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Salt marsh die-off
Salt marsh die-off is a term that has been used in the US and UK to describe the death of salt marsh cordgrass leading to subsequent degradation of habitat, specifically in the low marsh zones of salt marshes on the coasts of the Western Atlantic. Cordgrass normally anchors sediment in salt marshes; its loss leads to decreased substrate hardness, increased erosion, and collapse of creek banks into the water, ultimately resulting in decreased marsh health and productivity.
Die-off can affect several species of cordgrass (genus Spartina), including S. alterniflora, S. densiflora, and S. townsendii. There are several competing hypotheses predicting the causes and mechanisms of salt marsh die-off throughout the western Atlantic. These hypotheses place different emphasis on the effects of top-down or bottom-up processes for salt marsh die-off. Combined with salt marsh dieback of the high marsh, salt marsh die-off is a serious threat to the ecosystem services that marshes provide to local coastal communities.
- 1 History of top-down vs. bottom-up
- 2 Historical paradigms of salt marsh theory
- 3 Regional causes of salt marsh die-off
- 4 Management implications and conservation
- 5 Conclusions
- 6 References
History of top-down vs. bottom-up[edit]
In light of their effect on community processes, behaviors, and ecological interactions, consumptive interactions are some of the most widely studied concepts in ecology. Because of this, scientists use food webs to depict all of the food chains and trophic relationships in an ecological community.
Food webs can be controlled by bottom-up or top-down forces, which dictate whether a food web's structure and population dynamics are regulated by nutrients (a supply of fixed carbon) and primary production or by top predators, respectively.
Much energy is lost from one trophic level to the next (about 90%); therefore, the success of higher levels is linked to lower ones and their supply of resources (Lindeman 1942).[1] However, the abundance and distribution of organisms in an ecosystem is also affected by densities of consumers, which limit the success of organisms at lower trophic levels and thereby influence the abundance of these organisms (Hairston et al. 1960).[2]
Many ecologists argue that bottom-up and top-down control do not play equally critical roles in the structure and dynamics of populations in an ecosystem; however, data suggests that both bottom-up and top-down forces impact the structure of food webs and the spatial and temporal abundance and distribution of organisms (Bertness 2007),[3] although to what extent each plays a role is not fully understood.
Historically, an emphasis on bottom-up control in many ecosystems has prevailed in ecological thought, often to the exclusion of consumer control (Strong 1992).[4] Many ecosystems in which consumer control has classically been considered trivial are dominated by plants (e.g., forests, grasslands, and salt marshes) and are usually green in appearance. Hairston and colleagues proposed an opposing view in 1960 that emphasized consumer control. They argued that the "world is green" because higher trophic levels regulate herbivore abundance (Hairston et al. 1960).[2]
Critics pointed out that the world is not always green, and that when it is, herbivores do not necessarily play an important role in structuring plant communities (Ehrlich and Birch 1967).[5] Others argued that what is green is not always edible or of sufficiently high quality to allow increases in herbivore populations (Dixon 1966, Murdoch 1966).[6][7] The debate is ongoing, but the dominant view of ecologists remains that although consumers affect many aspects of plant productivity and ecology, top-down control does not drive the productivity of entire plant ecosystems.
More recently, however, examples of conspicuous consumer control of entire ecosystems have emerged in a variety of habitats including lakes (Carpenter et al. 1985),[8] rivers (Power 1992),[9] and marine (Estes and Duggins 1995)[10] habitats. Foundation plant species can be replaced with other species or substratum completely lacking vegetation and insects can defoliate whole mangroves (Feller 2002).[11]
A classic example of top-down interactions dictating community structure and function comes from Bob Paine's work in Washington, which established that removal of the starfish Pisaster triggered a trophic cascade in which the blue mussel (Mytilus) populations exploded due to release from predation pressure (Paine 1966)[12]
Another influential example of top-down control emerged from Jane Lubchenco's experiments on New England rocky shores, which demonstrated that the herbivorous snail L. littorea exerts control on the diversity and succession of tide pool algal communities (Lubchenco and Menge 1978).[13] One hypothesis that arose from Lubchenco's work (Little and Kitching 1996)[14] was that predation by the green crab (Carcinus maenas) influences rocky shore algal communities by regulating L. littorea abundances.
Ecologists cite these examples as evidence that consumer regulation is more potent and predominant than previously recognized.
Historical paradigms of salt marsh theory[edit]
In salt marshes, early ecologists like Eugene Odum and John Teal sparked the current bottom-up paradigm in ecology through work on Sapelo Island, GA (U.S.A) that stressed the dominant role of physical factors like temperature, salinity, and nutrients in regulating plant primary productivity and ecosystem structure (Teal 1962, Odum 1971).[15][16] Ecologists noted that marsh plants were not heavily grazed and appeared to be relatively unpalatable, and thus argued that most plants entered salt marsh food chains as detritus (Teal 1962).[15] A corollary of this dogma is that consumers play an unimportant or subtle role in controlling salt marsh primary production (Smalley 1960, Teal 1962).[15][17] This paradigm was widely accepted for decades and applied to other ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass beds (Bertness 2007),[3] and has thus "become entrenched in the conceptual understanding of coastal ecosystems" (quote from Bertness and Silliman 2008; Smalley 1960, Nixon 1982).[17][18][19]
Recent work, however, has demonstrated strong top-down control of plant communities in salt marshes by a wide variety of consumers, including snails, crabs, and geese (Jefferies 1997, Bortolus and Iribarne 1999, Silliman and Bertness 2002, Holdredge et al. 2009).[20][21][22][23] Marsh grazers also include feral horses (Furbish and Albano 1994),[24] cattle, hares, insects, and rodents, some of which are able to strongly suppress plant growth.
Strong top-down control on marshes has been demonstrated in various marsh systems. Consumer control is driven by the grapsid crab (Chasmagnathus granulata) in the salt marshes of Argentina and Brazil on the Atlantic coast of South America (Bortolus and Iribarne 1999).[21] Other experiments in Argentina have contributed to the growing body of work evidencing consumer control in salt marshes (Alberti et al. 2007),[25] and herbivory has also been suggested to play an important role in southwestern Atlantic marshes (Bortolus and Iribarne 1999, Alberti et al. 2007).[21][25] Not only are consumers important on a small scale as demonstrated by cage experiments in various locations (Silliman and Zieman 2001, Silliman and Bertness 2002, Silliman et al. 2005),[22][26][27] but they also affect primary productivity across large geographic areas (Silliman and Zieman 2001).[26]
Bertness and Silliman have also suggested that while salt marshes may have historically been nutrient limited and bottom up controlled, human disturbances such as eutrophication and predator depletion has shifted these systems to top down control in recent decades (Bertness and Silliman 2008).[18]
Regional causes of salt marsh die-off[edit]
Both top-down and bottom-up forces have been proposed as primary drivers of salt marsh die-off throughout the western Atlantic. The relative importance of these factors depends on the abiotic and biotic conditions of each local or regional marsh system and its environment.
Top-down interactions[edit]
Human activities can trigger trophic cascades (Jefferies 1997),[20] which occur when the predators that limit abundance of prey and thereby enhance survival of the next lower trophic level are depleted (Strong 1992).[4] Depletion of top predators releases their prey from consumer control and leads to population declines of the next lower trophic level, often the primary producers. Trophic cascades occur across a minimum of three trophic levels and can impact community dynamics in a variety of systems (Estes et al. 1998).[28] Trophic cascades can induce salt marsh die-off and transform green landscapes into barrens (Estes and Duggins 1995, Silliman et al. 2005).[10][27] Primary triggers of trophic cascades through human action include introduction of invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change (Jackson et al. 2001, Lotze et al. 2006, Gedan et al. 2009, Gedan and Bertness 2011).[29][30]
Invasive Species[edit]
Human introduction of non-native species can also contribute to top-down control of marsh systems (Furbish and Albano 1994, Gough and Grace 1998).[24][31] Introduced feral horses on the barrier islands of Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas have entirely denuded marsh ecosystems (Furbish and Albano 1994),[24] and the introduced rodent nutria on Gulf Coast marshes of Louisiana can decrease marsh plant primary production (Gough and Grace 1998).[31]
The invasive green crab, Carcinus maenas, can turn off top down control by facilitating the recovery of salt marsh ecosystems. In marshes that have experienced die-off via the trophic cascade initiated by recreational overfishing, purple marsh crabs, Sesarma reticulatum, can be evicted by the larger green crabs, which prey upon the purple crab. In this way, green crabs can indirectly reduce purple crab herbivory and promotes cordgrass recovery. These results are encouraging because they suggest that invasive species, which are classically considered to have mostly negative impacts on the ecosystems they invade, can sometimes actually contribute to restoring degraded ecosystems. [32]
Die-off could potentially be explained by pathogens of salt marsh plants in some areas - fungal species have been identified at die-off sites in the UK as well as US Atlantic and Gulf coast sites (Elmer 2013).[33] Fungal-facilitated marsh degradation is a documented concern in the Southeast Atlantic in particular. Marsh snails Littoraria irrorata make minor cuts in the cordgrass during grazing. These cuts facilitate growth of fungus, and at high snail densities, can lead to mass infections, increased grazing and consequent die-off (Silliman and Bertness 2002, Silliman and Newell 2003, Silliman et al. 2005).[22][27][34]
In coastal New England, this evidence is weaker. Certain fungal pathogens of S. alterniflora were found more frequently in sites of die-off. These pathogens have varying degrees of virulence, and there is some evidence of association with species of Fusarium and areas of die-off. However, although the association suggests a partial causal link, particularly in stress-predisposed plants, strong evidence is lacking to suggest that such fungal pathogens are a major cause of die-off in New England (Elmer 2013).[33]
Overharvesting has led to the collapse of various shallow-water marine ecosystems around the globe (Jackson et al. 2001),[29] including coral reefs (Hughes et al. 2003),[35] sea grass beds, and kelp forests (Estes et al. 1998).[28]
Commercial fishing[edit]
Research on the salt marsh snail Littoraria irrorata and its effects on marsh plant productivity, have provided strong evidence of consumer control in marshes triggered by overexploitation. This snail is capable of turning strands of cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) (>2.5m tall) into mudflats within 8 months, which is less than one growing season (Silliman and Bertness 2002).[22] As previously referenced, marsh snails inflict cuts on cordgrass leaves when they graze, providing substratum and nutrients for fungus. At high snail densities, cordgrass can succumb to fungal infections and marsh die-off can ensue (Silliman and Bertness 2002, Silliman and Newell 2003, Silliman et al. 2005).[22][27][34] Natural predators of the marsh snail are blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) and terrapin turtles (Malaclemys terrapin), which historically regulated snail abundances. However, these predators have been commercially overexploited, and now suffer from diseases due to small population size, releasing the snails from consumer pressure, and allowing the snails to wreak havoc on salt marsh cordgrass populations (Silliman and Zieman 2001).[22][26]
A classic example of a trophic cascade was caused by the overexploitation of sea otters in the 1980s (Estes & Duggins 1995).[10] Sea otters eat urchins, which in turn graze on macroalgae in a food chain that, when altered, can lead to urchin barrens. Sea otters in Alaska were hunted to near extinction for their pelts. Where sea otter populations have persisted, they suppress the abundance of urchins and thus have an indirect positive effect on the density of macroalgae. In contrast, in sites where sea otters are absent, sea urchin populations have surged and caused urchin barrens to develop. Wherever sea otters have been reinstated, sea urchin populations have been reduced, and kelp densities have increased, returning the habitat to its original healthy state. This example demonstrates the potential for whole-ecosystem recovery with the reestablishment of consumers (Estes and Duggins 1995).[10]
Other trophic cascades, such as those caused by crabs such as Chasmagnathus granulata in South America, are at least in part due to overfishing of top predators (Bortolus and Iribarne 1999, Alberti et al. 2007).[21][25]
Recreational fishing[edit]
In New England, predator depletion has triggered extensive marsh die-off salt marsh creek banks. Herbivory has already impacted up to 90% of creek banks in more than 70% of outer Cape Cod marshes. Absent in 1997, die-off has recently spread into Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, impacting over 85% of creek banks. The nocturnal purple marsh crab, Sesarma reticulatum, is playing a major role in this die-off through increased burrowing and herbivory due to release from predation pressure. Evidence has pointed to top-down control caused by human disturbances as the primary agent driving die-off.
Altieri and colleagues performed a series of experiments (Altieri et al. 2012)[36] designed to elucidate the mechanisms driving marsh die-off more specifically. Sesarma crabs are normally preyed upon by blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), and fish including striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and smooth dogfish (Mustelus canis). Although the cascading effects of overfishing have been demonstrated across various ecosystems (Myers and Worm 2003), research on predator depletion has focused almost exclusively on the impact of large-scale commercial overfishing (Worm et al. 2009). However, Altieri and colleagues (2012)[36] demonstrated that the predators of Sesarma were, and continue to be, overexploited by recreational anglers. Their results show that die-off and vegetated marshes differed dramatically in recreational fishing pressure, as anglers were observed only at die-off sites.
Die-off marshes had half the biomass of top-level predators found at vegetated sites, while the biomass of nonharvested consumers did not differ between die-off and vegetated sites. Additionally, the predation rate on Sesarma at vegetated sites was triple that of die-off sites, and crabs consumed four times more grass at die-off sites than at vegetated sites. Historical reconstructions showed that little net marsh loss (<5%) from 1939-2005 occurred at currently vegetated sites. In contrast, die-off marshes exhibited the onset of die-off in the mid-70s, with consistently increasing vegetation loss through 2005, at which time >20% of the total marsh area was lost to die-off and >80% of the cordgrass zone was unvegetated. This divergence between die-off and vegetated marshes in vegetation loss coincides with a period of rapid increase in the number of docks and boat slips before the mid-70s that resulted in the establishment of >70% of that fishing infrastructure currently present at die-off marshes. These results provide evidence that Sesarma release from predation pressure by crabs and fish due to recreational overfishing by anglers is driving a trophic cascade that is responsible for extensive marsh die-off throughout southern New England (Altieri et al. 2012).[36]
