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MUMBAI: Ratan Thiyam has been appointed the chairperson of the National School of Drama Society.
He will hold office for a period of four years according to the relevant Rules and Regulations of the Society.
An alma mater from this institution in 1974, the 65-year-old takes over from theatre director, Amal Allana, who demitted office as NSD chairperson in June this year after serving two consecutive terms.
He was also briefly the Director of the NSD.
Thiyam (born 20 January 1948) is one of the leading figures of the "theatre of roots" movement in Indian theatre, which started in 1970s. Also known as Thiyam Nemai, Thiyam is known for writing and staging plays that use ancient Indian theater traditions and forms in a contemporary context. A former painter, and proficient in direction, design, script and music, Thiyam is often considered one of leading contemporary theatre gurus.
He is also the founder-director of 'Chorus Repertory Theatre', formed on the outskirts of Imphal, Manipur in 1976. He was awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in Direction in 1987, and the Padma Shri given by the government in 1989.
He was awarded the 2012 Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship, the highest honour in the performing arts conferred by the Akademi.


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Front Row Seating
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IC Realtime
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Key Digital
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Procella Audio
In 2005, DTS Europe directors Anders Uggelberg and Gerben Van Duyl were tasked to create a 30 seat reference theater for DTS London headquarters. None of the best studio monitor, cinema or audiophile speakers tested could meet all of DTS requirements, so Anders and Gerben designed their own speaker system. And so Procella Audio was born. All Procella speakers are designed to produce the full dynamic range of 24/96 recordings at THX levels in rooms from the smallest home theaters to moderate-sized commercial theaters - with audiophile sound quality, high resolution and cinema impact.
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RBH Sound, founded in 1976, is a manufacturer of high performance audio products for residential and commercial applications. Their product offering includes in-wall and in-ceiling speakers, on-wall speakers, freestanding speakers, subwoofers, outdoor speakers, amplifiers, audio distribution products (volume controls) installation accessories (brackets, back cans, stands, etc.) and 70 volt speakers for commercial applications. RBH Sound is also one of the few audio manufacturers who still offer a series of products manufactured in the United States.
SAE is back! With the launch of the 748 watt per channel SAE 2HP fully-differential stereo amplifier and the SAE 8 Channel amplifier, SAE continues their tradition of bringing the finest amplifiers in the world to market. These US built amplifiers adhere to the same design principles that made SAE famous and desirable around the globe. SAE Components for the Connoisseur bring unparalleled excellence in audio reproduction.
Severtson Screens
After beginning in 1986 as a manufacturer of specialty optical coatings for military simulator screens, Severtson Screens emerged in the '90s as a widely popular manufacturer in the cinema screen industry. Today, Severtson has branched out to the home and pro AV markets. By using the same high-quality optical coatings developed for the cinema market, they are able to deliver outstanding performance in both 2D and 3D formats.
Stealth Acoustics
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Tripp Lite
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Wilson Pro
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subset: commoncrawl


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Speech Debelle is special. Soulful and raw, she blew up seemingly out of nowhere and delivered one of the most critically-acclaimed debut albums of the last few years, the Mercury Music Prize-winning 'Speech Therapy' via Ninja Tune/Big Dada. Three years on, having ridden a rollercoaster through life since, she's back, and she's delivered a follow up that packs a powerful punch. If we see her first album as a confessional diary of trials and tribulations, then new album 'Freedom of Speech' is outward-looking, high energy, powerful and engaged.
The 28 year old South London resident is in possession of the most exciting album of the year. Spitting confident rhymes on the twin themes of revolution and love – still brutally honest, yet a more mature and exciting record with lyrics to match. Her new sound was shaped in collaboration with Kwes, a young South London producer who already boasts production for DELS and a record contract with Warp, and also features an appearance from the legendary Roots Manuva.
Check out the video for 'Spinnin':
Plus support from VICE (GENIUS COLLECTIVE)
Vice has been a constant member of the local live music scene. As the MC and producer for Genius Collective, he has collaborated with the likes of Great Scott (Radio 1 & 1Xtra supported), Why G? (Zulu Nation) and DME/Da Mighty Elementz to name but a few, aswell as sharing stages with Smoove & Turrell, Lazy Habits, Scroobius Pip, Stig Of The Dump and many more. Vice's honest, soulful and poetic lyrics paint a positive picture in Birmingham's urban landscape. Vice and the Genius Collective family are rapidly on the rise, steadily building new fans and an ever growing musical family.
Plus opening support from REFLECT
Reflect is a rap artist from Birmingham, UK. He is not for the people that are easily offended but for the people that have a sense of humour. He brought his first rap tape 'KID N PLAY' from a school friend for a couple of quid (his lunch money) and has never looked back.He has just completed his debut album 'Burp'. His plan is to continue to make explicit yet funny music for all to enjoy by using his warped sense of humour and the occasional burp.


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Tag Archives: hobbies
How Can You Reduce Stress?
Stress is a serious issue that many senior citizens deal with on a daily basis. It is important to find ways to reduce this stress as it can lead to many serious health conditions. Sunshine Home Health Aide Org., Inc. is dedicated to helping you not only reduce your stress but to also live a … Continue reading
Posted in Health Care Tagged better living, eat healthy, health conditions, hobbies, in-home care, reduce stress


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Beach time! Let's see how much sand she can eat this time. Oh, good. She has a guide so I can relax. Looks like she has her head in the sand. I can make stuff too! With this makeshift bucket AKA Starbucks cup that Mommy gave me. Guys! Guys! Guys! Fine. I will play by myself. Bury me too! Live … Read More
Spring Break 2012: Disneyland – Day 6
Cars? Not our thing but always a good photo op. Well, the Ariel ride was the big hit this trip for Kayla. I lost track of how many times we rode it. Over and over. She made it worth it every time though. She had it all memorized and was very entertaining during the whole thing. I will miss taking … Read More
Spring Break 2012: SeaWorld – Day 5
Today we drove down to San Diego to see some fish. Big fish! Something different than pretties for sure. Kayla looked into this tank for a long time. Really cool! Not sure what this is but overall I can't complain about this kid. Never really complained any day as long as we kept her fed. Oh, that's better! Ready to … Read More
Spring Break 2012: Disneyland – Day 4
Back to where the "pretties live" today. The big girls wanted to meet up with some friends who were also here so I set off with Kayla in search of more pretties and some rides. Just as we were walking through the castle we spotted this pretty over on a bridge to the side. We got in line quick but … Read More
Spring Break 2012: Universal Studios – Day 3
We have these 5 day CityPass tickets for our trip so the next destination on the docket was Universal Studios. A different vibe than Disney for sure but Kayla likes a lot of the characters there so we thought that would be a big hit. Unfortunately, she has become afraid of anyone in a non-human costume. They all make her … Read More
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Here is a newly revised resource bibliography on strategic thinking and planning:
• Basic Overview of Various Strategic Planning Models by Carter McNamara, http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/models.htm.
• Blueprint for Success, A Guide to Strategic Planning for Nonprofit Board Members by BoardSource (video/DVD), http://www.boardsource.org.
• Business Planning Resources for Nonprofits by The Bridgespan Group, http://www.bridgespan.org/kno_themes_businessplanning.html.
• Designing Your Future by ASAE and the Center for Association Leadership, http://www.asae.org.
• Effective Strategic Planning: Getting Your Organization Focused and Directed by Michael Burns and Paul Yelder, http://www.practitionerresources.org/cache/documents/36796.pdf.
•Field Guide to Nonprofit Strategic Planning and Facilitation by Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, http://www.authenticityconsulting.com/pubs/SP_gdes/SP_pubs.htm.
• Nonprofit Organizational Assessment Tool: Strategic Planning by Professor Andrew B. Lewis, Center for Community Economic Development, University of Wisconsin Extension,
• Presenting: Strategic Planning: Choosing the Right Method for Your Nonprofit Organization by Michela M. Perrone Ph.D. and Janis Johnston and BoardSource, http://www.boardsource.org/Bookstore.asp?category_id=47&Item=179.
• Stanford Social Innovation Review published by the Center for Social Innovation at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, http://www.ssireview.com.
• Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations: A Guide to Strengthening and Sustaining Organizational Achievement by John M. Bryson, http://www.josseybass.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0787967556.html.
• Strategic Planning Resource Collection by Professor Andrew B. Lewis, Center for Community Economic Development, University of Wisconsin Extension, http://www.uwex.edu/ces/cced/nonprofits/management/sites_strategic.cfm.
• Strategic Planning Workbook for Nonprofit Organizations by Brian W. Barry and the Fieldstone Alliance, http://www.fieldstonealliance.org/productdetails.cfm?PC=39.
• Strategic Planning: A Practical Handbook for Nonprofit Organizations by Michael Allison and Jude Kaye, http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471445819.html.
• Strategic Planning: Frequently Asked Questions by The Alliance for Nonprofit Management, http://www.allianceonline.org/FAQ/strategic_planning.
• The Drucker Foundation Self-Assessment Tool Process Guide by the Peter F. Drucker Foundation for Nonprofit Management and Gary J. Stern, http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-078794436X.html.
• The MacMillan Matrix for Competitive Analysis of Programs, http://www.pasesetter.com/documents/pdf/turbtimes/Competitive%20Analysis.pdf
• The Nonprofit Quarterly published by Nonprofit Information Networking Association, www.nonprofitquarterly.org.
• The Nonprofit Strategy Revolution by David La Piana. www.amazon.com.
• Toolkit for Developing a Social Purpose Business Plan, by Structured Employment Economic Development Corporation (Seedco), http://nvn-toolkit.seedco.org/businessplanning.
• What If? The Art of Scenario Thinking for Nonprofits published by the Global Business Network, http://www.gbn.com/ArticleDisplayServlet.srv?aid=32655.
Thursday, September 18, 2008
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Every enterprise handles a large amount of data from a variety of domains. As an enterprise grows, that data increases, and the domains diversify.
