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Hunger, health, and society
Nutrition intervention and evaluation: A call for reflection-in-action
William D. Drake, Roy 1. Miller, and Donald A.
Community Systems Foundation, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
Largely as a result of a comprehensive analysis of community-level nutrition programmes, an analysis supported by the Office of Nutrition of the United States Agency for International Development (1), Community Systems Foundation has become a strong advocate of a new and imaginative approach to both the conduct of health/nutrition programmes and their evaluation. Called "reflection-in-action" (R-I-A), this approach calls for the regular and rapid analysis of quantitative data generated routinely during the course of an intervention for the purpose of sharpening and/or modifying programme design elements as well as improving the quality of programme implementation. The data should include indicators of impact as well as measurements of the performance of the service delivery system. The analysis must be carried out with the aid of (or entirely by) practitioners with intimate knowledge of field conditions and, therefore, the ability to discern potential competing explanations for observed trends in the indicators, and to articulate the arguments supporting or refuting those explanations.
This paper examines some of the far-reaching policy implications of R-I-A. To set the stage, we begin by summarizing the observations and deductions that led us to formulate R-I-A as a method of intervention and a methodology for evaluation. Then we will describe the features of R-I-A as suggested by those observations and deductions. Further clarification of R-I-A is provided by an example of a partial application of the methodology in an evaluation of the P. L. 480 Title II supplementary feeding programme in Sri Lanka. The balance of the paper is devoted to a discussion of the policy implications that must be considered in conjunction with any serious effort to implement R-I-A.
The arguments underlying our commitment to R-I-A have been presented in considerable detail elsewhere (2). Rather than repeat those arguments in full here, we will summarize them briefly.
We assert that the social and environmental setting for the typical nutrition intervention-one that spans years-is in constant turmoil. The ever-present changes in this intervention milieu are unpredictable and often unique to a given intervention. Two distinct consequences of this non-constant setting for intervention are:
- the best method for attacking a particular problem in a community will change over time in response to changes in the local environment and/or social setting, and
- traditional methods of evaluating the impact of a particular programme- methods based on sound experimental design-will falter because of the inability to hold all the necessary factors constant and/or the inability to account for those factors known to vary over time.
Let us first consider the failure of rigorous experimental practice in nutrition evaluation. The results of an evaluation based on experimental and/or quasi-experimental design are deemed credible only if four conditions are met:
(i) Controls-Groups of matched subjects, insulated from all changes other than those due to a specified treatment, must be defined and maintained throughout the intervention.
(ii) Pre-design of experimental conditions - Factors likely to confound the analysis must be identified before the intervention begins to direct data collection activities and, thereby, to enable subsequent statistical analysis to account for their effects.
(iii) Constancy of experimental conditions - All conditions must be kept constant (except, perhaps, those identified for consideration in the subsequent statistical analysis), especially those pertaining to the delivery of service throughout the intervention.
(iv) Separation of practice from research-Analysts must be removed from the interveners and the intervention itself to maintain objectivity in their subsequent review of the data.
Difficulties in maintaining the first three of these conditions give rise to competing explanations for observed quantitative changes in variable factors thought to measure programme impact. For example, if a group receiving food supplements shows greater positive change in nutritional status over a year's time than the control group, but also lives in a community enjoying a better local harvest than the controls', the change in nutritional well-being might be attributed with equal confidence to the harvest or the supplement.
Whole classes of competing explanations in the absence of rigorously maintained experimental conditions have been catalogued and discussed; some classes cast doubt on the generalizability of the conclusion in other contexts (3). In the nutrition field, more prominent plausible explanations for shifts in the overall nutritional status of a population, particularly of preschoolers, include the entry and exit of subjects from the groups over time, age differences between the groups, natural phenomena, such as localized droughts or disease epidemics, and economic changes unrelated to the intervention. With regard to the fourth condition, defining satisfactory experimentation, failure to separate the research from practice casts doubt on analytically drawn conclusions either because of the alleged Hawthorne effect or the presumed bias of the analyst.
Many published evaluation studies do not fully articulate these alternative explanations. There is an unfortunate proclivity to attribute trends in impact indicators to the presence of the programme without complete exploration of other, equally plausible causes for those trends. In our review of community-level nutrition programmes and in subsequent work on the evaluation of large-scale nutrition interventions delivering service at the community level, we emphasized the search for plausible alternatives because the conditions for credible experimentation were not fully met. At best, we could point to a change in the nutritional status of a population and enumerate a variety of other factors that may have contributed to that change; for example, changes in the make-up of the target populations, inherent differences between controls and treated populations, changes in the economy or unpredictable changes in environmental factors, such as climate or water availability. In most cases, through exhaustive statistical analysis, we were able to cast doubt on the plausibility of many of the competing explanations of the observed changes, but in no case were we able to prove to our satisfaction that changes were, in fact, due exclusively to the intervention.
The inability to meet the conditions for credible experimentation is not unique to nutrition interventions -most social interventions are equally ill-suited to classical models of experimentation. However, three problems specific to nutrition intervention in the developing world contributed to the indeterminacy of our own analyses of community-level nutrition programmes:
(i) Dirty data. Practices of data collection, storage, and processing were defined and implemented with inadequate care. Therefore, the quantitative data generated during each intervention were often inaccurate or internally inconsistent (or both).
(ii) Inadequate measurement Owing to the complex aetiology of malnutrition, it is particularly difficult to invent a measurement (or set of measurements) that will accurately reflect all aspects of the disease. Although still the best source of nutritional status measurement, anthropometry is imperfect and has certain characteristics that contribute to misleading results when reviewed using traditional analytic methodologies. Specifically, the results of most analyses of anthropometric data are, in part, dependent on the reference standard and classification scheme used in defining nutritional deficiency. Also, each of the various anthropometric measurements reflects a different aspect of undernutrition and responds differently to intervention.
(iii) Inadequate data. Because we interacted with interventions from a distance, both in time and geographically, we could not generate sufficient timely, situation-specific data that would have permitted better discrimination among competing explanations for changes in nutritional status indicators.
In fairness, we must point out that most of the case studies subjected to our own careful scrutiny were not conceived of as experiments. Rather, they were interventions designed to achieve humanitarian goals. However, we believe that over the long time-frame of most interventions, even those designed and implemented as experiments according to the four features described earlier, the same indeterminacies will emerge. A review of the literature on interventions conducted for research purposes supports this belief, as does our own work where the more carefully defined interventions (in terms of experimental design) proved to be as indeterminate with regard to impact as those done purely for the purpose of helping those most in need.
The reasons for the failure to meet the conditions of sound experimental practice, particularly those as" sociated with the changing environment and service delivery system, account, in part, for the failure of many intervention designs. The design that appears to be best at one point in time may need modification as various conditions in a community change. Thus, when implemented, a well-conceived design may fail to produce the hoped for responses. Paradoxically, an approach that meets with success in a community may also require modification because of that success. Once some behavioural change is embedded in a community or some modification of the infrastructure is completed, the interveners must move on to attack other aspects of the situation creating the problem of malnutrition.
In response to the need for dynamic planning and implementation in nutrition intervention and, independently, the need for methods of evaluation other than those dependent on rigorous application of the features of experimental design, we urge the nutrition community to consider an alternative style of intervention, Reflection-in-Action.
R-I-A calls for the rapid and frequent analysis of quantitative data by those with the maximum knowledge of the conditions existing during an intervention. This knowledge, subjective though it may be, facilitates the proper interpretation of trends in the data. In turn, proper interpretation leads to modification of the programme, the data collection system (to substantiate hypotheses raised by routine analyses), or the procedures of analysis. In a broader sense, R-I-A can be thought of as more than a built-in system of self-evaluation as suggested here. As a method of learning from social intervention, R-I-A denies the proposition that constant and unchanging laws govern events in social systems. The unique nature of every social situation requires the reformulation of laws and the relationships between actors and objects in a system given that unique situation. Prior experience, interpreted correctly, serves as the "model" for such reformulation. However, it is necessary, under R-I-A, for the intervener to maintain a constant dialogue with his situation, a dialogue that will result in profound changes in that situation as well as basic changes in the image of the situation (and its problems) held by the intervener (4).
We can identify six features of R-I-A:
1. Explicit Specification of the Framework Underlying the Intervention Strategy. R-I-A calls for the definition of a "model of the local nutrition system" to guide the design of an appropriate initial intervention as well as the design of the data-gathering and analysis system. The model itself should be flexible and subject to change in response to lessons learned through analysis during the intervention.
