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Fall, Spring, Summer, Academic Year
San Ramón, Costa Rica
2.5 GPA, One year college Biology with laboratory for Life & Health Science Studies
9/24 for spring
2/24 for fall
3/4 for summer
late applicants are accepted on a space-available basis
Click the Application tab.
The Life and Health Sciences, Spanish Language and Culture Studies Program has a minimum prerequisite of one year of college biology and is designed for science majors interested in learning more about ecology and conservation biology in Costa Rica. The program is administered by the University Studies Abroad Consortium (USAC) of which the University of Iowa is a member, and enrolls approximately 30 students from various U.S. colleges and universities. The program offers English taught courses in tropical ecology, tropical marine biology, conversation biology, and environmental policy. Some classes have a related field study course that provides hands on experience in the subject. Students combine the science curriculum with Spanish language or literature classes designed by Tracks according to level. Students will expand their Spanish language skills through classroom study and personal interaction with the host culture in the homestay setting. The program offers a one week optional tour to northern Costa Rica and Nicaragua, or to southern Costa Rica and Bocas del Toro in Panama, depending on the session. UI students earn resident credit on this program.
English-taught courses in the life sciences require one year of college biology with lab. Spanish language study according to tracks allows completing two semesters of college Spanish in one semester. All courses are taught exclusively for program participants by local Costa Rican faculty, with the exception of one or two courses offered each semester by a visiting U.S. faculty member from one of the USAC consortium institutions. Classroom space is at the local branch campus of the Universidad de Costa Rica. UI students earn resident credit on this program, and typically earn between 12 sh – 18 sh depending on the classes selected.
Credit may be applied toward the following General Education Areas: [Foreign Language, Foreign Civilization & Culture, Social Sciences, Health & Physical Activity.] [Foreign Language, International Global Issues, Values, Society & Diversity.]
Certain courses satisfy requirements for the Spanish major or minor.
Courses may be applied towards science major requirements pending review and approval by the major department.
During each session, students typically enroll in one 3 s.h. course supplemented by 1 s.h. courses on various topics. English taught classes include International Political Economy, Conservation Biology, Tropical Ecology, Population Biology or Tropical Marine Biology, depending on the session. Spanish includes accelerated language study at beginning, intermediate and advanced levels including a section on Spanish for Medical professionals. Students can supplement their core 3 s.h. class with additional 1 s.h. classes touching on culture, dance, ecological sustainability and, for students with no prior Spanish, a basic introduction to Spanish language for survival. All courses are taught exclusively for program participants by local Costa Rican faculty, occasionally by a visiting U.S. faculty member from one of the USAC consortium institutions.
The program offers some Saturday excursions in each session, as well as an optional five day tour to southern Costa Rica.
Depending on class selection, credit may be applied toward the following General Education Areas: [Foreign Language, Humanities, Social Science, Natural Science without laboratory] [Foreign Language, Natural Science without laboratory.]
Certain courses satisfy requirements for the Spanish major or minor.
Courses may be applied towards science major requirements pending review and approval by the major department.
Fall: August 16, 2013 – December 6, 2013
Spring: January 17, 2014 – May 16, 2014
Session I: May 17, 2013 - June 21, 2013 (June 30 if participating in the tour to southern Costa Rica)
Session II: June 30, 2013 (June 24 if participating in the tour to southern Costa Rica) - August 2, 2013
Students can elect to participate in either or both sessions.
The University of Costa Rica, located in San José, was founded in 1941 and is the most prestigious in the country. The Sede de Occidente or branch campus of the west, located in San Ramón, has an enrollment of 8000 students.
A primarily agricultural town of 30,000, San Ramon is situated half-way between the capital city of San Jose and Puntarenas on the Pacific coast, less than an hour away from each. It is located in the Central Valley against a dramatic backdrop of mountains. Manuel Brenes, one of the riches forest preserves in Costa Rica, lies just outside the city.
The geography of Costa Rica displays a stunning panorama of nature, which includes the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean coasts, mountains that soar to 12,000 feet, lush rain forests and active volcanoes. Enlightened Costa Rica has been a forerunner in the development of national parks and in the preservation of wildlife.
The US Department of State provides safety and security information for every country of the world to help you assess for yourself the risks of travel. Each country information page contains a Travel Advisory, Alerts, and other important details specific to that country that could affect you.
Pay close attention to the entry and exit requirements, local laws and customs, health conditions, and other details to help decide whether traveling to any given country is right for you. Non-US citizen travelers may also wish to seek guidance from the embassy of their country of citizenship. The UI International Travel Policy for Students addresses restrictions on student travel to high-risk locations and engagement in high-risk activities abroad.
USAC arranges home stay lodging. The families are located within easy commuting distance to the university. The semester program fee includes room and three meals daily, breakfast, lunch and dinner.
USAC arranges home stay lodging. The families are located within easy commuting distance to the university. Room is included in the program fee. For an additional cost, students can also choose to be provided with breakfast, lunch and dinner daily.
Once accepted to the program, the USAC central office will provide information about the travel agency organizing program group flights.
One year of general biology with lab at the college level; 2.5 g.p.a. or endorsement of academic advisors.
The Program Fee is charged on the U bill and includes tuition and fees, orientation, field trips and cultural activities, and a UI administrative fee.
The semester fee Fall 2013 was Resident: $5,457, Nonresident: $7,053.
Items not covered by the program fee include housing and meals, books & supplies, optional tours, airfare, visa costs and personal expenses. For an estimate on these consult the USAC Programs Catalog.
The Iowa Regents mandatory international CISI coverage is also collected on the U Bill.
The Program Fee for summer 2013 for the one month session was $3283 for students that are Iowa residents, and the same for non-residents.
The fee for the two months session was $6352 for students that are Iowa residents and $7416 for non-residents.
The Program Fee is charged on the U bill and includes tuition and fees, housing, orientation, some field trips and cultural activities, and a UI administrative fee.
Items not covered by the program fee include include airfare, meals, books & supplies, course-specific field trips, the optional tour, and personal expenses. Cost estimates are provided in the USAC Summer Catalog.
The Iowa Regents mandatory international CISI coverage is also collected on the U Bill.
Before starting an online application for this program, students should meet with their study abroad advisor to discuss their program selection and receive information about supplemental materials that are required for an application. Appointments can be set up in person at 1111 UCC or over the phone at 319-335-0353.
After meeting with your advisor, click here to apply.
Application deadlines are September 20 for spring, February 20 for fall or academic year, and March 4 for summer. Late applications may be accepted on a space available basis.
Upon acceptance, students will receive Pre-departure information directly from the program's central office.
All students attend a general TIPS orientation for UI Students Studying Abroad. Additional small group meetings address specific topics, as well as billing and credit procedures at Iowa.
There are no photos available for this program yet. Do you have any photos to share with us? If you do, please contact us at:
1111 University Capitol Centre
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1802
Phone: (319) 335-0353
Fax: (319) 335-0343
E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com


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RoundupPosted by Justin Taylor @ 12:14 pm on September 29th, 2009
Has anyone else been checking out "The best Books of the Millenium (So Far) at The Millions? Plenty to fight about there!
Last week I posted a poem Mark Bibbins wrote with D.A. Powell. Today I have an interview that Travis Nichols conducted with D.A. Powell.
Dan Nester wrote a fascinating essay about the New York poetry scene, and his disenchantment with same. If this is a taste of his forthcoming book, How to be Inappropriate, then I'm hereby predicting great things.
At The Rumpus, Rozi Jovanovic has a long interview with Tao Lin.
Also, in case you missed it when it was new last week, Dennis Cooper posted 15 stories and poems by Joe Brainard.
Tags: D.A. Powell, Daniel Nester, joe brainard

subset: commoncrawl


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In January the Fashion Plates committee always invite the models to a celebratory brunch to celebrate the success of the event. This year was no different and today many of us gathered to eat, drink and chat! It is always so much fun.
We were all given a 2015 calendar with photos from the event and it is something most of us look forward to each year. I can't wait to hang mine up! It is a great scrapbook like memento to hold onto each year.