There are three main domains in any enterprise:
- Domain of people
- Domain of things
- Domain of places
With an effective multi-domain MDM solution, an enterprise can master all of their domains by linking them, leveraging all available information.


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It is great that you are looking into nutrition. Great choice! However, there's a ton of information out there. Don't worry, nutrition tips are here to help! Below you will find an assortment of tips to help you eat healthier.
Protein is an essential part of the diet that many people don't get enough of. The best type of protein are red meats like steak. Two other good sources are pork and chicken. In addition to making you feel more full, protein also helps muscles grow. This proves how crucial it is.
When starting to fix your diet, go slowly. Change can't be forced overnight. Don't force yourself to eat foods you hate. Over the next month, add in some healthier alternatives to your old menu, and then you have a habit.
Swapping unhealthy food for better food options can be a great way to get started towards a more healthy diet. You must know or learn the nutritional profiles of what you're eating, learn what the alternatives are, and pick alternatives that have a healthier profile. Nutritional information for many foods, even restaurant dishes, can be found on the Internet.
Trans Fats
By now you know that trans fats are not good for you. In order to choose healthier foods, read food labels because they must disclose whether the food contains trans fats. You place yourself at a higher risk for heart disease when you consume foods that have lots of trans fats. HDL will be lowered if you eat too many trans fats. That is good cholesterol.
Eat a wide variety of exotically colored foods. When you eat colorful fruits and veggies, you can eat a great deal without consuming many calories. Try to eat one of these fruits or vegetables with every meal. If the skin of the fruit or vegetable you have chosen can be eaten, then by all means, do as, as the skins often contain large amounts of antioxidants.
Vitamin B-12 is crucial for the body to create red blood cells. Vegetarians and seniors are often deficient in this important vitamin. Additionally, people who have anemia do not usually get enough B12 from their diets. There are supplements; however, most cereals for breakfast will increase your supply of B-12.
You can share your meal with your date when eating at a restaurant. Sometimes, a meal may have too many calories for one person. Splitting a meal not only saves you calories, it saves money too. Now you can eat in a restaurant without breaking your plan.
If you are ill, consume foods with a lot of zinc in order to assist in the recovery process. Zinc helps boost the immune system which helps you recover quicker and protects from future illness. Some of the foods that are highest in zinc are dark chocolate, cocoa powder, oysters, peanuts, crab and pumpkin seeds. As an added bonus, these nutritious treats are often packed with antioxidants.
If you suffer from motion sickness while traveling, consider using ginger. You can also take ginger in capsule form. Take roughly 1K milligrams of ginger about an hour before starting your trip, and then take it again every three hours. Ginger can help calm your stomach and prevent nausea. You could even try ginger tea or natural ginger candies.
Use water to cook your veggies instead of oil. Steamed or boiled veggies are as tasty as fried ones. If you absolutely have to use some oil, make sure you use just a little vegetable oil instead of butter or margarine.
It's smart to steer clear of junk food, but even smarter to recognize other foods that are equally disastrous to your health. Processed foods and those high in simple carbohydrates should also be avoided.
If you are pregnant, a good tip is to get the right amount of vitamin B-12 in your diet. Also, this vitamin limits the chances of birth defects upon conception. Most people get enough vitamin B12 in their diet, but you should be careful if you are following a specific diet.
Fruit Juices
Choose to eat fresh fruit rather than drink fruit juice. Fruit juices that are store-bought have added sugars, but fresh fruit contains natural sweeteners. Believe it or not, some fruit juices contain more sugars than a can of soda. Remember that fruits do contain a variety of nutrients your body needs to function properly. They even work with your body to help fight off chronic disease like cardiovascular issues and stroke.
This is a very versatile vegetable that can add a lot of color to a plate. There is a large variety of important nutrients in eggplant as well.
Now, you should feel more confident about your diet. They had a bit of useful information in them, and you now are aware of what you need to do to have a lot of nutrition. Besides, you can always refer back to this list of tips if you need to remember something.


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The Nate Wolters Show: Critically acclaimed, sparsely attended
Among the few people in the gym 45 minutes before tipoff of South Dakota State-Marshall was an NBA scout, standing on the concourse, sizing up Wolters during warmups. "You've seen him before?" the scout asked. "What do you think? Is he better than Jimmer?"
Not better, I said. Different. Doesn't have Jimmer Range, or anything resembling Jimmer's jumper, but does a better job creating for others, figuring out ways to score from mid-range, and not turning the ball over. He's an actual point guard, too. Whether you like traditional stats -- 21.2 points, 5.9 assists, 5.1 rebounds as a junior while leading SDSU to its first NCAA tournament bid -- or advanced stats -- a 115.5 offensive rating while using a whopping 32.5 percent of his team's possessions -- Wolters looks quite good.
And yet, because he plays in Brookings, S.D., and the Summit League, because he was a fringe D-I recruit who considered playing D-II, because he's an unassuming white kid who scores like mad but doesn't play a ton of defense, because he shot just 24.1 percent from long-range last season, he remains, as another scout said, "a polarizing player". But 19 scouts from 15 different NBA teams were on the credential list. Some of them see Wolters as a second-rounder with a long-shot chance at the first; some see him as just a curiosity. They were all intrigued enough to show up.
As for the fans, well ... Nate Wolters and the Jackrabbits are not exactly a major draw in a neutral-court East Coast game. The fans could be counted in about a minute. There were exactly 60 in the stands, and one guy alone up in some kind of Hofstra athletic department luxury box. (The fans were outnumbered by scouts, media, ushers, coaches, managers, players and refs who totaled 88.) A brief fan-canvassing effort turned up varied interest in the visiting indie star.
Michael O'Brien, a 13-year-old from Marick, N.Y., wearing a Vince Carter throwback jersey, said he asked his dad to buy tickets after looking up Wolters online the previous night. "I've just heard he's NBA material," O'Brien said.
Andy Karlin, a longtime Hofstra season-ticket holder, was there with his wife, Marge. "I've never heard of the school or the team, or that kid before now," Andy said. Informed that Wolters was a sensation back in South Dakota, Marge said, "Oh, that's nice."
Shaquille Davis, a 19-year-old from Hempstead, was an actual Natehead. He showed up specifically to see Wolters. "Two years ago, my friend told me about him, but I didn't pay attention because I'm like, 'South Dakota State, where the hell is that?'" Davis said. "But then I saw his game against Washington last year -- he had 34 [points], he destroyed Terrence Ross and Tony Wroten, so I'm like, 'I have to pay more attention to this kid.' This was my chance to see him."
Davis watched Wolters' 2012-13 season-opener against Alabama (a narrow loss in which he had 30 points), and was hoping to see something similar. "He has the whole package. He's ready for the NBA," Davis said. "I want to see him go to work."
The game started, and Wolters uncharacteristically -- maybe because he was tired after losing to Hofstra the previous night -- didn't shoot for the first five minutes and 11 seconds. "If he's going to the NBA, he needs to shoot more," opined Tim Owens, a 48-year-old UPS driver from Patchogue, N.Y. "Also, I play in like, YMCA Leagues and LA Fitness leagues, and I don't think he could stop me."
Wolters scored his first points at the 12:26 mark and his first field goal at 11:49 to put the Jackrabbits up 13-12. His game does not really overwhelm you; it's an acquired taste that's a mix of change-of-pace dribbles in pick-and-rolls, crafty space-creating moves in isolation, slow-and-low released jumpers, and mid-range improvisation. A wrong-footed floater he hit in the lane with 2:56 left was particularly Wolters-ian, but he finished the half just 2-of-10 from the field, with nine points, four rebounds, four assists and no turnovers. Not mind-blowingly good, but still, quietly productive. They trailed 41-40 at the break.
Another Wolters-ian thing is that his stats sneak up on you. If the 60 people in the stands had been polled, I doubt many would have realized he finished the game with 22 points, 10 assists, six rebounds and just one turnover. It was a remarkably unassuming near-triple-double. His coach, Scott Nagy, didn't even realize it after the Jackrabbits pulled out a 78-77 win. He picked up a boxscore and said, "I felt like he had 10 points, and he had 22. He does that all the time. I'll think he didn't play well, and then I'll look and see a great line."
What everyone did remember was Wolters' passing. In the final 5:29, he had four assists as SDSU pulled off an improbable comeback, including from a five-point deficit with 20 seconds left. Wolters' penultimate assist was on the Brayden Carlson trey that cut Marshall's lead to two with 13 seconds left. Then came a moment where everyone expected Wolters -- who tends to dominate the ball late in the game and has fixed his long-range shot to the extent that he's made 61.5 percent of them thus far -- to pull up for the game-winner while trailing 77-75 with five seconds left.
Wolters was covered, somewhat, as he brought the ball up the floor, and so he chose to dish to a wide-open Chad White on the right wing. Nagy praised this decision. It was the right decision. Nonetheless, one NBA scout saw Wolters give up the ball on the final possession and joked, "He's LeBron!"
Even White, a reserve who had made one three earlier in the game, said "it was unexpected". He had seen Wolters make multiple game-winners last season and figured he might see another one on Saturday. White did -- but it was a game-winner of his own, a clutch three.
"I could have pulled up [to shoot]," Wolters said. "But I trusted Chad to make it. I like taking big shots, but I have to make the right play in those situations."
If he has a future in the NBA, it's as a playmaking/scoring point guard, one of those diamonds-in-the-rough like Jeremy Lin or Steve Nash, in the absolute best-case scenario. Wolters' decision-making is progressing; the 10:1 assist ratio against Marshall is solid evidence of that. His three-point shot, even if it has a low release, seems to be fixed after a summer of revamping his guide-hand position to move his thumb off the ball. A strong performance at the Adidas Nations camp in August, where he more than held his own in scrimmages against major-conference stars, upped his stock in scouts' eyes.
I asked Wolters if any major D-I teams, or their fans, had expressed regret they never offered him a scholarship out of St. Cloud, Minn., given that he could probably start for 99 percent of them now.