2. Continuous Monitoring of Both Data-Gathering Procedures and Intervention Strategies. To implement R-I-A, a data collection and analysis system must be designed, implemented, and used as the basis for dynamic planning during the intervention, The data-gathering system should be simple at the start, focusing on selected impact and process indicators, and it, too, must be flexible and subject to change throughout the intervention. For a suggested starting point for the design of such a system for supplementary feeding programmes or other nutrition interventions calling for the weighing of children, see Miller and Sahn (5). Performance of the data-gathering procedures must be monitored along with trends in the data to minimize the possibility that those trends are an artifact of changing accuracy in measurement and/or recording activities.
3. Periodic Redesign of the Data-Gathering Procedures and Intervention Strategies. In response to monitoring of the data-collection procedures and the trends revealed by the analysis of the data as they emerge, interveners should cope with observed changes - in the environment, the target population, or the intervention methodology - by implementing appropriate redesign strategies. This can be achieved only through the rapid feedback of analytic results to the field practitioners.
4. Collaboration between Researchers, Practitioners, and Subjects Throughout. In contrast to the classical experimental approach or the typical evaluation format featuring the short, but intense, site visit by evaluation specialists, R-I-A calls for the continuous involvement of all parties to an intervention in the analysis and redesign process. This serves as a feasibility check on ail proposed changes, as an incentive for rapid adoption of those changes, and, most importantly, a review of the accuracy of the interpretation of the analysis leading to change.
5. Use of Derived Experiments. Routine analysis of data should generate questions that require additional research, possibly in the form of small experiments carried out within the context of the larger intervention. One technique of value here is the disaggregation of the data to assist in isolating factors confounding the more aggregate analyses.
6. Accounting for Confounding factors in the Redesign Process. Rather than attempting to control for confounding factors in the experimental context, practitioners of R-I-A try to detect and react to those confounding factors. At times, interveners can use such confounding factors to their advantage in redesigning their intervention components.
We submit the hypothesis that R-I-A would improve both the quality of intervention, through the dynamic planning implied by the continuous analysis of impact and process data, and the quality of the evaluation, through the explicit consideration of factors that generally confound efforts to apply traditional experimental models. In particular, we assert that R-I-A, as described above, minimizes the negative influences of dirty data, inadequate measurement, and inadequate data on both the redesign of intervention and the evaluation of intervention impact. The continuous monitoring of the data-gathering procedures combined with the increased perception of the usefulness of data on the part of workers in the field, in response to feedback generated by the ongoing analysis of the data, should encourage the elimination of dirty data. R-I-A cannot resolve the problems of inadequate measurement; however, it can reduce the possibility that conclusions drawn are artifacts of the measurements rather than the results of actual changes in nutritional well-being by encouraging longitudinal analyses and the corroboration of those analyses with qualitative judgements from the field. Finally, the use of derived experiments and the modification of the datagathering schemes offer ways for addressing inadequate data by creating an increased flexibility for dealing with changes in the overall situation in a timely and innovative manner.
Perhaps understanding of R-I-A can best be enhanced through an example. An evaluation project was undertaken during 1982 with the objective of testing as much of the reflection-in-action model as possible. The project was an evaluation of the Food-for-Peace grant programme in Sri Lanka (6). One central question of the study was whether the food donation programme had a favourable impact on the nutritional status of children under six years of age in that country, and, if so, by how much? In order to maximize the involvement of field-level practitioners in the evaluation-a condition essential in the implementation of R-I-A- the project was partitioned into three phases.
Phase I followed the ordinary approach of designing a study that attempted, as well as possible, to resolve the question of nutritional impact from the programme. For the children under six years of age who participated in the thriposha programme, a field data collection effort was implemented that ultimately generated some 12,000 weight and age observations for 1,800 children. Since Thriposha is distributed in Sri Lanka as one component of a package of health services, caution was taken to partition the sample in a variety of ways to control for possible differences in impact reflecting variations in the delivery system or recipient population from place to place. This partitioning of the sample was limited by the practicalities of field conditions and the realities of budgetary constraints. The sample was stratified by geographic region, by the type of health care provided, by the governmental unit responsible for staffing and funding the distribution centre, by the socio-demographic characteristics of the family of the recipient child, and by the age of the child.
Social and demographic family variables included age of mother and father, parental occupation as a surrogate for income, number of siblings, and birth order. Of course, many more data elements could have been proposed -in fact, the number of possibilities was limitless. The decision as to which subset to collect was based on the cost and feasibility of data retrieval balanced against what our prior experience had shown to be most critical. Our judgements were reviewed by local practitioners and modified to conform to their experience as well. In short, while the initial design was not flawless, it was quite comprehensive when compared to similar evaluations done in other countries. The design showed promise of uncovering relationships between nutritional status of the beneficiaries and the extent of their exposure to the programme if any such relationship existed. Phase I did not depart from typical evaluation designs based on the principles of sound experimentation except in one important aspect-there was a priori recognition that there would be, at best, some indeterminacy resulting from the analysis even if measurable change in nutrition status was confirmed.
The second phase of the evaluation incorporated more of the elements of the model of R-I-A. Phase II consisted of an exhaustive analysis of the data gathered in Phase I. A report was prepared consisting primarily of tables, charts, and graphs showing the relationships between variables deemed to be of potential importance. Characteristic curves (graphs plotting nutritional status against age of child) portraying age-cohort comparisons of the nutritional status of children who had participated in the programme for a substantial period of time to the status of children who had just recently entered the programme provided concrete evidence that participants of all ages were nutritionally better off than new entrants. Tables were included presenting evidence that the magnitude of the benefit derived from participation appeared to vary by the type of organization rendering service and by the physical setting of the clinic, rural or urban. Nutritional status was shown to be related to several of the other stratification variables as well.
With the preliminary report completed, Phase III, the formal field-level evaluation, began. Armed with specific results of the analysis, the evaluation team engaged in a dialogue with local practitioners concerning the causes of the observed results. In several instances, the interpretations of the analysis were modified substantially from what seemed obvious from the analysis. For instance, differences in outcome that seemed to be related to the type of unit providing service and type of health care offered in conjunction with the food supplement were found to be highly correlated with the clinic staffing levels per beneficiary. This competing explanation was first proposed by one of the local staff and then tested with on-the-spot observations of clinics in several different parts of the country. Thus, what appeared to be strong evidence in support of the hypothesis that the type of governmental unit administering the programme played a role in causing positive response to it was reinterpreted to be evidence supporting the role that staffing levels play in ensuring effective clinic operation.
It is important to note here that data on staffing levels had been gathered at the onset and, initially, found to be of no importance. The reason for this lack of detection of a relationship during the early rounds of analysis was that the variables selected for testing the hypothesis were too aggregated. in short, the study design team, even though it included knowledgeable local staff, had selected and measured the wrong variable. It was only after successive analysis that enough local perspective was gained to narrow and focus the definition of staff to a level that revealed the relationship between staff size and nutritional impact. it could be argued that, had the correct variable been measured at the onset, this problem would not have arisen. However, it is our belief that the often subtle process of deciding precisely which variable is most appropriate to gather before analysis is extremely difficult. Regardless of the expertise of the analyst, mistakes and omissions are usually made and, as a consequence, the iterative process embodied in R-I-A becomes essential
Since Phase III was concerned more with the determination of attribution rather than outcome, the issue of competing explanations was central to this part of the study. The Sri Lanka evaluation, like most such studies, contained several possible competing explanations for the observed outcome besides the intuitively appealing one that the programme worked. The R-I-A model called for a comprehensive enumeration of competing explanations, even though some were beyond the scope of inquiry.
During the four-week in-country study period, the evaluation was able to muster evidence for rejecting all significant competitors, thereby concluding, with some degree of accuracy, that the observed improvement in nutritional status was attributable to the bundle of services associated with thriposha distribution. Had we not been able to articulate those competing explanations and perform on-the-spot research, our evaluation would have been inconclusive.
It should be noted, however, that it was not possible to separate the effect of thriposha from the package of other services rendered at the same time as the food supplement was given, nor was it feasible to generalize the findings regarding food supplementation to other settings. While an evaluation based on more rigorous experimental design would have had, in theory, the potential for broader generalization on some dimensions, in practice, a much higher degree of indeterminacy would have been the result.
Adoption of R-I-A in an evaluation of the sort done in Sri Lanka provides some evidence concerning the usefulness of the approach. However, as mentioned earlier, only some elements of the model were applicable. Missing were the elements building in the evaluation and on-the-spot research as part of the ongoing programme. An application including these elements remains to be done.
