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DNAVision is the leading European DNA analysis company providing a complete solution for sequencing projects for research and regulatory purposes.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Here are a few tips to get you better organized:
- Make sure that your Family Tree is up to date. If you can, make it portable. Have it on a laptop, iPad, tablet or smartphone so that you can access the information in Scotland. If you are not tech savvy, print off Family Group Sheets and write down what you are missing and hope to find when you are in Scotland.
- Make a list of all of the documents you already have copies or originals of. This will prevent you wasting time searching for information you already have. Remember, you will be able to see births newer than 100 years, marriage records newer than 75 years and death records newer than 50 years, so you will want to make a list of the more recent records you want to have a look at while you are in Edinburgh.
- Write out your brick walls and think about what you want to find out to help break those down. Do you need to look at parish records, voters rolls, apprentice records, maps, directories, newspapers? This will help to focus and guide your research time.
I am looking forward to our time together in Scotland.


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Welcome to this week's edition of TIME's LightBox Follow Friday, a series where we feature the work of photographers who are using Instagram in new and engaging ways. Each week we will introduce you to the person behind the feed through his or her pictures and share an interview with the photographer.
This week on #LightBoxFF, TIME spoke with Ivan Kashinsky (@ivankphoto), a freelance photographer based in Quito, Ecuador, whose work has been featured in TIME, Smithsonian and National Geographic. Kashinsky is also a member of Panos and co-founder of the Runa photo collective.
LightBox: How are you using Instagram now, and how has it become a part of your professional practice/workflow? Are you taking photos with your phone, are you uploading images you've taken with your camera, or both?
Ivan Kashinsky: I use Instagram everyday. It has become a part of my identity as a photographer and has allowed me to try something new. At first it was more of a playful experiment, but then it grew into something serious, something much bigger than I could have imagined. Through Instagram my photography can be viewed by thousands of people around the globe; it's my ticket to get my personal vision out into the world. I only use phone photos on Instagram. I have enjoyed the freedom of letting go of that giant weight from time to time. It's almost like I'm floating in comparison to when I'm using my DSLR. If I see a scene, a character, or a detail that speaks to me, I can reach into my pocket and start making images.
Kashinsky's first Instagram post in the #projectmibarrio series, taken Jun. 18, 2013
LightBox: What is the purpose of your feed? What does Instagram provide for you, professionally and creatively, that other platforms don't?
IK: Recently, my feed has become a place where I can tell a story. I call it "Project Mi Barrio." About 10 months ago, I started documenting my neighborhood and the surrounding area with my phone. As superhighways, malls and fast food joints came crashing in, I began to wonder if the "Old Ecuador" and its traditions would survive. I'm witnessing the collision of hundreds of years of ancestral customs with full-blown modernity, and the mix is fascinating. You can find these two polar opposites living together, inside the same house, or even inside the same person. When I started seriously working on PMB, I began shooting with the same intensity and mindset that I have when tackling a project with my DSLR. That's when my phone photography switched from playful image-making to one of my most important projects. My phone has become the tool to tell this story. I feel like the world is watching.
LightBox: Which post inspired the most audience feedback and engagement? Why do you think that photo got people's attention, and do you agree with it?
IK: It's difficult, but I try not to pay too much attention to how many likes or comments a photo gets. Often my favorite and most powerful images have the least amount of likes. So I don't want the general public to shape how I think when I'm making images. Recently I published a photo of a Jehovah's Witness trying to convert me in my neighborhood. Jehovah's Witnesses from all over the world began madly commenting on my feed. For this photo I had 150 comments, when usually there are only 10 or so. I try not to jump in, especially when things get ugly. I like to take photos that may fall out of the realm of what people might consider a successful image. It's fun to stretch peoples' minds a bit and try something different.
LightBox: What other outlets did you have for sharing your work before Instagram? Do you find it liberating to be able to produce and distribute work instantaneously?
IK: My work has been published in magazines like National Geographic. I love that process, as well. I had the opportunity to sit down with some of the best photo editors and look through thousand of images. I learned so much while doing that, thinking intensely about what each image in your story says and how it adds to the overall message. Editing 40,000 images down to 10 is quite an exercise in thinking about photography. Instagram is much different. I find that I take fewer photos than when working with the DSLR. Every day I work on a project bit by bit. Sometimes I find myself editing in the bathroom or while waiting in line. It is satisfying to get your work out there fast and publish whatever photo you want, no matter how funky it might be. But both processes are valid and key to my development as a photographer.
Ivan Kashinsky is a freelance photographer based in Quito, Ecuador. Follow him on Instagram @ivankphoto
Krystal Grow is a writer for TIME LightBox
See more from TIME's #LightBoxFF series here


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When BASF, a world leader in chemicals, decided to raise the bar and look beyond their satisfactory rental partner, Atlas Copco Rental emerged as a clear winner.
12 December 2013
BASF is located at the port of Antwerp – a location with several records to its credit. The port houses the biggest, most diversified petrochemical center in Europe; 7 out of 10 of the world's biggest chemical companies have production sites at this location. Thanks to the Antwerp Integrated Model, the port is also unparalleled in the area of integration. The model comprises a cluster, the base of which is made up of five refineries with a primary distillation capacity of over 40 million tons. Four crackers then further refine the naphta into petrochemicals such as ethylene and propylene. These base products are further refined within the cluster. Three of the crackers are on the Fina Antwerp Olefines site, and the fourth, on the BASF site.
Turning a challenge into an opportunity During the cracking process, cokes get deposited on the internal wall of the reactors. This layer has many unfavorable effects, such as inefficient transfer of heat leading to higher power consumption, reduced lifespan of pipes, higher pressure losses due to suboptimal product distribution, and an increase in temperature after cooling. BASF had partnered with Atlas Copco Rental for many years, for the removal of coke deposits. Atlas Copco Rental Europe has been efficiently carrying out this process once every 7 years and whenever there was an unexpected breakdown.
The Atlas Copco Rental advantage In keeping with the company's usual practice, the office first meticulously planned every step of the project. It then assigned a dedicated team to the task, which would coordinate with a dedicated BASF team. A pro-active meeting was held where there was a detailed run-through of risk analyses and procedures such as installation, logistics and fuel management.
Equipment that could deliver 16 452 m³/h at 20°C/50% humidity at sea level was then installed. The set-up included 7 x PTS916 compressors (including one standby), 7 x 2 900 liter fuel tanks, 3-inch air hoses, 6-inch air hoses, an air collector and an emergency stop cabinet. Other highlights of the team's plan included:
Atlas Copco is a world-leading provider of sustainable productivity solutions. The Group serves customers with innovative compressors, vacuum solutions and air treatment systems, construction and mining equipment, power tools and assembly systems. Atlas Copco develops products and service focused on productivity, energy efficiency, safety and ergonomics. The company was founded in 1873, is based in Stockholm, Sweden, and has a global reach spanning more than 180 countries. In 2015, Atlas Copco had revenues of BSEK 102 (BEUR 11) and more than 43 000 employees.
Specialty Rental is a division within Atlas Copco's Construction Technique business area. It serves customers in the industry segments around the world with temporary air, nitrogen, steam and power rental solutions. The specialty rental services are offered under several brands. The divisional headquarters is located in Houston, USA.
Unit 4, Plato Business Park
Damastown, Dublin 15


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Resultados da Busca
Creator: Chari, V. V., Kehoe, Patrick J., and McGrattan, Ellen R. Series: Joint committee on business and financial analysis Abstract:
This paper proposes a simple method for guiding researchers in developing quantitative models of economic fluctuations. We show that a large class of models, including models with various frictions, are equivalent to a prototype growth model with time varying wedges that, at least on face value, look like time-varying productivity, labor taxes, and capital income taxes. We label the time varying wedges as efficiency wedges, labor wedges, and investment wedges. We use data to measure these wedges and then feed them back into the prototype growth model. We then assess the fraction of fluctuations accounted for by these wedges during the great depressions of the 1930s in the United States, Germany, and Canada. We find that the efficiency and labor wedges in combination account for essentially all of the declines and subsequent recoveries. Investment wedge plays at best a minor role.
