not to


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Mark Davis
Principal / Business Owner - Harcourts BlenheimLicensed REAA 2008
Mark successfully took over the family business in 2003 and today runs an award winning office in the heart of Marlborough. He has a dedicated team of salespeople, property managers and administrators who themselves are all top performers in the industry. Mark passed his agent's licence with distinction through Massey University and was rewarded with a business management trip to Disney World. The lessons learned about building a great culture with outstanding customer service are key principles in his business. Today the business enjoys a fantastic reputation and is backed up with a great market share. He is very proud of his team.


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Peanut Butter Chocolate Chip Cake Mix Cookies
I've shared a few cake mix cookie recipes over the past few weeks. We made Snickerdoodles and White Chocolate Chip Nutella Cake Mix Cookies. Today I am sharing a Peanut Butter Chocolate Chip Cake Mix cookies. Like the other cake mix cookies, these peanut butter chocolate chip cookies are super duper easy to make. These might be my favorite, or I could just be saying that because they are the last cookies I had. Either way, they were delicious. They are moist, light and fluffy. I can't say how well they keep because they didn't last long. I took them to work and they were gone in a flash!
Peanut Butter Chocolate Chip Cake Mix Cookies
adapted from I Hope You're Hungry
(Printable Recipe)
1 box yellow cake mix
1 cup peanut butter
1/4 cup butter, softened
1/3 cup water
1 tsp vanilla
2 eggs
2 cups chocolate chips
Preheat oven to 350.
In a large bowl, mix together the cake mix, peanut butter, egg, butter, water, vanilla and with a hand-held electric mixer. Fold in the chocolate chips.
Using a medium cookie scoop, drop cookies onto parchment lined cookie sheets.
Bake for 8-10 minutes. Cool on a wire rack.
9 comments
Ya know what? These look pretty darn good. I have been thinking about peanut butter cookies a lot lately, but I had never though to make a cake mix version of them. What a great idea!ReplyDelete
Those look so YUMMY! I made the skillet lasagna last night for dinner, thanks for the recipe:) Have a blessed day, HUGS!ReplyDelete
I love cake mix cookies, and this is a variation I haven't seen. One note: you left out the eggs in the directions. (After "vanilla and".)ReplyDelete
I've never had cake mix cookies but these look amazingReplyDelete
Erin - ekcantcook.blogspot.com
Cake mixes make it so much easier!ReplyDelete
Woo hoo! Glad you liked them!ReplyDelete
I would just loooooove to know if your coworkers realize how lucky they are to have you.ReplyDelete
Made these for a football party at my house this weekend. Really good recipe. I think a lot of PB cookies get hard too quickly and these stay nice and soft. I left out the choc chips and rolled them in regular sugar like a traditional PB cookie and they turned out great.ReplyDelete
I made these today and they were ahhhhh-mazing. Thanks so much for sharing!ReplyDelete


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Thank you for contacting us. We will get back to your within one business day to schedule your appointment or respond to your inquiry.
We appreciate your interest in Ebert Law Offices and look forward to meeting with you.
Ebert Law Offices PC
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Hurst, Texas 76054


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BY yveet On May 25, 2018 Template
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Personalised Beach Towel | Royal
This product is sold out
The Little Lemon Tree Personalised Beach Towel is the perfect pool or beach companion. No more fighting over who's towel is who's, or which one left the wet towel on the ground. Fully personalised for you. Names available in any colour of your choice.
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Made of 330GSM, the beach towel is a printed with cotton applique. The towel is made with a flat woven front and terry reverse. Avaliable in a 8 fun colours, it's the gift for any occasion.
Towel: 75 x 150cm
Orders made after 10th December 2018 can not be guaranteed delivery in time for christmas if you require postage. For local delivery cut off dates please send us a message
Please allow 2-3 weeks for delivery. If you require an urgent order, please contact us and we will try and accomodate your request.


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Rabbanit Esther Rivka Wagner with her daughter Malky,
and her grandchildren,
Rabbi Shalom Weisberg (current MMY faculty), and Michal
On the 17th of Iyar, May 25th, 2016, I paid a visit to Mrs. Malky Weisberg, who graciously invited me to her office on the Yad Vashem campus. Little did I know the significance of that date.
Rabbanit Esther Rivka Wagner (nee Willig) A"H, Malky's mother, had passed away just two months prior at the age of 92. Rabbanit Wagner, a holocaust survivor and an impressive woman of her own right, had been a long-time MMY witness on our annual Heritage trip to Poland. Her passing was a tremendous loss for all of us too. Just two weeks after her passing, MMY 5776 embarked on yet another voyage, attempting a glimpse at a horror that was. With all this happening in succession, one after the other, I reached out to her daughter to try and connect with the history and memories that much of the MMY family feel so intimately a part of. I sat with Malky, and asked her to give me a taste of the inspiring life of her mother, and the legacy that she left behind.
When Malky spoke, there was no pomp or ceremony. She spoke simply, yet poignantly, and I began to get an idea about the woman who raised her. She started at the very beginning of Rabbanit Wagner's story, providing me with background and painting a picture of the piety of her mother's origins. Forty-five minutes later, we were both crying.
As I alternated typing and tear-wiping, I listened raptly to a tale of faith, fortitude, and fortune. I learned about Esther Rivka Wagner's illustrious father and wise mother, about how they raised her with Torah values, conviction, and much love. I smiled when I heard the news of her mother's engagement to Rabbi Yisrael Wagner, although the war was sweeping in on them. I took note as she described the German invasion and the awful new realities that they were forced to face. I was blown away by Esther Rivka's determination to fight for life and forge on despite all the loss and pain and dread that were life's constant companions then.
Young Esther Rivka had chosen to jump the train to Belzec, sneak back to their old hiding place, and retrieve the false papers that she'd obtained some months ago, just in case… While back in the city, she received a letter from her fiance and was reunited with him, only to be torn from his side yet again. He was forced to go into hiding, but as for Esther Rivka, her papers sure did come in handy after all. She used those papers to pass as an Aryan Catholic girl, procuring work as a nanny in a number of Christian homes, never letting her guard down lest she be discovered. She endured the unremitting terror of being found out, of being caught for the Jewish girl that she was.
Esther Rivka survived the war without word from any of her family members or her fiancé. She made every attempt to find him while teaching at the DP camp that was her new temporary home, to no avail- until the day he walked right through the front gates, asking about a particular Esther Rivka Willig. Together they built a beautiful life, and a family of four.