An approach to nutrition interventions that does not recognize the instability, unpredictability, and uniqueness of the local environment will often be of little benefit to recipients. Attempts to evaluate the efficacy of such programmes using traditional methods in which data are structured to conform to a static, but careful, experimental design will generally be less determinate than an approach relying more on detailed knowledge of local practitioners. The alternative advocated here, R-I-A, is both an intervention style and an evaluation process. It is a context-specific, iterative approach capable of adapting to ever-changing local conditions through the rapid feedback of the analysis of locally generated data to individuals at the site of intervention. R-I-A treats all interventions as experiments and recognizes that all experiments are subject to the same varying context surrounding most interventions.
What then are the implications of these arguments for the conduct of intervention-oriented experiments in nutrition? We classify these implications into four broad categories: (i) recipients participating in the programme; (ii) change agents implementing intervention programmes; (iii) social scientists and practitioners, and (iv) the relationship between donor and implementing agency.
Recipients participating in a programme. Because of the high potential for major disruption of a local society or culture in response to the infusion of external resources during a major intervention, care must be taken to retain a favourable balance between benefit and cost to the recipient, where costs are defined in the broadest sense. It is very easy for a professional dedicated to reducing child malnourishment to assume that any help provided is a net gain to the recipient. But we have found that many interventions show little, if any, measurable improvement in the nutritional status of the target population. {Caution must be taken to distinguish between measurable impact and impact itself. If the research design is faulty, or if there is sufficient misclassification in the observed variables, true impact will be understated.) If one recognizes that, typically, considerable resources are devoted to such programmes, it could be argued that a far better option would be to provide a direct supplement to the recipient or to fund the development of general infrastructure such as transportation and education systems.
In addition to the tangible resources of the donor, one must consider the time, energy, and commitment of the persons participating in the programme. The mother and child who devote a day walking to and from a health post in order to attend a well-baby clinic in the expectation of receiving an allotment of weaning food have a considerable investment in the programme. Furthermore, nutrition programmes sometimes call for change in firmly ingrained cultural habits such as intra-familial food distribution patterns. Even if the programme does not ask explicitly for such changes, they can occur anyway, often creating dependencies. For example, in on-site feeding programmes, families often alter the intra-familial food distribution patterns to compensate for the fact that one family member is fed elsewhere. Similarly, family purchasing decisions change in response to the increase in disposable income associated with receiving free food or other services, with the net effect being the creation of dependencies on the programme. In any intervention, there are significant costs, broadly defined, to the recipient and there are not always the corresponding benefits.
The it-l-A model begins with the assertion that the proposed intervention may need to go through one or more iterations before it provides a useful service. It does not presume to be a remedy, only the first step in a process. When the intervention process is conceived in this way, the relationship between recipient and programme must be viewed in non-traditional ways. The recipient of services is not automatically a beneficiary experiencing a net gain in welfare, but rather a participant in a local experiment conducted with the objective of developing a strategy that will lead to the attainment of certain benefits. Under these conditions, the participant in the local experiment should be entitled to some measure of protection if the programme is unsuccessful. The policy implication of this argument is that an important design criterion for a nutrition intervention is that it contain a plan or process for responding to this unfavourable contingency.
Provisions should be included for changing the mix of services delivered by the programme if benefits derived from existing components do not live up to expectations. Also, participants should be informed of the experimental nature of the activity they are about to engage in. Finally, provisions must be made, in advance, for smoothing the transition back to the original local conditions in the event that the intervention is terminated. These provisions should include tangible resources earmarked for this purpose.
Change agents implementing intervention programmes. Analysts with the technical skills needed to conduct research or evaluation studies and practitioners with the skills to work effectively in developing countries come from different educational backgrounds and are motivated by different interests, the practitioner being action-oriented and the researcher more interested in the search for knowledge. R-I-A calls for the attributes of both to be present in one individual, or at least represented equally on a team. Thus, to staff a project based on R-I-A, one must merge diverse skills in a single individual, use consultants more wisely to fill highly specialized needs, or hire more people - options that cost more money.
The model also calls for a blend of behaviours. At the field level, there is often a short-term conflict between expending resources {time or money) on gathering and analysing data and rendering services to beneficiaries. We have seen several instances in the field where this conflict is quite real. Too frequently, the conflict manifests itself when political pressures for expanded coverage are brought to bear on the change agents; that is, where short-term political interests are placed above long-term effectiveness.
We believe that there are ways of turning this potential conflict into a condition beneficial in both perspectives. When the information gathered for research or learning purposes is the same information used to operate and manage an intervention, there are several gains. First, the removal of errors made in taking, recording, and/or storing data elements-errors that invalidate subsequent analyses based on the data-becomes possible and relatively easy. Second, the correction of errors not only helps the analysis but also improves programme operations. Missed diagnosis of children at-risk is reduced or eliminated. Management questions, such as staffing imbalances, surface more readily and, therefore, can be corrected in a timely manner.
Finally, there is the potential for more useful dialogue among practitioners. We say "potential" because a related problem, that of over-reaction to quantitative data, must be resolved before achieving improved dialogue. Without a minimum critical level of expertise in experimental design and in the interpretation of quantitative analysis, practitioners can and do react prematurely or improperly to mathematical results, and in doing so, do more harm than good. Decisions may be based on improperly or incompletely developed "hard" data at the expense of field wisdom. Note, over-reliance on "hard" numbers is not limited to practitioners in the field; a similar pattern exists within funding bureaucracies.
The remedy for this problem of over-reaction in local decision-making lies in integrating practitioners into the datagathering and analysis process. If practitioners participate in the entire study design, analysis, and interpretation process a few times under real field conditions, they become armed with sufficient knowledge and perspective to make proper interpretations when applying the results to decisions. Thus, the remedy for the problem of appropriate interpretation for decision-making purposes is precisely the same remedy as that needed for conducting careful analysis for research purposes-local practitioner involvement.
New Skills, Norms, and Attitudes for Social Scientists and Practitioners
Social scientists, particularly those trained in analytic methodology, are prone too often to become enthralled with their technique. There is a tendency to retreat to what is familiar and to what has provided a competitive edge during past endeavours, namely, sophisticated analytic techniques. While these most certainly have usefulness, they are a very small component in the repertoire of skills needed for the R-I-A model Again, uniqueness, instability of environment, and unpredictability of the local condition that force intensive scrutiny and emphasis on local, context-rich information demand that skills more akin to the anthropologist and change agent must be emphasised. Even if they want to, scientists can no longer avoid the effects that their results have on decision-makers. Consequently, a knowledge of, and the ability to deal with, the broader implications that analysis might have become essential. In summary, scientists using the R-I-A model must strive to broaden their skill levels beyond those currently prescribed.
Behaviour norms may have to be altered as well. Emphasis on numerical analysis of clean data as presented in current academic journals must be replaced by a norm that more fully includes concern over the quality of that hard data, the integration of "soft" data sources into an analytic framework, and the ability to accept and articulate indeterminacy. More important, the need to become close to local conditions, whether it be as a participant-observer or in conjunction with local colleagues, may reduce apparent academic productivity. Productivity of a social scientist is often measured by scholarly publications. Currently, the most effective way for the social scientist to show productivity along this dimension is to emphasize analysis and written description of the interesting findings stemming from analysis, either substantive or methodological. Alternatively, the time and energy spent in developing close working relationships in a local setting are often under-recognized. Yet the R-I-A model demands active local participation beyond that required to obtain data.
In some instances, attitudes as well as skills and norms need to be adjusted. It is very easy for scientists to be overly impressed with their capabilities, especially when much of the community in which a scientist works operates to reinforce that belief. A more humble attitude about who really has the important pieces of knowledge in a local context is essential before a healthy relationship between practitioner and scientist can develop.
From the practitioner's viewpoint, change is called for, too. We have discussed the need for exposure to research design, analysis techniques, and careful interpretation of results. Our experience is that, in the context of using analysis for improved local decision-making, changes in the attitude of the practitioner are minimal if required at all. Active participation in two or three such analyses is sufficient to acquaint the practitioner with the requisite steps. While some formal training is highly desirable, on-the-spot training is more effective and feasible in view of the administrative responsibilities of the practitioner. Occasionally, when local administrators have had job experiences in the private sector, they have already acquired the necessary patterns and attitudes. The closest analogy to the R-I-A model may be the behaviour of the small, independent businessman who continuously adjusts his mix of services or products based on an analysis of feedback from customers and the local economy.