Altieri and colleagues (2012)[36] further hypothesized that historic, large-scale, industrialized overexploitation of fish in the northwest Atlantic (Lotze et al. 2006)[30] increased marsh vulnerability to the effects of localized recreational fishing to the point that large-scale die off ensued, and that resultant localized die-offs could coalesce into complete, region-wide marsh die-off if overexploitation of top consumers continues (Altieri et al. 2012).[36]
Most recently, Bertness and colleagues (Bertness et al. 2014b)[37] performed a field experiment excluding predators from plots on the grazing border of the marsh. Within one growing season, exclusion of top predators triggered die-off by increasing the abundances of Sesarma crabs and the intensity of herbivory. To further test the trophic cascade hypothesis, Bertness and colleagues used the spread of die-off into Narragansett Bay to assess all proposed drivers of die-off, including: 1) eutrophication decreases plant investment into belowground biomass causing plant collapse, 2) boat wakes erode creek banks, 3) pollution or disease affect plant health, 4) substrate hardness controls herbivorous crab distributions and 5) trophic dysfunction releases Sesarma from predator control. Nitrogen availability, wave intensity and plant growth did not explain any variation in die-off. However, herbivory explained over 70% of inter-site variation in die-off. (Bertness et al. 2014a)[38] This work highlighted one particular example where top-down interactions were experimentally shown to be the primary driver of ecological community state change.
Bottom-up interactions[edit]
Hypersaline and anoxic soils[edit]
One theory of bottom-up control lies with differential soil chemistry between vegetated and die-off areas. Drought-associated changes in soil chemistry have been proposed to be associated with areas of die-off. Droughts are often associated with increased salinity and acidity stress - soils oxidize under freshwater or tidal moisture limitation, leading to increased acidity. Hypersalinity has been linked to reduced S. alterniflora survival (Brown et al. 2005).[39] However, salt marsh plants are generally tolerant of a broad range of salinity levels, and increased salinity has not consistently been observed in die-off sites (Alber et al. 2008).[40]
There is uncertainty attributed to the link between different soil conditions and sites of die-off for several reasons. First, measurements may not be taken in frequent enough intervals to capture brief fluctuations in soil conditions associated with die-off. Second, attributing causation with changing soil conditions and die-off is potentially dubious. Reverse causality is a potential explanation; that is, soil chemistry differences may be a result rather than an agent of die-off. For instance, one study noted higher salinity levels in die-off areas in some months, but this was possibly attributable to altered root or evaporation dynamics due to die-off (Marsh 2007).
Nutrient enrichment is a pervasive global threat to both marine and terrestrial ecosystems (Galloway et al. 2008, Verhoeven et al. 2006).[41][42] In marine ecosystems, increased flow of nitrogen can trigger severe algal blooms, anoxic conditions, and widespread fisheries losses (Diaz & Rosenberg 2008).[43] In salt marshes, an important interface ecosystem between land and sea, nutrient addition has been hypothesized to contribute to widespread creek die-offs (Deegan et al. 2012).[44]
To test this hypothesis, Linda Deegan and colleagues performed a nine-year study at one site in Massachusetts. The researchers found that tidal creek enrichment of nitrogen and phosphorus led to decreased investment in belowground nutrient gathering roots and rhizomes, increased microbial decomposition of organic matter, and eventual creek collapse and salt marsh loss (Deegan et al. 2012).[44]
Similar studies in Connecticut, however, have been unable to replicate these findings. Shimon Anisfeld and Troy Hill performed a 5-year fertilization experiment of a salt marsh in Long Island Sound and found that neither nitrogen nor phosphorus fertilization led to elevation loss, reduced soil carbon, or a decrease in belowground primary production. They suggest that high nutrient levels can significantly alter marsh processes and increase gross carbon loss from sediment but that other processes may compensate for these impacts. No net deleterious effects of nutrient loading on carbon storage or on marsh stability are anticipated from this study (Anisfeld and Hill 2012).[45]
Other eutrophication studies performed in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island found that experimental nitrogen addition initially increases plant productivity but eventually leads to reduced plant biomass due to insect herbivory (Bertness et al. 2008).[46] To supplement this experiment, researchers took surveys across 20 salt marshes to look at the interaction between marsh nutrient levels and herbivore pressure and found that marsh nitrogen supply was a good predictor of herbivore damage to plants. This study suggests that eutrophication is currently triggering consumer suppression of primary productivity in New England salt marshes and may eventually pose a threat to salt marsh ecosystem service provisioning (Bertness et al. 2008).[46]
Potential for Synergistic effects[edit]
Coastal ecosystems suffer from a variety of anthropogenic impacts, such as large-scale eutrophication, food web alteration, runaway consumer effects, climate change, habitat destruction, and disease. Rarely do these factors act in isolated ways. Often, researchers find additive or synergistic interactions between impacts compounding the amount of ecosystem degradation. One such example is found in salt marshes in the southeastern United States. Depletion of top predators in these systems has led to snail overgrazing of salt marsh cordgrass and subsequent die-off (as explained above). However, this die-off has been linked with intense drought conditions and the resultant increases in salt and acid stress (Silliman et al. 2005).[27] Drought stress that raises soil salinities and increases cordgrass vulnerabilities to top-down control may be a product of climate change (Silliman and Bertness 2002, Silliman et al. 2005).[22][27] Cases such as these highlight how abiotic and biotic interactions can interact to affect ecosystem health.
Anthropogenic actions also can cause eutrophication, or increase the nutrient load, of marine ecosystems, through runoff into the system containing fertilizer, sewage, dishwasher soap, and other nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich substances. Eutrophication is pervasive in coastal marine ecosystems (Lotze et al. 2006)[30] and can indirectly initiate trophic cascades and increase consumer control of plants. For example, insect herbivory in marshes has been positively correlated with nutrient availability in Atlantic salt marshes (Bertness et al. 2008).[46] In Narragansett Bay, insect herbivory suppresses primary production of human disturbed salt marshes by almost 40%. Nitrogen additions through human activity can increase insect herbivory so much that primary production is suppressed by nearly 60%, while marshes without human shoreline development remain solely under bottom-up control (Bertness et al. 2008).[46] Increased nutrient supply can lead to runaway herbivory in other systems as well (Gough and Grace 1998, Silliman and Zieman 2001).[26][31]
For example, eutrophication initiates top-down control via the impact of snow geese on the arctic marshes of Hudson Bay (Jefferies 1997).[20] By the 1980s, the snow geese that originally annually migrated to Hudson Bay had switched from feeding in temperate wetlands to feeding in heavily fertilized agricultural fields. Over a period of 30 years, the geese population exploded. Snow geese have since utterly destroyed hundreds of thousands of acres of the Hudson Bay wetland. The geese grubbed marsh plant roots, evaporation increased leading to subsequent salinity increase, and without plants to oxygenate the soil the substrate became anoxic. This undesirable environment for marsh plants disallows sexual recruitment to the area. Snow geese have denuded the marsh until recolonization by clonal runners can restore marsh vegetation, which could take years. Because of the use of artificial fertilizers on temperate zone agricultural fields, a trophic cascade was initiated (Jefferies 1997).[20]
A major goal of ecology over the next century will be to understand how ecosystems will respond to current and future human impacts and the additive or synergistic interactions between them.
Management implications and conservation[edit]
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from ecological systems. Today, one of the arguments for protecting salt marshes is to increase the quality and quantity of these services. Salt marshes sequester nitrogen, filtering runoff water and reducing nitrogen input to estuaries (Valiela and Cole 2002).[47] Salt marshes also provide essential refuge habitat for young fish and crustaceans, provisioning coastal fisheries (Boesch and Turner 1984)[48] that account for 90% of the world's fish catch (UNEP 2006).[49] Salt marshes also sequester carbon, which will be an important ecosystem service as climate change intensifies (Chmura et al. 2003).[50] Arguably the most important ecosystem service salt marshes provide is to act as natural sea barriers because grasses bind soils, prevent shoreline erosion, attenuate waves, and reduce coastal flooding (Costanza et al. 2008).[51]
However, the marsh's natural ability to buffer against erosion and flooding may be reduced by creek bank die-off. Since Spartina alterniflora is responsible for sediment binding and peat deposition (Redfield 1965),[52] cordgrass die-off may compromise the ability of salt marshes to keep pace with sea-level rise. Also, the concentration of Sesarma burrows in New England salt marsh peat may directly trigger the erosion and collapse of the peat foundation of marshes.
On Cape Cod, marsh creek banks are often so riddled with Sesarma burrows that they collapse, exposing fresh peat to further burrowing and erosion (Bertness et al. 2008).[46] Feedbacks between crab herbivory and cordgrass die-off may thus lead to the retreat of marsh edges. For example, Coverdale and colleagues found that 20 years of die-off on Cape Cod have resulted in the loss of over 200 years of marsh accretion and hundreds of acres of marsh loss.[53] The detrimental effects trophic cascades have had on marshes not only reduce the biodiversity, health, and aesthetic appeal of these ecosystems, but also compromise the ability of marshes to provide key ecosystem services to human populations.
Despite mounting evidence to the contrary, bottom-up control remains the central dogma determining marsh management, conservation and restoration efforts. Salt marshes are currently managed as if they are exclusively regulated by physical factors. However, global and near shore top predator depletion leading to the release of cryptic or unappreciated herbivores may be the biggest current threat to salt marshes. Theory dependency (subconscious favoring of identifying and/or examining natural phenomena that tend to confirm rather than refute the current paradigm of a study system [Kuhn 1962][54]) and demonstration, rather than falsifying science, have been the leading culprits in this oversight. Consequently, threats to salt marshes that are governed by top down control are being overlooked, with potentially devastating consequences.
Trophic cascades are powerful interactions that strongly regulate biodiversity, community structure, and ecosystem function. Trophic cascades were originally thought to be rare, but it has become clear that they occur across diverse terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems at both small and large spatial and temporal scales. Trophic cascades are common and pervasive aspects of many communities long thought to be controlled by bottom-up forces and/or resistant to consumer control.
Conservation of ecosystems affected by trophic cascades has thus not adequately incorporated top-down control into their management and restoration plans and efforts, but emerging research has emphasized that this is necessary to protect the services provided by these ecosystems and to restore these ecosystems to their original conditions. Failure to do so could lead to trophic cascades transforming highly diverse and productive plant communities to barren flats.
Additionally, failure to reevaluate the current paradigm and recognize that both bottom-up and top-down forces affect many features of ecosystem structure and function, and that these forces are complementary rather than contradictory, could bar any incorporation of both mechanisms into any management plan and reduce the success of conservation efforts before they even begin.
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- ^ Bertness, M.D., C. P. Brisson* T. C. Coverdale, M. C. Bevil, S. M. Crotty and E. R. Suglia. 2014 Experimental predator removal causes rapid salt marsh die-off. Ecology Letters 17(7):830–835. doi:10.1111/ele.12287.
- ^ Bertness, M. D., C. Brisson, M. Bevil, and S. Crotty. 2014. Herbivory drives the spread of salt marsh die-off. PLoS ONE 9(3): e92916.
- ^ Brown, C.E., S.R. Pezeshki, R.D. DeLaune. The effects of salinity and soil drying on nutrient uptake and growth of S. alterniflora in a simulated tidal system. Environmental and Experimental Botany 58(1-3): 140-148.
- ^ Alber M., E. Swenson, S. Adamowicz, I. Mendelssohn 2008. Salt marsh dieback: an overview of recent events in the US. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 8(1):1-11.
- ^ Galloway, J. et al. Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent trends, questions and potential solutions. Science 320, 889–892 (2008).
- ^ Verhoeven, J. T. et al. Regional and global concerns over wetlands and water quality. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21, 96–103 (2006)
- ^ Diaz, R. J. and R. Rosenberg. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science 321, 926–929 (2008).
- ^ a b Deegan, L.A., Bowen, J.L., Drake, D., Fleeger, J.W., Friedrichs, C.T., Hobbie, J.E., Hopkinson, C., Johnson, D.S., Johnson, J.M., LeMay, L.E., Miller, E., Peterson, B.J., Picard, C., Sheldon, S., Sutherland, M., Vallino, J. and S. Warren. 2012. Coastal eutrophication as a driver of salt marsh loss. Nature 490:388-392.
- ^ Anisfeld, S. and T. Hill. 2012. Fertilization effects on elevation change and belowground carbon balance in a Long Island Sound tidal marsh. Estuaries and Coasts 35: 201–211.
- ^ a b c d e Bertness, M.D., C.M. Crain, C. Holdredge and N. Sala. 2008. Eutrophication and consumer control of New England salt marsh primary production. Conservation Biology 22: 131-139.
- ^ Valiela I. and M.L. Cole. 2002. Comparative evidence that salt marshes and mangroves may protect seagrass meadows from land-derived nitrogen loads. Ecosystems 5: 92–102.
- ^ Boesch D.F. and R.E. Turner. 1984. Dependence of fishery species on salt marshes: the role of food and refuge. Estuaries 7: 460–468.
- ^ UNEP. 2006. Marine and coastal ecosystems and human well-being: a synthesis report based on the findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. UNEP.
- ^ Chmura G.L., S.C. Anisfeld, D.R. Cahoon, and J.C. Lynch. 2003. Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 17: 1111–1133.
- ^ Costanza R., O. Perez-Maqueo, M.L. Martinez, P. Sutton, S.J. Anderson, and K. Mulder. 2008. The value of coastal wetlands for hurricane protection. Ambio 37: 241–248.
- ^ Redfield, A.C. 1965 Ontogeny of a salt marsh estuary. Science 147: 50–55.
- ^ Coverdale, T. C., E. W. Young, S.F. Yin, C. P. Brisson, J. P. Donnelly and M. D. Bertness. 2014. Indirect human impacts reverse centuries of carbon sequestration and salt marsh accretion. PLoS One, 9(3): e93296.
- ^ Kuhn, T. 1962. The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.