"A couple have, but in high school, I wasn't good enough at all," he said. "I wasn't even close. I was unathletic and didn't shoot the ball well, so they didn't even look at me. I didn't think I was at a high D-I level yet."
He is now, even if he doesn't have the swagger to say that he should be playing in front of thousands rather than dozens, and on TV rather than in front of the two video coordinators' cameras at Hofstra. But such is the life of the indie All-America candidate, even when he's averaging 25.7 points, 6.3 rebounds and 5.0 assists thus far as a senior, and may go on to lead the nation in scoring.
Among the few things Wolters has to validate his cult-hero status is a fake Twitter account in his honor, Fake Nate Wolters, run by someone he's never met. It says the things that Nate won't, such as this Tweet from the start of the season:
Some people do the "little things" that don't show up in the stat book. Turns out the stuff in the stat book is important. I do those things.


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Home > About Us
There's a little something for everyone.
Join Now
As a leader in women's health in Kansas City, North Kansas City Hospital is excited about Club W, our new wellness program just for women. It's the only program of its kind in the Northland dedicated to a happier, healthier you.
Our goal with Club W is to create a community of women who are passionate about living healthy and having fun. Club W's health education programming, convenient access to preventive wellness screenings, family activities and signature events put the spotlight on taking care of your mind, body and spirit.
Enjoy fun, food and pampering while chatting one-on-one with our doctors and healthcare experts.
Leave your hectic schedule behind and join us for classes and outings complete with fun activities for moms and moms-to-be.
Experience wonderful food and wine in the company of friends while listening to dynamic speakers discuss health-related issues close to their hearts.


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Operation Hardtack I
|Nuclear weapons testing
Operation Hardtack I
Hardtack I Oak, an 8.9 megaton explosion.
|United States
|Test site
|Number of tests
|Test type
|air drop, balloon, barge, dry surface, high-altitude rocket (30–80 km), underwater detonation
|Max. yield
|9.3 megatons of TNT (39 PJ)
|Test series chronology
Operation Hardtack I was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States from April 28 to August 18 in 1958 at the Pacific Proving Grounds.[1][2]:212 At the time of testing, the Operation Hardtack I test series included more nuclear detonations than the total of all prior nuclear explosions in the Pacific Ocean.[3]:1 These tests followed the Project 58/58A series, which occurred from 1957 December 6 to 1958, March 14, and preceded the Operation Argus series, which took place in 1958 from August 27 to September 6.[2]:212–4
Operation Hardtack I was directed by Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). JTF-7 was a collaboration between the military and many civilians, but was structured like a military organization. Its 19,100 personnel were composed of members of the US military, federal civilian employees, as well as workers affiliated with the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).[3]:1
There were three main research directions. The first was the development of new types of nuclear weapons. This was undertaken by detonating experimental devices created by the AEC's Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and the University of California Radiation Laboratory (UCRL). The DOD performed experiments and tests on these detonations that did not hamper the AEC's research. The second research direction was to examine how underwater explosions affected materiel, especially Navy ships, and was performed by the DOD. The Wahoo test was conducted in the open ocean, whereas Umbrella was in a lagoon.[3]:1 The final avenue of study was to analyze high-altitude nuclear tests to refine the detection of high-altitude nuclear tests and investigate defensive practices for combatting ballistic missiles. This research direction was composed of three individual tests and were the first high-altitude tests. The individual tests in the series were Orange, Teak, and Yucca. Orange and Teak were known collectively as Operation Newsreel and were rocket boosted. Yucca reached its altitude utilizing balloons.[1][2]:187[3]:3
- 1 Historical background
- 2 High-altitude tests
- 3 Surface tests
- 4 Barge tests
- 5 Underwater tests
- 6 References
- 7 External links
Historical background[edit]
Many events and proceedings leading up to Operation Hardtack I, such as previous nuclear testing results and the global political atmosphere, influenced its creation and design. One such historical circumstance was that nuclear radiation concerns were mounting publicly and abroad by 1956. During the 1956 Presidential Election, ending nuclear testing was a campaign issue and nuclear safety was one part of that discussion. At the same time, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was publicly proposing a moratorium on testing.[2]:149
In 1956 during June, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) recommended new radiation exposure limits for the general public in a report entitled The Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation.[2]:153 The AEC, which was the body that developed nuclear weapons,[4]:3 accepted the NAS recommended radiation exposure limits. Some AEC members asserted that the limits were reached incorrectly and should be reviewed in the future. Charles L. Dunham, AEC Director of the Division of Biology and Medicine (DBM), said that the new limits of nuclear radiation exposure would prevent them from continuing testing in Nevada. Dunham, in association with other AEC offices and officials, made recommendations to move further tests to the Pacific to eliminate the need to determine radiological fallout safety.[2]:154
Also in 1956, the AEC was designing a test series that included nuclear detonations which would release significant amounts of nuclear fallout. The series came to be known as Operation Plumbbob and took place in 1957 from April 24 to October 7. Operation Plumbbob was followed by Project 58/58A and Operation Hardtack I, respectively. At the time of testing, Operation Plumbbob was the most extensive nuclear test series held at the Nevada Test Site.[2]:159 President Eisenhower was very cautious in approving Plumbbob due to public concern.[2]:157 Consequently, the AEC held brief and ultimately fruitless discussions of moving some of the tests in the Plumbbob series to the next planned Pacific Ocean series, Operation Hardtack I, to minimize radioactive fallout in and around the Nevada Test Site.[2]:155
When Operation Plumbbob began in the spring of 1957, the planning process of Operation Hardtack I was well underway and the number of nuclear detonations planned were more than those in the Plumbbob series.[2]:183 At the same time, radiation and nuclear proliferation concerns around the world had led to formal discussions between the US, USSR, and other countries on the topic of instituting a global ban on nuclear testing as a path to disarmament. In 1957 on August 9 AEC chairman Lewis L. Strauss proposed to President Eisenhower a preliminary plan of Operation Hardtack I. President Eisenhower objected to the length of the four month testing period and that the plan called for 25 shots,[2]:183 which was one more than in Plumbbob.[2]:161 As a result of the discussion Eisenhower consented to yields no larger than 15 megatons, and ordered that the testing period be as brief as possible.[2]:183
Project 58/58A followed Operation Plumbbob and began almost two months later starting in 1957 on December 6. Project 58/58A was composed of four safety tests; they were not supposed to result in nuclear radiation. All four took place at the Nevada Test Site. The safety tests were intended to ensure that the bombs would not malfunction. However, the test named Coulomb-C which took place in 1957 on December 9 did malfunction. It resulted in an unanticipated 500-ton blast. The blast released a nuclear radiation fallout cloud that traveled toward Los Angeles and resulted in low levels of nuclear radiation. The bomb failure added to public concern over nuclear testing's safety.[2]:186
Some tests were cut in an effort to meet Eisenhower's demands for a shorter testing period, but new tests quickly filled their place. AEC chairman Strauss remarked that the large number of shots was due to the "DOD's requirement for an increasing number of different nuclear weapons types."[2]:187 Eisenhower eventually approved the plan for Operation Hardtack I in late January, even though it still contained 25 shots. On March 31 1958, the USSR announced a suspension of all tests and called on the US to do the same. On May 9 the leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, accepted Eisenhower's invitation for technical discussions on a nuclear testing moratorium and negotiations began on July 1 of the same year. Eisenhower announced to the US on August 22, 1958 that the ban would begin October 31. US scientists responded by seeking to add more tests to the Hardtack Series in case it turned out to be the last chance. Consequently Operation Hardtack I consisted of 35 tests.[2]:189–90
There was public health concern with the number of shots in Operation Hardtack I.[4]:23 Studies released in March of 1958 indicated that people as far as 400 miles (640 km) away could have severe retinal burns from two of the three high-altitude tests, Teak and Orange.[2]:187[4]:257 It was then decided that they would be moved to Johnston Island, which was 538 miles (866 km) from the nearest inhabited island. The high-altitude nuclear tests delivered the first openly reported man-made high-altitude electromagnetic pulses (EMP). Teak, which was detonated at 252,000 feet (76.8 km) and was 3.8 megatons, produced an aurora-like effect that was visible from Hawaii, 700 nautical miles (806 miles, 1297 kilometers) displaced from the detonation. Most radio communications immediately dropped across the Pacific Ocean. The blackout in Australia lasted for 9 hours and Hawaii's lasted for no less than 2 hours.[4]:266–9
High-altitude tests[edit]
Operation Hardtack I contained three high-altitude tests that were designed to study many effects that a nuclear explosion would have on materials and electronic systems. They were also used to test the energy of the explosion and what forms of energy they would produce. Yucca was the name of the first high-altitude test and it was performed near the Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The other two high-altitude tests, Orange and Teak, were performed near the Johnston Atoll in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,300 kilometers southwest of the Hawaiian Islands.[4]:251
Impact on ozone layer[edit]
There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the ozone layer. After multiple underwater tests there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create ozone. Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion. It was agreed that if this theory were wrong, the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.[5]