There is an exception to the case where only minimal change in attitude is required of the practitioner. Some practitioners believe, for whatever reason, that they know the proper remedy for a problem. In the nutrition field, we have heard, too often, "But how can feeding hungry people be bad?" R-I-A can begin only after such attitudes are dispelled.
Donor and Implementing Organizations
The most significant implication of our arguments in this paper comes in the relationship between donor and implementing organization. According to the R-I-A model, proposals from prospective change agents to possible donors would be couched in terms of a proposed starting position for a nutrition intervention together with a description of the process to be used for making incremental changes toward an improved programme design. This process would be based on a mechanism for obtaining and using feedback from the target population. Presumably, sponsors would make a decision to provide funds based on the quality of that redesign process, the knowledge embodied in the starting configuration for the intervention and, of course, the overall needs of the target population in relation to other alternatives.
Decisions regarding continuation of funding would be based on an R-I-A assessment of the efficacy of the programme and the target population's current needs. Formal evaluations would include a synopsis of the various iterations that the programme administrators had implemented, the reasons for those changes, and the outcomes achieved. The field component of the formal evaluation would include local practitioners whose role would be to discover additional competing explanations for the observed outcomes and assist in resolving indeterminacies whenever possible.
The changes required within donor agencies to enable implementation of R-I-A are profound indeed. Beyond changes in project design and evaluation criteria, the staffs of the donor organizations would be faced with a new set of political issues. It is one thing for the administrators of a foundation to propose to its board a well-defined, apparently coherent multi-year project designed to alleviate a pressing social problem. It is another thing to propose a programme that admits at the onset that it is only an attempt at problem resolution that has a low probability of success as originally conceived. The same difficulty exists' only more so, for administrators of government agencies seeking funding in a highly political environment. Governments, even more than foundations, are bound by a yearly budget cycle and, because of their high public visibility, are subject to strong pressures to short short-term, positive response to their actions). Frankly stated, the willingness on the part of administrators in donor agencies to be fully descriptive with regard to the uncertainties associated with a given proposed remedy places them in a vulnerable position. For there will always be other administrators who, in the interest of raising the political likelihood of gaining approval, will be quite content to propose projects in the traditional, less accurate, but far more comforting manner.
We have presented R-I-A as an innovative approach to both the conduct of health/nutrition programmes and their evaluation. In many situations, an intervention (or an evaluation of an intervention) appears, in retrospect, to have followed the R-I-A model When interveners come to recognize that their schemes are ineffective, they react by making appropriate mid-course corrections; however, they rarely set out with the expectation that such directional change will be needed and, even more rarely, establish a routine procedure for developing a quantitative basis for directing such change. Similarly, evaluation specialists often alter their design or use statistical methods to compensate for unanticipated flaws in their experiments; but they, too, undertake their evaluations without a conscious plan to identify and study factors contributing to the indeterminacy of their analyses. In these situations, R-I-A is practiced more by accident than by design-more as a reaction to events than an action to shape events.
We are advocating a more conscious and determined effort to implement R-I-A, an effort that recognizes the need to learn while doing and to act in accordance with what is learned. At the very least, we ought to give it a try.
1. W.D. Drake, R.l. Miller, and M. Humphrey, "Final Report: Analysis of Community-Level Nutrition Programs," Community Systems Foundation, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1980).
2. W.D. Drake, R.l. Miller, and D.A. Schon, "Community-Level Nutrition Interventions: An Argument for Reflection-in-Action," Community Systems Foundation, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1982).
3. D.T. Campbell and J.C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi-Exportmental Designs for Research, Rand McNally, Chicago, Illinois (1966).
4. D.A. Schon, W.D. Drake, and R,l. Miller, "Social Experimentation as Reflection-ln-Action: Community-Level Nutrition Intervention Reconsidered," Community Systems Foundation, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1982).
5. R.l. Miller and D.E. Sahn, "Built-In Evaluation Systems for Supplementary Feeding Programmes-Why and How?" In Methods for Evaluating the Impact of Food and Nutrition Programmes, The United Nations University, Tokyo, in press.
6. W.D. Drake, J.N. Gunning A. Horwitz, R.l. Miller, H.L. Rice, and G. Thenabadu, "Nutrition Programs in Sri Lanka Using U.S. Food Aid (An Evaluation of P.L. 480 Title II Programs)," Community Systems Foundation, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1982)
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Well, sort of. For the next few weeks/months, I will be co-authoring a weekly short column in the Vancouver newspaper Metro News with Kai Chan, assistant professor at the UBC Institute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability (IRES). The topic of the series will be addressing common climate change skeptic arguments.
The first column was published January 11.
Unfortunately, they didn't run the diagram we had prepared (click for full-size version):
Credit goes to Michael Tobis over at Only In It For the Gold for the original concept.
This is NOT natural
4 hours ago

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You can make attractive floral wreaths cheaply & suitable for almost any occasion just by following a few simple rules. The one shown in the picture above is one I made for my daughter's bedroom which will have pale yellow walls & floral accents. Here is how I did it.
- 1 cane wreath in a size of your choice.
- Fabric flowers of your choice, an odd number of each
- Fabric foliage (I just used the leaves from the fabric flowers)
- Fake fruit (optional)
- 1 hot glue gun
- Piece of cord or ribbon, for hanging
I used fabric sunflowers, daisies and roses for the wreath in the picture, with a couple of polystyrene apples tucked in between.
1: First, tie your ribbon or cord at an appropriate spot on your bare wreath so you can hang it up when you're finished.
2: Next, take your largest flower and cut the stalks off, if they have any. Using the glue gun, stick them at even points around your wreath. Using an odd number always looks best for some reason.
3: Take your next largest flower and do the same, tucking them behind the main flower where appropriate. Continue in this manner until you have used up all your flowers, then your fruit, & finally your leaves.
Hang it up and admire it 🙂
Some people prefer to start with the foliage and then work backwards, placing the largest flowers last.
Copyright © Sarah Bradberry 1999


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Ankleshwar is a city in the Bharuch district of Gujarat. It is 10 km from Bharuch. It is known for its industrial township called GIDC. It has also held an office of ONGC – Oil and Natural gas Corporation Limited. The city has over 1000chemical plants that produce pesticides, pharmaceuticals, chemicals and paints. It has a population of over 80,000 with a very high literacy rate both among men and women.
Places to Stay
There are plenty of accommodation options for visitors catering to all low and mid range budgets and tastes such as Shalimar Hotel, Hotel Apex, Horizon Hotel and Plaza Hotel. These fall within a range of Rs 1000 to Rs 1800.
NavratriMahotsav, International Kite festival on 14th January, Holi, Diwali, BhadraPurnima Fair during August and September, ShamlajiMelo during November, VathnaMela in November and TrineteshwarMahadev Fair during September.
Guajarati is the primary language spoken. However, English and Hindi are understood.
Places to Visit
Mumbai has several beaches, architectural buildings, religious sites, museums and other attractions.
How to Get There
At a distance of 63 km, is Surat airport which offers reasonable connectivity to several cities across the country.
Ankleshwar Railway station is 2 km from the city. Wider connectivity to major towns and cities is available from this station.
NH8 connects Ankleshwar to Mumbai and Delhi. Neeta Travels, Shrinath Travel Agency, MarutiNandan Travels and GSRTC carry smooth bus operations. Several bus booking portals provide online bus booking offers to lure their customers
Gariadhar is based in the Bhavnagar district in Gujarat, India. It is located approximately 71 km away from the Bhavnagar district headquarters. It is 255 km away from Gandhinagar. Gariadhar is bound by Lilia, Palitana, Lathi and Saverkundla. Some of the cities around Gariadhar include Lathi, Palitana, Savarkunda, and Amreli. The main occupation in Gariadhar is agriculture and the region is famous for its saints.
Places to Stay
Palitana, which is approximately 18 km away from Gariadhar, has many hotels and lodges to offer tourists. Some of the popular ones include Hotel Sumeru (Tariff – Rs. 1,500) and Heritage Vijay Vilas Palace (Tariff – Rs. 2500.)
The official spoken language of Gariadhar is Gujarati. Hindi and English are also spoken here.
Some festivals that are celebrated in Gariadhar include the Kite Festival (January), Navratri (October), Diwali (November) and Janamastami (August.)
Places of Interest
Some of the popular tourist attractions around Gariadhar include Palitana (18 km), Bhavnagar (71 km) and Rajkot (131 km.)
How to Get There
The Bhavnagar airport is the airport nearest to Gariadhar. It is located about 75 km away.