Palavra-chave: Business cycle, Cycle, Economic fluctuations, Fluctuation, and Growth Sujeito: O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models, O47 - Economic growth and aggregate productivity - Measurement of economic growth ; Aggregate productivity ; Cross-country output convergence, and E32 - Prices, business fluctuations, and cycles - Business fluctuations ; Cycles


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The technology landscape is evolving. Leading life sciences companies are capitalizing on new opportunities such as AI, RPA, quantum computing, predictive analytics and blockchain to create innovative patient-centric products and services that deliver digital experiences similar to those people receive in other aspects of their day-to-day lives.
Of course, these advancements cannot function without robust, comprehensive and secure data at scale. Life sciences CIOs must reimagine their technology architectures, extending their enterprises into ecosystems of partners to create disruptions in the way business is run.
Our Life Sciences Technology Services harness these advanced technology capabilities and build on our partnerships to provide industry-specific solutions across all features of the life sciences value chain.
Help enable collaboration, meet customer expectations, manage costs, and expand market reach.
Enabling "digital passports" for treatment that are smarter, more secure, and more personalized than ever
Improving patient care with secure, robust, and comprehensive data
Drive innovation, accelerate product development, and improve patient care with deep analytical insights.
Life Sciences 2019 Technology Vision reveals several trends that are collectively paving the way to the future of life sciences.
Follow our LinkedIn Showcase Page for our latest industry research, trends and insights.
Accenture's life sciences experts share their insights and opinions on the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical technology and consumer health industries.


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Second-year head coach Ryan Cole and defending Pac-12 Newcomer of the Year Shelby Houlihan lead the Sun Devils into a new season.
Aug. 28, 2012
By Chenea' Schacher
TEMPE – As school comes back into session this Fall semester, Arizona State University's women's cross country season is getting back underway. With the Sun Devils returning 10 runners and adding seven strong newcomers, the team is looking to improve on last year's NCAA Championship showing.
Four of the Sun Devils returning to the roster had an NCAA appearance last year. Sophomores Shelby Houlihan and Macy Bricks along with red-shirt seniors Natasa Vulicand Hailey Hanna will look to take the newcomers back to the championship this season.
"We are pretty fortunate right now that all of the girls are back on the team, healthy and excited to get into the season," head coach Ryan Cole said. "We just need to manage their emotions, time and energy so that they stay healthy and excited as we move through out the season. I think we are going to have a pretty good fall."
With such a young team, Cole says he is looking to find leadership in the team's top returners to provide the work ethic and attitude to help others step and make the team a better one as a unit.
"We are a young team so there are always some surprises that way. We have some people joining the program that are coming right out of high school," Cole said. "We expect Vulic, Hanna, Houlihan and Macy to set the tone for our team and the other girls will contribute as well."
Here's a look at your upcoming Sun Devil Women's cross country season:
Though the majority of the team may be underclassmen, Sun Devil seniors Natasa Vulic andHailey Hanna will play a key role in the development of the rest of the team as well as putting points on the board.
"They are experienced athletes, but more so that they are two local girls that have really done everything in our program that we would like to see everyone do," Cole said of the two. "They have committed to the process. They have made it through some bumps in the road. We are really fortunate to have those two showing all of the talented young girls in our program what it would take to be successful."
In the 2011 season Hanna advanced to the NCAA West Preliminaries in the 10,000 meter run and also placed 10th in the same event at the Pac-12 Championships, clocking a personal best time of 35:23:85.
Vulic was a member of ASU's seven-women roster at the NCAA Championships in 2011 and has consistently been a point-scorer for the Sun Devils throughout her career as a Sun Devil.
The lone junior on the team, Karlee Owens has her own message to pass on to the younger runners.
"Karlee is somebody who has had a lot of adversity in her career and she's done a very nice job of sticking with an optimistic attitude, which is what you have to have," Cole said. "She's another strong veteran that has endured and sets a good example to the young girls who are inevitably going to have some ups and downs in their careers and need to see examples of how to work through that."
"It's a talented group," Cole said of the sophomore class. "We felt very strongly about our recruiting class last year."
Leading the group of eight sophomores, and the team for that matter, are Shelby Houlihan and Macy Bricks. Houlihan and Bricks paced the team throughout the year despite just being freshmen. Both Houlihan and Bricks competed in the NCAA West Regionals where Houlihan was the top finisher for the Sun Devils placing 12th overall. Bricks was the second-fasted finisher for the Sun Devils at the Pac-12 Conference Championships clocking a time of 20:49.00 while Houlihan finished first for the Sun Devils and eighth overall with a time of 20:15.00.
Houlihan would go on to be the Pac-12 Cross Country Newcomer of the Year, duplicating the award for the track and field season to become the first student-athlete in conference history to sweep the awards for both seasons.
"They are very dedicated and tough runners," Cole said. "We are going to need Macy and Shelby to lead us in competition. They are clearly our performance leaders as far as owning up and racing the races."
Another newcomer joins the class in Dalanne Bartlette. Coming out of Shasta Community College, Bartlette is a 2012 800-meter All-American with a shining outlook. In her first ever 800m race, Bartlette clocked an impressive 2:12.00.
"Dalanne is a very athletic student-athlete. We are very excited to have her come over. Even in her first few work outs she has shown glimpses that there is something special there," said Cole.
With a history more filled with sprint work, Cole says Bartlette may show more this winter and spring during track season after she has time to develop her distance strategy.
"One thing I know is that whether it is cross country, indoor or outdoor track or some random 5K road race in the middle of July is this: when Dalanne runs, she's going to give everything she has and, in our sport, that goes a long way."
In regards to the rest of the sophomore class, Cole says he's optimistic and excited about their improvements.
"A couple of them have gone through a transitional period as freshmen and they will be expected to contribute this year," Cole said. "Payton Schutte and Shaina Corbin have done a good job this summer. They started to figure some things out last year and were able to adjust their lifestyles so that they could stay healthy and avoid injuries."
Filling out the 2012 Sun Devil women's cross country roster are five incoming freshmen. Arizona locals Tory Haberman and Marcella Cartledge and out-of-staters Kaitlin Kaluzny, Adriana Olivas and Alexia Velarde seem to be a very stereotypical Arizona State class; unyielding and competitive with bright futures.
"In our first few practices, there have been some people that are able to compete like we thought they could," Cole said. "Kaluzny, Haberman and Velarde have been very solid early on."
Kaluzny comes to ASU from Yakima, Wash., where she ran for A.C. Davis all four years. Kaluzny turned in four top finishes her senior year as well as a 18:58.5 in the 5,000m run to earn her a 19th place finish at the WIAA 4A State Cross Country Championship.
Haberman, a valley local out of Highland High School in Gilbert, turns in her teal and black for maroon and gold. The three-time cross country letterman holds the school record in the 5,000m run with a time of 18:03.10. She holds the course record at the Ojo Rojo Invitational (18:40:00), Gilbert City Meet (18:31:00) and Sectionals (18:24:00). Haberman was also her school's track and field MVP from 2009-2012.
Velarde headed to the Valley of the Sun to become a Sun Devil from Rancho Mirage, Calif. The four-time letterman in cross country holds Marywood High School's 800m, 1,600m and 3,200m records.
Adding even more depth to the freshmen class are Marcella Cartledge and Adriana Olivas.
"Cartledge has a lot of bio-mechanical talents that we are focusing on developing. She is going to have a very successful collegiate running career," Cole said. "Adriana Olivas is someone that we brought in with a specific skill set. She is a fearless competitor and she's in to distance running."
Olivas was a second-team All-Foot Locker West Region athlete as a junior and is the two-time Big-8 League cross country champion and holds the Centennial High School (Corona, Calif.) records at 1,600m, 3,200m and 5,000m. She was the first of the ASU recruiting class and is the stereotypical Arizona State type of runner, Cole says.
"That whole group of freshmen girls can contribute but they are going to have some development curve their freshman year just like everybody does," Cole said. "I wouldn't be surprised to see some of those girls in our top seven by the end of the year."
The Sun Devils open the 2012 season on Saturday at the George Kyte Classic in Flagstaff, Ariz. A meet preview of the event will be available on Saturday on www.thesundevils.com.


