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18 April 2006: The Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees, in cooperation with the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), is organizing a series of meetings with associations of families of the missing persons from all over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The main issue to be discussed is the Law on Missing Persons.The Law on the Missing was adopted in the BiH Parliament in November 2004, but it has not yet been fully implemented. This is due partially to the legal processes of law enforcement in BiH, which require additional sub-laws to be passed down to the administrative levels of the country's organization, and partially to the fact that the majority of families of missing persons are far from having a comprehensive understanding of their rights and status under the Law on the Missing.
It is the shared concern of the Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees of Bosnia and Herzegovina, ICMP and the ICRC, who all worked together on drafting the Law, to see the Law fully enforced. The Law was originally drafted in consultation with family member representatives and the meetings organized by the Human Rights Ministry, in cooperation with ICMP and the ICRC, are expected to collect information about problems in implementation of the Law. They will be held on 18 and 26 April in Sarajevo, Brcko, Prijedor and Travnik.
All findings from the meetings with the families of the missing would be used to draft instructions that would facilitate more efficient implementation of the law, helping to make sure that the rights of families of the missing persons are met in a more appropriate and effective manner.
For all further info please contact:
Mrs. Saliha Djuderija, Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees at 033 22 12 93
Mrs. Sanela Bajrambasic, ICRC BiH Spokesperson at 033 65 24 07
Mr. Vedran Persic, ICMP BiH Spokesperson at 033 280 800

subset: commoncrawl


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Explorinar: Evernote - Easy Note Taking
presented by Thomas MacEntee
Are you in need of a better way to take notes during genealogy research and capture those finds on the Internet? Evernote might be your answer! Evernote is a dynamic, easy to use web-based application with a "free" component which allows you to "remember everything!"
NOTE: this webinar will be offered at two different times to accommodate different time zones and schedules. One session will be held in the evening (Wednesday, August 31, 2011) and the other in the early afternoon (Thursday, September 1, 2011). Please make sure you register for the correct one!
Wednesday, August 31, 2011
8pm Eastern
7pm Central
6pm Mountain
5pm Pacific
1am London
10am Sydney
Space is limited.
Reserve your Webinar seat now at:
Thursday, September 1, 2011
2pm Eastern
1pm Central
12pm Mountain
11am Pacific
7pm London
4am Sydney
Space is limited.
Reserve your Webinar seat now at:
What's an Explorinar?
A casual exploration of a website, an application or some other program that could be useful to genealogists and family historians. Explorinars are free and limited to 100 participants. There are no handouts so please take notes. A free recording of the session will be posted at http://www.hidefgen.com.
More About Thomas MacEntee
Thomas MacEntee is a professional genealogist specializing in the use of technology and social media to improve genealogical research and as a means of interacting with others in the family history community. Utilizing over 25 years of experience in the information technology field, Thomas writes and lectures on the many ways in which blogs, Facebook and Twitter can be leveraged to add new dimensions to the genealogy experience. As the creator of GeneaBloggers.com (http://www.geneabloggers.com) he has organized and engaged a community of over 2,000 bloggers to document their own journeys in the search for ancestors.
Through his business High-Definition Genealogy (http//www.hidefgen.com), Thomas is available for speaking engagements, workshops and other events. High-Definition Genealogy also performs market research within the genealogy industry and has proven track-record of mapping out the genealogy industry landscape for clients seeking to transact business and interact in the field.


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KENNY, THOMAS EDWARD, businessman and politician; b. 12 Oct. 1833 in Halifax, eldest son of Edward Kenny* and Ann Forrestall; m. 2 Oct. 1856, in New York City, Margaret Jones Burke (Bourke), daughter of Michael Burke (Bourke), and they had 13 children; d. 26 Oct. 1908 in Halifax.