Years later, after fulfilling her dream of making Aliyah with her whole family, Rabbanit Esther Rivka Wagner embraced the opportunity to share her account and the lessons she imbibed to the next generation. She accompanied many young adults on their quest to try and glean some inkling of what it was like for the Jews during the Nazi occupation. For years and years, the girls of MMY had the Z'chut of drinking in Rabbanit Wagner's obvious and unswerving Emunah in a G-d Al-mighty who was with her throughout every step and setback of her journey. She never doubted His loving presence in her life, and never questioned His ways. We've been honored to be a part of this great woman's life story, and to carry on in her tradition. The fact that her grandson, Rabbi Shalom Weisberg, is now a beloved faculty member of MMY, is further proof of the kind of family she raised and the inheritance she left behind.
"שמע בני מוסר אביך ועל תטוש תורת אמך"
As the sun was setting on that 17th of Iyar, and on my emotional meeting with Malky, I still had one more question for her, "But when and how did your parents finally get married?" Her deliberate look hinted to an answer that would leave me stunned.
You see, Lag B'omer 1946, the 18th of Iyar, was the date of Rabbanit Rivka Esther Wagner's wedding. That evening would have been her 70th wedding anniversary. Yehi Zichra Baruch.
To read more about the life of Rabbanit Wagner, click here.


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Robert Andrews Millikan
Millikan, Robert Andrews
(b. Morrison, Illinois, 22 March 1868; d. Pasadena, California, 19 December 1953)
Millikan was the son of Silas Franklin Millikan, a Congregational preacher, and Mary Jane Andrews, a graduate of Oberlin who had been dean of women at a small college in Michigan. Raised in Maquoketa, Iowa, where his family moved in 1875, young Millikan enjoyed a storybook Midwestern American boyhood, fishing, farming, fooling, and learning next to nothing about science. In 1886 he enrolled in the preparatory department of Oberlin College and, in 1887, in the classical course of the college itself. Mainly because he did quite well in Greek, at the end of his sophomore year he was asked to teach an introductory physics class. Glad to have the job, Millikan plunged into the subject, liked it, and soon decided to make it his career.
Millikan graduated from Oberlin in 1891 and continued to teach physics to the preparatory students while successfully pursuing a course of self-instruction in Silvanus P. Thomson's Dynamic Electric Machinery. Awarded an M.A. for this achievement, in 1893 Millikan entered Columbia University on a fellowship as the sole graduate student in physics. He was impressed by the lectures of Michael I. Pupin, who emphasized the importance of mathematical techniques, and by the experimental deftness of Michelson, under whom he studied at the University of Chicago in the summer of 1894. Receiving his Ph.D. in 1895, Millikan went to Europe for postgraduate study, financed by a loan from Pupin. He heard Poincaré lecture at Paris, took a course from Planck at Berlin, and did research with Nernst at Göttingen. In 1896, the excitement of the discovery of X rays still fresh in his mind, Millikan joined the faculty of the University of Chicago as an assistant in physics.
There he soon met Greta Irvin Blanchard, the daughter of a successful manufacturer from Oak Park, Illinois. By the time the young couple was married in 1902, Millikan was pouring a large fraction of his considerable energies into the development of the physics curriculum, especially the introductory courses. In conjunction with this work, he wrote or coauthored a variety of textbooks and laboratory manuals which, like his First Course in Physics (1906), written with Henry Gale, quickly became standards and sold steadily through the years. In 1907, largely because of his outstanding pedagogical achievements, Millikan was promoted to an associate professorship.
But Millikan was acutely aware that at the University of Chicago the major rewards went to those who contributed to the advancement of knowledge. Although he had consistently done research, even his most recent investigation, on the photoelectric effect, had failed to yield significant results. Unaware of Einstein's explanation of the effect, Millikan used a spark source of ultraviolet light to determine conclusively whether the photocurrent from various metals varied with temperature; as he found, it did not. Eager to earn a reputation in research, about 1908 he decided to shelve the writing of textbooks and concentrate on his work in the laboratory.
By 1909 Millikan was deeply involved in an attempt to measure the electronic charge. No one had yet obtained a reliable value for this fundamental constant, and some antiatomistic Continental physicists were insisting that it was not the constant of a unique particle but a statistical average of diverse electrical energies. Millikan launched his investigation with a technique developed by the British-born physicist H. A. Wilson; it consisted essentially of measuring, first, the rate at which a charged cloud of water vapor fell under the influence of gravity and then the modified rate under the counterforce of an electric field. Using Stokes's law of fall to determine the mass of the cloud, one could in principle compute the ionic charge. Millikan quickly recognized the numerous uncertainties in this technique, including the fact that evaporation at the surface of the cloud confused the measure of its rate of fall. Hoping to correct for this effect, he decided to study the evaporation history of the cloud while a strong electric Held held it in a stationary position.
But when Millikan switched on the powerful field, the cloud disappeared; in its place were a few charged water drops moving slowly in response to the imposed electrical force. He quickly realized that it would be a good deal more accurate to determine the electronic charge by working with a single drop than with the swarm of particles in a cloud. Finding that he could make measurements on water drops for up to forty-five seconds before they evaporated. Millikan arrived at a value for e in 1909 which he considered accurate to within 2 percent. More important, he observed that the charge on any given water drop was always an integral multiple of an irreducible value. This result provided the most persuasive evidence yet that electrons were fundamental particles of identical charge and mass.
Late in 1909 Millikan greatly improved the drop method by substituting oil for water. Because of the relatively low volatility of this liquid, he could measure the rise and fall of the drops for up to four and a half hours. Spraying the chamber with radium radiation, he could change the charge on a single drop at will. His overall results decisively confirmed the integral-multiple values of the total charge. As for the determination of e itself, Millikan found that Stokes's law was inadequate for his experimental circumstances because the size of the drops was comparable with the mean free path of the air. Using the so-called Stokes-Cunningham version of the law, which took this condition into account, by late 1910 he had computed a charge for e of 4.891×10-10 e.s.u. Realizing that the accuracy of this figure was no better than that of the key constants involved in the computation, Millikan painstakingly reevaluated the coefficient of viscosity of air and the mean-free-path term in the Stokes-Cunningham law. In 1913 he published the value for the electronic charge, 4.774±.009×10-10 e.s.u., which would serve the world of science for a generation.