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Latest News
Weekend Watch: June 28-30
Here's a quick whip-around the news in Carolina athletics. The Los Angeles Clippers made Reggie Bullock the 25th pick in last night's NBA Draft. New Clippers coach Doc Rivers said the team n…
Bullock joins the LA Clippers
[View the story "NC to LA " on Storify]
Fastballs Keep the Heels Alive
[View the story "Diamond Heels Eliminate NCSU" on Storify]
Weekend Watch: June 21-23
Well, it's the weekend. The NBA Finals are done, and that means you can focus on Omaha and the Diamond Heels. Jeffrey Hobbs Johnson was outstanding for the Tar Heels last night, tossing 8.1 i…
Weekend Watch: June 14-16
The Diamond Heels are on the ground in Omaha and ready to compete in their sixth College World Series in the last eight years. Before I take to the air myself, I wanted to share some links wit…
College World Series Fan Guide
June 13th: Team Send-Off From Chapel Hill 9:00 a.m.: Arrive at Boshamer Stadium to send the Diamond Heels off to Omaha. Chapel Hill Sportswear will be on site selling College World Seri…
Chapel Hill Super Regional Winners
[View the story "Omaha Bound" on Storify]
Weekend Watch: June 7-9
Baseball is set to begin play with NCAA Super Regionals this weekend against South Carolina. Game One is scheduled for 1 p.m. Friday, but Tropical Storm Andrea may have other plans. An announc…


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Coupling Injury: When Faith Irritation is Only Beginning
Most men have heard a story about a horrible coupling session that causes more than a few sore muscles and some aggravation. Actually, many men have handled various clutch-related injuries of his time. Though the worst of the worst is quite rare (such as a broken member who feels horrified), there are some injuries that may not be considered men until it is too late. So, as part of the care of responsible members, one must know all the wrong things – and how to avoid the potentially painful intimate wounds. Coupling Injury: When Faith Irritation is Only Beginning
Decrease in clutch injury
Though the broken member is everyone's nightmare, fortunately the incident is very rare. These other injuries, however, are a bit more common.
1. Bruised sacks. This is sometimes the result of overzealous cowboy action, which usually ends with a pounding enthusiasm – and not just the annoyance that can happen. The sacks can feel pain, bruises and swelling. In most cases, a little time and maybe some ice can help reduce it, but for serious injuries, the sack may need to be dried – and that certainly is not a pleasant situation.
2. Cracked skin. Yes, enough to make people cringe. This is why lubricants are a great thing. Both partners can experience serious irritation, redness and even tear on the skin if there is not enough lube to keep things running smoothly. For a man, it can extend to a torn skin in a sack or member, which can take time to heal and can even invite infection.
3. Torn abs. One night of happiness is quite physical, and it takes some serious core power. But a night that is too intense or suddenly moving in the wrong direction can lead to torn muscles. No one sneezes – this is a painful injury that makes a man look at a star. To avoid this, be careful when trying new positions that look a bit too athletic even for the most agile men though.
4. Classic Hernia. When a man lifts something too heavy, does not lift it properly, or else puts up a groin area, he can wind up with a hernia. Although some hernias are not painful, some are torturing – and a man does not know which one he will get until the moment he gets them. To avoid a hernia, avoid lifting your partner. Maintaining a healthy weight can also help avoid a hernia.
Heart attack. No, the old story about a heart attack while inside a sack is not a myth. Think of it: Combine the level of excitement and prolonged physical activity, and add a little bit of poor cardiovascular health, and maybe lack of normal exercise, and serious problems in brewing. If everything seems too tight, call back a bit – and know the signs of a heart attack. Do not hesitate to ask for emergency help if any of these signs occur when being agile. Coupling Injury: When Faith Irritation is Only Beginning
Although these injuries may sound scary, the good news is that they are relatively rare and likely will not happen. The most common clutch injuries, so far, are the cruel annoyance and redness – and that can be handled easily with the fantastic male organ health creme (health professionals recommend Man 1 Man Oil, which is clinically proven to be mild and safe for the skin). Smart people will reach for a crème that contains vitamin C, known for helping skin elasticity, and vitamin D, which works to improve cellular function. But the most important ingredients for clogged members are Shea butter and vitamin E, both of which are proven to soothe and heal even the most delicate skin. Coupling Injury: When Faith Irritation is Only Beginning


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Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 Design Standard EN-RU
Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 Design Standard EN-RU
Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 Design Standard EN-RU | 3.67 GB
Title: Adobe ? Creative Suite ? 5.5 Design Standard
Program Version: CS5.5
Developer: ? Adobe Systems Incorporated
Language: English & Russian
The software package Adobe ? Creative Suite ? 5.5 Design Standard includes tools, industry-standard digital image editing, vector graphics creation and development of models of high-quality printed materials with elegant typography. Create not only printed projects, but also a dynamic e-books and digital documents in which a variety of interactive features combined with the high quality inherent in the traditional press.
The package:
Photoshop ? CS5.1 Extended
Illustrator ? CS5.1
InDesign ? CS5.5
Acrobat ? X Pro
Bridge CS5.1
Device Central CS5.5
Integration with online services, CS Live
New features Design Standard
Folio Producer tools in InDesign
Create original digital journals and other documents containing the attractive elements, such as panorama, designed for a variety of tablet devices. Export them to the software Adobe Digital Publishing Suite3 for further production and distribution.
Improved authoring of e-books * in InDesign
Independently create a more attractive electronic books. Use the integrated process of creating documents EPUB, including advanced typography and images are automatically scaled to virtually any screen. Now you can add video and sound devices for reading electronic books with video and audiotegov HTML5.
* InDesign uses the code EPUB3 and HTML5 to create electronic books with recordings, videos and other advanced features. Presentations EPUB3 and HTML5, playback of media content and support for double byte characters (in languages ??such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean) may not be available in certain devices, browsers and devices for reading e-books EPUB.
Master Acrobat Pro in action
Automation of routine operations with multi-level PDF files in Adobe Acrobat ? X Pro has become easier. Master action directs the process of creating the "action" - an automated sequence of steps that can be applied to a single PDF file or batch file.
Effective delivery of documents accessible
Use advanced features InDesign CS5.5 and Acrobat X Pro to create publications that meet the standards of Section 508 and WCAG 2.0. Use optimized functions Accessibility InDesign CS5.5, and then check, adjust and correct the documents accessible PDF in Acrobat X Pro.
System Requirements
Processor Intel ? Pentium ? 4 or AMD Athlon ? 64
Microsoft ? Windows ? XP with Service Pack 3; Windows Vista ? Home Premium, Business, Ultimate, or Enterprise with Service Pack 2 or Windows 7
At least 1 GB of RAM
7.7 GB free hard disk space for installation, additional free space required during installation (can not install on removable flash storage devices)
Screen resolution of 1024x768 (recommended 1280x800), video card with support for OpenGL, hardware acceleration and 16-bit color, 256 MB VRAM
Some GPU-accelerated features require graphics support for Shader Model 3.0 and OpenGL 2.0
To use certain features Adobe Bridge requires a video card that supports DirectX 9 and memory capacity of at least 64 MB
DVD-ROM drive with dual-layer DVD-ROM drive
Software QuickTime 7.6.2, required for multimedia features
Software Adobe Flash ? Player 10 for export SWF files
Broadband Internet connection required for online services and test Subscription Edition (optional) on a permanent basis *
The procedure for treatment
1) Set the "trial"
2) Open the hosts file:
% Windir% \ system32 \ drivers \ etc \ hosts
3) Add the following line:
127.0.0.1 activate.adobe.com
# Localhost name resolution is handled within DNS itself.
# 127.0.0.1 localhost
#:: 1 localhost
127.0.0.1 activate.adobe.com
4) Save the file hosts
5) Generate a serial
6) Run any application of this package and enter the generated serial number
Important! Installation and product activation Adobe should be made with disabled access to the Internet and antivirus software, as well as after editing the hosts file it is desirable to restart the PC.
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Former justice: AGs' health care bill lawsuit has "little chance of success"
Update: Suthers' office now has responded below to Dubofsky's statement.