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Certified Copy begins with academic James Miller (William Shimell) giving a talk to an audience about his new book, 'Certified Copy'. It is Miller's theory that a copy of something can be as important as its original. His book, apparently, has not been well-received in the UK, but in Tuscany, where the film is set, the audience appears much more appreciative. After the talk, Miller is approached by Elle (Juliette Binoche), a French woman who has lived in Italy for five years. She asks Miller to meet her later at her antiques shop. He agrees, turns up at the specified hour, and asks that they spend the day out in the countryside.
Elle drives Miller to Lucigarno, a nearby town. She shows him a painting in a museum there. The painting was believed to be part of an original Roman mural, but shortly after the Second World War was found to be a 19th century fake.
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The true original is at Herculanaeum, but the museum's copy is still treated as if it were original art. Miller is not impressed. They stop at a nearby café. When Miller steps outside to answer a phone call, the café owner quizzes Elle about her 'husband'.
From that point on, the fictional marriage of 15 years which Elle recounts to the café proprietress slowly becomes a – if not the – truth. Miller and Elle are taken to be a married couple by everyone they meet in the town, even though they had not met before Miller's talk. This comes to a head in a restaurant in which they stop for dinner. Their conversation references shared incidents and events from their 15-year 'marriage'.
Elle was certainly married – she has a young son (Adrian Moore), whose phone calls throughout the day seem to drive her to distraction; but no mention is made of the father's fate. Miller's marital status is unknown. Neither of the two main characters are especially likeable. Miller is a smug academic, fixed on his theory. Elle takes out her frustrations on Miller, often shrewishly. She also finds Miller's theory ludicrous – she shows him the Roman mural partly as an attack on his book, although he shrugs it off as merely 'interesting'. It is only later when she confabulates a decade and a half of married life for the two of them that they settle into an easy familiarity. There is no 'original' of this union, what they have cannot be considered a copy, so this is not Miller's theory being tested.
Yet director Abbas Kiarostami continues to confound as the film progresses. Miller initially claims not to speak Italian, although he had 'learnt French' – at school, it is implied. Later, he and Elle speak French fluently, and he even speaks some Italian with facility. In the café, he tells Eve a story about a mother and son he saw in Florence, and the son's reaction to Michelangelo's David – a copy, although the boy clearly did not know that. Eve admits that it was herself and her son. The film ends with the couple visiting the pensione where they had spent their honeymoon.
There is, of course, another layer here. Binoche and Shimell are actors. (Actually, Shimell is an opera singer and this is his first film role.) They are playing Eve and James Miller. But are Miller and Eve old friends who are playing strangers? Or are they strangers who are playing at being a married couple? Which is the original? The dialogue alone is not enough to determine which is true, and what clues are given here are often contradictory.
Sadly, the gender politics on display in Certified Copy are a little creepy. The marriage that Eve concocts/ remembers seems more 1980s than 21st century. The café proprietress with whom Eve discusses her 'husband' is very much old school – i.e. men love their jobs and must be forgiven for any lapses that may cause, including their occasional need for mistresses. That Eve struggles with her son is plain throughout the film, and that she puts down to the fact he is a boy.
Eve's views on gender are as old-fashioned as the café proprietress' – as she demonstrates in the conversation in the restaurant, remarking on how she had put on lipstick and earrings for her husband, only for him to ignore them. She complains of him being tired when she wanted sex; he complains that she is attributing ulterior motives where none exist. It's the sort of marital banter you'd expect 30 or 40 years ago, and it feels out-of-place in a 2010 film, a film which features an independent woman making a new life for herself and her son in a foreign country.
Certified Copy is a very good film. It manages to remain a gripping drama despite having an unsympathetic cast. It occupies that grey area between truths and fictions, where stories may one or the other, or indeed both.