Off and on all the while, Millikan had continued his exploration of the photoelectric effect; about 1912, now aware of Einstein's interpretation of it, he began an intensive experimental study of the phenomenon, with the aim of testing the formula relating the frequency of the incident light to the retarding potential which cut off the photocurrent. No experimentalist had yet succeeded in proving or disproving the validity of the equation. Millikan took great care to avoid the mistakes that he and other physicists had previously made. Since a spark source of ultraviolet light induced spurious voltages in the apparatus, he used a high-pressure mercury-quartz lamp arranged to suppress stray light, especially on the short wavelength side. To extend the range of test well into the visible region, he made targets of alkali metals which were photosensitive up to 6,000 Å. Where others had adulterated their results by using photosensitive materials as the reference for the cutoff voltage, Millikan employed a Faraday cage of welloxidized copper netting which was not photosensitive in the range of his incident radiation. Finally, he sought to reduce the inaccuracies introduced when the photocurrent near the cutoff point was too low to measure with precision. Having noticed that this current was highest when the metal was fresh, he fashioned his targets into thick cylinders and rigged up an electromagnetically operated knife to shave off the ends of the blocks.
By 1915, as the result of these meticulous investigations, Millikan had confirmed the validity of Einstein's equation in every detail. He not only demonstrated the linear relationship between the cutoff potential and the frequency of the incident light but also showed that the intercept of the graphed data on the voltage axis equaled the contact electromotive force, or work potential, of the target metal, a quantity which he had measured independently, to within 0.5 percent. In addition Millikan proved that the slope of the line equaled the ratio of Planck's constant to the electronic charge, and his work provided the best measure of h then available. Despite the conclusiveness of these results, Millikan did not believe that he had confirmed Einstein's theory of light quanta but only his equation for the photoeffect. In the face of all the evidence for the wave nature of light, he was convinced, as were most other physicists of the day, that the equation had to be based on a false, albeit evidently quite fruitful, hypothesis.
By 1916, when Millikan completed his major work on the photoeffect, he had already assumed more than a mere professor's role in the world of science. In 1913 he became a consultant to the research department of Western Electric, primarily to advise the company on vacuum tube problems. In 1914 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 1915 to the National Academy of Sciences, and in 1916 to the presidency of the American Physical Society, an office which he held for two years. Millikan also served as an associate editor of Physical Review from 1903 to 1916; and he was made an editor of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences…, which was started in the year of his election.
Early in 1917, after the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, Millikan went to Washington as a vice-chairman and director of research for the National Research Council, the organization which the National Academy of Sciences had recently created to help mobilize science for defense. Commissioned a lieutenant colonel in the Army Signal Corps, he served in his military capacity as the director of the Signal Corps Division of Science and Research and, in his National Research Council identity, as a member of the U.S. Navy's Special Board on Antisubmarine Devices. After a brief postwar period back at Chicago, in 1921 Millikan accepted appointment as chairman of the executive council and director of the Norman Bridge Laboratory at the newly renamed California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In effect the president of the school, he was an able fund raiser and its enthusiastic spokesman; and under his leadership it quickly developed into one of the most distinguished scientific centers in the world.
Managing all the while to supervise many doctoral and postdoctoral fellows, Millikan maintained an active research career throughout the interwar years. One of the important subjects he investigated was the ability of electric fields on the order of a few hundred thousand volts per centimeter to draw electrons out of cold metals. By 1926, working in collaboration with Carl F. Eyring, a Caltech graduate student, Millikan had completed a thorough study of the phenomenon, using tungsten wires threaded along the axis of a hollow cylinder in high vacuum. The two men found that the field current, to use the term they introduced, depended only on the field gradient, not on the potential difference, between the wire and the walls of the cylinder. More important, within wide limitations the current was also entirely independent of temperature. Pointing out that these results violated Owen W. Richardson's theory of thermionic emission, Millikan and Eyring speculated that at relatively low temperatures some metallic electrons must not obey the law of equipartition. But in 1928 Oppenheimer, R. H. Fowler, and their co-workers showed independently that cold emission was a quantum mechanical result of the leakage of electrons through a potential barrier. In 1929 Charles C. Lauritsen, who was completing his doctoral research under Millikan, derived an empirical formula from their data which related the field current to the field gradient; and this equation was ultimately found to be experimentally indistinguishable from the quantum mechanical expression.
During the 1920's Millikan also did significant research in the "hot spark" spectra. As he knew, a high potential difference would maintain a spark source of ultraviolet radiation across two electrodes in a vacuum. The relative ease with which such radiation was absorbed had made its study difficult. In 1915 Millikan proposed that one could get around the problem of absorption by enclosing the path between the spark and a photographic plate entirely in a vacuum. To maximize the intensity of the spectrum, he had a grating ruled that would throw most of the light into the first order. Shortly after the war, with the apparatus now working reliably, Millikan and Ira S. Bowen, another Caltech graduate student, embarked upon a thorough study of the ultraviolet spectra of the lighter elements up to copper. By 1924 they had found and identified some 1,000 new lines. They had also extended the observable spectrum down to 136.6 A and had helped to close the last gap between the optical and the X-ray frequencies.
In the course of this work, Millikan and Bowen found that the strongest lines were produced by atoms which had been stripped of their valence electrons. Since the spectra of such hydrogen-like atoms ought to contain multiplets, they began, about the end of 1923, to study the fine spectra in the ultraviolet. By early 1924 they had found that the 2s, 2p1 and 2p2 terms of the ultraviolet doublets corresponded precisely to the LI LII, and LIII levels associated with the X-ray spectra of the heavier elements. Moreover, exactly the same relationship existed between the M and N X-ray levels and the higher ultraviolet multiplel terms. Millikan and Bowen concluded that the X-ray doublet laws based on Sommerfeld's relativistic orbital analysis could account for the doublets in the whole field of optics.
Yet, as they also pointed out in 1924, independently of Alfred Landé, this conclusion raised a serious difficulty for the theory of spectra. On the one hand, Sommerfeld's relativistic analysis of the X-ray doublets assigned a different azimuthal quantum number to the LII and LIII terms. On the other hand, Bohr's spectral scheme accounted for the optical doublets by assuming different orientations for the same orbit; by definition, the p1 and p2 terms of the optical doublets possessed the same azimuthal quantum number. Since the results of Millikan and Bowen identified the LII and LIII terms with the p1 and p2 levels, it seemed that one had to give up either Sommerfeld's relativistic explanation or the Bohr scheme of spectra. Millikan and Bowen could find no way out of the dilemma; but their forceful statement of it in 1924, coupled with Landés, contributed to the ultimate resolution of the difficulty through G. E. Uhlenbeck and S. A. Goudsmit's postulation of electron spin in 1925.