Yucca was the first high-altitude test performed during Operation Hardtack I and was detonated on April 28, 1958. It was lifted by a balloon to an altitude of 86,000 feet (26.2 km) and had a yield of 1.7 kilotons.[3]:2[4]:251To achieve the altitude needed, the device was attached to a large helium-filled balloon which carried it to the detonation altitude. Due to issues with high winds on Enewetak Island, the balloon launches from ground were unsatisfactory, thus creating the need for a new method. The balloons were then deployed from an aircraft carrier which helped with deployment and the inflation. While the balloons were inflated, they were unable to take too much force from wind or the plastic material of the balloons would tear. While the balloons were inflating on the aircraft carrier, the ship could match and oppose the wind speed allowing for the balloon to be inflated in still air. To make sure the launch would be successful 86 balloon launches were tested.[4]:252
Due to concerns of failures, many safety measures were employed. While on ground, the bomb used multiple pins to prevent certain safety features of the bomb from being deployed before liftoff. One such pin was used to stop the electrical systems so that the bomb would be unable to be armed. In case of a dud, the bomb would detach from the balloon and be allowed to drop into the ocean where many more safety features would come into action. Some of these features included probes which could detect saltwater which would destroy the electrical system so the conductive seawater could not cause a short which would detonate the bomb. Another concern was a nuclear device floating in the ocean should a misfire occur. To combat this, inserts were created which would dissolve in a few hours, thus scuttling the device.[4]:253–4
On the day of the launch many meteorological aspects were taken into account and calculations were done to ensure the bomb would reach the correct altitude. The bomb was loaded onto an aircraft carrier and preparations began. As the balloon was inflated multiple testing devices were connected to the balloon. The readings from these devices would be sent to multiple ships and aircraft so nothing would need to be recovered after the explosion. After all the preparations were done and the balloon was inflated, the device was released and began to climb. After almost three and a half hours of climbing the bomb was detonated at an altitude of 26.2 kilometers (16.3 mi). The aircraft carrier which carried Yucca was approximately 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) from the detonation site. The shock wave from Yucca reached the carrier 3 minutes and 16 seconds after detonation.[4]:255–7
The Yucca test had many Department of Defense projects attached to it for research purposes. Alongside testing the use of a balloon carrier, the Department of Defense wanted to research the electromagnetic waves emitted from a nuclear explosion. This test would be used to determine the impact a nuclear explosion would have on electronic devices. All of the data from these Department of Defense projects would be stored on recording devices on surrounding islands and in aircraft so data would not have to be recovered after the test.[4]:253–4 However, Yucca was carrying five different transmitting devices in canisters to help with research. While the balloon proved to be a great success, no data from the canisters were able to be retrieved due to equipment issues onboard one of the aircraft carriers.[6]:201
The Teak test was launched from Johnston Island on July 31, 1958 and carried a payload of 3.8 megatons.[3]:3[4]:251 Teak was the second high-altitude test after the success of Yucca. Instead of a balloon, the warhead for the Teak test would be carried by a missile. The Redstone missile which would carry Teak had been used to launch Explorer I in January of the same year.[4]:256–7 Other nuclear weapons had been tested using the Redstone missile, but until this time the highest payload to have been detonated was 3 kilotons during Operation Teapot.[6]:218 Teak would be the first high-altitude test to have a payload in the megaton range. The test was scheduled to take place from the Bikini Atoll. Due to the fact that the payloads of Teak and Orange were much larger than previous high-altitude shots, the test was moved to Johnston Island as to protect nearby native islanders from any retinal damage. As both Teak and Orange had been relocated these two tests were named Operation Newsreel. The name Newsreel came from the fact that these two tests were being moved to Johnston Island.[4]:259
The safety precautions taken by the teams involved were precisely detailed. The day before the launch 187 team members would evacuate Johnston Island with 727 men the day of the test. This was to keep as few men on the island while still being able to operate the airfield and critical data instruments. Another problem the team members were concerned about was the issue of retinal damage. Since the payload of the bomb was so large, aircraft were scheduled to keep any civilian ships out of a 760 kilometers (470 mi) radius of Johnston Island. Additionally, the Civil Aeronautics Authority was informed that it would be dangerous for any aircraft to fly within 965 kilometers (600 mi) of Johnston Island. On the day of the test only about 175 men remained on Johnston Island to prepare for Teak to be launched and other various duties needed after.[4]:262–3
At 11:47 PM on July 31 Teak was launched; after 3 minutes it was detonated. Due to programming issues, the warhead detonated directly above Johnston Island.[6]:219 At time of detonation the rocket had flown to an altitude of 76.2 kilometers (47.3 mi). The explosion could be seen from Hawaii 1,297 kilometers (806 mi) away and was said to be visible for almost half an hour. After the explosion, high frequency long distance communication was interrupted across the Pacific. Due to this communication failure Johnston Island was unable to contact their superiors to advise of the test results until about eight hours after the detonation. Thirty minutes after detonation, a crew was sent out to collect the pod which had detached from the missile carrying the warhead. The pod had been irradiated and to handle it the crew members used disposable gloves in an attempt to protect themselves from beta radiation.[4]:265–70
During the Teak test all crew on and around Johnston Island were given protective eyewear to prevent flash blindness from the explosion. After the explosion it was found that besides the hazard of blindness, thermal radiation was another concern—even at an altitude of 76 kilometers (47 mi). A crew member who was on Johnston Island at the time was said to have received a slight sunburn from the amount of thermal radiation which had reached the island. While only slight to the crew member it created issues for the local fauna. Many birds were seen on Johnston Island in distress. Unsure if this was caused by blindness or thermal radiation, the project members decided to take precautions to protect local wildlife during the Orange test.[5]
Orange was launched twelve days after Teak on August 11, 1958.[4]:251 Orange, like Teak, was launched using a Redstone Missile and had a yield of 3.8 megatons.[3]:3[4]:271 The same safety precautions used by Teak were implemented for the Orange launch. Seeing how smoothly the evacuation for the Teak launch went, it was decided that the evacuation did not need to occur the day before the launch and eight hundred and eight men were evacuated on August 11 to an aircraft carrier about 70 kilometers (43 mi) northeast of the island. Along with protection for the project crew, it was decided after Teak that Sand Island, a local bird refuge, would need protection from the blast as well. To make sure that most of the wildlife was safe a smoke screen was created over Sand Island. Due to interest in Hawaii, it was announced on August 11 that there would be a nuclear test sometime between 10 PM and 6 AM.[4]:271
The rocket carrying the warhead was launched at 11:27 from Johnston Island and traveled south. Like Teak, the flight lasted 3 minutes and was detonated at 11:30 PM about 41 kilometers (25 mi) south of Johnston Island at an altitude of about 43 kilometers (27 mi).[4]:271The trajectory of Orange was a major success after the incident with Teak being detonated directly over the island.[6]:219 The recovery crew for the pod that was with Orange was unable to locate the research pod which had been launched with the rocket. Although Orange was visible from Hawaii it was not the great spectacle Teak had been. The light from the blast was visible for about 5 minutes. The explosion had also been slightly obscured to the crew at Johnston Island by cloud coverage. The blast from Orange did not cause the large communication interruption that Teak had caused, but some commercial flights to Hawaii were said to have lost contact with air traffic controllers for a short period of time.[4]:271
Surface tests[edit]
Of the 35 nuclear tests in Operation Hardtack I, four were surface burst shots: Cactus, Koa, Quince and Fig. These tests took place from May to August 1958, all at the Enewetak Atoll. Surface tests inherently present the potential for more radioactive exposure issues than the high-altitude or underwater detonations. This is because there is more material present to be converted to radioactive debris by excess neutrons due to the proximity to the Earth's surface, and due to the soil and other minerals excavated from the craters created by these blasts. The existence of this extra material allows for larger radioactive particles to be created and lifted into the blast cloud, falling back to the surface as fallout.[4]:28Though surface and near-surface tests have a higher probability of radioactive exposure problems, the radioactive elements have significantly shorter residence times when injected into the atmosphere. As radioactive clouds from surface-type tests reach heights of around 20 kilometers (12 mi) at maximum, and thus cannot extend higher than the lower stratosphere, the residence times can be up to 13 years less than the high-altitude blasts.[5]:38 During original concept planning in 1954, Enewetak was supposed to be the location of the smaller tests conducted during Operation Hardtack I. Due to poor weather conditions and policy changes in 1958, five of the UCRL tests which were planned to be conducted at the Bikini Atoll were moved to Enewetak. This included the later two surface blast devices in the Quince and Fig tests.[4]:149–87
The Cactus test took place May 6, 1958 at approximately 0615. An 18 Kiloton land-surface type shot was detonated on a platform at the northern tip of Runit, Enewetak in the second of the 35 tests for Operation Hardtack I.[4]:2The initial cloud from the explosion reached as high as 19,000 feet (5.79 km) within the first ten minutes, and settled at around 15,000 feet (4.57 km) by 20 minutes after detonation. The nuclear fallout prediction map proved to be accurate in determining the span and the intensity of the resultant fallout.[4]:149–87Measured peak intensity of fallout reached 440 R at hour three directly above blast site on the North end of the Atoll. At mid-island the radiation was measured to be 1.7 R. The southern tip received a very small amount of radiation, 0.005 R due to the easterly winds.