Oh and by the way we had over 600 guests at the event and made nearly $104,000!!!!! Can you say AWESOME?! It is an incredible event that raises a lot of money for a cause near and dear to my heart!
We always eat and drink well. These ladies can cook!
I feel so fortunate that I was blessed with a group of amazing ladies to walk this MS journey with. I couldn't have picked a better group to partner with and together we will raise enough money for a cure!
Linking up with B Loved Boston, Let It Shine and Weekend Recap!
Sunday, January 11, 2015
Celebrating The Success Of Fashion Plates
Labels: Fashion Plates, friends, MS
4 comments:
:) Great post! It's wonderful that your event was so successful! This post makes me smile!ReplyDelete
Congrats on raising so much money! All of that food looks delicious!ReplyDelete
That food all looks amazing!ReplyDelete
Would love for you linkup this post on ym Weekend Recap too :) XO
-Lisa @ Showered With Design
Hello! Stopping by from the Weekend Recap link up. The fundraiser sounded hugely successful and congratulations on the philanthropic efforts! Y'all sure know how to eat and drink. Champagne and yummy foods are a win in my book :) Have a great week!ReplyDelete
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


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The Full Wiki
More info on Anti-ballistic missile
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anti-ballistic missile
) is a
designed to counter
ballistic missiles
(a missile for
missile defense
).A ballistic missile is used to deliver
or conventional
in a
. The term "anti-ballistic missile" describes any antimissile system designed to counter ballistic missiles. However the term is used more commonly for ABM systems designed to counter long range, nuclear-armed
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
Existing systems
Only two ABM systems have been operational previously against ICBMs, the U.S.
system, which utilized the
LIM-49A Spartan
missiles, and the Russian
A-35 anti-ballistic missile system
which used the
interceptor, each with a
nuclear warhead
themselves. Safeguard was only operational briefly; the Russian system has been improved and is still active, now called
and using two missile types,
. However the U.S.
Ground-Based Midcourse Defense
(GMD, previously called
) system has recently reached initial operational capability. It does not have an explosive charge, but launches a .
Three shorter range tactical ABM systems are operational currently: the U.S. Army
, U.S. Navy
Aegis combat system
Standard SM-3
, and the Israeli
Arrow missile
. The longer-range U.S.
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
system is scheduled for deployment during 2009. In general short-range tactical ABMs cannot intercept ICBMs, even if within range. The tactical ABM radar and performance characteristics do not allow it, as an incoming ICBM warhead moves much faster than a tactical missile warhead. However it is possible the better-performance Terminal High Altitude Area Defense missile could be upgraded to intercept ICBMs.
Latest versions of the U.S.
Hawk missile
have a limited capability against tactical ballistic missiles, but is not usually described as an ABM. Similar claims have been made about the Russian long-range surface-to-air
For current US developments, see
Missile Defense Agency
. For other short-range missiles, see
Sea Wolf
Aster 15
Crotale missile
Early history of ABMs
From World War II through the 1950s
Launch of a Nike Zeus missile
The idea of destroying rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German
program of
World War II
. British fighters attempted to destroy V-1 "buzz bombs" in flight prior to impact, with some success, although concentrated barrages of heavy anti-aircraft artillery had greater success. The V-2, the first true ballistic missile, was impossible to destroy using aircraft or artillery. Instead, the Allies launched
Operation Crossbow
to find and destroy V-2s before launch.
The operation was largely ineffective , as was a similar operation during the first
Gulf War
nearly fifty years later against the V-2's direct descendant, the Russian
The V2s were eventually dealt with by the launch sites being over-run by the rapid advance of the Allied armies through Belgium and the Netherlands.
The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles soon after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defenses against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until the later 1950s, when the Soviets began to test their missiles (most notably via the
launch in October 1957). The first experimental ABM system was the soviet
system (part of the experimental "
" ABM programme), closely followed by
Nike Zeus
, a modification of then-existing air defense systems. Nike Zeus proved unworkable, and so work proceeded with
Nike X
Another topic of research by the U.S. was the test explosions of several low yield
nuclear weapons
at very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic ocean, launched from ships. The devices used were the 1.7 kt boosted fission W25 warhead.When such an explosion takes place a burst of
are released that strike the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. The movement of these charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field causes a powerful
which induces very large currents in any conductive material. The purpose was to determine how much the EMP would interfere with radar tracking and other communications and the level of destruction of electronic circuitry aboard missiles and satellites.The project's results are not known, although similar so-called 'effects tests' were a regular feature of underground tests at the Nevada Test Site until 1992. These 'effects tests' are used to determine how resistant specific warheads, RVs and other components are to exoatmospheric ABM bursts.
Other countries were also involved in early ABM research.
A more advanced project was at
, which researched the main problems of ABM systems.
This included developing several advanced
detectors for terminal guidance, a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget reductions during the late 1950s the research ended. One offshoot of the project was
Gerald Bull
's system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes shot from a
round, which would later be the basis of
Project HARP
Developments in the 1960s and 1970s
Nike-X, Sentinel and Safeguard
Nike X was a US system of two missiles, radars and their associated control systems. The original Nike Zeus (later called Spartan) was upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megatonne warhead intended to destroy warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere.A second shorter-range missile called
with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph (13 000 km/h) within 4 seconds of flight—an average acceleration of
) and had a smaller W66
enhanced radiation
warhead in the 1-3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions.
The new Spartan missile changed the deployment plans as well. Previously the Nike systems were to have been clustered near cities as a last-ditch defense, but the Spartan allowed for interceptions at hundreds of miles range. Therefore the basing changed to provide almost complete coverage of the United States in a system known as
. When this proved infeasible for economic reasons, a much smaller deployment using the same systems was proposed,
. Safeguard protected only the US ICBM fields from attack, theoretically ensuring that an attack could be responded to with a US launch, an example of the
mutually assured destruction
Moscow ABM system
The first real and successful ABM
test was conducted by the Soviet
forces on March 1, 1961.
An experimental
missile (part of the "A" ABM programme) launched from the
test range, destroyed a dummy warhead released by a
ballistic missile
launched from the
Kapustin Yar
The dummy warhead was destroyed by the impact of 18 thousand
140 seconds after launch, at an altitude of 25 km.The V-1000 missile system was nonetheless considered not reliable enough and abandoned in favor of nuclear-armed ABMs.
The only other ICBM ABM system to reach production was the
It was initially a single-layer exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) design, using the Galosh (SH-01/ABM-1) interceptor.
It was deployed at four sites around
during the early 1970s.
Intended originally to be a larger deployment, the system was downsized to the two sites allowed under the 1972 ABM treaty. It was upgraded during the 1980s to a two-layer system, the
. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. ABM-3 was considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States
Safeguard system
of the 1970s.
The problem of defense against MIRVs
ABM systems were developed initially to counter single warheads launched from large
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough; since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, the price of the ICBM launching a large warhead should always be greater than the much smaller interceptor missile needed to destroy it. In an arms race the defense would always win.
Conditions changed dramatically with the introduction of
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
(MIRV) warheads. Suddenly each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. The defense would still require a rocket for every warhead, as they would be re-entering over a wide space and could not be attacked by several warheads from a single antimissile rocket. Suddenly the defense was more expensive than offense; it was much less expensive to add more warheads, or even decoys, than it was to build the interceptor needed to shoot them down.
The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the
Lyndon B.
administration to propose a thin ABM defense. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary
Robert McNamara
described it as
McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see
cost-exchange ratio
), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the
had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the
People's Republic of China
In the meantime a public debate over the merit of ABMs began. Even before the MIRV problem made ABM effectiveness non-workable during the late 1960s, some technical difficulties had already made an ABM system questionable for a large sophisticated attack. One problem was the
Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
(FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems.
Technical difficulties aside, an odd anti-ABM argument developed: that no defense at all was better than any defense. Namely, a false sense of security might encourage ABM-defended nations to escalate against minor threats, believing they would be protected against any response. By this reasoning, simply starting to deploy such a system could prompt a full-scale attack before it could become operational and thereby render such an attack useless. This curious set of arguments implied that it couldn't possibly work, but if it did that would be even worse.