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Here are ten mistakes you can make that will cost you a deal.
1. Taking shortcuts. Anything you believe leads to a faster deal leads to no deal. You can't rush your buyer through the process because you are in a hurry or because you are behind on your numbers.
2. Asking for unearned commitments. You can't ask for commitments you haven't earned. If you haven't created the value required to deserve a commitment, pressing for that commitment will only shut down your deal.
3. Not following up. Failing to follow up on the little commitments you make demonstrates that you don't care, that you aren't detail-oriented and that you can't be counted on. Big deal-breakers.
4. Selling without dissatisfaction. If you can't find or create a compelling reason for your prospects to change, sales will slip through your fingers.
5. Not doing discovery. If you don't do the discovery work necessary to know exactly how to help your prospect, you aren't going to create or win an opportunity.
6. Not building consensus. You have to believe me here: You aren't going to win with a single stakeholder. You will lose if you can't help your client build consensus.
7. Failing to make "the ask." If you don't ask for access to the people and information you need to win a deal, you will lose it. You must not fear "the ask." Not asking is the same as hearing "no."
8. An inability to articulate value. You must be able to articulate the value your solution creates. If can't tell your client how she will be made better, you have no deal.
9. Failure to provide proof. Your prospect is going to want some proof that you are who you say you are, that you will come through for him. Maybe you need a fancy ROI calculator. Or maybe you just need a reference.
10. Being transactional. Treating your prospect as a means to an end is the fastest way to alienate her. And it's a surefire way to lose.
Keep these errors foremost in your mind when you approach your next prospect so that you can skip through the minefield on your way to "yes."
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S. Anthony Iannarino is the managing director of B2B Sales Coach & Consultancy, a boutique sales coaching and consulting company, and an adjunct faculty member at Capital University's School of Management and Leadership. For more information, go http://thesalesblog.com/s-anthony-iannarino/