Thomas Kenny grew up in the household of the richest and most powerful of Halifax's Irish Catholic merchants. Educated at Stonyhurst College in England and the Collège Saint-Servais in Liège, Belgium, he returned home in the mid 1850s to enter his family's wholesale dry-goods and shipping business. Apparently in charge of the firm from about 1870 and senior partner after his father retired in 1876, Kenny headed an enterprise with assets of one million dollars. By the mid 1870s he was also part-owner of 18 vessels, in which he had invested at least $100,000, enough to make him "one of the largest . . . shipowners in [Halifax]." Confronted later that decade by shrinking profits in high-seas commerce as freight rates fell off precipitously with the decline of the world economy, Kenny began to sell off his vessels and used the capital to move into manufacturing, most notably during the early 1880s. He played a key role in establishing the Nova Scotia Sugar Refinery Limited and the Nova Scotia Cotton Manufacturing Company in the provincial capital, becoming a shareholder and director in both companies and eventually chairman of the board of the latter organization. Despite his involvement in shipping and manufacturing, however, Kenny remained primarily a dry-goods wholesaler.
Kenny was the son of a sometime senator and federal cabinet minister, and he continued the family presence in federal politics. A pro-confederate and advocate of Sir John A. Macdonald*'s National Policy, in 1887 he reluctantly entered federal politics and was elected a Conservative mp for Halifax in succession to his brother-in-law Malachy Bowes Daly. At Ottawa he generally restricted his comments to issues of immediate interest to Halifax, such as the improvement of the terminal facilities of the Intercolonial Railway and the introduction of a modern steamship service linking Nova Scotia to Europe. These measures, local businessmen thought, would establish Halifax as Canada's leading winter port, a position sought with increasing desperation as the city sank ever further into economic decay. Kenny's efforts as a politician were largely futile and fostered disillusionment, which perhaps explains his refusal to enter the federal cabinet when offered a position following the death of fellow Haligonian Sir John Sparrow David Thompson* in 1894. In the election of 1896 he won the urban vote in his constituency but lost his seat thanks to strong rural dissatisfaction engendered by a quarter-century of distress and depopulation.
Despite sustained battles with political foes such as Alfred Gilpin Jones, Kenny had remained popular in business circles because of his wealth and geniality. He served for years on Halifax's Chamber of Commerce and helped to found new enterprises such as the Eastern Trust Company. From 1870 Kenny's power and prestige derived primarily from his presidency of the Merchants' Bank of Halifax, the city's largest financial institution, which his father had helped to found and in which the bulk of his own money was invested. Early in his tenure the bank embarked on a program of establishing branches throughout the Maritimes. Then in the mid 1880s, in reaction to a wave of business failures in the region, Kenny opted for a policy of expansion across Canada and into the Caribbean [see David Hunter Duncan]. By the turn of the century, the bank was raising much of the capital it needed for growth from sources outside Halifax. As a result, the head office of the now renamed Royal Bank of Canada was moved to Montreal in 1907. Kenny remained president until his death, but real power in the bank had shifted to central Canadian entrepreneurs led by Herbert Samuel Holt*, who was to be Kenny's successor.
When Kenny died the Halifax press hailed him as a business giant, renowned for his "dignity, grace and hospitality." He left a fortune of over $430,000, virtually all of which went to his wife and children. Most of the latter lived abroad and had eschewed business for association with the imperial military establishment. Thus the death of Thomas Kenny was doubly the end of an era. His passing terminated the Kenny presence within Halifax's business élite and it also ended all semblance of Nova Scotian control over the Royal Bank, an institution destined to become a pillar of the Canadian financial world.
Baker Library, R. G. Dun & Co. credit ledger, Canada, 12: 706, 770 (mfm. at NA). Halifax County Court of Probate (Halifax), Estate papers, no.6703. Daily Echo (Halifax), 26, 28 Oct. 1908. Evening Mail (Halifax), 26, 28 Oct. 1908. Maritime Merchant (Sackville, N.B., and Halifax), 12 Nov. 1908. Morning Chronicle (Halifax), 4 Dec. 1880, May–June 1896. Morning Herald (Halifax), 28 Jan., 3 Feb. 1887; 10 Feb. 1891. Almanac, Belcher's, 1860–1900. Annual financial rev. (Toronto and Montreal), 1 (1901)–9 (1909). Can., House of Commons, Debates, 1887–96. Canadian men and women of the time (Morgan; 1898). Cyclopædia of Canadian biog. (Rose and Charlesworth), vol.2. Royal Bank of Canada, Fiftieth anniversary of the Royal Bank of Canada . . . 1869–1919 (Montreal, 1920).