The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972
Various technical, economic and political problems resulted in the
ABM treaty
of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) anti-ballistic missiles.
By the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a single ABM system with only 100 interceptors to protect a single target. The Soviets deployed a system named
Galosh interceptors
), designed to protect Moscow. The U.S. deployed
(using Spartan/Sprint interceptors) to defend ballistic missile sites at Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, during 1975. The U.S. Safeguard system was operational only briefly. The Russian system (now called A-135) has been improved and is still active around Moscow.
On June 13, 2002, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and subsequently recommenced developing missile defense systems that would have formerly been prohibited by the bilateral treaty. This action was done for the ostensible reason of needing to defend against the possibility of a missile attack conducted by a
rogue state
ABM developments in the 1980s and Persian Gulf War
Strategic Defense Initiative
(often referred to as "Star Wars"), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies.
SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray
were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. However several SDI technologies were used in follow on ABM systems.
Patriot antiaircraft missiles
was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used during the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi
missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot was much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry.
On a side note: lasers originally developed for the SDI plan are currently in use for astronomical observations. Used to ionize gas in the upper atmosphere they provide telescope operators with a target to calibrate their instruments
Post Gulf War ABM developments in the 1990s
Tactical ABMs deployed
Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued during the 1990s with mixed success. However, after the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems.
Patriot PAC-3
was developed and tested following the Gulf War. The PAC-3 is a complete redesign of the system deployed during the war, including a totally new missile.The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probability of kill over the earlier PAC-2. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Patriot PAC-3s had a nearly 100% success rate against Iraqi TBMs fired. However since no longer range Iraqi
missiles were used, PAC-3 effectiveness against those was untested. Patriot was involved in three
friendly fire
incidents: two incidents of Patriot shootings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft shooting at a Patriot battery.
From 1992 to 2000 a demonstration system for the US Army
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
was deployed at
White Sands Missile Range
Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred during 1999. A new version of the Hawk missile was tested during the early to mid 1990's and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps
systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities. Soon after the Gulf war, the
Aegis combat system
was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The
Standard missile
system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. During the late 1990's SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense function.
Standard Missile 3
systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 2008 an SM-3 missile launched from a
-class cruiser
, the
USS Lake Erie
, successfully intercepted a non-functioning satellite.
During 1998, Defense secretary
William Cohen
proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China.
Arrow missile
system was tested initially during 1990, before the first Gulf War.
The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the 1990s.
Brilliant Pebbles
Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon during 1991 but never realized,
Brilliant Pebbles
was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that was meant to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on improvements of computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites.It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.
The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was discontinued later in favor of a limited ground-based defense.
SDI changed to NMD
During the early 1990s, President
George H.
called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. During 1993, SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Deployment of the more limited system, called the National Missile Defense (NMD) was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. Research and development of the NMD system was continued by the Clinton administration from 1992 to 2000.
Countries with ABM capability
has an active ABM development effort using indigenously developed and integrated radars and locally designed missiles.
In November 2006, India successfully conducted the
in which an Anti-ballistic missile, called the
Prithvi Air Defense
(outside the atmosphere) interceptor system intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of 80 km. During the test the target missile was intercepted at an 50 km altitude. India became the fourth nation in the world to acquire such a capability and the third nation to develop it through indigenous effort. On 6 December 2007 the
Advanced Air Defence
missile system was tested successfully. This missile is an Endo atmospheric interceptor with an altitude of 30 km. According to scientist V K Saraswat of
the missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. Induction of the system into services is expected to be in 2010. Two new anti ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBM/ICBMs are being developed. These high speed missiles (AD-1 and AD-2) are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with the range of 5000 km.
On March 6, 2009 India successfully tested an indigenous interceptor missile that destroyed an incoming "enemy" ballistic missile at an altitude of 80 km. A Dhanush missile was launced from a ship about 100 km from the coast. It rose to a height of 120 km and as it began its downward trajectory, the interceptor was launced and successfully achieved a kill.
An Arrow anti-ballistic missile interceptor
The Arrow project was begun after the U.S. and Israel agreed to co-fund it on May 6, 1986..
The Arrow ABM system was designed and constructed in
with financial support by the
United States
by a multi-billion dollar development program called "Minhelet Homa" with the participation of companies like
Israel Military Industries
Israel Aerospace Industries
During 1998 the
military conducted a successful test of their Arrow missile.
Designed to intercept incoming missiles travelling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. On July 29, 2004 Israel and the United States carried out joint experiment in the USA, in which the Arrow was launched against a real
missile.The experiment was a success, as the Arrow destroyed the Scud with a direct hit. During December 2005 the system was deployed successfully in a test against a replicated
missile. This feat was repeated on February 11, 2007.
Apart from the Moscow ABM deployment during the Cold War, Russia has striven actively for intrinsic ABM capabilities in its late model SAM systems. Russian ABM capable systems include the following:
ABM-1 Galosh
ABM-3 Gazelle
ABM-4 Gorgon
United States
In several tests, the U.S. military have demonstrated the feasibility of destroying long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectiveness of newer systems against tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the
Patriot PAC-3
had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom (reference link does not work). However NMD real-world effectiveness against longer range ICBMs is less clear because they are much faster and a single warhead much harder to hit. Furthermore, warheads are likely to be accompanied by sophisticated
penetration aids
that are difficult to defeat.
While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, the current
National Missile Defense
has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a
rogue state
The George W. Bush administration accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and as of 2006 is operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from the
Middle East
. The Alaska interceptors may be augmented later by the naval
Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
, by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the
Boeing Airborne Laser
. President George W. Bush referenced the
September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks
and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense.
ABM development
During 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defence systems.
During Spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the
United States
as well as the
Czech Republic
were published.
The plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the
launch site in Poland
The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from
North Korea
This caused harsh comments by then-
Vladimir Putin
at the
security conference during spring 2007 in Munich.
Other European ministers commented that any change of strategic weapons should be negotiated on
level and not 'unilaterally' between the US and other states (although most strategic arms reduction treaties were between the USSR and US, not NATO).
foreign minister
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
expressed severe concerns about the way in which the USA had conveyed its plans to its European partners and criticised the US administration for not having consulted Russia prior to announcing its endeavours to deploy a new missile defence system in Central Europe – a criticism that was soon proven to be largely groundless, as the US had repeatedly informed Russia about its plans.
As of July 2007, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland. As noted above, Russia has operated its nuclear armed
Moscow ABM system
in Europe since the 1970s.
See also
National missile defense#Recent developments
People's Republic of China
Project 640 had been the PRC's indigenous effort to develop ABM capability. The Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was set up from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640. The project was to involve at least three elements, including the necessary sensors and guidance/command systems, the Fan Ji (FJ) missile interceptor, and the XianFeng missile-intercepting cannon. The FJ-1 had completed two successful flight tests during 1979, while the low altitude interceptor FJ-2 completed some successful flight tests using scaled prototypes.{ A high altitude FJ-3 interceptor was also proposed. Despite the development of missiles, the programme was cancelled due to financial and political reasons. However, technology and experience from the recent successful anti-satellite test using a ground-launched interceptor may be applied to ABM efforts.
In addition, China has acquired and is licence-producing the
series of ABM-capable SAMs.
China also has indigenous
SAM system, which has some ABM capability. The Chinese-Russian developed
also has ABM capability.
China has now developed a new generation of anti-ballistic missiles and
anti-satellite missiles
, including the
, and other KT upgrades. China also possesses a couple of sophisticated air-defence destroyers such as the
Type 052C Destroyer
Type 051C Destroyer
. These are comparable to the
Spruance class destroyer
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Republic of China
, commonly known as
, is also engaged in the development of an anti-ballistic missile system, based on its indigenously developed Tien Kung-II (Sky Bow) SAM system.
Although reports suggest a promising system, the ROC government continues to be interested strongly in the American
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
(THAAD) program.