Former Colorado Supreme Court Justice Jean Dubofsky says Attorney General John Suthers is wasting his time and taxpayers' money by joining a lawsuit challenging the health care reform bill passed by Congress.
Suthers, a Republican, and 11 other state attorneys general, only one of whom is a Democrat, joined in a lawsuit earlier this week challenging the health care bill's insurance mandate for all Americans. Separately, another Republican attorney general filed suit against the bill.
Jean Dubofsky, a former Colorado Supreme Court justice appointed by Democratic Gov. Dick Lamm, says Suthers and his legal brethren in other states are all wet.
"I believe that the lawsuit stands little chance of success," Dubofsky said in a statement released today by the liberal Bell Policy Center, whose board she heads.
"First, there is a significant question whether state attorneys general have standing to challenge the new law, especially when many of its provisions have not yet gone into effect. Second, Congress has the power – under both the Commerce Clause and the power to tax – to impose and enforce a requirement that citizens have health insurance.
"Health care, which now comprises about one-sixth of our national economy, has an enormous impact on interstate commerce, and regulation of the means to pay for health care is within the federal government's authority. All individuals who do not have health insurance are a potential burden on all others who have purchased coverage: When the individual without insurance needs health care and cannot afford it, the cost of providing that health care in a hospital emergency room is transferred to those who have insurance, causing their insurance bills to increase.
"In addition, enforcement of the requirement will be through a tax administered by the Internal Revenue Service. The attorneys general allege that the tax is unapportioned among the states and is unrelated to any taxable event.
"To the contrary, the mechanism chosen by Congress to enforce the requirement of health insurance is not unusual. For example, the enforcement mechanism is similar to that used to enforce child-support payments. If a non-custodial parent has failed to make child-support payments, the amount of the arrears can be withheld by the IRS from the non-custodial parent's tax refund. Failure to make child-support payments often means that the child becomes a burden on federal and state taxpayers through the welfare system."
Suthers' office responded to Dubofsky in a statement:
"Justice Dubofsky references in her statement all the merits of the individual mandate and Congress' health care overhaul. We do not dispute that it would be preferable for all Americans to have health insurance. Our issue — and the only issue — we have raised concerns the constitutionality of the individual mandate.
"The U.S. Constitution at its core is a document that limits the power of the federal government. In fact, it only allows Congress to act within the enumerated powers set forth in the document. All other powers not given to Congress are expressly left to the states and their people. One of Congress' enumerated powers is the authority to regulate interstate commerce. So, for example, Congress can regulate the sale or purchase of health insurance to the extent their actions affect interstate commerce.
"But the Patient Protection and Affordability Health Care Act steps far beyond the current understanding of Congress' power under the Commerce Clause. For the first time in history Congress has used the commerce power to regulate people who choose not to engage in commercial activity. Specifically, the federal health care legislation penalizes residents in the United States who choose not to purchase a product or service, in this case health insurance.
"Congress also is limited in its ability to use its tax power when such a tax in not apportioned based on either an equitable apportionment between the states or based on an economic activity, such as when you receive a paycheck from your employer. Taxing people who decline to have health insurance in the manner proscribed in the Patient Protection and Affordability Health Care Act does not comply with Congress' authority. For example, the courts have underlined the fact that direct taxes without apportionment are unconstitutional – Bromley v. McCaugh. 280 U.S. 124, 136 (1929) – and that taxes may not be so coercive as to compel individuals to take a particular action – South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U.S. 203, 211 (1987).
"We believe the arguments we and our bipartisan peers will present in the Northern District of Florida are very valid, and we look forward to the court's analysis of these important constitutional questions."


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A lawsuit accuses the Giants of creating fake "game-worn" memorabilia and pushing it on collectors in an attempt to make money—and in Eli Manning's case, to hang on to the authentic stuff.
According to the suit, which you can read below, members of the Giants staff—including the locker room manager and equipment manager—would regularly distress jerseys and helmets to make them appear used, and sell them as the real deal. One of those fakes, the lawsuit claims, is a helmet supposedly worn by Manning in the 2008 Super Bowl that now sits in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The suit was brought by collector/dealer Eric Inselberg, and there's a backstory here.
Inselberg was indicted in 2011 for memorabilia fraud for selling bogus used sport jerseys from teams.
But federal prosecutors in Rockford, Ill., dropped all the charges in May 2013, telling the judge that "prosecution was no longer appropriate in light of some new facts that were pointed out to us by defense counsel."
The case was jettisoned two days after Inselberg's defense lawyers told the court that Giants staffers had lied to the grand jury that indicted him about their relationship with him, in a bid to cover up for the team's own fake-memorabilia sales.
Inselberg alleges that the Giants staff and its dry cleaner would scuff up helmets and even take scissors to jerseys, then sell them directly to collectors or through auctions by Steiner Sports, Manning's official memorabilia broker. Manning was aware of the scam, the suit claims, in one instance asking the equipment manager for a random old helmet, signing it, then putting it on the market as one he had worn in his rookie season.
The suit contains an email exchange between Inselberg and the equipment manager:
"Hey Joe, my buddy was offered an eli game used helmet and jersey. Are these the bs ones eli asked you to make up because he didnt want to give up the real stuff?" Inselberg writes in the exchange.
Skiba — replying from account "email@example.com" — writes, "BS ones, you are correct…"
The suit accuses the defendants—who include Manning and John Mara—of civil racketeering, breach of contract, trade libel, and malicious prosecution. The Giants have released a brief statement saying "the suit is completely without any merit whatsoever."


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by Brian DeCandia, sports information graduate assistant
MILLEDGEVILLE, Ga. – The Georgia College softball squad (8-10) split with the University of West Georgia Wolves (4-4) Wednesday night, losing the first 7-3 and taking the second 5-2.
The first game saw the Bobcats fall quickly after a five-run second inning by the Wolves. Nicole Yancey took a Haley Burnett (Columbus, Ga.) pitch opposite field for a grand slam as part of a five-run second.
The Bobcats struck back in the bottom half, scoring a run on a Natalie Bellantoni (Oviedo, Fla.) double into the left centerfield gap. Freshman Kristen Humphries (Columbus, Ga.) entered the game in the sixth and delivered a pinch-hit two-run double, but that was all the offense the Bobcats would see in game one.
The second contest turned out much better for the 'Cats as Sabrina Chandler (Covington, Ga.) threw a gem. Chandler went seven innings, surrendering only one earned run and recording eight strikeouts. After hitting the first-game slam, Yancey wouldn't see another pitch, being intentionally walked six times.
GC's Frankie Walls (Dahlonega, Ga.) drove in a pair, finishing 1-for-2 on the afternoon. Humphries also drove in another, finishing 2-for-4 at the dish with three RBI on the day.
Sophomore Whitney Okvist (Kennesaw, Ga.) swiped two more bags today, making her a perfect 22-for-22 on the season. Her 22 stolen bases place her fourth on the all-time single-season stolen base list. Okvist is only 11 away from taking over the No. 1 spot from Leigh Jacobs (1996). Okvist's 46 career stolen bases ranks fourth in school history, just one behind Nickie Black (2000-03).
The Bobcats kick off the conference season hosting Francis Marion University in a doubleheader Sunday, Feb. 26 set for a noon start.
The Georgia College Department of Athletics, two-time winners of the PBC Commissioner's Cup, sponsors 10 varsity athletic programs at the NCAA Division II level. As a Division II program, Bobcat Athletics prides itself on balancing the life of the student-athlete, evidenced by the teams' multiple appearances in post-season competition as well as documented academic success and community-service involvement. Sign up at www.twitter.com/BobcatSports and www.facebook.com/gcbobcats for up-to-the-minute reports, and visit www.GCBobcats.com for more information, and to nominate your favorite former Bobcats and Colonials to the GC Athletics Hall of Fame.