The nearest railway station is the Palitana railway station. It is based at a distance of 12 km from Gariadhar.
Gariadhar is well-connected to other cities by buses. Some of the best bus operators in this region are said to be Gujarat Travels and Nita Travels. Ticketgoose.com's bus reservation facility has never been easier through its mobile apps.


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Tuesday, October 27th, 2015
The Briefing Book for the November 2015 Council meeting has been posted to the Council's website on the "Briefing Book" webpage. The Briefing Book contains "situation summaries" (brief summaries that provide background for each agenda item), reports and materials for each agenda item, and written public comment. Advisory body and committee agendas and memos are also available.SHARE THIS:


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American 2008-2009
Erica Lally
Erica Lally recently graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a B.A. in International Studies from Dickinson College. While studying abroad in Moscow her junior year, Erica fell in love with the Russian people and their rich culture and history.
- Current and Past Fulbrighters: American 2008-2009
Aleksandr Andreev
Aleksandr Andreev graduated from Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, with a B.S. in Economics and Mathematics. His research interests are in health economics, labor economics, and transition issues. He is currently pursuing a doctorate in Economics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Aleksandr was born in Riga, Latvia, but was raised, and completed his schooling, in the United States.
- Current and Past Fulbrighters: American 2008-2009


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|From Alicante private transfers
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El trato y el servicio del "Chofer"
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tuve que pedir muchas veces presupuesto del servicio porque no me quedaba claro el funcionamiento pero, al final, pude hacerlo todo y de seguido sin tener que esperar horas al presupuesto y horas para hacer el pago.
Epictransfers.com's answer
The best of our service
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The worst of our service
Epictransfers.com's answer


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We are fast approaching the winter holidays and that means Salvation Army buckets will be making appearances outside stores across the U.S. But it's not just the Salvation Army that ramps up its fundraising during the happiest season of all. A 2011 report from The Chronicle of Philanthropy found that nearly 70% of Americans believe it is important to give to charities during the holidays.
For many of us, donating to the less fortunate is just as much a part of the season's celebration as tinsel and carols. However, don't let your warm and fuzzy feelings lead you to make bad decisions when it comes to donating to charities.
1. Pick Your Passion
Of course, before you can donate to a charity, you need to find one. Start by considering what fires you up. What would you change about the world? Which injustice would you right if given the chance?
From curing childhood cancer to saving the oceans, there are charities for virtually every cause. Once you settle on your general area of focus, decide whether you want to donate locally, nationally or internationally. If you are concerned about hunger, you could donate to the local food bank or perhaps you'll feel called to help those in developing countries. It's your call.
2. Check Out Your Charity
After you know your cause, it's time to find a charity worth your money. You could do a Google search, but you are better off going to a dedicated site like Charity Navigator or GuideStar.
According to Giving USA Foundation, Americans donated more than $316 billion to charitable causes in 2012. With so much money at stake, charity scams can be big business for rip-off artists who prey on others' good intentions. Some so-called charities aren't even registered tax-exempt organizations and are simply a front to siphon money into the owner's pocket.
Avoid being duped by charity scams by double-checking any charity's credentials through Charity Navigator, GuideStar or Give.org, which is run by the Better Business Bureau.
3. Watch Out for Excessive Administrative Expenses
Next, even if your charity is legitimate, that doesn't mean your money will be used wisely. Before you donate to Kids Wish Network — dubbed America's worst charity by one report — you probably should know it spends less than 3% of its money on actually granting kids' wishes.
According to the BBB Wise Giving Alliance standards, a charitable organization should spend at least 65% of its money on program expenses — that is, activities directly related to its cause. While 65% may be the bare minimum, you can find many charities that go above and beyond. For example, consider Feeding America, which spends a whopping 97.9% of its budget on program expenses.
4. Make Your Money Work Harder
Once you've made a couple of donations, your mailbox is likely to begin filling with solicitations. It may be tempting to spread the wealth and give a little here and a little there, but your money will go further if you concentrate your donations on one charity, advises Charity Navigator on its website.
Remember, each organization has handling and processing costs associated with receiving your donation. There may not be much left of your small donation after those costs are worked into the equation.
5. Donate Directly
Never make a donation to a telephone solicitor.
First, they may not even be legitimate. Telephone charity scams use names similar to well-known organizations or they may say they are raising money for causes that tug at the heart strings such as supporting military families, veterans or police officers. In reality, your money will be used to profit the person calling and do nothing more.
Second, even if it is a legitimate charity, by donating over the phone, there is a very good chance only a small portion of your money will actually make it to the organization in question. A report from Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette found that, on average, only 35% of the gross proceeds raised by third-party fundraisers in that state actually went to charities.
6. Give More Than Money
Finally, don't forget that your favorite charity can likely use more than just your money. Soup kitchens need hands to serve food; environmental groups need feet to survey land. If you have a particular skill such as Web design or marketing, you may be able to donate those services too.
Volunteering is a win-win. It means less money a charity must spend on hired help, and it gives you a chance to walk the walk and actually make a difference. And that is a warm, fuzzy feeling no check can match.
This post originally appeared on Money Talks News.
More from Money Talks News:
- Black Friday is Coming: Why Not Get Paid to Shop?
- 12 Ways to Score Free Stocking Stuffers
- 6 Ways to Invest a Few Minutes and Make Major Money
Image: Fuse


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## I only worked 6hours a day instead of the regular 8hours. OOh and at work, I'm always on my desk cracking jokes with everybody.
## I stoped dating, it's a lot of planning, going-out, stress etc... that's too much work for my lazy ass.
## I once stayed more than 36 hours without eating. Why? I was too lazy to cook something. I only drank water.
## My favorite activity is to sit or to sleep.
## Now I enjoy movie theaters a LOT. You sit down on your comfy chair with your Diet coke and watched 2 movies :). You laugh and have fun without doing almost anything.
Next week, I'll post the things that I gained/lost while being lazy. HA!


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The Bank of England warned banks and borrowers on Wednesday that a potential quick rise in global interest rates could do severe damage to global economic recovery.
The bank's financial stability report, by financial risk regulator the Financial Policy Committee, reads: "Financial institutions and markets are also vulnerable to an abrupt rise in global interest rates."
That is counted as a key risk to financial stability in the short term. Risks in the medium term to financial stability include weak and uncertain economic growth worldwide, as well as vulnerabilities in the insurance and pension sectors.
Bank Deputy Governor Paul Tucker also highlighted capital shortfalls at banks, arguing that banks need more capital to safeguard against unusual international economic and financial threats.
He said that as of the end of 2013, five major U.K. banks had a capital shortfall of about 25 billion pounds (U.S. equivalent) in total, compared to required U.K. standards set by policymakers.
Banks have complained that high capital requirements restrict their ability to lend, reports Reuters, even as the Bank of England disputes this.
The report recommends that U.K. financial regulators assess how banks and consumers could be impacted by sharply rising interest rates, after a lengthy period of low interest rates worldwide.
Central banks could hike interest rates back up in 2015, as the need for stimulus measures seems to slowly abate.
The Bank of England's new governor, Mark Carney, is slated to start work on Monday. In what are probably his final public remarks before retiring, current Governor Mervyn King accused British banks of working to undermine a new regime of financial regulation.


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Master Clubs
Master Clubs is an exciting teaching program for children 3-years old through 6th grade. These kids are challenged every week to build Christ-like character through various activities which are led by godly role models.
Sundays - 6:00 PM-7:15 PM (During school year)
Teen Focus
Teen Focus provides one-on-one discipleship for teenagers who are seeking to glorify God. By participating in this ministry, your teen will enjoy exciting activities, make godly friends, and learn how to face their futures with a solid, biblical worldview.
Sundays: 10:00 AM
Wednesdays: 6:30 PM-7:30 PM
Life Groups
Our life groups were designed to be a more relaxed setting with both teaching and discussion in mind. Through these specifically designed small groups you will find yourself challenged and encouraged through what it means to live a practical Christian life.
Sundays - 10:00 AM
Men of Purpose
Through these monthly Men of Purpose sessions you will learn what it truly means to become a man of God. You will be blessed through insightful teaching, home-cooked meals, and encouraging fellowship with other men seeking to learn true biblical purpose in every area of their lives.
Mondays - 6:30 PM (3rd Monday each month)
Iglesia Bautista de Meriden
Our location is also host to Iglesia Bautista de Meriden. This Spanish speaking church is led by Pastor Rufino Lara and faithfully serves Meriden's hispanic community.