Since 1998, when North Korea launched a
missile over northern Japan, the Japanese have been jointly developing a new Surface-to-air interceptor known as the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 (PAC-3) with the US. So far tests have been successful, and there are planned 11 locations that the PAC-3 will be installed. A military spokesman said that tests had been done on two sites, one of them a business park in central Tokyo, and Ichigaya — a site not far from the Imperial Palace.Along with the PAC-3, Japan has installed a US-developed ship-based anti-ballistic missile system, which was tested successfully on December 18, 2007. The missile was launched from a Japanese warship, in partnership with the US Missile Defense Agency and destroyed a mock target launched from the coast.
Nuclear Weapon Archive.org.
-135 anti-ballistic missile system
Defense Science Board Task Force.
Patriot system performance - report summary
. (PDF) January 2005.
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
. January 28, 1999.
Interview: Vijay Kumar Saraswat Chief Controller of Research and Development, India's DRDO
Prithvi Mission Milestone in Missile Defence
Outlook India.
India develops new anti-missile system
. November 27, 2006.
INDIA successfully conducts interceptor supersonic missile test
India on way to joining exclusive BMD club
India to develop high speed interceptors
India successfully tests indigenous interceptor missle
Israeli-United States Relations
BBC NEWS | World | Middle East | Israeli missile test 'successful'
Russian Anti-Ballistic Guided Missile Systems
Operation Iraqi Freedom - Patriot
Assembly of the
Western European Union
. Technological and Aerospace Committee. Lenzer. via FAS.
Anti-missile defence for Europe - guidelines drawn from the symposium
. 17 May 1993.
Gaspers, J. (2007).
A US Missile Defence Shield in Europe? Opinions and Arguments in the German Political Debate. Natolin Analyses 7(20)/2007
CDI Russia weekly. Pavel Felgenhauer.
New PR for an Old Missile
. December 14, 2004.
BBC News World article
Center for Defense Information - http://www.cdi.org/
See also
National Missile Defense
nuclear disarmament
nuclear proliferation
nuclear warfare
atmospheric reentry
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system
Multiple Kill Vehicle
External links
Article on Missile Threat Shift to the Black Sea region
Video of the Endo-Atmospheric Interceptor missile system test by India
Video of the Exo-Atmospheric interceptor missile system test by India
Center for Defense Information
has many resources on ABMs and NMD.
Federation of American Scientists
, as usual, is a wonderful resource for technical data, full-text of key documents, and analysis.
, a listing and descriptions of ABM systems around the world.
The unofficial website of the Stanley R.
Mickelson Safeguard complex
contains relevant images and history of the Safeguard program.
History of U.S.
Air Defense Systems
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- Copper falls on retail-sales data; gold rises slightly - MarketWatch
- By Moming Zhou, marketwatch NEW YORK (marketwatch) -- Copper futures fell Wednesday as weaker-than-expected US retail-sales data dampened hopes for a swift economic recovery, while gold rose slightly. Copper for July delivery fell 5.5 cents, or 2.6%,...
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- By Nasreen Seria May 14 (Bloomberg) -- Zambia's Finance Minister Situmbeko Musokotwane said he sees a "glimmer of hope" for Africa's largest copper producer as prices for the metal improve, prompting companies to reopen mining....
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- Plunging copper prices bring relief for agencies - Colorado Springs Gazette
- The plunging price of copper over the past year has brought relief to government agencies that struggled to contend with brazen metal thieves. Kurt Schroeder, Colorado Springs' parks, trails and open space manager, said the city's budget crisis left...
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- ("Chile Peso Closes Weaker On US Market Tumble, Copper Prices," at 1837 GMT, misstated the direction of copper prices in the fourth graph and the range of the bank's economic growth forecast in the seventh paragraph. The correct version follows:) By...
Native copper
Copper, as native copper, is one of the few metallic elements to occur in uncombined form as a natural mineral, although most commonly occurs in oxidized states and mixed with other elements. Native copper was an important ore of copper in historic times and was used by pre-historic peoples.
Native copper occurs as rarely isometric cubic and octahedral crystals, but more typically as irregular masses and fracture fillings. It has a reddish, orangish, and/or brownish color on fresh surfaces, but typically is weathered and coated with a green tarnish of copper(II) carbonate (also known as patina or verdigris). Its specific gravity is 8.9 and its hardness is 2.5-3.
The mines of the Keweenaw native copper deposits of Upper Michigan were major copper producers in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and are the largest deposits of native copper in the world. Native Americans mined copper on a small scale, and evidence exists of copper trading routes throughout North America among native peoples, proven by isotopic analysis. The first commercial mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula (which is nicknamed the "Copper Country" and "Copper Island)", opened in the 1840s. Isle Royale in western Lake Superior, was also a site of many tons of native copper. Some of it was extracted by native peoples, but only one of several commercial attempts at mining turned a profit there.
Another major native copper deposit is in Corocoro, Bolivia.
The name copper comes from the Greek kyprios, of Cyprus, the location of copper mines since pre-historic times.
Copper (pronounced /ˈkɒpɚ/) is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Copper is rather supple in its pure state and (when fresh) has a pinkish or peachy color, which (besides gold) is unusual for metals, which are usually silvery or grayish. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.
Copper is an essential trace nutrient to all high plant and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found primarily in the bloodstream, as a co-factor in various enzymes and in copper-based pigments. However, in sufficient amounts, copper can be poisonous and even fatal to organisms.
Copper has played a significant part in the history of mankind, which has used the easily accessible uncompounded metal for thousands of years. Evidence has been preserved from several early civilizations of the use of copper. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum.
A number of countries, such as Chile and the United States, still have sizable reserves of the metal which are extracted through large open pit mines. However, like tin, there may be insufficient reserves to sustain current rates of consumption. High demand relative to supply caused a price spike in the 2000s.
Copper has a significant presence in decorative art. It can also be used as an anti-germ surface that can add to the anti-bacterial and antimicrobial features of buildings such as hospitals.
Copper, as native copper, is one of the few metals to naturally occur as an un-compounded mineral. Copper was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old. No one knows exactly when copper was first discovered, but earliest estimates place this event around 9000 BC in the Middle East. A copper pendant was found in what is now northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. It is probable that gold and iron were the only metals used by humans before copper. By 5000 BC, there are signs of copper smelting: the refining of copper from simple copper compounds such as malachite or azurite. Among archaeological sites in Anatolia, Çatal Höyük (~6000 BC) features native copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no smelted copper. Can Hasan (~5000 BC) had access to smelted copper but the oldest smelted copper artifact found (a copper chisel from the chalcolithic site of Prokuplje in Serbia) has pre-dated Can Hasan by 500 years. The smelting facilities in the Balkans appear to be more advanced than the Turkish forges found at a later date, so it is quite probable that copper smelting originated in the Balkans. Investment casting was realized in 4500-4000 BCE in Southeast Asia.
Copper smelting appears to have been developed independently in several parts of the world. In addition to its development in the Balkans by 5500 BC, it was developed in China before 2800 BC, in the Andes around 2000 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa around 900 AD. Copper is found extensively in the Indus Valley Civilization by the 3rd millennium BC. In Europe, Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved male dated to 3300-3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure. High levels of arsenic in his hair suggest he was involved in copper smelting. Over the course of centuries, experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; for example, knowledge of copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.
In the Americas production in the Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was dated back to between 6000 to 3000 BC.
Alloying to make brass or bronze was realized soon after the discovery of copper itself. There exist copper and bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities that date to 3000 BC, and Egyptian artifacts of copper and copper-tin alloys nearly as old. In one pyramid, a copper plumbing system was found that is 5000 years old. The Egyptians found that adding a small amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so copper-tin (bronze) alloys were found in Egypt almost as soon as copper was found. Very important sources of copper in the Levant were located in Timna valley (Negev, now in southern Israel) and Faynan (biblical Punon, Jordan).
By 2000 BC, Europe was using bronze. The use of bronze became so pervasive in a certain era of civilization (approximately 2500 BC to 600 BC in Europe) that it has been named the Bronze Age. The transitional period in certain regions between the preceding Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper tools being used alongside stone tools. Brass (copper-zinc alloy) was known to the Greeks, but only became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman empire.
During the Bronze Age, one copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, extended for a depth of 70 metres. At Alderley Edge in Cheshire, carbon dates have established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC (at 95% probability).