© 1994–2024 University of Toronto/Université Laval
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Cite This Article
David A. Sutherland, "KENNY, THOMAS EDWARD," in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 13, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed February 26, 2024, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/kenny_thomas_edward_13E.html.
The citation above shows the format for footnotes and endnotes according to the Chicago manual of style (16th edition). Information to be used in other citation formats:
Permalink: | http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/kenny_thomas_edward_13E.html |
Author of Article: | David A. Sutherland |
Title of Article: | KENNY, THOMAS EDWARD |
Publication Name: | Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 13 |
Publisher: | University of Toronto/Université Laval |
Year of publication: | 1994 |
Year of revision: | 1994 |
Access Date: | February 26, 2024 |


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Kaspersky Total Security – Multi-Device is touted as the ultimate security for your PC, Mac & Android devices.It comes packed with all the features of Kaspersky Internet Security, including the Safe Money feature, a vulnerability scanner and parental controls. In addition, you also receive a password management tool, an encryption tool and a backup module.
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- Privacy and identity protection.
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A noteworthy feature of this robust security suite is the password manager. This handy tool is able to synchronise your passwords across multiple devices, generate strong credentials and automatically fill web forms. The encryption is created using 'data vaults' which are basically on-disk archives that use industry standard 256-bit AES encryption.
Another great feature that's included is the backup tool. With it you can make one off or scheduled backups to either local storage, or to a network drive or FTP server. Any backups you make can be password protected and you can configure the length of time to keep old versions for.
Kaspersky Total Security Multi-Device for the Android platform is a solid offering. It provides tools to scan installed apps for malware, block calls and texts from chosen contacts, and hide your contacts, call history and SMS history. It also comes with a handy anti-theft tool as well.
Overall, Kaspersky Total Security – Multi-Device is a strong, all-around security suite for whatever device you choose, whether that be PC, Mac or Android. The antivirus protection scores highly in independent testing, and both the privacy protection and banking security are first rate. If you use various devices, then this suite is definitely one to consider.
Note: This is a 30-day commercial trial.
*depends on the type of device being used.


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Lieutenant Governor Kim Reynolds says she is encouraging the woman who took her seat in the Iowa Senate to consider running for the U.S. Senate.
"I've always been involved in encouraging and strengthening the bench of the Iowa Republicans Party and especially encouraging females to get involved in the political process," Reynolds says, "and so I don't think it would be uncharacteristic of me to reach out to Senator Ernst."
Republican Joni Ernst of Red Oak won a special election in January, 2011 for the state senate seat Reynolds left when Reynolds became Iowa's lieutenant governor.
"I encouraged Joni to seek that position and she was successful and really it goes back further than that," Reynolds says.
"When she was deployed…through email we were connecting back and forth and I was encouraging her to run for the county auditor's position, so our history goes way back in working together and really just encouraging qualified people to run for office, so she just hits it out of the park on both issues."
AUDIO of news conference at which Reynolds made her comments, runs 9:26
Ernst, a member of the Iowa National Guard, was deployed to Kuwait 10 years ago. Ernst served as Montgomery County's Auditor for six years, from 2005 through 2011. Ernst said in late April that she was considering a run for the U.S. Senate, but waiting for Congressman Steve King's decision.
King announced late Friday night that he would not run for the Senate. Republican Congressman Tom Latham, State Ag Secretary Bill Northey and the lieutenant governor herself have all decided against entering the Senate race. Democratic Congressman Bruce Braley is the only announced candidate. Senator Tom Harkin announced in late January that he would not seek reelection in 2014.
Photo courtesy of Lt. Governor's office.


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Contact Us
PO Box 435
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PO Box 435
Massapequa Park, NY 11762
The Ray Pfeifer Foundation is a tax-exempt 501(C)(3) non-profit organization.