Sundays - 1:00 PM, 2:00 PM


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Through its affiliation with the International Sanitary Suppliers Association (ISSA), Reliable Cleaning Services attained both the Cleaning Industry Management Standard (CIMS) certification with HONOURS and the CIMS Green Building (GB) with HONOURS! These programs have a strategic roadmap that involves comprehensive training and third party validation of Reliable Cleaning Services' systems and processes; assuring that our company not only complies with the highest standards in the industry, but actually applies them in the field with measurable and sustainable results.
The IICRC is a certification and standard-setting non-profit organization for the inspection, cleaning and restoration industries. Serving the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, in partnership with regional and international trade associations, the IICRC represents the entire industry. The IICRC is recognized internationally as a knowledgeable industry voice and resource.
IAC2 is the non-profit, certifying body for home and building inspectors who have fulfilled certain educational and testing requirements including those in the area of indoor air quality. Reliable Cleaning Services has personnel who are trained to test for indoor air quality issues relating to mold.
The International Window Cleaning Association (IWCA) was formed to educate and assist its member in developing professionalism, ethics and standards of safety of window cleaning companies. Reliable Cleaning Services has been an active member of the association since 1992.


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[Deck] Telling a Compelling Story for and with ABM
The best multi-channel ABM campaigns require more than just message alignment. They require effective storytelling that resonates with the various personas in an account. Nate Hurst, Manager of Account Based Marketing, shares his tips on how to create campaigns that prospects enjoy consuming. He also covers why and how Domo has shifted their marketing to focus on ABM and the role Terminus plays in their strategy.


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Twitter meltdown over Pam GellerPosted: May 5, 2015 Filed under: Animal Farm Lunacy, Charles "Icarus" Johnson, Little Green Footballs, Pam Geller, Robert Spencer | Tags: Charles "Icarus" Johnson, Charles Foster Johnson, Charles Johnson, Little Green Footballs, The Sage of Culver City 174 Comments
Charles is a man scorned who has held a nearly decades old grudge against Pam Geller. After his aromatic advances were rejected, the corpulent welfare user has spent nearly 7 years attacking Ms. Geller. Last night, he had a meltdown on twitter over Pam Geller.
I think it's great that all these right wing bloggers are lining up to defend raving loony bigot Pamela Geller. Very clarifying.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 4, 2015
Suddenly my mentions are full of ranting wingnuts. Oh, I see that "Jim Treacher" cretin is sending them again. Boring.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 4, 2015
OK, the wingnut wave seems to be receding now.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 4, 2015
Doesn't matter how many times I tweet "Geller has a 1st amendment right to say anything she wants." Wingnuts still act like I didn't.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 4, 2015
At least a dozen ranting loons yelled at me just now that I "support Islamic terrorists." It's some kind of mass hysteria thing going on.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
Make no mistake: Pamela Geller doesn't give one solitary shit about "free speech." She's a hateful bigot & her agenda is hatred & division.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
She doesn't deserve to be attacked for exercising the free speech she'd deny to Muslims. But she does NOT deserve anyone's support, either.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
I actually think Robert Spencer is a much more dangerous character than Geller, because he puts on a facade of academic respectability.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
I renounced Spencer, Geller and the entire so-called "anti-jihad" movement more than 7 years ago, and I have no regrets whatsoever.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
These are absolutely horrible people; sneaky, dishonest and scheming people who are caught in some kind of twisted "religious war" fantasy.
— Charles Johnson (@Green_Footballs) May 5, 2015
Charles still has not gotten over Pam Geller's rejections of his advancements.
174 Comments on "Twitter meltdown over Pam Geller"
"OK, the wingnut wave seems to be receding now." – actually the only thing receding is your hairline Pops!
Earth to Chuckles: at this point, she needs you and your approval like she needs crotch critters.
True dat. Chunky "renouncing" Geller is like Gus renouncing Microsoft, with the resultant damage to Bill Gates' bottom-line and ability to sleep deeply at night.
Pam has somehow managed to carry on, despite your fatheaded attempts at character assassination, sponsored by Soros and CAIR. She's doing rather well, in fact. How you doin'? 😆
"Chunky "renouncing" Geller is like Gus renouncing Microsoft, with the resultant damage to Bill Gates' bottom-line and ability to sleep deeply at night." LOL!!!!
Um, Charles, you can't "renounce" a person. English is your first language and you don't even know the meanings of the words you misuse. Now give us your definition of "bogus" again, just for laughs.
Mr. Projection! 😆
To put on a facade of academic respectability, you have to have a college degree. What again did you major in? Jazzy ponytail studies?
Barry is an autodidact. Comic books, mostly.
He's a Jack of no trades, master of none.
Fuck you Barry for identifying ANYONE in the world as "a nasty human being…".
Fuck you.
And Dear Fatass misspells the silly insult. 😆
Lord Of The Pies is a horrible poison toad of a person, btw. In case anyone forgot.
"Shonda" is Babushka for "double plus ungood". See: Emmanuel Goldstein.
How crazy does your twitter-stalking have to get, in order for the authorities to take notice? It would seem Ginger must have a legal case against his "#1 Fan" by now.
He's still trying to get him arrested. Geeze. How is there any tampering here? How is going thru bushes called trespassing? The FBI lady who shooed him away didn't think he needed to be arrested, so why would the cops?
And then his stupid minions echo this and he thinks he's correct. Just amazing.
He's STALKING through the bushes. STALKING, I tells you!
He might be birdwatching. Or taking a pee.
Uh-oh. Males peeing in the woods is Penis Privilege. Arrest the penis supremacist!
At this point we're talking spittle-flecked apoplexy.
Unlike, say, ISIS…who divide people by cutting off heads.
That's just surgery. Don't worry. There's a doc in Italy who can put them back in an hour.
Maybe he could throw in some neck-fat lipo for Chunky and Mama June? Like in a package deal?
Oy…he's drinking early. I'm so sorry, Chunky. There aren't enough margaritas in Mexicantown to make this butthurt go away. 😥
Translation: "Even pickled tink, she rejected me".
Ha! Yet another attempt at leading the parade only to look back and see it turned a corner 3 blocks ago. The story of Chunky's life. He initiates a guitar riff and the drummer stops playing, suggesting something that's actually um funky. He sports a ponytail, black shirt and plaid overshit. Didn't catch on. He tries the video media and shoots his foot with milyo and cool spinning graphics and the personality of a dull normal rodent. He goes to Twitter and does not have a healthy Tweet to Follower ratio. He bleats to the media celebrities warnings about Greenwald and Geller and Ginger. No one cares. In fact it seems like the only thing that ever went right for him was LGF version 1.0. So he trashed it and burned all his bridges in one glorious scorched Earth Pamtrum ending with a bizarre and inchoherent short screed he pretentiously and embarrassingly calls a "j'accues".
Looks like he's been drunktweeting:
Thank God the event ran late. Attendees would have been slaughtered as they walked out onto the street, and thank God an armed man with good aim was present to stop it.
It was really smart to hold it in Texas. Even if the idiots had made in inside, I bet enough people in the crowd were carrying to fight back.
People should remember how Chunk seems suspiciously down on Jews: Greenwald, Breitbart, Geller, Savage, Rabinowitz, Horowitz. He only likes the ones that are comedy monkey boys and smart mouths like Leibowitz and Maher. You know the ones that are vicious lying partisans then hide behind their red noses and bike horns.
It is a very very odd thing to see the general mood of progressives and far-left news outlets after the Muslim killers got what they deserved, it was almost as if one of their own died and they lost.
So the biggest question is–are progressive blog participants more saddened that the two Muslim killers were killed or that none of the people in and around the event were killed?
Commies/Statists/Fascists/Elites/Educators love for the correct people to be murdered.
A Cinco de Milyo win for my Blackhawks would be most excellent! About to have puck drop.
I'm with the Blackhawks, too. Like to see you guys go all the way. Good luck!
Ace really nailed this one: http://ace.mu.nu/archives/356555.php
In summary, it's bad enough that the Left has taken the side of the jihaddists in the Garland terror-attack. It's much worse, that so many "moderates" and so-called conservatives are joining in the MSM rush to condemn Pam, as she is an uncomfortable ally for many.
It's not easy to maintain one's focus, in a lengthy, slow-burning war like the one we're currently fighting against Islamist terror around the world, and in our backyard. Our natural inclination is toward peaceful reconciliation, and acceptance of other cultures. Problem is, our Islamist enemies have different goals, and no problem staying focused. They will keep coming. We will either defeat them, or surrender.