In Greek the metal was known by the name chalkos (χαλκός). Copper was a very important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it became known as aes Cyprium (aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such as bronze and other metals, and Cyprium because so much of it was mined in Cyprus). From this, the phrase was simplified to cuprum, whence the English copper. Copper was associated with the goddess Aphrodite/Venus in mythology and alchemy, owing to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. In astrology, alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with seven metals also known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.
Britain's first use of brass occurred some time around the 3rd - 2nd century B.C. In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.
Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around the beginning of the first millennium AD. Copper technology proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Africa's major location for copper reserves is Zambia. Copper burial ornamentals dated from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 1900s. Australian copper artifacts exist, but they appear only after the arrival of the Europeans; the aboriginal culture apparently did not develop their own metallurgical abilities.
Crucial in the metallurgical and technological worlds, copper has also played an important cultural role, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries B.C. used copper lumps as money. At first, just the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins, made from a copper-zinc alloy, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's) coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys.
The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. Corinthian bronze was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun. In ancient India (before 1000 B.C.), copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 B.C.) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and as time passed, (~1500 B.C.) for headaches, burns, and itching. Hippocrates (~400 B.C.) used copper to treat leg ulcers associated with varicose veins. Ancient Aztecs fought sore throats by gargling with copper mixtures.
Copper is also the part of many rich stories and legends, such as that of Iraq's Baghdad Battery. Copper cylinders soldered to lead, which date back to 248 B.C. to 226 A.D, resemble a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this may have been the first battery. This claim has so far not been substantiated.
The Bible also refers to the importance of copper: "Men know how to mine silver and refine gold, to dig iron from the earth and melt copper from stone" (Job. 28:1-2).
Throughout history, copper's use in art has extended far beyond currency. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Giorgio Vasari and Benvenuto Cellini are three Renaissance sculptors from the mid 1500s, notable for their work with bronze. From about 1560 to about 1775, thin sheets of copper were commonly used as a canvas for paintings. Silver plated copper was used in the pre-photograph known as the daguerreotype. The Statue of Liberty, dedicated on October 28, 1886, was constructed of copper thought to have come from French-owned mines in Norway.
Plating was a technology that began started in the mid 1600s in some areas. One common use for copper plating, widespread in the 1700s, was the sheathing of ships' hulls. Copper sheathing could be used to protect wooden hulled ships from algae, and from the shipworm "toredo". The ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this protection.
In the early 1800s, it was discovered that copper wire could be used as a conductor, but it wasn't until 1990 that copper, in oxide form, was discovered for use as a superconducting material. The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy of copper in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic weight. Around then it was also discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) would affect the tones of bells, allowing for a variety of rich sounds, leading to bell casting, another common use for copper and its alloys.
The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant.
Flash smelting, which is still used today, was developed in Europe in order to make the smelting process more energy efficient. In 1908, in Outokumpu, Finland, a large deposit of copper ore was discovered, which eventually led to the development of flash smelting.
Copper has been pivotal in the economic and sociological worlds, notably disputes involving copper mines. The 1906 Cananea Strike in Mexico dealt with issues of work organization. The Teniente copper mine (1904-1951) raised political issues about capitalism and class structure. Japan's largest copper mine, the Ashio mine, was the site of a riot in 1907. The Arizona miners' strike of 1938 dealt with American labor issues including the "right to strike".
Copper has a reddish, orangish, or brownish color because a thin layer of tarnish (including oxides) gradually forms on its surface when gases (especially oxygen) in the air react with it. But pure copper, when fresh, is actually a pinkish or peachy metal. Copper, caesium and gold are the only three elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver. The usual gray color of metals depends on their "electron sea" that is capable of absorbing and re-emitting photons over a wide range of frequencies. Copper has its characteristic color because of its band structure. In its liquefied state, a pure copper surface without ambient light appears somewhat greenish, a characteristic shared with gold. When liquid copper is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its pinkish luster.
When copper is burnt in oxygen it gives off a black oxide.
Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table as silver and gold, since they each have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled electron shell which forms metallic bonds. This similarity in electron structure makes them similar in many characteristics. All have very high thermal and electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals. Among pure metals at room temperature, copper has the second highest electrical and thermal conductivity, after silver.
Copper can be found as native copper in mineral form (for example, in Michigan's Keewenaw Peninsula). Minerals such as the sulfides: chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4), covellite (CuS), chalcocite (Cu2S) are sources of copper, as are the carbonates: azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and the oxide: cuprite (Cu2O).
Copper is easily worked, being both ductile and malleable. The ease with which it can be drawn into wire makes it useful for electrical work in addition to its excellent electrical properties. Copper is easily machined and many engineering components can be fabricated. Good thermal conduction make it useful for heatsinks and in heat exchangers. Copper has good corrosion resistance, but not as good as gold. It has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can also be welded, although best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.
Copper is normally supplied, as with nearly all metals for industrial and commercial use, in a fine grained polycrystalline form. Polycrystalline metals have greater strength than monocrystalline forms, and the difference is greater for smaller grain (crystal) sizes. The reason is due to the inability of stress dislocations in the crystal structure to cross the grain boundaries. The plastic deformation of polycrystal is similar to mild steel.
At 59.6 × 106 S/m copper has the second highest electrical conductivity of any element after silver. This high value is due to virtually all the valence electrons (one per atom) taking part in conduction. The resulting free electrons in the copper amounting to a huge charge density of 13.6x109 C/m3. This high charge density is responsible for the rather slow drift velocity of currents in copper cable (drift velocity may be calculated as the ratio of current density to charge density). For instance, at a current density of 5x106 A/m2 (typically, the maximum current density present in household wiring and grid distribution) the drift velocity is just a little over ⅓ mm/s.
Copper is a metal that does not react with water (H2O), but the oxygen of the air will react slowly at room temperature to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide on copper metal.
It is important to note that in contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air that the layer formed by the reaction of air with copper has a protective effect against further corrosion. On old copper roofs a green layer of copper carbonate, called verdigris, can often be seen. Another notable example of this is on the Statue of Liberty.
Copper should not be in only mechanical contact with metals of different electropotential (for example, a copper pipe joined to an iron pipe), especially in the presence of moisture, as the completion of an electrical circuit (as through the common earth ground) will cause the juncture to act as an electrochemical cell (as is a single cell of a battery). The weak electrical currents themselves are harmless but the electrochemical reaction will cause the conversion of the iron to other compounds, eventually destroying the functionality of the union. This problem is usually solved in plumbing by separating copper pipe from iron pipe with some non-conducting segment (usually plastic or rubber).
Copper metal does react with hydrogen sulfide- and sulfide-containing solutions. A series of different copper sulfides can form on the surface of the copper metal.
Note that the copper sulfide area of the plot is very complex due to the existence of many different sulfides, a close up is also provided to make the graph more clear. It is clear that the copper is now able to corrode even without the need for oxygen as the copper is now less noble than hydrogen. This can be observed in everyday life when copper metal surfaces tarnish after exposure to air which contains sulfur compounds.
Copper does react with oxygen-containing ammonia solutions because the ammonia forms water-soluble copper complexes. The formation of these complexes causes the corrosion to become more thermodynamically favored than the corrosion of copper in an identical solution that does not contain the ammonia.
Copper does react with a combination of oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides. It is interesting to note that if copper(II) chloride (green/blue) is boiled with copper metal (with little or no oxygen present) then white copper(I) chloride will be formed.
Copper is germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many bacteria within a period of eight hours. Antimicrobial properties of copper are effective against MRSA, Escherichia coli and other pathogens. In colder temperature, longer time is required to kill bacteria.
Copper has the intrinsic ability to kill a variety of potentially harmful pathogens. On February 29, 2008, the United States EPA registered 275 alloys, containing greater than 65% nominal copper content, as antimicrobial materials. Registered alloys include pure copper, an assortment of brasses and bronzes, and additional alloys. EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices were conducted in order to obtain several antimicrobial claims valid against: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, E. coli O157: H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The EPA registration allows the manufacturers of these copper alloys to legally make public health claims as to the health effects of these materials. Several of the aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired infections contracted each year in the United States. Frequently touched surfaces in hospitals and public facilities harbor bacteria and increase the risk for contracting infections. Covering touch surfaces with copper alloys can help reduce microbial contamination associated with hospital-acquired-infections on these surfaces.
Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two of these, 63Cu and 65Cu, are stable and occur naturally, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper.
The other 27 isotopes are radioactive and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately 75 ns. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo β+ decay, while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo β− decay. 64Cu decays by both β+ and β−.
68Cu, 69Cu, 71Cu, 72Cu, and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer. 70Cu has two isomers, making a total of 7 distinct isomers. The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75 minutes. The least stable is 69mCu with a half-life of 360 ns.
In 2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the USA, Indonesia and Peru, reports the British Geological Survey.
Most copper ore is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0 percent copper. Examples include: Chuquicamata in Chile and El Chino Mine in New Mexico. The average abundance of copper found within crustal rocks is approximately 68 ppm by mass, and 22 ppm by atoms.
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries (CIPEC), defunct since 1992, once tried to play a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil, but never achieved the same influence, not least because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member. Formed in 1967, its principal members were Chile, Peru, Zaire, and Zambia.
The copper price has quintupled from the 60-year low in 1999, rising from US$0.60 per pound (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006, where it dropped to US$2.40 per pound (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007 then rebounded to US$3.50 per pound (US$7.71/kg = £3.89 = €5.00) in April 2007. By early February 2009, however, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs had left copper prices at US$1.51 per pound.
The Earth has an estimated 61 years of copper reserves remaining. Environmental analyst, Lester Brown, however, has suggested copper might run out within 25 years based on a reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per year.
Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95 percent of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. And as India and China race to catch up with the West, copper supplies are getting tight. Copper is among the most important industrial metals. Like fossil fuels, copper is a finite resource. Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global copper production rate is reached, according to Hubbert peak theory, the rate of production enters its terminal decline.
Copper is malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of both heat and electricity.
The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The numeral gives the number of nines after the decimal point when expressed as a decimal (e.g. 4N means 0.9999, or 99.99%). Copper is often too soft for its applications, so it is incorporated in numerous alloys. For example, brass is a copper-zinc alloy , and bronze is a copper-tin alloy.
Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important historical and contemporary uses. Speculum metal and bronze are alloys of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Monel metal, also called cupronickel, is an alloy of copper and nickel. While the metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper, such as aluminium bronze, silicon bronze, and manganese bronze.
Common oxidation states of copper include the less stable copper(I) state, Cu+; and the more stable copper(II) state, Cu2+, which forms blue or blue-green salts and solutions. Under unusual conditions, a 3+ state and even an extremely rare 4+ state can be obtained. Using old nomenclature for the naming of salts, copper(I) is called cuprous, and copper(II) is cupric. In oxidation copper is mildly basic.
Copper(II) carbonate is green from which arises the unique appearance of copper-clad roofs or domes on some buildings. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate which is perhaps the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used as a fungicide, known as Bordeaux mixture.
There are two stable copper oxides, copper(II) oxide (CuO) and copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). Copper oxides are used to make yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7-δ) or YBCO which forms the basis of many unconventional superconductors.
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide. A blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide should form.
Adding ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia) causes the same precipitate to form. It then dissolves upon adding excess ammonia, to form a deep blue ammonia complex, tetraamminecopper(II).
A more delicate test than ammonia is potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper salts.
Copper is essential in all plants and animals. Copper is carried mostly in the bloodstream on a plasma protein called ceruloplasmin. When copper is first absorbed in the gut it is transported to the liver bound to albumin. Copper is found in a variety of enzymes, including the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper and zinc). In addition to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological electron transport. The blue copper proteins that participate in electron transport include azurin and plastocyanin. The name "blue copper" comes from their intense blue color arising from a ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) absorption band around 600 nm.
Most molluscs and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab use the copper-containing pigment hemocyanin rather than iron-containing hemoglobin for oxygen transport, so their blood is blue when oxygenated rather than red.
It is believed that zinc and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract so that a diet that is excessive in one of these minerals may result in a deficiency in the other. The RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 mg/day. On the other hand, professional research on the subject recommends 3.0 mg/day. Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can often produce anemia-like symptoms. In humans, the symptoms of Wilson's disease are caused by an accumulation of copper in body tissues.
Chronic copper depletion leads to abnormalities in metabolism of fats, high triglycerides, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fatty liver disease and poor melanin and dopamine synthesis causing depression and sunburn. Food rich in copper should be eaten away from any milk or egg proteins as they block absorption.
Toxicity can occur from eating acidic food that has been cooked with copper cookware. Cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian Childhood Cirrhosis) has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a genetic defect is associated with this cirrhosis, but this should not be regarded as an endorsement of the practice since other toxicity besides cirrhosis can occur as in adults.
The metal, when powdered, is a fire hazard. At concentrations higher than 1 mg/L, copper can stain clothes and items washed in water.
Copper Mountain (Alberta)
Copper Mountain is a mountain in Banff National Park, 20 km (12 mi) north of the town of Banff. The mountain was named in 1884 by George M. Dawson after he had climbed to a mining site setup by Joe Healy and J.S. Dennis in 1881. Healy and Dennis claimed they had found a copper deposit at the site. It was also at this point that Dawson spotted and named Mount Assiniboine.
The mountain is located on the western side of the Trans-Canada Highway, just northeast of Redearth Creek. It is named "copper" Mountain because it is theorized to house a nearly infinite supply of copper.


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After decades of passionate debate, parents probably missed the repeated admissions by drug companies and governments alike that vaccines do in fact cause autism.
In recent months, courts, governments and vaccine manufacturers have quietly conceded the fact that the Measles Mumps Rubella (MMR) vaccine most likely does cause autism and stomach diseases. Pharmaceutical companies have even gone so far as to pay out massive monetary awards, totalling in the millions, to the victims in an attempt to compensate them for damages and to buy their silence.
In December 2012, two landmark decisions were announced that confirmed the vilified whistleblower Dr. Andrew Wakefield's original concern that there is a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and stomach disorders. The news went mostly unreported, but independent outlets like The Liberty Beacon finally began publishing the groundbreaking news.
The website wrote last month, 'In a recently published December 13, 2012 vaccine court ruling, hundreds of thousands of dollars were awarded to Ryan Mojabi, whose parents described how "MMR vaccinations" caused a "severe and debilitating injury to his brain, diagnosed as Autism Spectrum Disorder ('ASD').
"Later the same month, the government suffered a second major defeat when young Emily Moller from Houston won compensation following vaccine-related brain injury that, once again, involved MMR and resulted in autism.
"The cases follow similar successful petitions in the Italian and US courts (including Hannah Poling, Bailey Banks, Misty Hyatt, Kienan Freeman, Valentino Bocca, and Julia Grimes) in which the governments conceded or the court ruled that vaccines had caused brain injury. In turn, this injury led to an ASD diagnosis. MMR vaccine was the common denominator in these cases."
The report echoes the exact same sentiment that our reader conveyed – Dr. Wakefield has had his career and reputation destroyed over the past 15 years, but has just been vindicated.
The account reports,
"While repeated studies from around the world confirmed Wakefield's bowel disease in autistic children and his position that safety studies of the MMR are inadequate, Dr. Wakefield 's career has been destroyed by false allegations. Despite this he continues to work tirelessly to help solve the autism catastrophe."
The article from The Liberty Beacon closes with a direct quote from Dr. Wakefield himself to the independent grassroots outlet,
"There can be very little doubt that vaccines can and do cause autism. In these children, the evidence for an adverse reaction involving brain injury following the MMR that progresses to an autism diagnosis is compelling. It's now a question of the body count. The parents' story was right all along.
"Governments must stop playing with words while children continue to be damaged. My hope is that recognition of the intestinal disease in these children will lead to the relief of their suffering. This is long, long overdue."
Parents fighting back worldwide
Since the world has slowly become aware of the dangers of the MMR vaccine, parents around the globe have refused to get their children vaccinated. Earlier this year, the UK government singled out Dr. Wakefield and blamed him for the rising number of measles outbreaks in the country.