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Revista geológica de Chile
versión impresa ISSN 0716-0208
Rev. geol. Chile v.35 n.1 Santiago ene. 2008
Revista Geológica de Chile 35 (1): 105-121. January, 2008
Long-term denudation rates from the Central Andes (Chile) estimated from a Digital Elevation Model using the Black Top Hat function and Inverse Distance Weighting: implications for the Neogene climate of the Atacama Desert
Tasas de denudación de largo tiempo en los Andes Centrales, Chile, estimadas a partir de un modelo digital de elevación usando la función 'Top Hat' por cierre y la interpolación ponderada por el inverso de la distancia: implicancias del clima Neógeno del Desierto de Atacama
Rodrigo Riquelme1, José Darrozes2-, Eric Maire2, Gérard Hérail2,3, J. C. Soula2
1 Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Católica del Norte, Avda. Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile.
2 Laboratoire des Mécanismes et Transferís en Géologie, Université de Toulouse-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD)-Centre National de la Recherche identifique (CNRS), 14 avenue Edouard Belin, 31400, Toulouse, France. email@example.com; email@example.com; firstname.lastname@example.com; email@example.com
3 Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Chile, Plaza Ercilla 803, Santiago, Chile.
A methodology for determining long-term denudation rates from morphologic markers in a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is checked by a comparative study of two drainage basins in the PrecordiUera of the Central Andes. In both cases the initial configuration of an incised pediment surface has been restored by using two different methods: the Black Top Hat (BTH) function and the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation. Where vertical incision and hillslope erosion are recorded, the IDW appears to be the most adequate to reconstitute the pediment surfaces. Conversely, where only vertical incision is observed, the BTH describes more precisely the former pediment surfaces and it is easier to solve. By subtracting the DEM from the reconstructed marker we calculated an eroded volume, and estimated its uncertainty by considering Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and DEM grid error. For the last ~10 Myr we obtained long-term denudation rates of 7.33±1.6 m/Myr in the San Andrés drainage basin and 13.59±1.9 m/Myr in the El Salado drainage basin. These estimations are largely in agreement with other reported estimates of long-term denudation rates in the Atacama Desert. Comparison with long-term denudation rates reported in a wide range of climatic regimes suggests that our estimates cannot be explained by the current rainfall in the PrecordiUera. However they could be explained by a rainfall similar to that reported 40 km to the east in the Puna. This suggests that during the time span concerned the geomorphologic evolution of the study area, this evolution is dominated by an orographically controlled rainfall pattern. The preserved pediment surface and the small long term denudation rates determined in this study also indicate that the PrecordiUera was never reached by humid tropical air masses and precipitation as currently observed in the Altiplano during the summer months.
Keywords: Quantitative geomorphology DEM, Andes, Long-term denudation, Black Top Hat
Una metodología para determinar tasas de denudación de largo tiempo a partir de marcadores geomorfológicos obtenidos desde un Modelo Digital de Elevación (MDE), ha sido comprobada considerando un estudio comparativo de dos cuencas vertientes de la precordillera de los Andes Centrales. Para ambas cuencas, la configuración inicial de una superficie de pedimentación afectada por incisión, ha sido reconstruida usando dos métodos diferentes: la función 'Top Hat' por Cierre (THC) y la Interpolación Ponderada por el Inverso de la Distancia (IPID). Cuando se observa tanto incisión vertical como erosión de laderas, la IPID es más apropiada para reconstruir las superficies de pedimentación. Por el contrario, donde solo se observa incisión vertical, la THC describe con mayor precisión las superficies de pedimentación, y es de más fácil implementation. En este trabajo, se calculó un volumen erosionado por medio de la sustracción del MDE del marcador geomorfológico reconstruido, y se estimó su incertitud al considerar un Error Cuadrático Medio y un MDE representando una grilla de errores. Para los últimos 10 Myr se obtuvo tasas de denudación de largo tiempo de 7,33±1,6 m/Myr en la cuenca vertiente de San Andrés y de 13,59±1,9 m/Myr en la cuenca vertiente de El Salado. Estas estimaciones son similares a otras estimaciones de tasas de denudación de largo tiempo publicadas para el Desierto de Atacama. La comparación con valores de tasas de denudación de largo tiempo reportadas para un amplio rango de regímenes climáticos sugiere que estas estimaciones no pueden ser explicadas por las actuales tasas de precipitación de la Precordillera. Sin embargo, podrían ser explicadas por tasas de precipitación similares a aquellas actualmente imperantes 40 km al este, en la Puna. Esto sugiere que durante el lapso de tiempo concerniente a la evolución geomorfológica del área de estudio, esta evolución es dominada por el control orográfico de las precipitaciones. La preservación de superficies de pedimentación y los bajos valores de las tasas de denudación de largo tiempo determinadas en este estudio indican, por otra parte, que la Precordillera no fue afectada por precipitaciones y masas de aire húmedas tropicales como las que actualmente se observan en el Altiplano durante los meses de verano.
Palabras claves: Geomorfología cuantitativa, MDE, Andes, Denudación de largo tiempo, 'Top Hat'por Cierre.
1. Introduction
Denudation rates result from the interaction between the relative effects of erosion, tectonics and climate on landscape evolution. Knowledge of long-term denudation rates (100 ky to 10 Ma) and understanding the factors that control them are important for a number of reasons. They allow the description of the nature and rates of geomorphic processes that control landscape evolution. Realistic estimations of long-term denudation rates must be considered when interaction between tectonic and subaerial processes is explored, for instance, by using quantitative landscape evolution models (Ahnert, 1970; Beaumont et al., 1996; Howard, 1997; Whipple and Tucker, 1999; Coultard, 2001). Comparison of long-term denudation and uplift rates can also be used to establish the degree of equilibrium reached by the landscape (e.g., Meigs et al, 1999; Carretier and Lucazeau, 2005). Long-term denudation rates are a vital component of mass balances studies aimed at understanding the factors that perturb the global carbon budget and consequently influence global climate (Raymo et al., 1988; Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992). A knowledge of the long-term denudation rate and its comparison with the current sediment and solute yields of rivers, would allow discussion, for instance, of the relative impact of paraglacial sediment reworking (i.e., sediment reworking occurred after the Last Maximum Glacial Advance) or anthropogenic effects on the sediment delivery by rivers draining the northern and central Chilean Andes.
In order to quantify long-term denudation rates different methods have been applied, including: thermochronology (e.g., Maksaev and Zentilli. 1999), cosmogenic nuclide methods (i.e., Riebe et al., 2000), and determination of sediment and solute yields in a drainage basin (i.e., Probst and Suchet, 1992; Guyot, 1993). These methods require arduous and expensive analytical techniques, and they present discrepancies when comparing different spatial and temporal scales. Alternatively, whenages of relatively well preserved morphologic surfaces (e.g., pedimentation surface) are available, denudationratescanbeestimatedfromreconstruction of the surfaces in a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). In this way, the Black Top Hat (BTH) function was applied in order to estimate the incised volume in a river valley (Rodriguez et al., 2002).
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the benefit of the application of the BTH function to the estimation of the long-term denudation rates for rejuvenated topography (Fig. 1b-c). We use a DEM generated by interpolation of digitized contour lines of 1:50,000 topographic maps, resulting in a 40 m horizontal DEM resolution and a vertical error range of ±10 m. The BTH method is of limited use in some cases, notably where a smooth morphology representing a relict topography affected by current hillsope erosion is present (Fig. 1b). In this case, an alternative methodology for reconstructing morphologic surfaces, and consequently, estimating long-term denudation rates is proposed. We discuss the results obtained from the application of the BTH and the alternative method on two drainage basins located on the western slope of the Central Andes (Fig. 1a). We focus on the determination and propagation of the uncertainties associated with both the base-DEM used, and the morphologic reconstruction, in order to evaluate the uncertainties in the denudation rate.
Furthermore, we propose an objective and effective criterion to recognize if the BTH function should or should not be applied to the considered landscape. Finally, our denudation rates obtained will be compared to those estimated by other methods.