In the 1920's Millikan also began an increasingly intensive program of research into the penetrating radiation which in mid-decade he would name "cosmic rays," In 1912 the Austrian-born physicist Victor Hess had found that atmospheric ionization increased with altitude up to 12,000 feet. But although Hess had argued that some kind of radiation was coming from the heavens, most physicists still attributed the phenomenon to some terrestrial cause, such as electrical discharges from thunderstorms or radioactivity. Millikan's initial experiments in the field, done with an unmanned sounding balloon in 1922 to a height of fifteen kilometers and with lead-shielded electroscopes atop Pike's Peak in 1923, failed to decide in favor of either interpretation. In the summer of 1925 Millikan proposed to settle the question by measuring the variation of ionization with depth in Muir Lake and Lake Arrowhead in the mountains of California. Snow-fed and separated by many miles, as well as 6,675 feet of atmosphere, each was likely to be free of both local radioactive disturbances and whatever atmospheric peculiarities might affect the ionization in the other.
Millikan's electroscopie measurements showed that the intensity of ionization at any given depth in Lake Arrowhead was the same as the intensity six feet lower in Muir Lake. Since the layer of atmosphere between the surfaces of the two lakes had precisely the absorptive power of six feet of water, the results decisively confirmed that the radiation was coming from the cosmos. Moreover, since the intensity of the ionization showed no diurnal variation, the radiation was uniformly distributed over all directions in space. And, finally, since Millikan detected ionization as far below the top of the atmosphere as the combined air and water equivalent of six feet of lead, it was evident that cosmic rays were a good deal more energetic than even the hardest known gamma rays.
To penetrate six feet of lead, charged particles would have to possess stores of energy then considered impossibly large; accordingly, Millikan assumed that cosmic rays must consist of photons. In 1926 he tested this assumption experimentally with what he considered confirmatory results. If cosmic rays were charged particles, their trajectories would be affected by the earth's magnetic field, so that more of them would strike the earth at higher than at lower latitudes. But Millikan could detect virtually no difference in cosmic ray flux at Lake Titieaea in South America from that at Muir Lake. And, although he ran his electroscope while sailing back from Mollendo, Peru, to Los Angeles, he found no variation of intensity with latitude at sea level.
Employing the photonic interpretation of cosmic rays, Millikan developed a theory of their origin in 1928. Combining the data from the balloon flight of 1922 with that of his terrestrial surveys, he graphed a curve of ionization versus depth which covered the range from sea level up to virtually the top of the atmosphere. Because no single coefficient of absorption could account for the curve, he inferred that cosmic rays were spread across a spectrum of energies. Going further, he argued that the experimental curve could be constructed from three different curves, each representing a different coefficient of absorption. According to this analysis, cosmic ray energies were not generally distributed but were clustered in three distinct bands.
To account for these bands, Millikan introduced what he called the "atom-building hypothesis." Using Dirac's formula for absorption through Compton scattering, Millikan computed the energy of the three bands from their absorption coefficients and found them equal to 26, 110, and 220 MEV. These figures equaled the mass defects of hydrogen, oxygen, and silicon, which were known to be three of the most abundant elements of the universe. Millikan concluded that the photons striking the earth must be produced when four atoms of hydrogen somehow fused to form helium, sixteen to form oxygen, and twenty-eight to form silicon. In his summary of the argument, cosmic rays were the "birth cries" of atoms, a phrase which quickly achieved a good deal of notoriety among both the scientific and the lay publics.
Although in the late 1920's most physicists agreed with Millikan that cosmic rays were photons, few accepted his atom-building hypothesis. He had no proof of the uniqueness of his three absorption coefficients and could not convincingly explain away the kinetic difficulties involved in the spontaneous union of sixteen hydrogen atoms into oxygen, let alone twenty-eight into silicon. Moreover, some of his own experimental evidence cast doubt on the validity of using the Dirac formula to compute cosmic ray energies. Then, at the beginning of the 1930s, Millikan's assumption that the primary radiation consisted of photons was refuted by the work of other experimentalists, especially by Arthur Compton's conclusive detection of a latitude effect in 1932.
Millikan hotly contested Compton's findings. He had repeated his search for a latitude effect in the late 1920's, and in late 1932 he did so once more, again without success. But Millikan was the victim of experimental circumstance. In the longitudinal region of California, the dip in cosmic ray intensity began quite suddenly in the neighborhood of Los Angeles and quickly reached its maximum fall of some 7 percent less than two days' sail south of the city. In Millikan's initial search for the latitude effect—the voyage from Mollendo, Peru, to Los Angeles—his estimated error had been 6 percent. In most of his later searches, he went to the north of Pasadena, where the rise in intensity was too small to detect easily. In 1932 he sent H. Victor Neher, a young collaborator at Calteeh, on a voyage to the south; but Neher did not get his electroscope working before he had passed the region of the dip.
By 1933, with Neher having now found a latitude effect, Millikan had admitted that some percentage of cosmic radiation must consist of charged particles. By 1935 he had also rejected the atom-building hypothesis, mainly because it was now clear that the bulk of cosmic radiation possessed energies much higher than the mass defects of the abundant elements. All the same, despite a vast array of contrary evidence and the overwhelming body of professional opinion, Millikan clung tenaciously to the assumption that some fraction of the primary cosmic radiation could be photons. in the late 1930's and early 1940's he searched for evidence in support of this view, measuring cosmic ray intensities around the world at sea level, in airplanes at high altitudes, and with unmanned sounding balloons up to the top of the atmosphere. On the basis of this data, he also developed a theory that cosmic ray photons originated in the spontaneous annihilation of atoms in interstellar space. No more convincing than its predecessor, this hypothesis became completely untenable, as Millikan himself admitted a few years before his death, after the detection of the π-meson in 1947 made it clear that the primary cosmic radiation consisted almost entirely of protons.