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Barbara Burke, Freelance Reporter
3:12 am PDT May 16, 2019
Nestled within the bustling Malibu Country Market is a quaint spot that boasts authentic Italian fare.
The epicurean experience begins as soon as you bite into the complimentary warm bread accompanied by a tasty tapenade made with flavorful olives, tomato, garlic, celery, balsamic vinegar, mustard and spices.
Try the Orecchiette Al Tartufo, a scrumptious pasta dish elaborately prepared tableside in an intriguing presentation.


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On 18-21 September, representatives of Belarusian cities and towns participating in the Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy visited the Ukrainian city of Khmelnytskyi. The city lays a great emphasis on the energy management system, adopts efficient solutions in the area of waste management and expands its green urban spaces. The tour was organised by Ecopartnership International NGO with financial support from the European Union.
One can immediately notice the local authorities' strong commitment to energy and resource saving in the city. The Khmelnytskyi City Council established the Energy Management Department to review energy consumption in public buildings, develop recommendations and attract international technical assistance for addressing local issues. The municipally adopted the ISO 50001 Energy Management System standard.
A year ago, the Energy Management Department opened the Energy Efficiency Centre, where the residents can learn about energy saving technologies and receive consultations from specialists. It occupies a small room on the ground floor or a residential house in the downtown that accommodates the energy managers' workplaces and offers facilities for lectures that are held for small groups from time to time.
As mentioned by Dmitro Leskiv, Deputy Head of the Energy Management Department, 20-25 residents come every month now for consultations concerning thermal upgrades of their apartments and selection of household appliances. The energy managers' main task is to review heat and power consumption in public buildings, identify and eliminate violations. Every day, responsible persons take meter readings in each reported building and enter them into a special online programme. The daily heat and power consumption control system allows saving 5-15% of the resources a year.
The Belarusian participants could see with their own eyes the upgraded facilities and learn more about aspects of their operation. Kindergarten No. 39 adopted a system of ventilation with recuperation enabling it to improve the room air quality and save electricity.
The Belarusian participants were particularly interested in the experience of installation of a building-level district heating substation in Gymnasium No. 1 that enables it to regulate the heat medium supply depending on weather conditions and occupancy level. The room temperature is reduced at nighttime and on weekends, and raised back to the standard level by the beginning of the school day. The substation is installed by a private firm under an energy servicing control, i.e., the municipality pays the company for saved heat only, and the title to the equipment will be assigned to the Gymnasium after 6 years of operation.
On 20 September, the Belarusians took part in the international conference "Energy and Climate Transformation for Sustainable Urban Development". The conference participants shared their experience of adoption of new solutions in the area of waste management and relations with house owners' associations. The Belarusian side gave a presentation about the waste collection and recycling system in the city of Slonim, as well as about the local initiatives of the Strengthening the Covenant of Mayors Movement in Belarus Project, which is financed by the European Union.
The tour for representatives of Belarusian cities/towns – signatories of the Covenant of Mayors – was co-arranged by Ecopartnership International NGO, the Energy Efficient Cities of Ukraine Association and the Energy Management Department of the Khmelnytskyi City Council under the EU-financed Strengthening the Covenant of Mayors Movement in Belarus Project.