In an April 2013 interview, he responded publicly.
The website TheRefusers.com published both the video, as well as the written transcript, of Dr. Wakefield's public response. Below are some excerpts of the doctor's remarks:
"The important thing to say is that back in 1996-1997 I was made aware of children developing autism, regressive autism, following exposure in many cases to the measles mumps rubella vaccine. Such was my concern about the safety of that vaccine that I went back and reviewed every safety study, every pre-licensing study of the MMR vaccine and other measles-containing vaccines before they were put into children and after. And I was appalled with the quality of that science. It really was totally below par and that has been reiterated by other authoritative sources since.
"All I could do as a parent was to say, 'what would I do for my child?' That was the only honest answer I could give. My position on that has not changed. So, what happened subsequently? At that time the single measles vaccines were available freely on the National Health Service. Otherwise, I would not have suggested that option.
So parents, if they were legitimately concerned about the safety of MMR could go and get the single vaccines. Six months later, the British government unilaterally withdrew the importation license for the single vaccines, therefore depriving parents of having these on the NHS; depriving parents who had legitimate concerns about the safety of MMR from a choice; denying them the opportunity to protect their children in the way that they saw fit.
"And I was astonished by this and I said to Dr Elizabeth Miller of the Health Protection Agency, 'why would you do this, if your principal concern is to protect children from serious infectious disease? Why would you remove an option from parents who are legitimately concerned about the safety of MMR?'
"And her answer was extraordinary. She said to me,
'If we allow parents the option of single vaccines, it would destroy our MMR program.'
"In other words, her principal concern seemed to be full protection of the MMR program and not protection of children."
Dr. Wakefield himself reiterates the final conclusion of the courts in various countries, but censored by the world's media outlets saying:
"Now this question has been answered not by me, but by the courts, by the vaccine courts in Italy and in the United States of America where it appears that many children over the last thirty years have been awarded millions of dollars for the fact that they have been brain-damaged by MMR vaccine and other vaccines and that brain damage has led to autism. That is a fact."
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Navsari is a city and municipality in the Surat metropolitan region and also the administrative headquarters of Navsari district of Gujarat, India. Navsari is also the twin city of Surat, and is 37 kms south of Surat. Many Parsis settled down in this city in around 11th century AD and named it Navu Sari which meant 'New Sari'. Navsari is popular for its various types of Zoroastrian arts, crafts and cuisine.
Places to stay
Some of the popular budget hotels in Navsari are Anmol Hotel (Tariff - Rs. 800) Hotel Royal Regency (Tariff - Rs 1400), Modi Resort (Tariff- Rs. 1150).
The official language of Navsari is Gujarati.
Apart from all the common festivals, a festival unique to Navsari is the Dhinglo Festival (July).
Places to visit
There are many places to be visit in Navsari. Some of them are Dudhiya Talav (1.5 kms from bus stand), Atash Behram (80 kms), J.N. Tata Memorial Hall (4 kms), Ravariya Bapa temple, Parsvanath Jain temple (1.7 kms), Dargah of Sayed Saadat (2 kms) and Shri Swaminarayan Mandir (43 kms).
How to Get There
The closest airport to Navsari is 30 kms away at Surat.
The Surat railway station is the closest major railway station (31 kms) to Navsari
Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation (GSRTC) runs Busses from Major cities to Towns and Villages in Navsari. Some of the best bus operators that offer good experience for passengers include Paulo Travels, O.P. Tours & Travels and Asha Travels. Booking bus tickets through ticketgoose.com is a hassle-free experience.
Varsada, a village in Gujarat's Anand district, lies about 96 km away from its capital city, Gandhinagar. Some of the cities close to Varsada are Cambay, Khambat, Petlad and Dholka. This village might not have much to offer its tourists, but because of its proximity to other cities, it is alluring for weekend getaways.
Places to Stay
Hotels are very basic in Varsada. Tourists can find a number reasonable hotels in Khambat, which is 28 km away, like Hotel Apex (Tariff –Rs.600), Hotel Paramount (Tariff –Rs.670) and Hotel Bhagyalaxmi (Tariff –Rs.700).
Gujarati and Hindi are the main languages spoken here.
Holi in March-April, Janmashtami in July-August, Buddha Purnima in September, Navratri in September-October and Diwali in October-November are the most important festivals of Varsada.
Places of Interest
Varsada has a number of tourist attractions nearby. Some of them include Khambat (28 km), Cambay (28 km) and Dholka (30 km).
How to Get There
The nearest airport from this village is in Ahmedabad, which is 71 km away.
Amreli railway station, located about 9 km away, is the closest to the village.
There are regular buses from Surat, Navsari and Ahmedabad. Jay Khodiyar Bus Service is one of the top operators plying on this route. Ticketgoose.com offers the best ticket prices to its customers. So, go ahead and book your tickets through Ticketgoose.


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Genetics & counseling: a sensible approach
Angelina Jolie's surprise announcement of her prophylactic mastectomy and hysterectomy has shined a spotlight on genetic testing. Like this celebrity, more people with family histories of serious medical conditions are seeking information about their chances of developing a life-threatening illness. As technology and research develop new detection methods, valuable knowledge is becoming available to the general public. But this knowledge can spark emotional chaos.
Andrea Farkas Patenaude, Ph.D., director of psychology research and clinical services with the Center for Cancer Genetics and Prevention at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and associate professor of psychology in the department of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, has been involved in the study of the psychological and social impact of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer for the last two decades.
Although her work has focused on these two types of cancer, Patenaude points out genetic markers for any serious illness prompt some common questions. Firstly, knowing your family has a history of cancer or some other serious medical condition may provoke anxiety over whether to undergo testing. "I see people who are thinking of genetic counseling when they expect some mutation or come from a high risk family. They are nervous about the results," she says. "For instance, if a woman is diagnosed with a genetic mutation, she has concerns beyond herself. There are treatment implications for a female and also for her relatives and children and how to communicate the news. She often feels bad about passing along the risk to her children."
Once genetic testing is done – and Patenaude strongly recommends going to a counseling center, rather than seeking independent testing – individuals face choices.
Positive results may lead the patient to choose prophylactic surgery, which then raises the issue of reconstruction and personal consequences. Some individuals may opt not to act at all. "Patients have to realize there is no one right answer. Whatever the results are, an individual has choices to make. People find it helpful to talk to someone that they don't have to explain the issue," says Patenaude, reporting that her therapy involves aspects of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and offers ways to think about the news.
Reconstruction adds another layer to the psychological profile. For instance, in the case of prophylactic mastectomy, a woman's sense of self is a factor. "The husband wants spouse survival, but loss of erogenous zones may be an issue. You have to work through this with your spouse. There is a mourning ritual," she says. "Also, reconstruction involves multiple surgeries and requires adjustment. You will have some pain and that comes as a shock."
While immediate family is directly impacted, genetic testing can also raise emotional issues for extended family. "Who do you tell?" Patenaude asks. "There may be relatives who don't want to hear, but you have to inform them and give them treatment options."
Another unexpected and somewhat surprising reaction occurs when siblings undergo genetic testing and not all have a gene mutation. "Sometimes, there is disappointment among those who don't carry the gene," Patenaude says. "Your sisters might have it, but not you. You feel left out."
Fortunately, genetic testing and counseling may look quite different in the future, according to Patenaude. "[Your genetics] are part of a constellation of things you pass on to your children. But the future may not be like the past," she says. "By the time your children grow up, there will be new options." She indicates that in the coming years psychologists interested in genetics may find many more clinical and research-based career opportunities.
By Phyllis Hanlon


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Remembering Dale Glaser
August 16, 1944 - August 31, 2005
Neill Bell:
Dale knew so much about so many things, yet he never tried to impress you with his knowledge. If there was anything that you needed help with, Dale was there. His generosity with his time and energy was practically unlimited. And the breadth of his interests was astonishing.