But however wrongheaded Millikan had been, his cosmic ray research yielded a valuable fund of experimental data. Moreover, in 1934, independently of Jacob Clay, he detected the variation of the latitude effect with longitude because of the dissymmetry of the earth's magnetic field. In a roundabout way even the atom-building hypothesis strikingly benefited the progress of science. In the late 1920's, troubled by the discrepancy between his experimental data and the predictions of both the Dirac absorption formula and its successor, the Klein-Nishina formula, Millikan recognized that he needed a measure of cosmic ray energies that was not based on absorption coefficients. To obtain a direct determination, he put Carl Anderson, a young research fellow at Caltech, to work with a cloud chamber set in a powerful magnetic field. In 1931 Anderson's studies of the trajectories of charged particles showed conclusively that the absorption of cosmic rays resulted from nuclear encounters as well as from Compton scattering. They also led to his detection of the positron in 1932.
Between the wars Millikan played a prominent role in the affairs of his profession. The president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1929 and the holder of various offices in the National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council, he was especially active as a member of the NRC fellowship board and as foreign secretary of the Academy. From 1922 to 1932 Millikan served as the American representative to the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. Throughout the interwar period he participated in the International Research Council; its successor, the International Council of Scientific Unions; and the affiliate of both, the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics. In 1933 Millikan was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Science Advisory Board, a joint venture of the Academy and the federal government to find ways to use science for economic recovery.
Millikan was an able popularizer and lecturer, and after he won the Nobel Prize in 1923 he became perhaps the most famous American scientist of his day. An outspoken religious modernist, he was a leading exponent of the reconcilability of science and religion in the l920's, the decade of the Scopes trial. Politically, Millikan was a conservative Republican. During the 1930's he vigorously opposed the New Deal, repeatedly denounced governmental intervention in the economy, and argued that the promotion of science, because it led to new industries and new jobs, was a much sounder way to achieve economic recovery. Always an internationalist, Millikan believed firmly in collective security. In the late 1930's, unlike many conservative Republicans at the time, including his good friend Herbert Hoover, he helped propagandize in favor of aid to the Allies; by early 1941 he was encouraging the conversion of Caltech from academic to military purposes.
During the war Millikan turned over an increasing fraction of his administrative responsibilities at Caltech to the younger staff members who were running the various defense projects. In 1946 he retired from his professorship and the chairmanship of the executive council. He remained active as a public lecturer and spoke frequently on the subject of science and religion. He was cool to the creation of the National Science Foundation and spoke often against federal aid to education. By the time of his death, Millikan had been awarded numerous medals, even more honorary degrees, and membership in twenty-one foreign scientific societies, including the Royal Society of London and the Institut de France.
I. Original Works. A complete bibliography of Millikan's published work, which includes close to 300 scientific papers, is in Lee A. DuBridge and Paul S. Epstein, "Robert Andrews Millikan," in Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences, 33 (1959), 241–282. In The Autobiography of Robert A. Millikan (New York, 1950) Millikan provided valuable accounts of his childhood and education, work on the electronic charge and the photoeffect, and involvement in the mobilization of science during World War I; curiously, he devoted little space to his research in hot spark spectra or cosmic rays, and his account of the development of the California Institute of Technology must be used with special care. Millikan left a voluminous body of correspondence, which is now in the Caltech archives. Dating in the main from 1921, the collection contains substantial materials on the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council and the administration of the California Institute of Technology, as well as a sizable amount of family and scientific letters. Another important batch of Millikan's letters is in the papers of George Ellery Hale in the Caltech archives, which were also published in a microfilm edition (Pasadena, 1968) under the editorship of Daniel J. Kevles. The locations of other letters to and from Millikan are given in Thomas S. Kuhn, et al., Sources for the History of Quantum Mechanics (Philadelphia, 1967), 68.
II. Secondary Literature. Paul S. Epstein wrote an excellent résumé of Milikan's scientific work in "Robert A. Millikan as Physicist and Teacher," in Reviews of Modern Physics, 20 (Jan. 1948), 10–25, a volume published in honor of Millikan's eightieth birthday. A condensed version of Epstein's essay occupies part of the memoir written with DuBridge (see above), which is on the whole a useful introduction to Millikan's life. Millikan the famous scientist is treated in Daniel J. Kevles, "Millikan: Spokesman for Science in the Twenties," in Engineering and Science, 32 (Apr. 1969), 17–22.
Daniel J. Kevles
Robert Andrews Millikan
Robert Andrews Millikan
The American physicist Robert Andrews Millikan (1868-1953) measured the charge of the electron, proved the validity of Albert Einstein's photoelectric effect equation, and carried out pioneering cosmicray experiments.
The second son of a Congregational minister of Scotch-Irish ancestry, R. A. Millikan was born on March 22, 1868. He entered the preparatory department of Oberlin College in 1886.
The only physics Millikan studied during his first 2 years at Oberlin was in a 12-week course, which he later described as "a complete loss." It therefore came as a complete surprise when his Greek professor asked him to teach the elementary physics course. Encouraged by the professor's remark that "anyone who can do well in my Greek can teach physics," Millikan accepted the challenge and spent the summer reading an elementary textbook and working the problems in it. This was Millikan's real introduction to physics and the origin of a conviction he held throughout life: that the most effective way of learning physics is by problem solving and not by passively listening to lectures, which he regarded as "a stupid anachronism—a holdover from pre-printing-press days."
Millikan obtained his bachelor's degree in 1891 and his master's in 1893, at the same time continuing to teach elementary physics. He received his doctorate from Columbia in 1895 and then spent a year abroad, visiting the universities of Jena, Berlin, and Göttingen. He met many prominent physicists, who discussed with him the recent and startling discoveries of x-rays and radioactivity. In 1896 he became an assistant in physics at the University of Chicago.
Chicago: The First 12 Years
When Millikan assumed his duties in 1896, American physics was in its infancy. He therefore immediately found himself dividing his 12-hour work day equally between research and the writing of introductory textbooks and the organization of courses. He was convinced that lectures should be largely replaced by laboratory and problem-oriented activities, and between 1903 and 1908 he authored or coauthored several very influential textbooks compatible with that philosophy. In 1902 he married Greta Blanchard; they had three distinguished sons.
By 1907 Millikan decided to start working intensively on research. The problem he chose—the measurement of the charge of the electron—would gain him a full professorship (1910), the directorship of Chicago's Ryerson Physical Laboratory (1910), membership in the National Academy of Sciences (1914), and an international reputation.