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There is so much material crammed onto the Star Wars Complete Saga Blu-ray set that it's difficult to know where to begin.
Instead of leaving an elephant in the room throughout the whole review, we'll address the few changes to the films first. There are some changes made to the films and you've read all about them. As I've watched through the films in what little time I've had, I haven't noticed anything major outside what's been discussed. There are no evil surprises lurking in some unknown corner of the films for you. The changes that had attention brought to them were clearly the biggest, most notable changes that people took umbrage with. There were a number of great changes made, though. In the prequels, most of them involved polishing up effects that had instances of clipping in them, other effects were cleaned up. One of my favorite changes so far has been an update to Han being unfrozen in carbonite. If you're not a giant Star Wars nerd you won't even notice anything's been done.
But there are two things I want to say about the changes:
Firstly, whether there are changes on this particular version you disagree with or not, you knew going into this set that there were going to be changes from the original theatrical releases that you didn't like. One or two more shouldn't enter into your decision whether or not you buy this set.
Secondly, for the most part, the vast majority of the changes are invisible. They are the upgrades to sound and picture quality people have been asking for all these long years. There are massive stretches of film where there isn't a single, perceptible change in the films. People talk about the Special Editions as though George Lucas took a giant digital crayon to every frame of the film and it simply isn't the case. I understand that for some people, some of the changes take you out of the film. I understand and respect that, but you knew that going in when you pre-ordered your Blu-ray set, a few more isn't any reason to cancel your pre-order, especially since the original three films make up barely a third of the reason you'd buy the set.
Now that that's out of the way, we can talk about everything else. I've tried to divide things up in some logical manner so you can skip ahead to what you're interested in reading about. It's a big set and this is going to be a big review. I'll go over Picture and Sound Quality, Deleted Scenes, Documentaries, and Other Bonus Features. Hopefully, that will give you an idea of what I think of the set overall.
Picture and Sound Quality
One of my fondest memories was the first time I popped in my VHS tape of the brand new widescreen THX release of the Star Wars films in 1995 and thinking to myself, "Wow. These films have never looked better and I don't see how they could with anything less than a movie theatre." I was an incredibly naive 15 year old boy back then and the picture quality has improved so much with each subsequent release it's ridiculous. Lucasfilm has consistently been able to maximize the most of every format they've released the films in and this Blu-ray is no exception. The picture and the colors and the sound is absolutely stunning.
The films are all crisp and clear, adding a definition and subtlety of color to them that I'm not even sure I realized watching the films on 35mm in 1997. Nothing about it, though, looks unnatural. There's still that worn in grain and lived in feeling to the films. It's not super-sharp in that live televised football sort of way. It's much more painterly than that. Watching the films in the past you got that "lived in" look, but never has it been more apparent how "used" the Star Wars universe is. The painstaking attention to detail across all six films comes out when you can see the textures of cloth and furniture and set pieces and sets and props. It's astounding.
The colors are brilliant and have never looked better. Ever. On the big screen or otherwise. As I write this, I'm rewatching The Empire Strikes Back and watching the Milennium Falcon make its escape from Cloud City and I can't imagine the lighting looking any more beautiful. Maybe it's because I've come to appreciate good lighting more and more over the years, but the films (aside from the minor changes) look flawless. It really has to be seen to be believed. All of the films look fantastic, but I have to say, Revenge of the Sith and The Empire Strikes Back are the standouts in picture quality. I'm not sure if it's because more care and love were put into them or if they were just shot better, but they looked…more flawless than the rest.
And the sound… The sound mix (aside from one infamous addition) is utterly breathtaking and it taxes my sound system to the limit. In fact, this set might be the reason I upgrade (and get a bigger TV). I tested the films in a system with much better sound than mine and I felt like I was in a THX certified movie theatre. It was all mapped perfectly, the music was sweet and golden, and everything came together beautifully. Like I said, they've once again outdone themselves with the medium at hand.
Deleted Scenes
I was curious as to why the deleted scenes from the previous releases of the prequels weren't included on this set. Not that I'd get rid of my old sets anyway, it's just slightly annoying that my bonus features are spread over twenty some odd discs. But in some ways, that's a good thing. We weren't given the same material regurgitated over and over again. All of the behind the scenes material and deleted scenes featured are all new to this set. And there's nothing more awe-inspiring than seeing new material from the Star Wars films we all know and love.
This is one of the biggest reasons to get the set. These are the historical documents of filmmaking attrition that we can learn from.
I'll break the deleted scenes down by film:
Episode I and Episode II – There's a reason these are deleted scenes. There's not much to see here, just bits of scenes and animatics. nothing mind-blowingly impressive.
Episode III – By far, the best deleted scene for the prequels included in this set is the animatic directed by Steven Spielberg of the Obi-wan/Grievous chase. Spielberg wanted a first hand primer in how to work an animatic and supervised the making of this one. It's VERY impressive and has a lot of flourishes that would have been nice to see in the final film (though some did find their way inside). The only problem with this sequence is that it went on for far too long.
The other major deleted scene from Episode III is the an animatic of Order 66 as it was originally to occur, combining the Wookiee attack and Order 66 simultaneously. Obviously it's different and not as emotionally disturbing as the final version, but they did show what was to be the end of Quinlan Vos. It was brutal and amazing and would have been great to see in the final film.
A piece of a scene had clones guarding the Jedi Temple after Order 66 dressed as Jedi. Tem Morrison in disguise as Jedi guarding the temple was great, though I understand the scene had too much humour too it and the mood of the film needed to be dour at that moment.
And though I'd've loved to see the scene of Yoda communing with Qui-Gon, I can see where it would have dragged the film back a little.
Episode IV – As I watched the scenes with Biggs and Luke, I was reminded of Curt and Steve from American Graffiti. These scenes are amazing to watch, but it's a very good thing they didn't make it into the final film.
I'm wondering why they included the crazy woman on Tatooine and the blue milk scenes on the disc. They're fun, but have zero re-watchability.
One of the most fascinating things was the original rough cut of the Cantina scene. It was assembled out of the original shoot and seemed to utilize every scrap of footage they shot. It's a good thing they did the reshoots they did, though, especially when it concerned Greedo's closeups. Watching a side-by-side of the original Greedo and the one that made it into the movie is almost cringeworthy.
Episode V – The extended scenes on Hoth might be my favorites in this entire set. It doesn't matter that they aren't terribly well-acted and have all the charm of a daytime soap, there's something oddly…. alluring about them. They brought a smile to my face. They would have fleshed out Leia a little more, but would have changed the dynamic of the love triangle completely. In fact, you can see with this the careful balancing act they had to perform in the editing room to keep the love story completely balanced and appropriate. They had to strike a middle tone and these scenes showed how precarious a position they were in.
Which leads us to the alternate Han-Leia kiss… I can see this being the prefered version for fangirls everywhere. And the line, "Okay, Hotshot" will find its way into the Star Wars lexicon of quotes.
Lobots capture is almost heartbreaking and somehow adorable and later, it's weird hearing Leia and Luke say "Boba Fett" in an extended scene.
Episode VI – The building of Luke's saber is incredible and would have added a different layer to the film. The fabled sandstorm is amazing to see, though it's easy to see why they cut it. They did explain what Luke does with the ladder on his X-wing, though. He simply discards it. The supply of X-wing ladders must be inexhaustible.
In the new bunker scene, the piles of Stormtrooper bodies is actually comical, but not more comical (and cringeworthy) than watching Crix Madine try to fill in for Admiral Ackbar.
And that leads me to the one deleted scene that I think would have improved the saga if it had been included. "Jerjerrod's Conflict" documents the scenes where Palpatine orders the commander of the Death Star to blow up Endor if, somehow, the rebels manage to destroy the shield generator. It would have added so much more to Luke's conflict and tension to the battle over all. There are as many reasons for not showing at putting in, so I can't complain. And the bits of footage they had on the disc could hardly be put in the film and communicate the story seamlessly.
This is the second biggest reason to get the complete saga set.
One of the things that set me down my career path was behind the scenes documentaries and I've sought out everyone I could ever get my hands on in the Star Wars universe and they managed to put the most elusive one I'd ever hoped to see on the ninth disc in this collection. SP FX The Empire Strikes Back is a documentary I've been trying to track down for the better part of two decades and I always turned up empty. I'd have paid full price for just that one documentary at this point, making this set worth more than it's suggested price 9 times over. Getting to watch that specific documentary for the first time was as exciting to me as seeing a new Star Wars movie for the first time and I'm happy for the chance to finally see it.
But the documentaries don't stop there. There are scores of other documentaries. The Creatures of Return of the Jedi is an interesting look at the creature shops for the sixth Star Wars film (even though I'd seen about an 1/8th of it in From Star Wars to Jedi). My favorite documentary, aside from the SPFX special was probably the retrospective of The Empire Strikes Back that featured interviews with Irvin Kershner, Lawrence Kasdan, and George Lucas and their parts in creating Empire and crafting its story. It was inspiring and made me want to quit what I was doing and get back to writing in my notebook.
This is, by no means, an exhaustive collection of Star Wars documentaries, but an excellent cross-section that gives you a pretty good taste of what there is. Again, though, there aren't any documentaries that appeared on previous DVD releases, so be sure to hang on to your older versions.
There is also scores of new material in the archives. Each film has sections divided up by local and you can choose to watch smaller mini-documentaries that are prop (or character or costume or location) specific. They run 3 to 6 minutes or so and are all incredibly enlightening. I've been a lifelong student of Star Wars and there are plenty of stories I hit upon that I've never heard and pieces of the archives I'd never even known that existed. They've pulled out all the stops on this one. All told there's close to three hours of documentaries and interviews of that nature, enough to keep you busy for a long, long time.
Other Bonus Features
The other two most notable bonus features are the commentaries (from the previous release and scene-specific commentaries edited masterfully together from a dozen or more other interviews) and they are, as ever, worth your time. I'll be honest, of all the special features I've explored, these are the ones I've had the least time with. I've skipped around here and there on them enough to know that I'll be visiting them as soon as I can.
And then there's the spoofs. They cut a 2-plus hour montage of Star Wars references in the popular culture over the last 30-plus years. There's a smattering of everything and footage from things I didn't know existed. Sure, there's the pre-requisite clips from Simpsons, Family Guy, and Robot Chicken, but they pulled in Weird Al, Clerks, LOTS of Saturday Night Live (sketches I didn't even know existed), The Daily Show, That 70s Show, and dozens of others. The most surprising inclusion to me, though, were some of the fan films (Chad Vader, TROOPS, etc.) and Eddie Izzard's canteen routine. And then halfway into his canteen routine, they actually cut into the lego version of it. I was giggling like an idiot.
In Conclusion
For fans who complain that Lucas just packages the same old thing over and over and over again, there is hours and hours and hours of material I've never seen released before that is worth the price of admission alone. Add to that the films that look and sound better than they ever have in history, with commentaries new and old to inform you on the making of the saga, and you have a collection that is well worth every penny a few times over.
I'll admit, I was a little exhausted when the "controversy" was happening. I was filled with anxiety about some of the changes. And yeah, there's still some changes I don't like. But after a day and a half of watching vintage documentaries, brand new retrospectives, and watching people involved with Star Wars talk about it on the discs with the same level of passion and enthusiasm I have for the movies, all of my Star Wars fandom was renewed and refreshed and I couldn't be more glad for this set.
Do I wish they release more bonus features and bonus discs of the original versions on Blu-ray, too? Sure. I'll buy that set, too. In the meantime, I've got more than enough on this set to keep me more than happy.
You can buy it here on Amazon.