RPF Family,
As a nation we are entering unchartered waters. The ripple effects of Covid—19 are impacting every aspect of our lives. The 9/11 community not only remains at high risk for the virus, but our WTC healthcare system has been paused. With office visits and annual medicals being postponed, it is more important than ever that we pay attention to our own bodies. As you know, annual medicals play a vital role in diagnosing new illnesses and diseases. Many of those who have beaten 9/11 related cancer credit the early detection at their medicals as the reason for survival. I'm sure the WTC Health Program and the FDNY WTC Health Program will get going as soon as it is possible. Until then, please take the proper precautions and call your doctor if something doesn't seem right.
It saddens me to say that our RPF board has members who have tested positive for the virus. They are recovering and remain committed to our mission. We will continue to serve 9/11 first responders to the best of our ability. Just this week we were able to assist an FDNY EMT with medical needs not covered by the program. We are also finishing up construction on a wheelchair ramp for an FDNY member battling cancer.
Our thoughts remain with all those affected by this virus. With no discernible end in sight, it's as important as ever that we continue to do what we do best—take care of each other. If you or a loved one is in need of assistance please don't hesitate to reach out. Our application is available on our website. Please call with any questions. If you are able and willing to help us continue our mission you can donate directly on our website. I know these are trying times for us all, but every little bit helps. Hugs to all!
Rob Serra


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Life is Too Short to Deal with Non-Accredited Investors
The Securities Act of 1933 provides companies with a number of exemptions from registration with the SEC. Two distinct but related exemptions, Rules 505 and 506 of Regulation D, provide that a company can sell its own securities to an unlimited amount of "accredited investors." (Please keep in mind there are several other requirements your startup company must follow to properly obtain an exemption from registration under the securities laws.)
The definition of an accredited investor is found in Regulation D's Rule 501 of the federal securities laws. An accredited investor is:
- a bank, insurance company, registered investment company, business development company, or small business investment company;
- an employee benefit plan, within the meaning of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act, if a bank, insurance company, or registered investment adviser makes the investment decisions, or if the plan has total assets in excess of $5 million;
- a charitable organization, corporation, or partnership with assets exceeding $5 million;
- a director, executive officer, or general partner of the company selling the securities;
- a business in which all the equity owners are accredited investors;
- a natural person who has individual net worth, or joint net worth with the person's spouse, that exceeds $1 million at the time of the purchase;
- a natural person with income exceeding $200,000 in each of the two most recent years or joint income with a spouse exceeding $300,000 for those years and a reasonable expectation of the same income level in the current year; or
- a trust with assets in excess of $5 million, not formed to acquire the securities offered, whose purchases a sophisticated person makes.
In addition to accredited investors, Rule 505 and 506 permit raising capital from up to 35 non-accredited investors (i.e., anyone that does not fit the accredited investor definition above). But that doesn't mean your company should raise capital from non-accredited investors, and for a good few reasons:
(1) Non-Accredited Investors Trigger a Larger Disclosure of Information – If you raise capital from non-accredited investors in a Rule 505 or Rule 506 registration-exempted financing, you must provide a huge amount of information about your startup company. Think IPO-registration huge, thereby leading to larger legal and accounting costs. Such additional costs may not be prudent if your startup company is tight on capital.
(2) Non-Accredited Investors Tend to be More Hostile Than Accredited Investors – Implied by the definition of a non-accredited investor, the investment a non-accredited investor makes to your startup company will mean much more to him or her than an investment an accredited investor makes. A non-accredited investor will be much more emotional. Thus, non-accredited investors are much more likely to sue your company if things don't go according to plan.
(3) Non-Accredited Investors can Hinder an Acquisition – It may be difficult for your startup company to be acquired after it has completed a registration-exempted financing with non-accredited investors. Non-accredited investors trigger additional rules in the context of an acquisition (e.g., a purchaser's representative). Sometimes the acquiring entity will require a startup company to perform a buyout the non-accredited investors pre-acquisition.
Therefore, if at all possible, your startup company should refrain from raising money from non-accredited investors. They simply create too many problems during and after your financing.


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RPPC Inc is not your normal Accounting or QuickBooks firm. We are a Kansas City, Missouri based accounting firm devoted to your success. RPPC Inc is an accounting firm providing a full range of customized business accounting services for small and mid-size businesses locally and nationwide. Businesses do not stay the same…change is inevitable. Ninety percent of small businesses fail because they do not have a support network to help them through the changes. Today is the day to take charge of your financial path. Let's start you on the path to Realizing Profitable Potential through Change.