Out of the eight Programs listed, DOD-affiliated Projects 1.4, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 2.8, 3.2, 5.2, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 involved the Cactus test.[4]:149–87
One of the goals of this test was to study the physical characteristics of the crater and the surrounding area pre- and post-detonation associated with Project 1.4. A camera was mounted to a RB-50 aircraft and the resultant crater was mapped using photogrammetry. Measurements were taken from 500 feet (152 m) down to ground zero for both pre- and post detonation. Survey measurements of the Cactus test could not be made until the resultant radiation amounts had lowered to safer levels.[4]:114–38 Along with photogrammetric radial measurements, Airblast measurements were also recorded near surface zero for Cactus in accordance with Project 1.7. Similar to Project 1.8, Project 1.9 sought to determine transmission of blast pressure through the ground soil. Forty-three drums were buried at varying depths 600 feet (183 meters) from ground zero of the Cactus detonation. Individuals from the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division – TRW Space Technologies Laboratory sought to the Shock Spectra Studies of Project 1.12. Measurement gauges were located between 625 and 965 feet (191 and 294 m) from the blast site. Fallout measurements and samples were taken by aircraft in the aftermath of the detonation, as part of Project 2.8. These surveys were designed in part to determine the impact of specific radionuclides to overall nuclear fallout. Samples were taken early post-blast using a new rocket sampler, the UCRL, which were then followed by B-57D and WB-50 aircraft. Between four and twenty-four hours post-detonation, the WB-50 collected several samples at 1,000 feet (300 m) in altitude. Project 3.2 involved structural tests of corrugated steel arches. One of these arches was placed 980 feet (299 meters) away from the Cactus blast site. Eight days after the test, a crew of 13 men were allowed near the surface zero in order to extract the arch. The extraction took around twelve hours, and the radioactivity levels reached a maximum at 0.420 R/h during this time. Project 5.2 sought to determine the effects of the blast on two A4D-1 aircraft, both in thermal radiation and pressure. Nine film badges were placed throughout each aircraft in order to measure radiation. The Gamma dosimeter worn by the pilot in aircraft 827 indicated a neutron exposure level of 0.105 rem. There is not information available for the dosimeter worn by the pilot in aircraft 831. Radiation recorded by six of the nine film badges ranged from 0.49-1.74R. Information from the remaining three film badges, located at the Pilot's right leg, left sleeve, and left vest is not available. The pilot's exposures were both greater than 3R. Project 5.3 was very similar to 5.2, focusing on the effects of the blast on the structure of two test FJ-4 aircraft. Radiation from film badges on aircraft 467 ranged from 0.52-3.71 R, and 1.23-5.06 R for aircraft number 310. In Project 6.4, the Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory (SRDL) investigated the electromagnetic pulses post-detonation, utilizing two instruments, one at Wotho (roughly 240 nautical miles from Enewetak) and one at Kusaie (around 440 nautical miles from Enewetak). Though Cactus is mentioned in Project 6.5, whose goal was to study the radar echoes from the fireball, it is not clear what destroyers were involved if any. Destroyers for the Teak, Fir and Yucca tests are explicitly stated. Project 6.6, the lasts of the projects that involved the Cactus test, sought to measure the physical properties of the stabilized radioactive cloud following the blast.[4]:114–38
At 0630 on May 13, the Koa surface device was detonated at the western side of Dridrilbwij. The size of the blast was 1.37 MT, around 76 times larger than the yield of the previous surface test, Cactus. The test was conducted in a large water tank. Within 17 minutes of the blast, surface clouds reached approximately 60,000 feet (18 km). Nuclear fallout predictions for Koa were larger and covered a broader range than Cactus, with significantly higher radiation levels, an order of magnitude larger, in the immediate region surrounding the blast.[4]:44 There had been a larger nuclear barge detonation, the 1.85 MT Apache test, off the island of Dridrilbwij two years prior in 1956, during which the island survived.[7] The detonation of the Koa device, however, caused complete destruction of the island.[4]:44
The Department of Defense (DOD) sponsored a series of experiments for Koa: Projects 1.4, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 2.9, 3.2, 3.6, 5.1, 5.3. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.9. and 6.11.[4]:149–87 Project 1.4, which sought to study land craters post detonation for several shots, took ground survey measurements from surface zero out to 2,500 feet (760 m). Detailed measurements could not be made until four days after the blast due to radiation levels. Using a boat, the majority of the crater was mapped, though some measurements could not be made until 1959 due to radioactivity levels around the Koa blast site. In Project 1.9, the blast-induced pressure through the soil was measured by burying 43 drums at depths ranging from 0 to 20 feet and around 3,000 feet (910 m) feet from the Koa blast site. The early radioactive cloud samples, normally collected post-shot as a part of Project 2.8 using a UCRL rocket sampler, were not collected after the Koa test due to technical difficulties. Fallout at high and low altitudes utilizing B-57D and WB-50 aircraft were measured with no technical problems. Project 3.6, which was conducted only on Koa, tested the effects of the blast on reinforced-concrete slabs buried close to surface zero. One station was located at 1,830 feet (560 m) from the blast site, and the other was located 3,100 feet (940 m) away. Project 5.2 was designed to measure the radiation levels using film badges on different areas of the aircraft and on the pilot directly. Koa had the lowest average radiation measurements of the eight shots on this project, with aircraft 827 ranging from 0.01-0.02R and aircraft 831 reporting levels between 0.03-0.19R. Unlike in the Cactus test, all nine film badges from both aircraft were successfully recovered and reported.[4]:114–38
Quince and Fig[edit]
Quince and Fig were a series of surface shots that occurred in early August at the center of Runit. They were the last of the Hardtack tests conducted at the Enewetak Atoll. Quince was detonated at 2:15pm on August 6, 1958. Twelve days later, the Fig device was detonated on August 18, 1958 at 4:00pm. Quince and Fig were UCRL devices with co-sponsorship through the DOD and the AEC, though the main focus of these tests was weapons development. One of the main differences between these two tests was that over 130 tons of soil from the Nevada Test Site had been shipped in and was placed at surface zero of the Fig test. The radioactive cloud from the Quince blast rose to 1,500 feet (460 m). As Runit was to also be the detonation site for Fig, the area had to be decontaminated after the Quince test. Around three to five inches of contaminated topsoil was removed from an area 75 feet by 25 feet upwind of ground zero. An area of 60 square feet at the blast site was scraped to remove the top three inches of soil as well. Even with these precautions, the measured alpha activity was around 20,000 counts per minute (CPM), and the area closest to surface zero was roped off to prevent personnel from entering. Upon detonation, the mushroom cloud produced by the Fig device rose to approximately 6,000 feet (1.8 km), with a base of roughly 4,300 feet (1.3 km). 30 minutes post detonation, radiation measurements at the blast site reached over 10,000 R/hr.[4]:219–22
The DOD experiments for Quince and Fig included Projects 1.4, 1.7. 2.4, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.14. and 8.7.[4]:219–22
Barge tests[edit]
Barge mounted test detonations was a technique first used in 1954, and also compensated for the lack of land at the HP. When testing returned to Bikini atoll the use of barges as the shot point had begun, with one notable advantage, no radioactive surface zero areas were developed. Two large underwater craters were formed in 1954 and these were used as subsequent surface zeros for detonations fired from barges. This allowed the available land area to be used for the placement of measurement instrumentation and reuse of the same burst point without the long delays required for radiological cooling by natural decay or expensive and long decontamination procedures. Reuse of zero points also allowed reuse of instrument locations and recording shelters for several tests saving construction costs and time and Increasing test-scheduling flexibility. In HARDTACK the 26 barge events used only five detonation areas.[3][4]
FIR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship position, and aircraft participation. FIR was the first Bikini detonation of the Hardtack series. Detonated at 0550 on May 12, 1958. FIR was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater, producing a 1.36 Mt yield range.[3] After detonation, the cloud rose to 60,000 to 90,000 feet (18.3–27.4 km). The FIR detonation was shortly followed by BUTTERNUT detonation on Enewetak 25 minutes later. DOD-sponsored experiments for FIR included Projects 3.7, 5.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 and 6.11.[3]:2[4]:152
BUTTERNUT predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion areas (radex), ship positions, and aircraft participation. Butternut was detonated at 0615 on May 12, 1958, 25 minutes after FIR had been detonated at Enewetak. BUTTERNUT was detonated on a barge 4,000 feet (1.22 km) west of Runit, producing a yield range of 81 kt.[3] The cloud rose to 35,000 feet (11 km), stabilizing at 30,000 feet (9.1 km). The DOD-sponsored experiments for BUTTERNUT were Projects 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.9.[3]:2[4]:152
HOLLY predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. HOLLY was detonated at 0630 on May 21, 1958 on a barge west of Runit, 4,000 feet (1.22 km) from the nearest edge of the island, producing a 5.9 kt yield range.[3] The detonation produced a 15,000 feet (4.6 km) cloud that stabilized at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3.7 km) at the top and 7,500 feet (2.3 km) at its base. Project 6.6, was the only DOD-sponsored experiment for HOLLY, and was conducted on Enewetak Island.[3]:2[4]:192
NUTMEG predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion area (radex), ship positions, and aircraft participation. The second Bikini shot, NUTMEG, was detonated at 0920 on May 22, 1958. NUTMEG was detonated on a barge in the ZUNI crater, and produced a 25.1 kt yield range.[3] The detonation cloud stabilized at 20,000 feet (6.1 km) by 0926. DOD-sponsored experiments for NUTMEG were Projects 6.3, 6.3a, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.11. Projects 6.3 and 6.3a had stations near the burst point on Eneman Island.[3]:2[4]:156
YELLOWWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological (radix) exclusion area, and ship positions. YELLOWWOOD was detonated at 1400 on May 26, 1958. YELLOWWOOD was detonated on a barge 5,000 feet (1.5 km) southwest of Enjebi, and produced a 330 kt yield range.[3] The DOD sponsored 13 experiments for YELLOWWOOD: Projects 2.4, 2.8, 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.8, 6.9, 6.11, and 8.1. Instrument stations for Project 2.4 were located on buoys in the lagoon. The remaining projects had more distant stations or were primarily airborne.[3]:2[4]:193–5
Predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radix) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. MAGNOLIA was detonated at 0600 on May 27, 1958. MAGONLIA was detonated on a barge 3,000 feet (914 m) southwest of the center of Runit, and produced a 57 kt yield range.[3] The detonation produced a 44,000-foot (13.4 km) cloud that stabilized at 41,000 feet (12.5 km) with its base at 15,000 feet (4.6 km). The DOD-sponsored experiments for MAGNOLIA were Projects: 3.7, 5.2, and 5.3. Instruments for Project 3.7 were on Boken, Enjebi, and Runit.[3]:2[4]:197
TOBACCO predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radix) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. TOBACCO was detonated at 1415 on May 30, 1958. TOBACCO was detonated on a barge 3,000 feet (914 m) northwest of Enjebi, and produced an 11.6 kt yield range.[3] The detonation produced an 18,000-foot (5.5 km) cloud that stabilized at 16,000 feet (4.9 km) by 1430. The DOD-sponsored experiments for TOBACCO were Projects 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 6.8. The project activity for Project 3.7 was on Boken, Enjebi, and Runit. Project 6.8 simply monitored TOBACCO from stations off Enewetak and Parry islands.[3]:2[4]:199
SYCAMORE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. SYCAMORE was detonated at 1500 on May 31, 1958. SYCAMORE was detonated on a barge moored in the BRAVO crater, and produced a 92 kt yield range.[3] DOD-sponsored experiments for SYCAMORE were Projects: 3.7, 5.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, and 6.11. Only Project 6.11 had an instrument site at the Bikini Atoll.[3]:2[4]:160
MAPLE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. MAPLE was detonated on June 11 at 0530 1958. MAPLE was detonated on a barge just south of Lomilik, and produced a 213 kt yield range.[3] The 40,000 feet (12.2 km) cloud produced by the detonation was tracked by radar from Benner. The DOD-sponsored experiments for MAPLE were Projects 5.1, 6.3, and 6.3a. Projects 6.3 and 6.3a shared the same, rather close-in sites on Lomilik.[3]:2[4]:162
ASPEN predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. ASPEN was detonated on 15 June 58 at 0530. ASPEN was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater of Bikini, 4,000 ft (1.22 km) southwest of Nam. ASPEN produced a 319 kt yield range.[3] The detonation produced a 48,600-foot (14.8 km) cloud as measured by radar from Benner. No experiments were sponsored by the DOD for this shot.[3]:2[4]:154
WALNUT predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. WALNUT was detonated on June 15, 1958 at 0630, 1 hour after the ASPEN event at Bikini. WALNUT was detonated on a barge 5,000 feet (1.52 km) southwest of Enjebi Island in Enewetak. The detonation produced a 61,000 feet (18.6 km) cloud, and produced a 1.45 Mt yield range.[3] The DOD-sponsored experiments for WALNUT included Projects 2.4, 2.8, 3.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 8.1.[3]:2[4]:154
LINDEN predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. LINDEN was detonated on June 18, 1958 at 1500. LINDEN was detonated on a barge 4,000 ft (1.22 km) west of the center of Runit Island at Enewetak. The detonation produced a 20,000-foot (6.1 km) cloud with a 7,000-foot (2.1 km) base, and produced an 11 kt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were conducted during LINDEN.[3]:2[4]:203
REDWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. REDWOOD was detonated on June 28, 1958 at 0530. REDWOOD was detonated on a barge south of Lomilik in Bikini. REDWOOD was followed by the ELDER detonation at Enewetak Atoll one hour later. The detonation cloud base was at 28,000 feet (8.5 km) and the top stabilized at 55,000 feet (16.8 km), and produced a 412 kt yield range.[3] The only DOD-sponsored experiment for REDWOOD was Project 5.1.[3]:2[4]:168
ELDER predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) areas, ship positions, and aircraft participation. ELDER, detonated on June 28, 1958 at 0630. ELDER was the second of a tandem shot with REDWOOD (detonated an hour earlier on Bikini). ELDER was detonated on a barge 1 nmi (1.85 km) southeast of Enjebi Island in Enewetak. Initial cloud height had been well over 65,000 feet (19.8 km), and produced an 880 kt yield range.[3] The only DOD-sponsored experiment for ELDER was project 5.1.[3]:2[4]:168
OAK predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, and ship positions. OAK, one of the largest detonations at Enewetak Atoll, and was fired at 0730 on June 29, 1958. OAK was detonated on a barge moored on the reef 21,000 feet (6.40 km) southwest of Bokoluo Island. It was followed at noon by the HICKORY shot at Bikini. The Initial height of the cloud was estimated to be 78,000 feet (23.8 km), and produced an 8.9 MT yield range.[3] Two DOD-sponsored experiments were included for OAK: Projects 2.8 and 5.1.[3]:2[4]:205
HICKORY predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. HICKORY was detonated on June 29, 1958 at 1200. HICKORY was detonated on a barge off the west end of Enema at Bikini, 4½ hours after the OAK shot at Enewetak Atoll. The detonation cloud rose to 24,200 feet (7.4 km) with an estimated 12,000-foot (3.7 km) base, and produced a 14 kt yield range.[3] Projects 6.3 and 6.3a were the only DOD-sponsored experiments for HICKORY.[3]:2[4]:170
SEQUOIA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. SEQUOIA was detonated on July 2, 1958 at 0630. SEQUOIA was detonated on a barge 2,000 feet (610 m) west-northwest of Runit Island at Enewetak. The cloud stabilized at 15,000 feet (4.57 km), and produced a 52 kt yield range.[3] SEQUIA had no DOD-sponsored experiments.[3]:2[4]:209
CEDAR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. CEDAR was detonated on July 3, 1958 at 0530. CEDAR was detonated on a barge in the BRAVO crater southwest of Nam, 4,000 feet (1.2 km) from the edge of the island at Bikini. The CEDAR detonation produced a 50,000-foot (15.2 km) cloud, and produced a 220 kt yield range.[3] The only DOD-sponsored experiment for CEDAR was Project 5.1.[3]:2[4]:172
DOGWOOD predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. DOGWOOD was detonated on July 6, 1958 at 0630. DOGWOOD was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi, 4,000 feet (1.22 km) from the edge of the island at Enewetak. The cloud rose to 58,000 feet (17.7 km), stabilizing at 54,000 feet (16.5 km) with a 35,000-foot (10.7 km) base, and produced a 397 kt yield range.[3] The only DOD-sponsored experiment for DOGWOOD Was Project 5.1.[3]:2[4]:211
POPLAR predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. POPLAR was detonated on July 12, 1958 at 1530. POPLAR was detonated on a barge southwest of Nam, at Bikini. The detonation cloud quickly rose above the tracking radar limits of 61,000 feet (18.6 km), and the base was established at 42,000 feet (12.8 km) at 1540, and produced a 9300 kt yield range.[3] The only DOD-sponsored experiment for POPLAR was Project 3.7.[3]:2[4]:176
SCAEVOLA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. Scaevola was detonated on July 14, 1958 at 1600. Scaevola was detonated on a barge west of Runit Island at Enewetak. Its yield was low and the explosion did not destroy the shot barge but only damaged it, producing a 0 kt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for Scaevola.[3]:2[4]:213
PISONIA predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. PISONIA was detonated on July 18, 1958 at 1100. PISONIA was detonated on a barge 10,000 feet (3.05 km) west of Runit Island at Enewetak. The cloud rose immediately to 55,000 feet (16.8 km), and produced a 255 kt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for PISONIA.[3]:2[4]:215
JUNIPER predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. JUNIPER, the last nuclear detonation to occur at Bikini, was detonated on July 22, 1958 at 1620. JUNIPER was detonated on a barge 4,000 feet (1.22 km) from the west end of Eneman in the ZUINI crater at Bikini . The detonation cloud rose to 40,000 feet (12.2 km) with an estimated 24,000-foot (7.32 km) base, and produced a 65 kt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for JUNIPER.[3]:2[4]:180
OLIVE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. OLIVE was detonated on July 23, 1958 at 0830. OLIVE was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi Island, at Enewetak Atoll. 4,000 feet (1.22 km) from the nearest land at Enewetak. The cloud rose to 50,000 feet (15.2 km) with an estimated 15,000-foot (4.57 km) base, and produced a 202 kt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for OLIVE.[3]:2[4]:217
PINE predicted fallout, surface radiological exclusion (radex) area, ship positions, and aircraft participation. PINE was detonated on July 27, 1958 at 0830. PINE was detonated on a barge southwest of Enjebi Island, 8,500 feet (2.59 km) from the nearest land, at Enewetak. The cloud rose quickly to 66,000 feet (20.1 km) with an estimated 38,000-foot (11.6 km) base as measured by radar, and produced a 2 Mt yield range.[3] No DOD-sponsored experiments were scheduled for PINE.[3]:3[4]:220
Underwater tests[edit]
Underwater tests were conducted to assess the damages to Navy boats and materials. The location for these tests was Enewetak due to the uniformity of the sea bottom in the area. This is critical for the tests so that proper moorings of the target ships can be secured on the sea floor. The underwater explosions create a bubble from the expended energy of the blast. This bubble is due to the vaporization of water that directly absorbs the heat of the blast. This bubble may break the surface depending on how much energy is dispersed and the depth of the nuclear device. The bubble displaces large amounts of water that then collapses in on the bubble after all the energy is expended. The water collapsing in on the cavity is called the "radioactive pool" and has the highest concentration of radioactive material.[4]:28–9
Many different projects were put in place to test the two underwater blasts. Wave generation, hydrodynamic variables, and energy released were all studied using multiple sensors. These sensors were placed in multiple areas such as target ships and floating balloons. Oceanographic, seismographic and hydrographic surveys were completed after each nuclear blast. A project that used a nuclear blast to clear minefields was studied using the Umbrella blast. 120 inert mines were placed at different distances ranging from 1,500 to 8,000 feet (460 to 2,440 m). These mines were then picked out of the water to study the effects of the blast at each interval.[4]:111–49
Radiation preparations[edit]
Another reason for underwater tests was to detect radiation contamination of ships after an underwater nuclear explosion. This meant that the contaminated ships required unique "radsafe" preparations so that the data could be quickly accounted for. After the data on the damage and radiation was recorded, the ships needed decontamination work completed before repairs could be completed. The Radiological and Decontamination Unit consisting of 200 enlisted and one officer was created for the task of decontamination.[4]:70–86 After decontamination, the target ships were repaired for use in a second underwater nuclear weapons test. The amount of radiation exposure was debated for the safety of the crews. Roentgens (1 R = ca 0,01 Gy in soft tissue) were used to gauge the gamma radiation that affected the units working on the nuclear tests.