Pam has not lost sight of this ugly fact, since 9-11. Many of us have. When the Islamists pull off their next big attack, a lot of people will be shocked. Not Pam. Not most of us here at DoD, either.
really pathetic that our boy Barry is such a fucking idiot. All because butthurt and that he couldn't stick his 2-INCH monster inside of Pammy.
And, frankly, it had nothing to do with his 2-INCH monster, but rather his empty mind and his bad breath (not to mention the Junior High ball cap everywhere, all the time).
Barry you dumb ass.
Charles, when a Muslim jihadi you inspired shoots and kills her , can we hold your feet to the fire for inciting hate with your hate speech?
The Master Projectionist! 😆
Of course, with Dear Fatass, everyone who is of a different opinion on any issue of the day is "deranged," or some extreme variation thereof. This is actually more projection, as he knows he is losing, or has lost his marbles.
Yeah it's really gotta be getting old to people. I'm getting tired of mocking it. He's just proving himself to be an infantile loser. Pam's putting herself out there, kicking ass and taking names and taking real heat and being a real pro. And he's hiding in his little ranch hell hole like a beached whale shut in, piling on and passing judgement as if anyone gives a shit (except us) what he thinks. It's revolting. I'd feel embarrassed for him if he weren't such a turncoat prick.
I wish the people who are communicating with Mr. Slim Ballcap could see what our dear Pasty Faced, three-chins has turned into. They would all laugh.
And, that it matches his retarded personality – OH WAIT – uneducated personality – makes this all the more laughable!
Hey High School Boy – go fuck yourself you dumbass.
And while you're at it, eat a bag of dicks.
RT @CuriousLurker: Uh, Journalists? Please Stop Calling LGF a "Conservative Site" lgf.bz/1JprpR9 Attn: @nytimes @NYMag #p2 #tiot
1 hour ago
LOL! What you mean they didn't here about the big "j'accuse"?? 6 years after his moron conversion to Idiotarian Islamist apologist they're still calling him conservative!! Oh man that's rich.
The slime ball known as Lawhawk (the pretend lawyer) says "Charles was principled then, and he still is" (before and after Fatso's weird conversion).
All the lapdogs nod in agreement, Fatso starts to cry.
It sure would be interesting to have the facts laid out on "Lawhawk" and his legal career. Some say he's one of Chunky's socks, a particularly ripe one. Nothing would surprise me. Except if he turned out to be an actual working attorney — that would be shocking and horrifying.
The mere fact that anyone still thinks of LGF as a conservative website after all these years of raging moonbattery is a testament to the complete disappearance from the conversation experienced by Dear Fatass, after his Moronic Conversion in 2009. His plaintive bleat-tweets to nobody tonight, trying to "part ways" for the millionth-time, are sadder than Gus with an empty can of Sterno and somebody's cut the extension-cord to the garage. 😦
I thought the same thing.
If liberal bloggers and journalists have no clue that LGF jumped ship years ago, LGF is not making an impact on the political scene. Only 12K followers would support that opinion.
Who the fuck is he talking to with his "I support the first amendment but…." Who cares what he thinks? He's just repeating what all the major lib media already said yesterday. And yes they're all wrong. Criticizing Islam and drawing cartoons about it, just like criticizing the GOP, Conservatives and the Tea Party is FREE SPEECH. Not hate speech. Hate speech is a progturd baby word not recognized by the Constitution or US law.
"Hate speech" is any speech disagreeing with the liberal party line, or any of the politically-correct imperatives of any sub-class within the Libturd Party. "Free speech" is when they accuse Dubya of war-crimes, Palin of putting hits out on Democratic pols, and Chris Kyle is called a cowardly murderer by hip Hollywood drug-addicts.
Free speech: Romney putting a dog on a car.
Hate speech: Obama eating a dog.
Hate speech: Teenaged Romney cuts a kid's hair.
Free speech: Michelle Obama wears a Supremes wig.
Saw American Sniper the other night. I recommend watching it if you haven't seen it.
I gave it 4 out of 5 pineapples.
It's an epic movie. Cooper nailed the part, and Eastwood directed masterfully.
Obama lawyers lie to court, then beg forgiveness for lying. Self-identified liberal MSM forgets to cover story. 😆
Here's a mind-blowing thought: Imagine how different Chunky's life would be now, if Pam had responded positively to his sweaty, fumbling overtures. A few little changes to the historical record, based on the data available:
1. Chunky would be rich, thin and still riding his bike.
2. LGF would be one of the premier conservative, anti-jihad websites, well-monetized by now.
3. Current sycophants like Furious Burka, Gus and Viscous Douche would be thinking along rational conservative lines. P-LOL would still be insane, of course.
4. This forum and the mothership would never have existed.
5. More than 11 people would know who Chunky is — probably, more than 11 million people. 😆
6. Andrew Breitbart would have not called him "fuckface."
7. Gus would still be an unemployed, garage-dwelling Twitter addict,
Well, it's been another fun day of watching Fatass re-enact his Moronic Conversion, complete with raging jealousy at the sight of the unattainable Ms. Gellar waving to the public from her window-seat on the Success Express. Choo-Choo! Poor Chunky was sleeping on the tracks, like the poor dog in that old story.
The dog fell asleep with his tail on the tracks, and the train ran over the tip of his tail, neatly docking a few inches. Inches he could have lived without, had he not whirled around so quickly to see what the deuce was going on back there, the next set of wheels chopped his head off faster than ISIS doing an infomercial with a Jewish hostage. Hence the saying was born, "Losing your head over a little piece of tail."
Everyday, another train. I'm so sorry, Charles.
Charles Johnson @Green_Footballs
She didn't "write for LGF." She was one commenter among thousands, that was the extent of it.
Absolutely right, Charlie.
She's not among the 11 commenters you have left now.
The lesser extent of it.
"You're killin' me, babe."
Ace is right, Pam is fearless and has been steadfast in her efforts to expose Islamism for what it really is. She does more than just have drawing contests, she documents on her blog atrocities world-wide and advocates for the women victims and fundraises, and basically gets off her ass and tries to do something. I respect her for that.
All Chunky can do is fart criticisms in her general direction after abandoning the effort completely. And correct her spelling. All the important stuff. He can really just go fuck himself.
Wait a minute.
Chunky's been honking on Twitter all day Tuesday about how the media is "getting it wrong" about LGF yet I have not read, heard or seen one single mention of LGF in any of the coverage concerning Pam Gellar by the major media outlets.
All those sniveling tweets by The Chunkster was just a pathetic attempt to garner attention to his failed trainwreck of a blog.
If any actual attention were being paid to him or The Bog, Chunkles would be crowing and honking about it with multiple links and a buttload of ICYMIs.
Nice try, Chunky! 😆
He even tried to bring up Pam "working" with Barrett Brown to, OMG, PLOT to release a private e-mail!
Pam almost gets killed and Chunky is like "She conspired to release one of my e-mails."
Sniveling punk.
Chunky has a plan to catapult LGF ahead of Pam Gellar and get the adulation and attention he deserves!
Sooper Genius indeed… 😆
This coming from a putz who freaked out over some muslim kid pointing a finger at him and making a gun shooting gesture,
Not to mention his ongoing hysteria about a ginger guy who shares his name and who he claims is going to be the death of Twitter, journalism and civilization as we know it. 😆
Have you noticed that lately Chunkles has been having Twitter conversations with himself?
The slope leading to neurosis is a slippery one. 😆
Hey dumbass, they had automatic rifles, they were wearing body armor and they were intent on mass murder. What more do you need to be "scary"? So they were idiots. Good. But to say they weren't "scary" to somehow downplay the seriousness of this event is naive to the extreme…..
-which is about what I would expect from someone with a High School degree.
WTF? Muslim terrorists with assault rifles are not scary? Yet NRA members are terrifying I suppose?
To be fair, a single Texan did take these dweebs down with a pistol.
Texan with pistol 2
Splodies with AKs 0
Yes, if you use your rifle it's not scary, as they are untrained and bad shots.
But if you take training and carry a gun around and go to a Chipotle for lunch, OMFG, RUN FOR THE HILLS EVERYBODY!!!!
Chunkles was quick to join the "But" brigade concerning the attempted terrorist attack the other day yet I wonder how he would feel if it were applied to him.
Chunky bleats about and insults the Ginger Chuck nonstop on Twitter every single day calling him a "stalker" and squealing about how he's "dangerous" and worse.
Just look at Chunky's reaction when the Ginger Chuck took a "selfie" in front of The Chunkster's alleged Culver City "headquarters". He flipped out and was squealing about it for days.