2. The test areas: the San Andrés and El Salado basins in the northern Chilean Andes
The studied basins are located in the Precor-dillera of northern Chile in the southern Atacama Desert, between26° and 28°S. (Fig. 1). In this region an arid climatic regime has been dominant since the Middle Miocene (Alpers and Brimhall, 1988; Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Nishiizumi et al, 2005) and the present hyperarid climate was established in the Late Pliocene (Hartley and Chong, 2002). These climate conditions are responsible for Neo-gene geomorphologic evolution of the study area and the formation of an extensive pedimentation surface (Atacama Pediplain of Sillitoe et al, 1968). This pedimentation surface occupies most of the topography of the El Salado and San Andrés Basins. K-Arages of 11.5±0.5 Ma, 9.5±0.5 Ma, 9.0±0.3 Ma (Sillitoe et al, 1967), 10.2±0.9 Ma (Cornejo et al, 1993)1 andaAr/Arage of 9.19±0.61 Ma(Riquelme et al, 2007) have been recorded in an ignimbrite deposit that covers the pedimentation surface in the Precordillera, between 26°-27°S. The ignimbrite level marks the end of the alluvial fan landscape infilling related to pedimentation processes and the beginning of the strong vertical incision (up to 800 m) that generated the current drainage basin systems (Mortimer, 1973; Riquelme et al., 2007). The interpreted evolution is corroborated by the exposure age of cobbles collected on alluvial fan surfaces that compose the Atacama Pediplain in the Precordillera: based on combined measurements of 10Be, 26Al, and 21Ne concentrations, Nishiizumi et al. (2005) proposed, an age of 9 Ma for the beginning of the incision of the Atacama Pediplain.
The vertical canyon incision is probably active today, but hillslope erosion related to headward propagation of the drainage is also observed. We have studied two drainage basins of the Atacama Desert which contain both the pedimentation surface and the ignimbrite level, the latter providing a good time constraint on the start of incision: (1) the San Andrés Basin, where canyon incision as well as hillslope erosion can be observed (Fig. 1b) and (2) the El Salado Basin, where only canyon incision took place (Fig. 1c).
The main structural system exposed in this region corresponds to the Domeyko Fault System (DFS). The last major deformational events accommodated by the DFS correspondió the Eocene-Early Oligocene Tncaic' tectonic phase, and are responsible for most of the important structures in the region (Cornejo and Mpodozis2, 1996; Tomlinson et al, 1994; Randall et al, 2001). The orientation and style of these structures control the distribution of the lithologic units and the shape of the El Salado and San Andrés Basins (Fig. 2). In the El Salado Basin, the DFS comprises the subvertical Sierra Castillo Fault (SCF) which juxtaposes Paleozoic batholithic rocks on the east against Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic sequences on the west. To the east, the east-vergent Potrerillos fold and thrust belt deforms primarily a Mesozoic platform carbonate and clastic sequence and is oriented parallel to the elongation of the El Salado Basin (Cornejo et al., 19931; Tomlinson et al, 1994) (Fig. 2). In the San Andrés Basin, the DFS exposes the moderately to steeply westdippingAguaAmargaFault (AAF) places the Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic sequences on the west over Paleocene-Eocene volcanic units on the east. This faultforms the western water divide of the San Andrés Basin. The north-eastern water divide exposes the Mesozoic carbonate and clastic sequence and coincides with a set of northwest-trending subvertical faults that belong to the DFS (Tomlinson et al, 1994; Randall et al, 2001).
3. Volume Estimation Methodologies
3.1. Top Hat Formalism and its limits
The Top Hat Transform function is a mathematical morphology function which allows peak and valley extraction in a ID signal and 2D image. Efficiency of the 'Top Hat' Transform was demonstrated by Meyer (1979) for Cytology applications. In geomorphology, this function was applied to a high-precision DEM as a relevant tool for estimating incision and the amount of material removed by recent fluvial erosion in a Pyrenean watershed (Rodriguez et al, 2002). The mathematical formulation is based on a set of mathematical morphology concepts presented in appendix A. This formulation is provided by a number of specialized software for landscape image processing.
A DEM is a grey-tone image where, normally, clear zones represent landscape regions of relatively higher elevations, whereas dark zones represent regions of relatively lower elevation. A DEM can be viewed as a function where f(x) represents the elevation (generally grey levels) in a pixel located at the coordinate x. Considering the elementary grey level mathematical morphology operations: let X a structuring element centred on x and y the considered point (pixel). The initial DEM (Fig. 3a) is transformed by dilation and erosion using the equations A8 and A9, respectively (see appendix A). Dilation of the DEM is presented for lengths of A. equal to 2 pixel (Fig. 3b) and L pixels (Fig. 3 c). The dilated DEM of figure 3c is then eroded for a length of X equal to L pixels, resulting in the image of figure 3d and 2e.
Dilation of the image f(x) to obtain the image of figure 3c, followed by erosion of the later resulting in the image of figure 3e, constitutes the closing transformation of the initial DEM for a structuring element X of length equal to L pixels (eq. A5 of appendix A). The closing transformation is commonly used to join clear zones (lightest grey levels) while the opening transformation (eq. A6 of appendix A) is used to separate them. The closing and opening transformations are the basis of the Top Hat Transform formalism. The Black Top Hat (BTH) transformation uses the closing procedure and is defined as follow:
It allows the extraction of valleys in a grey-tone level (elevation) image by subtraction of the image of closed valleys Cx (X) and the initial image f(x) (Fig. 3f). The transformation considers a size condition equal to the size L for a given structuring element X (Meyer, 1979) and a threshold t (Fig. 3g). The threshold value t allows the extraction of valleys without the topographic noise, which corresponds to the darkest grey-levels (Fig. 3h). Hence, only the information for the deepest valleys is kept (Rodriguez et al, 2002).
The application of the BTH function is based on the selection of the length L, which corresponds to the width of the valley to be extracted. In our case, the width corresponds to the greatest separation between pedimentation surfaces throughout the valleys for the entire basin. Therefore, a good reconstruction of the pedimentation surfaces can be achieved only if the hillslope gradients are high and if the inflection point between the preserved with a thresholding value oft surface and the hillslope is properly defined. This would be the case in a rejuvenated landscape with canyon formation. However, if the surface has low hillslope gradients, such as a preserved pedimentation surface, the determination of the length L is poorly defined due to the difficulty of identifying the inflection point.
It is important to note that hillslope erosion in the upper part of the basin can result in a larger separation of the pedimentation surfaces than those in the lower basin. Thus, considering the length of the structuring element as the separation of the remnant pedimentation surfaces in the lower basin, the altitude of the reconstructed surface, and consequently the eroded volume, will be underestimated where hillslope erosion is present (L=3040 m, Fig. 4 volume a^. Selecting as a length L the maximum separation between surfaces where erosion is present, then the altitude of the reconstructed surface and consequently the eroded volume, will be locally overestimated ( L=9,920 m, Fig. 4 volume a2). Since the BTH method, in this case, does not lead to a good reconstraction of the pedimentation surface where hillslope erosion is important, an alternative methodology for reconstructing geomorphologic surfaces that better fits this scenario is presented below.
3.2. Reconstruction of Geomorphologic Surface by Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW)
The reconstraction of the pedimentation surfaces is divided into three steps:
a)The first step is selection of points corresponding to the definition of a pedimentation surface (Viers, 1967). This comprises points that (i) have a local slope lower than 10°, in fact more generally 0-3° in the lower areas and up to 10° close to the mountains; (ii) belong to the mean area±RMS (root mean square) portion in the area versus altitudes histogram (Fig. 5a) and correspond to the constant level of the hypsometric curve (Fig. 5b) and (iii) do not belong to the present valley bottoms. Using these criteria it is possible to identify the set of points that comprise remnant pedimentation surfaces (Fig. 6b).
b) The second step is the interpolation of the points by the IDW method (Shepard, 1968; Fisher et al, 1987). To reconstruct the pedimentation surface, we have selected an Inverse Distance Weighting method. This is a simple algorithm that is designed to avoid the effects of interpolation that could distort the slope of the planated surface determined from the randomly selected points. Alternatively, its mathematical expression (eq. 2) could be considered the approximation of a planated surface (Fig. 7). The interpolation equation is as follows:
Where each Z(x,y) interpolated grid point is evaluated by considering the k-nearest neighbour point with grey-tone level Z. and distance d. from the current grid point being interpolated. C. is the confidence level that, considering the randomly selected point distribution, has been determined as follows: 100% confidence for the 8 neighbouring points, and 0% confidence for the rest.
c) The last step is the calculation of the eroded volume. The estimation of the eroded volume that allows us to calculate the long-term denudation rate is determined by subtracting the DEM from the reconstructed surface (Fig. 6c). In addition, we have also estimated the uncertainty in the eroded volume associated with both, the uncertainty inherent to the DEM (vertical error range of±10 m), and that of the surface reconstraction. An error grid was then generated for the reconstructed surface that allows us to associate with each pixel grey-level a corresponding grey-level error value (Fig. 6d). The final uncertainty in the volume estimation considers error in elevation associated with each pixel in the DEM (±10 m) and in the reconstructed surface.