For the underwater test crew, a limit of 5 R per blast along with 10 R per operation was referenced as the limit for exposure. These initial limits were rejected and maximum permissible exposure standards (MPE) were solidified by commanders for the crews working on the decontamination unit. Due to the fast recovery of ships, high contamination values were expected by commanders and set the standard to four roentgens per hour (R/hr). An excess of 4 R/hr was designated off limits of recovery units. Personnel were given special breathing equipment to work in the interior of ships with an R/hr higher than one. High numbers of personnel working the tests were used to keep individuals within the MPE. Times were calculated to keep the total exposure below two roentgens for the personnel working on the ships. A floating decontamination facility was created on board a transport ship for the Wahoo and Umbrella nuclear tests. This allowed important data analysis and an increase in recovery efficiency.[4]:70–86
Wahoo preparation[edit]
The nuclear explosion was carried out in open ocean outside of Enewetak. This nuclear test codenamed Wahoo was the first underwater test in the Operation Hardtack series. This test could be considered a continuation of the Wigwam nuclear blast (a deep water nuclear test 500 nautical miles (930 km; 580 mi) off the coast of San Diego).[8] Like its predecessor, the Wahoo shot was a scientific program that studied the effects of an underwater nuclear blast on Navy systems. The nuclear device was positioned 500 feet (150 m) deep in the Pacific Ocean. This deep water test required precise targeting arrays to be set up around the blast location, which presented unique problems for the arrays as the winds, sea currents and tides needed to be within certain limits for the data to be accurate. Testing arrays were placed at depths of 400 to 800 fathoms (2400 to 4800 feet, 732 to 1463 meters) around the nuclear device. The deep water mooring systems needed for the test proved to be difficult to position, leading many analysts to believe the data skewed. The target ships to be used for this program consisted of three destroyers, an active submarine, a submarine mockup used in Wigwam tests, and a merchant marine ship.[4]:225 It was predicted that no air blast or thermal effects would be presented from the underwater blast. The fallout from the blast was also predicted to stay within the target array due to the southwest surface winds.
Wahoo blast[edit]
The test conditions were met on May 16 allowing for the nuclear device to be detonated. Within a second of detonation, a spray dome was created that reached a height of 840 feet (260 m) after seven seconds. The overall shape of the spray dome resembled a cone with 45 degree sloped sides. Plumes were seen breaking through the spray dome after six seconds in every direction. The vertical plume continued rising until 12 seconds after the blast while the lateral plumes traveled for 20 seconds before collapsing. The diameter of the spray dome was approximately 3,800 feet (1,200 m) at the 20 second mark.[4]:237 The base surge reached a radius of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) in the downwind direction after 1.7 seconds. The downwind surge aided by a 15 knot wind reached speeds of 21 knots (24.2 mph). This base surge could be seen for three and a half minutes and for longer from the air as it continued to move across the ocean. When the spray dome and base surge had dissipated, a foam patch could be seen spreading from the surface zero water to reach over 6,000 feet (1,800 m).[4]:238 The nuclear blast was calculated to be nine kilotons. All fallout stayed within the predicted fallout area with a maximum of 0.030 R/hr. The target ship at 5,900 yards (5,400 m) was directly hit by the shockwave, vibrating the entire ship and shaking it violently. The Moran merchant marine ship moored at 2,346 feet (715 m) away was immobilized due to shock damage to its main and auxiliary equipment while also suffering minor hull damage. One hour and ten minutes after detonation, a five-gallon water sample was taken directly above the blast location showing 5 R/hr. The retrieval team entered a 3.8 R/hr field after an hour and thirty five minutes.
Umbrella preparation[edit]
The second underwater explosion of the Operation Hardtack series was code-named Umbrella. This test was conducted in the lagoon inside Enewetak. This test could be considered a continuation of underwater test Baker, which was conducted in Bikini Lagoon. Explosions in shallow water can create an underwater crater if close enough to the bottom. The target ships from the Wahoo test were towed into the lagoon to be used again for the Umbrella test. The damage from Wahoo was minor in all cases with the exception of the Moran which required extra refurbishing of the hull. These ships had to be washed down and have the measuring equipment replaced before being put into use. The mooring for Umbrella was considerably easier than for Wahoo due to the location and depth of the lagoon. Information gathered from the Wahoo shot directly affected the Umbrella plans with regard to target array placement and decontamination times. The device was placed with a buoy at a depth of 150 feet (46 m).[8]
Umbrella blast[edit]
June 9 saw the second underwater nuclear test of the Hardtack I series. The detonation occurred at 11:15 AM (local time) with clear skies and a 15 to 17-knot wind from the east-northeast. Within one-tenth of a second, the spray dome had broken through the surface. The overall shape of the spray dome resembled a vertical column with the plumes helping create the shape. Within 20 seconds of detonation, the maximum height of the column reached 5,000 feet (1,500 m). The base surge reached a distance around 10,000 feet (3,000 m) downwind, reaching out approximately 6,000 feet (1,800 m) in all directions. This base surge could be seen from the air for about 25 minutes and the foam patch over the blast location lasting even longer.[4]:248 The blast yield of the nuclear device was measured to be eight kilotons. The Umbrella blast created a crater 3,000 ft (910 m) in diameter and 20 ft (6.1 m) in depth in the lagoon. The maximum radiation reading was found to be 0.350 R/hr by an aircraft flying over the blast location. Radiation was reported to be of small portions, and re-entry was granted 30 minutes after detonation. Out of the major target ships, the highest radiation reading was logged at 0.0015 R/hr of the stern of the Moran. After all scientific data had been gathered from the target ships, they were restored to be seaworthy and towed back to Pearl Harbor. The Moran was concluded to be unseaworthy due to the blast and was sunk by naval gunfire near Ikuren Island.[4]:251
The underwater nuclear tests (Wahoo and Umbrella) gathered scientific data that helped the Department of Defense understand the effects of nuclear weapons on Navy ships. Some of the key points found were that underwater nuclear blasts create less fallout due to the absorption of radioactive material in the water and vaporized droplets. Direct gamma radiation was found to be extremely low, but the base surge was found to be highly radioactive as it passed measurement devices. Smaller radiation concentrations followed in waves mimicking the initial base surge. Almost all free-field radiation activity was found to disappear after fifteen minutes allowing for return to normal operations.[6]:86 The impact of shock waves was less than previously expected. The damage from the shockwave was found to be negligible on the destroyers at the ranges tested, but equipment failure from the blast could immobilize the ships. The preliminary tests of explosive tapered charges were proven to simulate the shock waves of a nuclear device according to the data gathered.[6]:91
|Name [note 1]
|Date time (UT)
|Local time zone [note 2][9]
|Location [note 3]
|Elevation + height [note 4]
|Delivery [note 5]
Purpose [note 6]
|Device [note 7]
|Yield [note 8]
|April 28, 1958 02:40:00.3
|edst (12 hrs)
|Pacific Proving Grounds 12°37′01″N 167°01′30″E / 12.617°N 167.025°E
|0 + 26.21 kilometres (16.29 mi)
weapon effect
|1.7 kt
|[1][8][10][11][12]ABM development - part of Operation Newsreel (high-altitude tests). Fired "about 85 nmi (157 km; 98 mi) northwest of Bikini".
|May 5, 1958 18:15:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°33′09″N 162°20′50″E / 11.55255°N 162.34727°E
|1 m (3 ft 3 in) + 1 m (3 ft 3 in)
|dry surface,
weapons development
|Mk-43 primary
|18 kt
|[1][8][10][11][12] LASL test of a MK-43 primary in a thermonuclear system mockup. Similar to Elder. 596 ft (182 m) crater southwest of the Redwing Lacrosse crater; crater later became the Cactus Dome.
|May 11, 1958 17:50:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Namu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll 11°41′27″N 165°16′24″E / 11.6908°N 165.2733°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|1.4 Mt
|[1][8][10][12] Clean 2-stage TN device, only 90 kt fission, 93.4% fusion yield.
|May 11, 1958 18:15:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′19″N 162°20′37″E / 11.53859°N 162.34367°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|TX-46 primary ?
|81 kt
|[1][8][10][12] TX-46 primary test, similar to Oak and Yellowwood.
|May 12, 1958 18:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Teiter (Gene), Enewetak Atoll 11°40′12″N 162°11′54″E / 11.66997°N 162.19847°E
|2 m (6 ft 7 in) + 0.81 m (2 ft 8 in)
|dry surface,
weapons development
|1.4 Mt
|[1][8][10][12] XW-35 ICBM warhead test.
|May 16, 1958 01:30:00.5
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Pokon (Irvin), Enewetak Atoll 11°19′35″N 162°09′47″E / 11.32646°N 162.16309°E
|0 - 150 m (490 ft)
weapon effect
|9 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Mk-7 deep underwater explosion effects, water depth 3,200 ft (980 m).
|May 20, 1958 18:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′25″N 162°21′01″E / 11.54029°N 162.35039°E
|0 + 4 m (13 ft)
weapons development
|5.9 kt
|[1][8][10][12] XW-31Y proof test.
|May 21, 1958 21:20:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Eninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll 11°30′13″N 165°22′20″E / 11.50355°N 165.3722°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|early XW-47 ?
|25.1 kt
|[1][8][10][12] 2 stage thermonuclear device, possible W47.
|May 26, 1958 02:00:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′27″N 162°13′18″E / 11.65751°N 162.22168°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|TX-46, became W-53
|330 kt
|[1][8][10][11][12] LASL developmental test of a "clean" TX-46 warhead design. Fizzled, low burn in secondary. Retry in Oak.
|May 26, 1958 18:00:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′22″N 162°20′54″E / 11.53932°N 162.34841°E
|0 + 4 m (13 ft)
weapons development
|57 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Proof test.
|May 30, 1958 02:15:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′38″N 162°13′36″E / 11.66056°N 162.22663°E
|0 + 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in)
weapons development
|11.6 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Exploratory shot, XW-50 Nike-Zeus prototype, 2nd stage failed to ignite.
|May 31, 1958 03:00:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Namu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll 11°41′50″N 165°16′29″E / 11.69722°N 165.27486°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|92 kt
|[1][8][10][12]"Clean" TX-41 fizzle; predicted yield 5 Mt total, 200 kt fission; low level burning in 2nd stage; similar to Poplar and Pine.
|June 2, 1958 18:45:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′21″N 162°20′45″E / 11.53926°N 162.34593°E
|0 + 4.5 m (15 ft)
weapons development
|XW-49 ? Primary
|15 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Exploratory shot, possible XW-49, 80 kt fusion expected, 2nd stage failed to ignite.