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What to Know
- Monday is here, South Florida – and we've got you covered with what you need to know to get the work and school week started.
Monday is here, South Florida – and we've got you covered with what you need to know to get the work and school week started. Weather wise, it should be much drier than this weekend was with just a 20 percent chance of rain and highs near 90 degrees.
No. 1 – Trio of storms in Atlantic Ocean have Southeast, Caribbean on watch
Those along the coastline of the Carolinas and Virginia are bracing for a possible impact from Hurricane Florence, which was upgrade to a Category 3 storm Monday morning. At the same time, Hurricane Isaac formed late Sunday night and has residents in the Caribbean keeping an eye out as it moves to the west.
NBC 6 has complete coverage of both storms, which you can find in our Hurricane Season 2018 section.
No. 2 – South Florida remembers anniversary of Hurricane Irma's landfall
It was just after 9 a.m. on September 10, 2017 when the category four storm came across Cudjoe Key, one of two locations in Florida where it would make landfall that day. When the storm was done, 134 people were killed and $65 billion in damages were caused – making it the fifth costliest hurricane in history.
NBC 6's Steve MacLaughlin traveled across the Florida Keys to see the recovery that has taken place – as some of it continues. For more on the anniversary, click here.
No. 3 – John Legend joins historical group after winning most recent award
The singer is becoming a real legend after NBC's live version of "Jesus Christ Superstar", in which Legend played the title character, has won an Emmy award – now, the singer adds that to his 10 Grammys, an Oscar for his song in the movie 'Selma' and a Tony for a play he produced. This makes Legend an "EGOT" the first African American to enter that rare category. For more, click here.
No. 4 – Miami Dolphins go seven hours before winning season opener.
After starting the game at 1 p.m., the Dolphins and Tennessee Titans endured two weather delays totaling four hours – ending their game after 8 p.m. with a 27-20 win in the return of Ryan Tannehill at quarterback. For more on the win, click here.
No. 5 – "Mr. 305" Pitbull looking for performers for new Miami restaurant
The South Florida music icon is taking a bite out of the culinary world. But before the grand opening, he needs performers to bring his vision to life with auditions to be part of the show.
Hundreds of people have auditioned for a chance to be part of Pitbull's new restaurant "iLov305", including over the weekend at the Showstopper dance studio.


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Finnish handmade Yarn bowl with 2 holesJuha Mikael Holmlund
0 reviews
59,00 €
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Yarn bowl designed with Pietarsaari wood conveyor Juha Mikael Holmlund.
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Here you can fit two 100g ready-made yarnbal and they do not roll on the floor
27 cm
16 cm
27 cm
1360 g
Reviews 0 reviews


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These are the as sold proven capabilities, sometimes these are lost through not maintaining that capability or simply fear of tripping the unit at low load or lost corporate memory after so many years at baseload.
There is also nothing special about this capability. Plenty of coal fired plants go much lower with some additional technology.
Another factor is that most power on the NEM is bought and sold by Contract, not the pool price. it may be another reason why the coal fired load remains higher.


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Well we had some weather around these parts that made my car get all gray from the salt and brine. It looked awful and I know that stuff is not good on the paint.
Today I went to the car wash to get all that grit and grime sprayed off the car. It looks so much nicer now and the paint isn't being attacked.
The cares and worries of life can cost us a film that allows us to lose focus on the Lord and His plans. We must remember that He has everything under control and allow Him to spray the worries and cares away.
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San Miguel de Allende
1 answer
312 views
What is the cheapest or quickest air route from Tampa, Florida to San Miguel de Allende, Mexico?
over 7 years ago about San Miguel de Allende, Mexico
Asked by D Shannon via Ask a Nomad iPad app
1 Answer
From Ft. Lauderdale to Toluca, Mex. Direct using Spirit Air. From Toluca take bus to San Miguel Allende.
Or from Toluca airport take a taxi to Mexico City North bus station and take an ETN first class bus. over 7 years agoAnswered by jm via Ask a Nomad iPad app