Even after this trauma, The Chunkster double-downed on his stalking and badgering of the Ginger Chuck.
What if the Ginger Chuck decided enough was enough and one fateful day while Chunky was waddling to the store on a Cheetos run, the Ginger Chuck confronted him and punched him right in his face or sneaked into the Culver City "headquarters" and took a dump in Chunky's living room or some such thing?
Would Chunky be receptive to a "The Ginger Chuck did a bad thing BUT Chunkles was really provoking him on Twitter with his hate tweets so maybe it's ultimately The Chunkster's fault that this happened." mantra?
Of course not because Chunkles is a hypocrite as well as a sniveling dickhead.
ISIS and Charles sound an awful lot alike with regards to Geller
RT @indie17: @alanfeuer Little Green Footballs is a liberal site.
9 hours ago
No it's not. It's a progturd propaganda Commie crap hole.
The FLODunce dreams up a new grievance to give blacks more loser's limp excuses.
Speaking at the new Whitney museum in New York City's meat packing district last week, Obama said she grew up thinking that museums were not places "for someone who looks like me."
Well you can't blame them for getting alarmed when a large Wookie walks in! LOL!!!
If she gave a crap about black kids she'd be admonishing their parents for never taking them to Museums and concerts. But because she's a progturd liar she'd rather pretend their "not welcome" whatever that means. They're not fucking there in the first place to not be welcomed. Black kids don't give a shit about classical art or music because they've been taught to hate whites and instead glorify the gansta rap and moron pop culture.
I can't handle any more "po' l'il colored girl" garbage from this dumb cluck. Can she leave now?
We were at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 2 weeks ago and there's a suggested entrance donation of $25, but you only have to pay what you think you can- it can be $0- they don't care and welcome all. You could spend a month there and not see it all. Tons of groups of school kids roaming around.
There were also spontaneous classical musicians busking under the stairs in Central Park with accompanying opera singers. There were also black break dancers putting on a show nearby.
Humans of every stripe were having a great time. It was lovely.
They're going to try to kill Pam. I hope she takes the proper precautions. The MSM will be saying she asked for it, of course.
Is that what you call a macroagression?
Chunkles, LGF and the libtard MSM agree with these Pakistani men in their condemnation of Geller.
See any women in this video? Me neither.
Bism illāh ir-raḥmān ir-raḥīm, I hope their asses blaze with butthurt forever and ever, until the end of the world.
Flamin' hot cheetos will do that.
Death to america
we hate old spice and all western scents
my left hand stinks like my asshole
…and my camel's ball sack
death to america
we love little green feetballs
My prayers are with Pam. I hope she stays safe.
Don't worry, Charles; you've made yourself safe.
BRC to the batcave! I distinctly recall more than one LGF thread either by Pam, or about her writing on her own blog.
Based on a quick Wingularity search, it appears that Pam's early threads were annihilated prior to the strawberry heist.
I want to be clear because this is something the media have gotten wrong – Geller was a commenter at LGF, that's all. @TerryAnderson48
11 hours ago
The media? What media mentioned LGF?
Also, she may have been only one commenter but everyone knew who Atlas Shrugs is and she was a rock star and influential commenter. Miss the old days much Chunkles?
I dunno. Is it ok to shout "brick" in a crowded shithouse?
If someone wanted to get famous real quick, ask a Muslim bakery to make a Muhammad cake.
When they refuse, hire an ambulance chaser lawyer and let the fun begin.
Some are saying that depicting Muhammad on a cake doesn't equate to the same thing as a Christian bakery having to make a gay wedding cake. Why? I call bullshit.
One bakery (by law) must depict something on a cake they strongly oppose but the other bakery doesn't?
The "butt-brigade" bus is really getting crowded.
Steven Crowder did that with Muslim bakeries, asking them to do a gay wedding cake. Got lots of NO-WAY, JOSE's.
And the Muslim bakers won't make the gay cake either. They hate gays.
Uh oh. Greenwald has thrown down the gauntlet. Now Chunk has to come to Cuomo's defense:
This is going to be fun. 😈
Fatso is baiting Nick Searcy in his latest thread.
If Nick Searcy notices, it won't end well for Fatso as usual.
He won't notice unless Chunk brings it to Twitter. Searcy has enough sense to stay away from that site.
I agree, I was thinking more in terms of someone bringing it to his attention to create another fun beat down on Twitter.
I don't twit, but maybe somebody here.
Better lay in an extra provision of cheetos.
Umm, milyo?
Goos……It's probably the same word as Fatso making you and all of his lap dogs comply.
Charlie's got a GoFundMe page. This should be hilarious
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Created May 6, 2015
Charles Johnson
For 14 years Little Green Footballs has been a source of unique stories about news, politics, art, culture and music, as well as a host for one of the best commenting communities on the web, wonderfully free of the trolls and haters that plague most comment sections. We also provide a powerful, full-featured blogging system for our registered users to post their own stories, and we currently have more than 300,000 posts in our LGF Pages section.
But here's the rub — providing these things takes lots of work and costs real money, both in server fees and in the time it takes to develop and program new features, moderate comments, and come up with fresh new content every day. And there's exactly one programmer who writes all the code that powers LGF — that would be me.
Advertising helps, but it doesn't cover all our costs. So here's where you can help us continue to keep LGF a vibrant community — by donating as much as you can to our blog fund. Thanks very much for your support!
Oh, srsly? 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆 😆
That's a knee slapper! "providing these things takes a lot of work and costs real money".
Too bad it is all worthless garbage you moron.
Ten bucks (now THAT is serious money) says this is a useless and futile effort!
May 6, 2015 11:33:26am
The NYDN writer wanted to know if I could shed any light on where Geller's hatred of Muslims comes from, but I honestly don't know.
Also asked if I thought she was reveling in being on ISIS's hit list.
Fox News is having Anjem Choudary "debate" Pamela Geller, because he perfectly fits their stereotype of the "crazy Muslim terror supporter."
1 hour ago
Comical interchange between Chunky and Kalegore. Chunky brings pettiness and bitchiness to a new low in defence of Choudary and calls Kalegore literally a "dick" just because he's right that Choudary's clearly an Islamist. Now he's changed his tune and I seriously doubt Kalegore got an apology
Pedantic douchiness maximus.
I pray for Geller's safety but it appears ISIS has put the contract out on her. Now of course they did the same to Rushdie but this ain't your grandfather's Jihadi, and Pam is no cowering Rushdie in hiding. Its only a matter of time till one of them gets her
and when they do I hope they implicate Fuckface as an accessory based on his inciteful hate speech regarding her free speech
she has balls. Another reason why Charles hates her
I worry about her too.
She should take her cartoon contest and her posse on the road in an armored vehicle and call it the "Isis lone wolf terrorist elimination tour."
With a Warthog following behind.
It must get so frustrating to craft a hate tweet then send it to your target and BOOM "This User Has Blocked You" right back in your face……. what fools!
Even Backassward_Slut stopped tweeting him.
Poor thing looks like an anorexic Jerry Garcia
Nothing fazes Ginger, nothing, and it PISSES THEM OFF.


text:
A Brief History of RAF Harrowbeer
RAF Harrowbeer 1941 - 1945
All that remains today of the old second world war airfield is:
RAF Harrowbeer was a fighter station under the command of No 10 Group which was responsible for the South West of England. It was constructed with three tarmac runways, the foundation for these, and for many of the buildings, being rubble from Plymouth after the 'Blitz' of March/April 1941.
The airfield officially opened on 15 August 1941 and closed as an operational station on 31 July 1945.
RAF Harrowbeer was home to many squadrons and a range of nationalities: Czechs, Poles, Canadians, Rhodesians, Australians etc.
Aircraft flying out of RAF Harrowbeer included: Spitfires, Hurricanes, Typhoons, Mustangs, Blenheims, Swordfish, Walrus, Lysander etc.
RAF Harrowbeer played a vital role during the war by providing air cover for merchant shipping in the English Channel, watching for enemy E-boats and U-boats; operational sorties in the Cherbourg area; and later escort duties to bombers flying on their missions to and from targets in Europe.
August 15 1981 saw the return of Harrowbeer's first Station Commander, the Hon. E.F. Ward and other station personnel for the unveiling of a Memorial Stone at the Leg o' Mutton Corner as a tribute to all who served at RAF Harrowbeer.
Further details of the airfields history, activities and personnel can be found at: the RAF Harrowbeer Archives or the Harrowbeer Interest Group website.
A Brief History of RAF Harrowbeer