|June 8, 1958 18:15:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Pokon (Irvin), Enewetak Atoll 11°22′30″N 162°11′38″E / 11.37498°N 162.19399°E
|0 - 50 m (160 ft)
weapon effect
|8 kt
|[1][8][10][11][12] Shallow underwater explosion on lagoon bottom at 150 ft (46 m). Crater 915 m × 6 m (3,002 ft × 20 ft).
|June 10, 1958 17:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll 11°41′29″N 165°24′57″E / 11.6915°N 165.41582°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|213 kt
|[1][8][10][12]"Dirty" 2-stage test, predicted to be 89% fission.
|June 14, 1958 17:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Namu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll 11°41′27″N 165°16′24″E / 11.6908°N 165.2733°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|319 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Possible XW-47 prototype, 2 stage.
|June 14, 1958 18:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′27″N 162°13′18″E / 11.65751°N 162.22168°E
|0 + 2 m (6 ft 7 in)
weapons development
|1.5 Mt
|[1][8][10][12] Thermonuclear prototype development test.
|June 18, 1958 03:00:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′26″N 162°21′04″E / 11.54061°N 162.35106°E
|0 + 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)
weapons development
|XW-50 primary ?
|11 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Possible XW-50 primary.
|June 27, 1958 17:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll 11°41′29″N 165°24′57″E / 11.6915°N 165.41582°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|412 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Possible XW-47 prototype, 2-stage, 250 kt fission yield expected; similar to Aspen, Nutmeg, Dogwood devices.
|June 27, 1958 18:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′38″N 162°13′36″E / 11.66056°N 162.22663°E
|0 + 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in)
weapons development
|880 kt
|[1][8][10][12] TX-43 laydown bomb test, 50% fission yield expected, similar to Cactus.
|June 28, 1958 19:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Bogallua (Alice), Enewetak Atoll 11°36′11″N 162°06′09″E / 11.60309°N 162.10259°E
|0 + 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)
weapons development
|8.9 Mt
|[1][8][10][11][12] Prototype test of the LASL designed TX-46 system. Similar to Butternut and Yellowwood. Crater 1,750 m × 80 m (5,740 ft × 260 ft).
|June 29, 1958 00:00:00.9
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Eninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll 11°29′46″N 162°22′15″E / 11.4961°N 162.3708°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|XW-47 primary ?
|14 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Possible XW-47 primary test, similar to Hardtack II Neptune and Titania.
|July 1, 1958 18:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′26″N 162°21′04″E / 11.54061°N 162.35106°E
|0 + 2 m (6 ft 7 in)
weapons development
|XW-50 primary ?
|5.2 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Similar to Hardtack II Otero, test of Hardtack I Pisonia primary.
|July 2, 1958 17:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Namu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll 11°41′50″N 165°16′29″E / 11.69722°N 165.27486°E
|0 + 3.4 m (11 ft)
weapons development
|220 kt
|[1][8][10][12] 2-stage "clean" thermonuke device, predicted fission yield 30 kt.
|July 5, 1958 18:30:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′38″N 162°13′36″E / 11.66056°N 162.22663°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|XW-47 ? Piccolo
|397 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Similar to Redwood, Aspen, Nutmeg; possible XW-47 prototype, Piccolo 2nd stage.
|July 12, 1958 03:30:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Namu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll 11°41′49″N 165°16′01″E / 11.69704°N 165.26708°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|9.3 Mt
|[1][8][10][12] TX-41 "clean" 2-stage variant; similar to Pine and Sycamore; largest of Hardtack I, and 5th largest U.S. test ever.
|July 14, 1958 04:00:??
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′48″N 162°21′07″E / 11.54662°N 162.35199°E
|2 m (6 ft 7 in) + 6 m (20 ft)
safety experiment
|no yield
|[1][8][10][12][13] XW-34 1-point safety test, successful.
|July 17, 1958 23:00:??
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°33′N 162°19′E / 11.55°N 162.31°E
|0 + 2 m (6 ft 7 in)
weapons development
|XW-50 ? TN, sequoiah pr
|255 kt
|[1][8][10][12][13] Probable prototype XW-50 thermonuclear design, modified Tobacco device, used Sequoia primary.
|July 22, 1958 04:20:00.1
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Eninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll 11°30′13″N 165°22′20″E / 11.50355°N 165.3722°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|65 kt
|[1][8][10][11][12]"Most radical UCRL shot", "entirely new concept", last Bikini atmospheric shot, probable XW-47 candidate.
|July 22, 1958 20:30:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′38″N 162°13′36″E / 11.66056°N 162.22663°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|202 kt
|[1][8][10][12] Concept feasibility test, 2-stage thermonuclear device, established high yield/light weight; weight 100 kg (220 lb) (yield/weight ratio 2 kt/kg).
|July 26, 1958 20:30:00.2
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll 11°39′05″N 162°12′51″E / 11.6513°N 162.21414°E
|0 + 3 m (9.8 ft)
weapons development
|2 Mt
|[1][8][10][12] TX-41 "clean" 3-stage variant; similar to Poplar and Sycamore.
|August 1958
|edst (12 hrs)
|Pacific Proving Grounds 12°N 162°E / 12°N 162°E
|3 m (9.8 ft) +
|air drop,
weapon effect
|A proposed international demonstration of a clean thermonuke. Cancelled by President Eisenhower in the runup to the 1958 test moratorium.
|August 1, 1958 10:50:05.6
|jamt (-11 hrs)
Believed in use during Dominic, Fishbowl,HT I.[5]:4
|Launch from Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll 16°44′01″N 169°31′31″W / 16.73365°N 169.52534°W, elv: 3 + 0 m (9.8 + 0.0 ft);
Detonation over Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll 16°44′38″N 169°32′00″W / 16.7439°N 169.5333°W
|N/A + 81.3 kilometres (50.5 mi)
|high-alt rocket (30–80 km),
weapon effect
|3.8 Mt
|[1][8][10][12]ABM effects test. Miscalculation resulted in detonation directly above launch site. Part of Operation Newsreel (high-altitude tests), carried on a Redstone rocket.
|August 6, 1958 02:15:??
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′54″N 162°21′03″E / 11.54828°N 162.35079°E
|1 m (3 ft 3 in) + 1 m (3 ft 3 in)
|dry surface,
weapons development
|no yield
|[1][8][10][12][13] Probable XW-51 test, fizzle.
|August 12, 1958 10:30:08.6
|jamt (-11 hrs)
Believed in use during Dominic, Fishbowl,HT I.[5]:4
|Launch from Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll 16°44′01″N 169°31′31″W / 16.73365°N 169.52534°W, elv: 3 + 0 m (9.8 + 0.0 ft);
Detonation over Johnston Island, Johnston Atoll 16°21′30″N 169°32′08″W / 16.3583°N 169.5356°W
|N/A + 45.5 kilometres (28.3 mi)
|high-alt rocket (30–80 km),
weapon effect
|3.8 Mt
|[1][8][10][12]ABM effects test, W-39 warhead, part of Operation Newsreel (high-altitude tests), carried on a Redstone rocket.
|August 18, 1958 04:00:??
|MHT (11 hrs)
|Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll 11°32′58″N 162°20′56″E / 11.54955°N 162.34879°E
|1 m (3 ft 3 in) + 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in)
|dry surface,
weapons development
|20 t
|[1][8][12][13] Probable XW-51 test, similar to Quince, successful, last atmospheric shot at Enewetak.
- ^ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
- ^ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here:
- ^ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
- ^ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
- ^ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
- ^ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
- ^ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
- ^ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak Yang, Xiaoping; North, Robert; Romney, Carl (August 2000), CMR Nuclear Explosion Database (Revision 3), SMDC Monitoring Research
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Battlefield of the Cold War: The Nevada Test Site Volume I, Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Testing, 1951-1963 (PDF) (DOE/MA-0003), Washington, D.C.: United States of America Department of Energy, September 1, 2006, retrieved April 19, 2016
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf Operation Hardtack I Fact Sheet (PDF), Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, May 1, 2015, retrieved April 19, 2016
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp Operation Hardtack I (PDF) (DNA6038F, ADA136819), United States of America Department of Defense, 1958, retrieved April 19, 2016
- ^ a b c d e Hoerlin, Herman (October 1976), United States High-Altitude Test Experiences: A Review Emphasizing the Impact on the Environment (LA-6405), Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, retrieved April 19, 2016 Reference for timezone at Johnston Island 1958-1962.
- ^ a b c d e f Operation Hardtack Preliminary Report (ITR-1660-(SAN), ADA369152), September 23, 1959
- ^ Military Effects on Operation REDWING : AFSWP and Joint Task Force 7 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2016, from https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsonOperationRedwing1956
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (PDF) (DOE/NV-209 REV15), Las Vegas, NV: Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, December 1, 2000, retrieved April 19, 2016
- ^ "Timezone Historical Database". iana.com. Retrieved March 8, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Operation Hardtack, Technical Summary , Table A (ITR-1660-SAN), retrieved January 6, 2014
- ^ a b c d e f Sublette, Carey, Nuclear Weapons Archive, retrieved January 6, 2014
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Hansen, Chuck (1995), The Swords of Armageddon, Vol. 8, Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, ISBN 978-0-9791915-1-0
- ^ a b c d Norris, Robert Standish; Cochran, Thomas B. (February 1, 1994), "United States nuclear tests, July 1945 to 31 December 1992 (NWD 94-1)" (PDF), Nuclear Weapons Databook Working Paper, Washington, DC: Natural Resources Defense Council, archived from the original (PDF) on October 29, 2013, retrieved October 26, 2013
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Operation Hardtack I.
- The short film Operation HARDTACK Military Effects Studies Part I: Basic Effects Structures and Materiel (1958) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- The short film Operation HARDTACK Military Effects Studies Part II: Underwater Tests (1958) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- The short film Operation HARDTACK Military Effects Studies Part III: High Altitude Tests (1958) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- The short film Operation HARDTACK Military Effects Studies: Part IV - Sub-kiloton effects is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- Details of the YUCCA balloon-borne nuclear detonation published at Stratopedia, the balloon encyclopedia