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The Other Bourbon Trail
The Craft Tour stretches across most of the Commonwealth Read more
See Your State
Several services offer an easy way to visit Kentucky landmarks Read more
Distilled Downtown
Louisville's distilleries honor the past while pointing the way to the future of Kentucky's native spirit Read more
A New Collaboration
Bourbon and wine: together? Yes. The collaboration is officially coming to the Bardstown Bourbon Company this spring, as the company continues to grow and diversify its brands. Read more
The Spirit of Valentine's Day
If your Valentine's Day celebration involves a glass or two of Kentucky's native spirit, several local distilleries have you covered with new flavors, pairings, drink ideas and even classes on how to make them. Read more
Bluegrass Music Hall of Fame & Museum's Grand Opening
People from all over the state, all over the country and even all over the world were in Owensboro when the Bluegrass Music Hall of Fame & Museum held its grand opening Oct. 18-20. Read more
Our Spirited History
Archaeologist Nicolas Laracuente digs into Kentucky's rich bourbon heritage Read more
A Bevy of Bourbon
New distilleries are cropping up, as longtime legends expand production Read more
Tradition & Technology
O.Z. Tyler uses an innovative process in distilling bourbon Read more
Where Friends Meet
The Greyhound Tavern nears a century as a northern Kentucky landmark Read more
Spirited Tales
Historic Buffalo Trace Distillery has been the site of some ghostly encounters over the years Read more
Family Creed
Shelbyville distillery blends modern science, time-honored techniques and family history Read more
Making Bourbon Makers
Louisville's Moonshine University offers courses in producing Kentucky's world-famous drink Read more
Happy 225th Kentucky!
As Kentucky celebrates its 225th birthday, we're taking a look forward. We asked several knowledgeable people, "what will Kentucky be like in 2042?" You may be surprised by some of the answers. Read more
Gary P. West, Maggie Kimberl, Brent Burchett, Jackie Hollenkamp Bentley, Constance Alexander, Eric Mitchell, Duane Bonifer, Stephen M. Vest Featured
24 Hours in... Frankfort
In this installment of "24 Hours in …" our writer visits Frankfort and gives you the scoop on what to do, where to eat, what to see and where to stay. Read more
Brew Toppers
Western Kentucky University and Alltech are partnering in a new educational program on brewing and distilling Read more
Queen of the Castle
Master distiller Marianne Barnes oversees the operations at the new Castle & Key Distillery Read more
Sipping Under the Stars
Food and travel writer Dana McMahan recounts her bourbon-infused experience at the Knob Creek Campout Read more
Kindred Spirits
Members of the Bourbon Women Association and Bourbon Belle Society bond over their shared passion for the drink Read more
It's in the Blood
Three generations of the Russell family call Wild Turkey Distillery home Read more


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The army soldiers staged an operation in the area of Khan al-Subul, and claimed the lives of a large number of al-Nusra terrorists.
Nine terrorists with Saudi nationalities were identified among the killed ones.
Several vehicles belonging to the terrorist organization were destroyed during the operation.
Syria has been experiencing unrest since March 2011 with organized attacks by well-armed gangs and terrorists against both the army and civilians.
The unrest, which took in terrorist groups from across Europe, the Middle-East and North Africa, has transpired as one of the bloodiest conflicts in recent history.
As the foreign-backed insurgency in Syria continues without an end in sight, the US government has boosted its political and military support to Takfiri extremists.


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Connor in OR
No instructions in the bag because they have them online but we're overall pretty vague. Figured it out but the fitment isn't amazing on the bike. Keeps my linkage safe though. Next Tim around I'll get a plate with linkage protection in tact.Read All Reviews
John in CA
The linkage guard came with holes that did not match the Enduro engineering skid plate. They were also the wrong size and not conical or tapered as the skid plate or the supplied bolts' heads. They were also not tapered as the bolts for the skid plate are. It did not have instructions, and said to look at their website. When I looked at their website, the linkage protectors in the pictures weren't the same, neither were the skid plates relative to the Enduro engineering one that I just bought at Rocky Mountain ATV. I'd be OK if they said to drill new holes, but instead they said the instructions are going to be on their website, and those instructions have nothing to do with the products that I bought.Only recommend it if you're going to do a lot of drilling and fiddling. I was putting it on a Husqvarna FE 350 2018.Read All Reviews
Duncan in SK
I mated this to a Polysport skid plate and works awesome covering my linkage.Read All Reviews
Jacob in IN
I thought this would be a nice piece to have to protect my linkage just because I ride in areas with a lot of rocks and roots and logs. I was wrong. Did not come with instructions however did have you go to their website BUT THEIR website was not helpful at all and on top of it all they said they would need a longer bolts but did not supply the longer bolts. Overall the intentions of this product are good but the fitment absolutely sucked I had to tap my own holes into it because this predrilled holes we're not big enough. I would not reccomend it.Read All Reviews
Michael in WA
The linkage guard does what its designed to but at a hefty cost. The kit for my 300xc came with the guard, hardware and an aluminum plate retainer. Ill be honest. I feel for what they cost, is pretty steep for what you get. No complaints about the quality. If i had known it was gonna be this expensive for just the guard then I would have gone with the SXS plate instead.Read All Reviews
Robert in TN
Easy to install and does what its suppose to. Makes clearing logs a breeze. No more hang ups and damage to linkage. Highly recommend.Read All Reviews


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Shirley J. Ries (Trimble), 82, passed October 12, 2018 at her home. A59 year
resident of Manteca, she was born November 12, 1935 in Oklahoma to the late Emmett and Lilly Trimble.
As a young girl Shirley and her parents migrated to California for work where they settled in Stockton. There Shirley attended Franklin High School, and worked for Tillie Lewis Foods. In Stockton is where she met a handsome sailor, Richard Ries. They married in 1953 and had two daughters, Vickie Glassey and Rechelle Van Huss, six grandchildren, 16 great grandchildren, and five great-great grandchildren.
Richard preceded Shirley in death in 1989. After making their home in Manteca, Shirley went on to own and operate with her daughter, Sunrise Cottage, a board and care facility in Ripon. Shirley had many hobbies and donated her time generously to them, including acting as range master in the 1970s for the Manteca Gun Club, playing the violin, traveling, oil painting and Tai Chi at the Senior Center. She has enjoyed many of these adventures with her partner of 30 years, Chris Salas, who was by her side as she passed.
Shirley was greeted at heaven's gate by her husband of 37 years, Richard. She will be greatly missed by all that knew her.
P.L. Fry & Son is honored to be serving the Ries family. A visitation will be on October 16, 2018, 5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m., held at P.L. Fry & Son, 290 N. Union Rd., Manteca, CA. Services will be on Wednesday, October 17, 2018, at 11:00 a.m., also held at P.L. Fry & Son, 290 N. Union Rd., Manteca, CA. She will be laid to rest privately at East Union Cemetery. An online guest book is available for condolences to the family at www.plfryandson.com
Manteca (Calif.) Bulletin
Saturday, October 13, 2018


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One recommendation I make to most of my shoppers is to find a solution to incorporate puzzle toys into their dogs day by day life. Designed to maintain cats entertained throughout mealtime, the Skinny Kat helps cats eat extra slowly and digest higher. It's distinctive design make it enjoyable for cats to search for their meals. unlike canine, cats love to make use of their paws to catch their food as they're extra guide.
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Trouble-Free Products In Toys To Keep Dogs Busy – What\'s Required
News On No-Hassle Plans For Smart Dog Toys
A significant type of interactive canine toys can be deal with hiding toy. Right here, the treats are hidden beneath some layers of the puzzle. The canine has to solve the puzzle as a way to reveal the deal with. The puzzle could be of endless types, which can also be the best factor about such a toy.
The hoochye is a great toy for protecting your pet each engaged, wholesome. The treats are fit in between the teeth that line the toy's outer wall. Your dog could have a tough time trying interactive toys to get in there with their tooth so that they can get a great grip on the meals, and their tooth will get cleaned by the rubber as they work the meals out from contained in the ball.
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Create your individual impediment course inside your house. Have your canine jump over some towels, weave by means of his toys, and then lay down on a blanket. Use your creativeness and provide you with a set of obstacles in your dog to follow. As soon as your dog has discovered how one can jump over the towels you then move onto the toy weave. Constructing on prior methods will preserve your dog mentally stimulated and encourages focus.


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