In order to generate the error grid we calculated the difference between control points and the corresponding grey-level in the reconstructed surface. These differences are then interpolated to the entire basin by using a polynomial interpolation function. The control points correspond to a 5%-random sampling as explained in the following sectiom.
3.3. Comparison with the BTH
In order to compare the interpolated pedimentation surface with that obtained by the BTH function we used the concept of Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), it is expressed as:
Where Z(x,y) is an elevation point, i.e., the elevation point of the reconstructed pedimentation surface corresponding to Z: the 'true' known or measured test points and n is the number of sampled points. In order to obtain a set of statistically representative test points we have made a 5% random sampling in the remnant pedimentation surfaces for the DEM and both the ID W interpolated and the BTH calculated surfaces. We use a random sampling of 5% because it makes it possible to make a statistically reliable measurement of RMSE (more than 30 samples), and this sample density is also sufficiently precise to represent the correct geometry of the pedimentation surface.
4. Results
4.1. Determination of the present pedimentation surfaces
For San Andrés Basin. The area versus altitude histogram of the San Andrés Basin shows a single slightly low-altitude asymmetrical mode (Fig. 5a).
The hypsometric integral value I -i.e., the area under the hypsometric curve- is relatively low (Fig. 5b, 1=0.35) which represents a rather smoothed landscape surface (Strahler, 1952). By thresholding the altitudes of the DEM, it is possible to select the range of altitudes located between mean area ±Root Mean Square (RMS, Fig. 5a). These correspond essentially to remnant pedimentation surfaces but also include zones where hillslope erosion is present which is consistent with a relatively smoothed landscape surface. The other condition to define the pedimentation surface is a local slope less than 10°. From the DEM-extracted local slope image (Fig. 6a) it is possible to select only points where the slope angle is <10°. From this range of slope values and the range of threshold values we can obtain the points that constitute the remnant pedimentation surfaces (Fig. 6b).
For El Salado Basin. The area versus altitude histogram of El Salado is marked by an asymmetrical shape with a predominance of high altitudes (Fig. 5a). The hypsometric integral value is relatively high (Fig. 5b, 1=0.50) and can be interpreted as the result of a rejuvenated landscape surface (Strahler, 1954). In the El Salado Basin an older landscape surface (the pedimentation surface) is affected by strong vertical incision (the El Salado canyon). By thresholding the slope and the altitude of the DEM it is possible to observe that the low altitudes mainly correspond to the bottom of canyon and the high altitudes correspond to residual low sloping remnants of the pedimentation surface.
4.2. Comparison between the BTH and IDW methods
We can demonstrate the efficiency of these methods and their limits by the analysis of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) obtained by both methods. This analysis combined with the morphology of the basin will allow determination of of the method best adapted to a given morphology.
For the San Andrés Basin the minor RMSE (-22 m) for the BTH application is obtained when an L=3040 is used (Table 1), whereas a RMSE =5 m was obtained for the IDW surface. From the morphological point of view the San Andrés Basin is characterized by a smoothed morphology corresponding to a mature watershed (Strahler, 1952). The morphology of the catchment results from vertical incision of remnant pedimentation surface affected by important hillslope erosion. This type of catchment is easily identifiable either by field analysis or by the hypsometric integral which has a relatively low value (Fig. 5b, 1=0.35).
For the El Salado Basin, the RMSE results are inverted (see Table 1); in this case the RMSE for the IDW surface (-20 m) is twice that obtained by the BTH method (-9 m). From the geomorpho-logical viewpoint the catchment corresponds to a pedimentation surface affected only by strong vertical incision, i.e., reincised by deep canyons with little hillslope erosion. This erosional reactivation is marked by a relatively high hypsometric integral (Fig. 5b, 1=0.5).
4.3. Eroded volumes and uncertainties
For San Andrés Basin. The volume determined by the BTH method, for the smallest radius (L=3040, Table 1), is 30% greater than that determined by the IDW method. One can note as well that the error due to the BTH method is about five times higher than that of the IDW method. Figure 7 clearly shows the cause of these differences: while the profile of the interpolation using IDW is very close to the morphological marker (DEM profile) that of the BTH displays a very marked stair effect consistently located above the two other profiles. For the San Andrés Basin, the IDW reconstruction better fits this smoothed landscape surface (Fig. 5b, 1=0.35) where hillslope erosion is important.
For El Salado Basin. The volume evaluated by interpolation of the pediments (-29 km3) is slightly smaller than that evaluated by the BTH function (-32 km3). However, the error due to the BTH application is half that using the IDW interpolation method (Table 1). This suggests that where the incised surface approximates a simple inclined plane with a localized canyon incision that narrows upstream, the BTH method is more accurate than the IDW method.
Determinations of eroded volumes (EV), average denudations (AD=eroded volume/basin area), accuracy (Ac) and root mean square error (RMSE) for the San Andrés and the El Salado basins. The accurancy for the 'Top Hat' application is determined by about 80 m of imprecision in the selection of the structuring element.
4.4. Long-term denudation rates
To determine the long-term denudation rates we used the methodbest adapted to morphology i.e., the ID W eroded volume for the San Andrés watershed, and the BTH eroded volume forthe El Salado Basin. Uncertainties in the eroded volume have been calculated by error propagation considering the error grid previously discussed. Final uncertainties in the long-term denudation rate during the last 10 Myr are determined by considering the average of the eroded volume uncertainties and by averaging the uncertainties associated with the published ages of the ignimbrite that seals the pedimentation surface.
The results are presented in Table 2: one can see that the denudation rate of the San Andrés Basin (~7 m/Myr) is half that of the El Salado Basin (-14 ml Myr), despite the basins being located adjacent to each other and having a similar relief and altitudes. Consequently, similar climate conditions can be supposed in both basins during the time span of basin denudation. Because no fault movements occur in these basins at this time they can not be invoked to explain the differences in the denudation rates (see above). Denudation rates and the factors controlling them depends on the drainage area of the basin; the denudation rate normally increasing with the size of the drainage area. Conversely, the San Andrés Basin (~1000 km2) has a greater drainage area than the El Salado Basin (~250 km2). The calculated long-term denudation rates from the erodedvolume consider all the erosion components. The San Andrés Basin is characterized mainly by hillslope erosion, probably related to diffusive erosion processes of low intensity, which explains the weak denudation rate. The El Salado Basin has more intense erosion with stronger vertical incision. The understanding of the factors that control the difference in the erosive capacity between both basins is beyond the scope of this paper. However, this difference is most likely related to local factors such as differences in the lithology or the pre-Neogene tectonic configuration of the basins.
5. Discussion
In order to make comparisons with data collected by other methods certain remarks must be made. Our estimate of denudation rates considers all the erosion components that affect a pediment surface, and is based on the assumption that this pediment surface has remained stable during the last ~ 10 Myr. This assertion has recently been corroborated on the basis of combined measurements of cosmogenic 10Be, 2<A1 and 21Ne, exposure ages Nishiizumi et al. (2005). These authors propose an age of 9 Ma and a maximum erosion rates <0.1 m/Myr on this surface. Thus, ourestimates represent the overall denudation rate of the basins.