Millikan intuitively sensed that the most fruitful approach to the problem would be to eliminate the sources of error in a method developed by J. S. E. Townsend (1897), J. J. Thomson (1903), and H. A. Wilson (1903) at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England. In Wilson's experiments, air was compressed in a cloud chamber, ionized with x-rays, and then rapidly expanded, causing tiny water droplets to condense on the ions and form a mist. These droplets were allowed to fall, either under the influence of gravity alone or under the influence of gravity plus an electric field. By observing their velocities of fall in the first case, Wilson used Stokes' law to calculate their radii; by observing their velocities in the second case, he could then calculate the magnitude of the charge they carried—which Wilson found to vary between wide limits. The atomicity, or definiteness, of the charge of the electron was therefore still very much in doubt.
Millikan first attempted to eliminate the error introduced into Wilson's experiments by the gradual evaporation, and hence change in radii, of the water droplets. Thinking that he could measure the rate of evaporation, he decided to apply the electric field in a direction opposite to the force of gravity, balance it, and suspend the electron-laden droplets in midair. When he turned on the electric field, however, the entire mist disappeared—with the exception of a few individual drops which remained within the field of view of his observing telescope. Millikan realized immediately that he had discovered the key to the entire problem: to make precision measurements, he should observe single droplets using this balancing-field technique. Repeated observations revealed that the charge carried by a given droplet was always a multiple of a definite, fundamental value—the charge of the electron. Millikan created a great stir when he reported these results in 1909 at a professional meeting in Canada.
On his return trip to Chicago, Millikan suddenly realized that he could discard the cloud chamber entirely, that he could replace the evaporating water droplets with non-evaporating oil droplets, which could pick up electrons by passing through air ionized by x-rays (or gamma rays). This was the refinement required to make Millikan's experiment extraordinarily precise, and for several years he made countless determinations of the electronic charge. The values he reported in 1913 and 1917 stood for two decades, until it became known that a slight error had been introduced owing to a slightly incorrect value Millikan had assumed for the viscosity of air.
Einstein's Photoelectric Effect Equation
In 1912 Millikan went to Europe for six months to be able to analyze a mass of data uninterrupted by his many duties at the university. As on all of his many trips abroad, he visited a host of physicists and exchanged ideas with them. In Berlin he was forcefully reminded of the chaotic experimental situation regarding Einstein's famous 1905 equation of the photoelectric effect. Millikan was familiar with the great experimental difficulties from some work he had carried out in 1907. He also knew that subsequent work by other physicists had been extremely inconclusive. Once again he succeeded but it took him three years (1912-1915) of intensive work.
Capitalizing on an accidental observation, Millikan discovered that the alkali metals are sensitive to a very wide range of radiant frequencies. That was the key to the problem, but it was only the beginning: numerous ingenious experimental techniques, for example, a rotating knife inside the apparatus to clean the metal surface, had to be invented. By the time he was finished he considered it "not inappropriate to describe the experimental arrangement as a machine shop in vacuo." His efforts were rewarded: he established beyond doubt the validity of Einstein's linear relationship between energy and frequency, as well as all other predictions of Einstein's equation. This work, together with his measurement of the charge of the electron, won for Millikan the presidency of the American Physical Society (1916-1918) as well as many other honors, medals, and prizes, the highest of which was the Nobel Prize in 1923.
War Work; National Research Council
Millikan participated in the war effort in Washington (1917-1918) as third vice-chairman, director of research, and executive officer of the recently formed National Research Council. Most of his activities centered on the development of submarine detection and destruction devices: few goals were as urgent as that of breaking the back of the German U-boat menace.
One of Millikan's greatest services to the nation during this period was the role he played in establishing the National Research Council fellowships. He recommended the establishment of a fellowship program capable of supporting for two to three years the top 5 percent of recent American recipients of doctoral degrees in physics and chemistry. Millikan, who believed passionately in a decentralized university structure, hoped that the net result of this program would be not only to provide America with highly competent scientists but also to stimulate American universities to develop programs sufficiently competent to attract these very able students. From the start the program was a huge success, and it was soon extended to mathematics and the biological sciences.
Transfer to Caltech; Cosmic-Ray Researches
After the war Millikan returned to the University of Chicago, where he immediately began several research projects. In 1921, however, he went to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) as chairman of its Executive Council and director of the recently established Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics.
At Caltech, Millikan soon fostered a wide variety of research, on everything from earthquakes to pure mathematics, but he himself took the greatest interest in the phenomenon known as "field emission" and particularly in cosmic rays. These radiations had been discovered in 1912 by V. F. Hess, who argued that they came from outer space. At first, Millikan was skeptical of this conclusion, but by the mid-1920s he was convinced of its accuracy, mostly as a result of high-altitude measurements. He coined the term "cosmic rays," a name retained to this day.
Millikan's convictions regarding the nature of the primary cosmic radiation—that which is incident on the earth's atmosphere—produced some of his stormiest days as a physicist. He argued convincingly that, in the vast hydrogen clouds in interstellar space, hydrogen atoms were being continually fused together to produce helium and heavier elements, thereby releasing a large amount of energy in the form of photons (light quanta). He concluded that these photons were the cosmic rays. This hypothesis, which was widely accepted, met its first serious challenge in 1929, and eventually Millikan was forced to abandon his photon hypothesis. It is now known that primary cosmic rays consist mostly of hydrogen and helium nuclei.
Millikan: The Educator and Man
At Caltech, Millikan found a unique opportunity to implement his educational philosophy and, in general, influence American education. Under his guidance, Caltech grew from obscurity to a position of preeminence. The major educational policies he implemented were twofold: first, substantial emphasis on the humanities; and second, close ties between "pure sciences" such as physics and chemistry and the engineering disciplines.
"The secret of his success," wrote a friend about Millikan, "lay to a large extent in the simple virtues instilled in his upbringing. He had a single minded devotion to all that he was doing, and he put his work above his personal desires and aspirations." At the zenith of his powers, he was America's foremost experimentalist. He attracted and inspired a large number of exceptionally capable students, many of whom subsequently became his colleagues. Millikan, who died in Pasadena on Dec. 19, 1953, had a personal credo of great simplicity—and great beauty: "It is so to shape my own conduct at all times as, in my own carefully considered judgment, to promote best the well-being of mankind as a whole; in other words, to start building on my own account that better world for which I pray. The sum of all such efforts will constitute at least a first big step toward the attainment of that better world."