One of the things I remember was the presentation he gave to Mendocino College faculty in the very late 1980s or early 1990s. The college had adopted the Macintosh platform as its computer of choice. Every office and every full-time instructor had one..... But most capabilities of the Mac were mysteries to most of the staff. Dale gave a masterful presentation on using the Mac HyperCard system that brought those in the room into the age of computing. Here he was, a part-time instructor, giving everyone a look at the present and future horizons of computing. As usual, Dale demonstrated what he had learned with humility, enthusiasm and a twinkle in his eye.
Dale also was very serious about the Mendocino College newspaper, The Eagle. He worked with King Collins as co-advisor to the students who put out the paper. Dale was dedicated to getting out the truth. It was just another aspect of his desire to help people educate themselves. He was always looking for and finding creative solutions to publishing the paper, despite numerous obstacles placed in his path by the college administration. The newspaper seemed like a necessary evil to some administrators, but to Dale, it was an essential part of the college experience. He shared a lot of himself with the students, and Dale always had a lot to share.
Neill Bell, writer,
Mendocino College instructor
Part-time Faculty Association
* * *
Vivian Power:
When I first saw Dale, he was on stage and for a while it seemed that he was in every production in this town. From my perspective, he was a dancer, an actor, a teacher, a writer, a technical wizard, a political and environmental activist.
I learned of his dedication as my colleague part-time teacher and MPFA (our union) fellow activist. I became acquainted with his intellect and curiosity as my student. As my consultant in everything from desktop publishing and computers to solar and hydroelectric energy, I became familiar with Dale's meticulous workmanship as well as his generosity. Finally, in our acquaintance, I discovered a friend, who, through his unassuming, quiet, and sometimes shy style, revealed a rare energy and passion for life.
I am so glad that our paths crossed and that I was able to share a short time with this intelligent, passionate, kind, and deeply spiritual soul.
Vivian Power
Mendocino College Instructor
Part-time Faculty Association
Dale at the Eagle, December, 1997
* * *
King Collins:
Dear Dale,
This is King, you're old friend, your buddy, your comrade. I know you got someplace to go, but I'm sure you're hanging around here somewhere listening to what people are saying about you. And you're probably wondering what I'm going to say.
Well first off, old buddy, I just want to know: How come you left in such a hurry? I mean, you left us all so confused about things. What about all those jobs and projects we were doing together?
I'm feeling sad, not for you, but for the rest of us, and mostly for me. Cause I miss you. I can't call you up. I would have called you this morning, in fact, but I knew you wouldn't answer the phone, but I would have called and asked you if I could use your video camera, and whether it was charged up and whether it had any tape in it.
And I wanted to call you the day before 'cause I don't understand the fancy code you used for the radio station web site. But you're not here to explain it to me. The way you explained so many technical things to me. You with a mind like as sharp as they come. You who were always so patient. Even when you were tired.
How could you just leave like that? So sudden and all. Well, all right I know you didn't want to leave. It's not your fault, but I have all these memories.
It seems like you helped with everything I ever did. I met up with you right away when my wife and I and our passel of kids first moved here. That was back in 1985 just as the Macintosh came out. You helped us start Green Mac, and you even pitched in when we started a school with a bunch of other parents and kids. We called it the New school.
You, being so smart and all, you got into teaching at Mendocino College. Everyone liked you. You taught computer courses and you were always the first to learn the new stuff.
And you worked so hard for the part-time faculty association. Attending all those meetings and doing their newsletter and all sorts of other union stuff. I couldn't believe how many newsletters you did. And they always seemed to come out on time.
For years you worked on the college newspaper. Sometimes you were the only person working on it. You kept it alive.
And then one day, you decided to quit teaching that desktop publishing class and suggested that I do it instead. So I applied for the job and Tonia (Widler) hired me. And then you were getting tired of doing the newspaper by yourself, and you asked me if I wanted to do it. And I said, Well OK, but only if you would do it with me. And so we did.
And together I think we did one of the best newspapers in the whole wide world (of little college newspapers).
And after awhile that little newspaper got in trouble with the big shots at the college. That happened, mostly, because we looked into the case of Susan Bell, the most community-loving of the big shots. She didn't fit in with the plans of the other big shots. She said that they made up a bunch of fake stuff to get rid of her. And so it became a kind of a big deal. There was a whole bunch of college folks who loved Susan Bell and cared a lot about the college and about the college being involved in the community. Some of the faculty were really upset, too. About other things that the big shots had done. So those people got together and started to make a fuss.
A lot of people knew that there was a fuss but they didn't know what the fuss was about. So what happened was that the staff of the newspaper, which was made up of several students and the two of us faculty advisors, had a long meeting to talk about what to do. What we decided was that being a newspaper and all, we should try to find out what was really going on.and tell everybody about it. We figured that's what any good newspaper should do.
Anyway we eventually got ahold of a letter written to the top dog board of directors, that supposedly runs the college. It was from Susan Bell, and it said some pretty strong critical like things about the big shots and how they were trying to get rid of her. There was something written on it about being confidential. But we found out that that letter had been passed around to a bunch of the full-time faculty. We figured that we had an honest-to-goodness responsibility to publish that letter so that everybody, even the part-time faculty and the students, could read it.
So anyway, the newspaper staff, we talked about it and we finally decided to publish that so-called confidential letter in the Eagle.
And then all heck broke loose, cause we being part-time faculty and all, we got all kinds of flak. And the poor student editor, he got so upset with being told all kinds of terrible things, and pretty soon of course the college big shots were trying hard to get rid of both of us, Dale.
And in the middle of that, KC Meadows, the editor of the town paper, she wrote a rip-snorting editorial that made us feel good. She said she had never seen such goings on with those big shots thinking they could shut down the paper and get away with it.
And you being so smart and all, you put the whole big controversy up on the Eagle web site, and it's still up and it tells the story so I don't have to talk about that anymore. Thank goodness.
And for the last two years and more you worked with lots of other folks to try to bring local community radio to Ukiah. And you worked more than almost anyone else to put together KMEC, Ukiah's very first community radio station (105.1 FM). I remember you, with your seemingly frail body, putting up all he sheet rock in the KMEC studio. You did it all by yourself.
And after all that work we finally got KMEC on air and you started doing a show. Then one day about three months ago, you called up and told me that you had a really scary thing happen when you were on the air. You said you couldn't think of a word and your mind went blank. Well, I thought it was just stage fright, 'cause that's happened to me.
But it turned out to be something else, and all of the sudden you couldn't do the stuff you used to do. You felt dizzy and couldn't dance, which must have broken your heart. And when I called up, you didn't have the energy to talk about the technical stuff. You said the computer bothered you.
The doctors finally figured out that you had a brain tumor. We were all scared, but somehow you never seemed to be afraid and I guess I was afraid to ask. The doctors said nothing could be done to save you. The said the tumor would get bigger and hurt your brain more and more. They said you could, maybe, do chemo or radiation therapy to help you last a little longer, but you didn't want to do that. You wanted to die at home with your friends.
As usual you were courageous, and like I said, you never said a mumblin word. Not one mumblin word.
Your friends from Greenfield gathered round and cared for you. They rode with you to the hospital. Oh those wonderful Greenfield folks, mostly women. How they loved you. They stayed with you when you came home from the hospital. They worked together to make your meals and take you to appointments.
And then one day. It was Tuesday, August 30. I was on the air at KMEC and I got a call from your friend, Shelly McCoy. She said you had a seizure the night before. She said it might be near the end. So I drove up to see you, sat by your side. You were sleeping. A coma they said. Your skin felt too warm. I held your hand for awhile. I kissed you on your forehead, felt the wisps of hair on my cheek, and I whispered Goodbye, Dale.
The next day, you died.
There were so many things we did together, that I can't talk about them all.
So now you're gone from this place---this heaven, this community you loved so well, this community you helped so much.
What will we do without you? You've left a big vacuum, an empty place.
We've come here today to fill that empty place. We've come here to renew our friendships. All those people that knew you, that you worked with. We're here and we see each other, and we will make up for your being gone, by being more caring about each other, by putting our hearts and our love into this community, into all those projects that you put your heart and soul into.
Ok Dale, that's enough for now. I wish you were here. And I promise to keep on doing what we started to do. I know that's what you want.
I love you.
King Collins
Friend and Collaborator
Faculty Advisor to the Mendocino College Eagle
1995 - 1997