An important parameter in the long term erosion rate is the climate. We have compared the study region where the rainfall is about 40 mm/ yr (Betancourt et al, 2000) to the Sierra Nevada (California) where 2 to 3 orders of magnitude more rainfall is recorded (200-1800 mm/y, Riebe et al., 2000). However, in the Sierra Nevada the erosion rates are only two to three times larger than those registered in the study region (Riebe et al, 2000). Thus, even if the climatic conditions are very different we maintain comparable erosion rates. This indicates that in the study region other factors besidestheclimatedeterminetheerosionrates. Some 1000 km to the north of the study area, an important factor controlling the east-west variation of the Pliocene denudation rates along the Andean forearc is the orographically controlled pattern of rainfall (Kober et al., 2007). We propose that this orographic control also dominates the geomorphologic evolution and the long-term denudation rates in our study area. Indeed, the rainfall is about 130 mm/yr at the Salar de Pedernales east of the study area (Risacher et al, 1998)3 (Fig.1); this greater rainfall being responsible for the runoff that allows the erosion to the west. Because erosion that gives rise to the current drainage basin systems begins at-10 Ma (Riquelme et al, 2007), the influence of orographically controlled rainfall has dominated the landscape evolution at least for the last ~ 10 Ma. An orographically controlled rainfall pattern as a main factor affecting the Neogene geomorphologic evolution canbe also proposed from the distribution and chronology of the supergene enrichment in the study area (Bissig and Riquelme, 2007).
Some 300 km to the north of our study area, in the central part of Atacama Desert, an average erosion rate of 7 m/Myr for the past 18 Myr was estimated (Scholl et al., 1970). The average erosion rate results from the estimation of the sediment volume in the Central Depression originating from the Andes range and deposited above an 18 Myr reference surface. Thus, this estimate also integrates all the erosion components. Near the Escondida mine (24°15'S), at the foot of the Precordillera, a maximum erosion rate of 9.5 m/Myrforthe past 8.7 Myr was proposed by Alpers and Brimhall (1988). Despite the differences in the time span, these authors determine equivalent long-term denudation rates. Therefore, our proposed erosion rates for the San Andrés and the El Salado basins are largely in agreement with other reported estimates in the Atacama Desert. However, in the Precordillera and Western Cordillera of northern Atacama Desert -at latitude 18°S- long term denudation rates range up to 46 m/Myr during the Pliocene have been reported (Kober et al, 2007). Such great values in the denudation rates are related to a greater rainfall (up to 300 mm/yr) which, is due to the influx of the humid tropical air masses in the summer from the east (e.g., Amman et al, 2001). At present, a sharp decrease in the seasonality and intensity of rainfall from N to south is recorded for the Precordillera between -22 to 24°S (Betancourt et al., 2000). Therefore, our denudation rates suggest that the geomorphologic evolution of the study area was never affected by significant rainfall related to the humid tropical air masses, probably because they never extended as far south as latitude 26°S during the last-10 Myr.
6. Conclusions
We have compared the use of BTH and IDW methods to estimate the long-term denudation rates for two drainage basins in the Central Andes: (1) the San Andrés and (2) the El Salado basins. In the San Andrés Basin, erosion leads to smoothed hillslopes with relatively low gradients. The selection of length L of the BTH function is thus very uncertain and can lead to non-realistic reconstructions. The IDW interpolation of these surfaces constitutes a more valuable approach when the selection of the values to be interpolated is appropriate. Considering the San Andrés case, the RMSE in the IDW reconstruction is only 22% of the minor error generated by the BTH reconstruction (L=3040 m, Table 1). The volumes calculated by the BTH function exceeds those calculated by IDW interpolation, although local underestimates are obtained for the smaller L. The IDW reconstruction considers the slope tendency of the preserved surface and generates surfaces that better approximate the pedimentation surface. The BTH function always generates flat surfaces which, in the case of a pedimentation surface, overestimates the real paleo-surface altitude. Therefore, we consider that the IDW interpolation generates a more realistic estimation of the eroded volume.
In contrast, in the El Salado Basin the volume estimated by using interpolation is similar to that of the Top Hat method. The application of the BTH is successful because the incised valleys narrow upstream which allows a good and rapid selection of the lengthL. Infact, the El Salado Basin displays an unusual landscape where two particular, and not necessarily frequent, characteristics are associated: a well defined incision and a good preservation of paleo-surfaces. These unusual characteristics are well recorded in the hypsometric curve of the basin, and the hypsometric curve and the hypsometric integral provide a useful quick-look estimate of which function is applicable (Fig. 4).
Since DEM errors propagate uncertainties when we rebuild paleo-surfaces, the construction of a grid error for the reconstructed surfaces allows the location of the uncertainties in our interpolated surface and its distribution in the landscape. The resulting volume has uncertainties derived from the DEM and the paleo-surface errors. The precision of our long term denudation rate is improved because it integrates these errors plus errors due to dating measurements.
The long term erosion rates obtained are in good agreement with those of other authors. The methods applied in this study allow a quick and precise estimation of long-term denudation rates and their uncertainties. Furthermore, these methods provide reliable measurements in zones where direct measurement is impossible, or the measurement is expensive in terms of time and energy. They are applicable on landscapes characterized by large incised catchments where a reconstruction of paleosurfaces is possible, as that widely present in the Chilean Central Andes.
Finally, after comparing our long-term denudation rates with those reported from other localities of the Atacama Desert and Sierra Nevada (California), we suggest that the denudation rates cannot be attributed to the current levels of rainfall, but may be explained by greater rainfall amounts as recorded to the east. This suggests that the geomorphologic evolution is dominated by an orographically controlled rainfall pattern which has affected the region at least for the last ~10 Myr. On the other hand, the low denudation rates and the preservation of remnants of the ~10 Ma pediment surface suggests that the study area was never affected by rainfall greater than recorded currently in the Precordillera at the latitude of Arica (18°S) which likely is associated to humid tropical air masses.
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2 Cornejo, R; Mpodozis, C. 1996. Geología de la Región de Sierra Exploradora (Cordillera de Domeyko, 25°-26°S). Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería-CODELCO, Informe Registrado IR-96-09, 330 p. Santiago, Chile.
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This research was supported by the Institute de Recherche pour le Développement, IRD, France and the ECOS-CONICYT collaboration Project (France-Chile): 'Modelamiento del comportamiento termo-mecánico y de la evolución geomorfológica del ante-arco del norte de Chile desde el Neógeno'. T. Bissig (Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile) is warmly thanked for the help with the English language and useful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. We are grateful to A. Hartley and J. Malavieille, as well as to an anonymous reviewer for constructive suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript.
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Manuscript received: March 16, 2007; accepted: September 03, 2007.
Mathematical morphology concepts
Set operation: The two basic operations in mathematical morphology are dilatation and erosion (Serra, 1988; Coster and Chermant, 1989). These operations involve the interaction between a set λ representing the image under study and a set A., called the structuring element, used to probe the image A. Let .4 and λ be subsets of a 2D plane.
The image A and structuring element B need not be restricted to sets in the 2D plane, but could be defined in 1, 2, 3 or higher dimensions. On the other hand, B could be any shape. However, in order to simplify our explanation we consider the example where A is a rectangle and λ. is a disc of radius R centred on the origin (Fig. A1). (Note that in this case λ. is symmetric and [λ] = λ). Thus, the definitions become very intuitive: dilation expands an image object (Fig. A1a) and erosion shrinks it (Fig. A11b).
Applications of morphological transformations: Dilation and erosion canbe used in series to define two images transformations: closing and opening. The closing of .4 by λ is given by the dilation by λ, followed by the erosion by λ. Conversely, the opening is produced by the erosion of A by k, followed by the dilation by λ. That is
Opening smooths a contour in an image, breaking narrow isthmuses and eliminating thin protrusions. It is obtained by taking the union of all translates of λ that fit inside A. Parts of λ that are smaller than λ are removed (Fig. A2a). Closing tends to narrow smooth sections of contours, fusing narrow breaks and long thin gulfs, eliminating small holes, and filling gaps in contours (Fig. A2b).
Equivalence between Sets and Functions: A function canbe viewed as a stack of decreasing sets. Each set is the intersection between the umbra of the function and a horizontal plane h.
Dilation and Erosion by aflat structuring Element: The dilation (erosion) of a function by a flat structuring element λ is introduced as the dilation (erosion) of each set Xvh(f) by λ. This definition leads to the following formulae:
Erosion shrinks positive peaks. Peaks thinner that the structuring element disappear. It also expands the valleys and the sinks. Dilation produces dual effects.


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