Further Reading
The most complete source of information on Millikan is his Autobiography (1950). A brief account of his life and work by L. A. DuBridge and Paul S. Epstein is in the Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 33 (1959). For information on various aspects of Millikan's work see David L. Anderson, The Discovery of the Electron (1964); Bruno Rossi, Cosmic Rays (1964); and Max Jammer, The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics (1966). □
Robert Andrews Millikan
Robert Andrews Millikan
American Physicist
Robert Andrews Millikan, in his famous oildrop experiment of 1910, measured the charge of the electron. In another important experiment, he verified Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect and determined the exact value of Planck's constant. For these accomplishments, Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1923. He also provided a role model for the American-born scientist in the early twentieth century, at a time when most of the great physicists were European.
Millikan was born in Morrison, Illinois, on March 22, 1868, the second son of the Reverend Silas Millikan and his wife, Mary Jane. Nothing about his childhood, spent in the rural Midwest, particularly hinted at a future career as an eminent scientist. After graduating from high school, he worked briefly as a court reporter. His involvement in science began after his sophomore year at Oberlin College in Ohio, when his Greek professor recruited him to teach an elementary physics course. Millikan objected that he had no real knowledge of the subject, but the professor countered that it could not be any harder than Greek. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1895 and was the only physics graduate student at the time.
After a brief stint in Germany studying with Max Planck (1858-1947), Albert Michelson (1852-1931) invited him to join the physics faculty at the University of Chicago. He remained there for 25 years, attaining the status of full professor in 1910. Millikan had little patience with lecturing, believing that students learned more effectively through solving problems and performing experiments. He attempted to put this philosophy into practice by writing better physics textbooks. It was so important to him that he was checking page proofs on the morning of his wedding to Greta Erwin Blanchard in 1902.
Millikan began attempting to measure the charge of the electron by measuring how tiny charged water droplets moved in an electric field. The results suggested that the charge on the water droplets was always a multiple of a single elementary value. However, since water evaporates quickly, he had trouble getting sufficiently reliable data. He solved this problem by using oil instead. Spraying oil droplets into his small experimental chamber, he measured how the charge they carried affected their fall.
In the photoelectric effect, light hitting metal causes electrons to be emitted. Millikan showed that their energy varied with the frequency of the incident light. From this data he was able to obtain an experimental value for Planck's constant of proportionality relating frequency to energy. During World War I Millikan played a role in developing anti-submarine devices as Vice-Chairman of the National Research Council.
In 1921 Millikan became head of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), where he remained until 1945. He was a skilled administrator as well as an experimentalist and was known for regularly putting in 12-hour work days. Under his leadership, the school became one of the United State's leading institutions for scientific research. He also served as professor and chairman of the Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics there.
At Caltech, Millikan's research interests involved the radiation that Victor Hess (1883-1964) had detected impinging upon Earth from outer space. Millikan confirmed their extraterrestrial origin, and coined the term cosmic rays. By comparing their intensity at various latitudes on Earth, and at different altitudes, he gathered data that helped in the understanding of Earth's magnetic field and the way in which it deflects the incoming radiation.
Millikan was a prolific author. In addition to publishing more than a half-dozen physics textbooks, he wrote and lectured on the reconciliation of science and religion and the proper relationship of science and society. His autobiography was published in 1950. He was active in the larger scientific community, serving as president of the American Physical Society, Vice-President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and member of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. He also enjoyed playing golf and tennis. Millikan died on December 19, 1953, in San Marino, California.


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How to choose a mutual fund is always been a big question in front of the investor. The generic answer that every body provides is it depends upon the intension and purpose of the investor. It holds true in the circumstances when you have the series of asset managing companies starting from AIG, AXIS, BARODA, BHARTIAXA, BIRLA, BNP, CANARA, DAIWA, DEUTSCHE, DSP, EDELWEISS, ESCORTS, FIDELITY,GOLDMAN, HDFC, HSBC, ICICI, IDBI, IDFC, IIFL, INDIABULLS, ING, JM, JPMORGAN, KOTAK, LIC, NOMURA, LNT, MIRAE, MORGAN, MOTILAL, PEERLESS, PRAMERICAPRINCIPAL, PNB, QUANTUM, RELIANCE, RELIGARE, SAHARA, SBI, SUNDARAM, TATA, TAURUS, TEMPLETON, UNIONKBC and UTI ,all the asset management companies run a various category and schemes of mutual funds under them from Large-cap, Liquid, Ultrabond, Midcap, Fixed maturity, global and sectoral funds to name a few. Continue reading
Tag Archive: Exchange-traded fund
This is a nice summary of the flaws in many mutual funds published on Market Watch. Too many mutual funds are simply index funds disguised as something else. And most of the rest are simply attempts to market a product that isn't designed to actually add value (but sounds fancy enough to accumulate assets). If you missed John Bogle's discussion on the flaws in the mutual fund industry you should watch it here.
The 10 things via Market Watch:
1. "Cheap funds often outperform pricey ones."
2. "We can't beat the market."
3. "When skill fails, we just double (or quintuple) our odds."
4. "People aren't buying our product…" Continue reading
Off late most investors of below investment grade debt – be it leveraged loans or high yield bonds – are intently focused on three specific questions, two of which are fairly straight forward, while the third is more complex:
Q1. What is the state of the credit fundamentals and tangentially, what are current underwriting standards like?
A1. Solid and reasonable, respectively
Q2. What are valuations like in the market?
A2. The current and forecasted benign default environment is supportive of current valuations and spread levels; however, macro influences could lead to bouts of volatility Continue reading
YanLu, David K. Musto and Sugata ray published a paper under the heading "Alternative Marketing for Alternative Investments" . Hedge funds are currently banned from advertising. New legislation contemplates lifting this ban, thus raising the question of whether the ban is good policy. The Paper address this question by analyzing a form of indirect hedge fund advertising that already exists: advertising by institutions running both hedge funds and mutual funds, where the ads promote either the overall institution or specific mutual fund products. The Paper find that institutions increase such advertising after hedge fund flows sag, and that such advertising predicts subsequent increased inflows for hedge funds. Continue reading


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I think I should respond to the piece by Wendy Doniger in the Chronicle of Higher Education entitled "The Repression of Religious Studies', as I am the "Hindu" whose piece on Hinduism was substituted for her own by Encarta in 2003. As it was put to me, some Hindus complained that they could not recognize themselves in the entry in the encyclopedia and therefore it was being replaced. The substitute entry could have conceivably been written by a non-Hindu as well, who presented Hinduism in such a way that the followers of Hinduism could relate to it, as is sometimes the goal of the phenomenological method in the study of religion. This is a point to which I shall also advert later.
The essay by Wendy Doniger contains many useful insights and I would like to build on some of them. One of them is the distinction drawn "between pious and academic ways of talking about religion". Another is the distinction drawn between interreligious dialogue and religious studies. A third is provided by her account that after she delivers a public lecture on Hinduism, an Indian often asks her "Do you meditate?", and when she confesses that she does not, says "Then you cannot understand the Upanishads". Let us pursue these points in that order as they hold the promise of elucidating the issues involved.
To take up the first point, it could be argued that the clash is not between pious and academic ways of talking about religion but rather between two academic ways of talking about it - one which is faithful to the self-understanding of the followers of a religion and another which is not. This corresponds to the distinction, often drawn in religious studies, between reductive and non-reductive methods of studying religion. To the best of my knowledge, the criticism of Doniger's representation of Hinduism does not relate to the distinction so usefully drawn by her between interreligious dialogue and religious studies, but rather is directed at the fact that most of her work on Hinduism seems to present it in a reductive frame of reference, which is simply not the way most Hindus see their own religion.
A lot is at stake here. There is a fundamental controversy in religious studies around the question: is the ultimate nature of religion "religious" or not, that is to say, does it really involve a transcendental dimension. According to the reductive methods in the study of religion, the ultimate nature of religion is not "religious" but rather psychological, or social, or political, or geographical, or something else. According to the non-reductive methods in the study of religion, the ultimate nature of religion "is religious" - the manifest assumption of theology. There is however another method in the study of religion in which the issue is bypassed by a process often referred to as "bracketing". This is a key element in the mainstream version of the phenomenological method in religious studies, more elaborately known as the phenomenology of religion. Perhaps what those Hindus who object to Doniger's representation of religion are trying to say is that they would prefer a phenomenological presentation of Hinduism, not necessarily a pious one. An insider's perspective does not mean that only insiders can teach a religion, nor does it mean that the person presenting the insider's perspective shares that perspective. A phenomenologist believes that the believers' believe, without necessarily believing what they believe.
The point could be illustrated with a hypothetical example. It is well known that Shiva is worshipped in Hinduism in the form of a linga, (often referred to as the Shiva-linga), whose shape is sometimes considered to be suggestive of the phallus. If, on the basis of this, the Hindus are described as worshippers of phallus, then it invites protest because Hindus do not worship the linga with this awareness and even an academic would be wrong if such a statement were made by him or her. If, however, they were described as worshipping a symbol of Shiva which may be interpreted as phallic in nature or origin, then the objection would be far less serious. Finally, if it were stated that the Hindus worship a symbol of Shiva, which some have suggested represents a phallus, then the objection would be minimal. And if the following line were added, that 'the Hindus, however, in actual worship betray no awareness of its phallic nature' then only the very pious would be inclined to object. Most Hindus, however, would wonder why the phallus was brought up at all, when no Hindu they know ever considered it so.
To turn to the next point, arising from Wendy Doniger's comment that she is asked whether she meditates or not and if she does not, then she cannot understand the Upanishads. Perhaps the issue should be viewed not in personal but professional terms, namely, as indicating that a certain kind of knowledge or practice may be a professional requirement before one can undertake the duties of the profession. This is a concept with which most Hindus are familiar either consciously or unconsciously, on account of the doctrine of adhikara within it. The word is often used in modern Indian parlance to translate the English word "rights" - as in human rights, but in the traditional context it means the requirements one must fulfill before embarking on the study of a spiritual text, such as dispassion, tranquility, and so on. So here the closest English word is not rights but rather qualifications, as when we ask, "Is he or she qualified to be a doctor?" Many Hindus feel unhappy that Sanskrit texts are often translated by scholars who may have a good knowledge of Sanskrit but do not speak Sanskrit. They ask: would you trust a translation of Shakespeare into French by a French scholar who knows English but cannot speak it?
This is not a purely theoretical consideration. Some years ago a professor of Sanskrit at an Ivy League school was asked a question in Sanskrit by a lay follower of Hinduism and the professor replied that he would answer the question in English, a statement the audience thought risible. Therefore at least issues of credibility are involved if Sanskrit texts are translated by people who are unable to speak and converse in that language.
The essay ends with a plea for defending academic freedom with which I agree. The problem, however, arises when academic freedom is seen as degenerating into academic licence, and academic licence degenerating further into what some might consider academic licentiousness. Other disciplines, such as anthropology, take care of this by having a code of professional ethics for their field but so far as I am aware the American Academy of Religion has no such code in place. After all, freedom is highly desirable but with freedom comes responsibility. One cherishes the right of freedom of speech but there are libel laws, and shouting "fire" in a crowded theatre will perhaps not be considered an exercise of freedom of speech by the courts. I should clarify that I am not suggesting a legal restriction on academic freedom but I am afraid that it might come if academic norms do not suffice to restrain what might be considered egregious abuses of such freedom. For if that happens on a sustained basis then we will have repression by religious studies. And if that leads to the repression of religious studies, then who is to blame? Such an outcome is undesirable but might become inevitable.
But what do I mean by responsibility? An encyclopedia is a text consulted by people at all levels, from experts in Hinduism to those who are acquiring knowledge of Hinduism for the first time from the entry in the encyclopedia. If such an entry was to describe the linga as phallic, and the reader uncritically accepted it as such, then this 'phallacy' might cause serious misunderstanding with the Hindus they meet. The following parallel may help clarify the point: suppose I am invited as a scholar of religion to submit a piece on Christianity in an Indian encyclopedia and I proceed to describe the Eucharist as a cannibalistic ritual in which raw flesh and blood is consumed to establish communion with the son of God. In this context both Hindus and Christians would be within their rights to object to such descriptions in an encyclopedia, which would not be the case if such statements were being made in a panel discussion at the American Academy of Religion.
Finally, there are a few points in the piece with which I am in total agreement. One of them is that India has not developed a tradition of religious studies in its schools, colleges and universities, and that it should. I am also in agreement with the general thrust of the piece that the study of religion cannot be restricted to just the believers and that anyone of any religion or none should be free to pursue the study of any or all religions. The reason is obvious. Religions make such enormous claims on us that the least they can do is to allow everyone to examine them from all possible angles.