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As CEO and President, Pam Morin is dedicated to helping your company succeed financially. She and her staff work personally with each client to ensure customized solutions are found for their needs. Focusing on cost and management accounting through the utilization of tools such as QuickBooks and others enables them to be part of a team of solutions for the client vs an outside solution provider. Pam and her staff are often see as "one of the team" in the businesses they work with because they know accounting solutions vary based on each client's unique needs. Pam is a serial entrepreneur so she knows first hand that running a business is anything but easy. That doesn't stop her and it shouldn't stop you. Call Pam to see how she and her team can help you!
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- rationalism
/rash"euh nl iz'euhm/, n.1. the principle or habit of accepting reason as the supreme authority in matters of opinion, belief, or conduct.2. Philos.a. the doctrine that reason alone is a source of knowledge and is independent of experience.b. (in the philosophies of Descartes, Spinoza, etc.) the doctrine that all knowledge is expressible in self-evident propositions or their consequences.3. Theol. the doctrine that human reason, unaided by divine revelation, is an adequate or the sole guide to all attainable religious truth.4. Archit. (often cap.)a. a design movement principally of the mid-19th century that emphasized the development of modern ornament integrated with structure and the decorative use of materials and textures rather than as added adornment.[1790-1800; RATIONAL + -ISM]
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Philosophical view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge.Rationalism has long been the rival of empiricism, the doctrine that all knowledge of matters of fact ultimately derives from, and must be tested by, sense experience. As against this doctrine, rationalism holds reason to be a faculty that can lay hold of truths beyond the reach of sense perception, both in certainty and in generality. In stressing the existence of a "natural light," rationalism also has been the rival of systems claiming esoteric knowledge, whether from mystical experience, revelation, or intuition, and has been opposed to various irrationalisms that tend to stress the biological, the emotional or volitional, the unconscious, or the existential at the expense of the rational.* * *
Introductionthe philosophical view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge (epistemology). Holding that reality itself has an inherently logical (logic) structure, the Rationalist asserts that a class of truths exists that the intellect can grasp directly. There are, according to the Rationalists, certain rational principles—especially in logic and mathematics (mathematics, philosophy of), and even in ethics and metaphysics—that are so fundamental that to deny them is to fall into contradiction. The Rationalist's confidence in reason and proof tends, therefore, to detract from his respect for other ways of knowing.Rationalism has long been the rival of Empiricism, the doctrine that all knowledge comes from, and must be tested by, sense experience. As against this doctrine, Rationalism holds reason to be a faculty that can lay hold of truths beyond the reach of sense perception, both in certainty and generality. In stressing the existence of a "natural light," Rationalism has also been the rival of systems claiming esoteric knowledge, whether from mystical experience, revelation, or intuition, and has been opposed to various irrationalisms that tend to stress the biological, the emotional or volitional, the unconscious, or the existential at the expense of the rational.Types and expressions of RationalismRationalism has somewhat different meanings in different fields, depending upon the kind of theory to which it is opposed.In the psychology of perception, for example, Rationalism is in a sense opposed to the genetic psychology of the Swiss scholar Jean Piaget, who, exploring the development of thought and behaviour in the infant, argued that the categories of the mind develop only through the infant's experience in concourse with the world. Similarly, Rationalism is opposed to Transactionalism, a point of view in psychology according to which man's perceptual skills are achievements, accomplished through actions performed in response to an active environment. On this view, the experimental claim is made that perception is conditioned by probability judgments formed on the basis of earlier actions performed in similar situations. As a corrective to these sweeping claims, the Rationalist defends a nativism, which holds that certain perceptual and conceptual capacities are innate (innate idea)—as suggested in the case of depth perception by experiments with "the visual cliff," which, though platformed over with firm glass, the infant perceives as hazardous—though these native capacities may, at times, lie dormant until the appropriate conditions for their emergence arise.In the comparative study of languages (linguistics), a similar nativism was developed in the 1950s by the innovating syntactician Noam Chomsky (Chomsky, Noam), who, acknowledging a debt to Descartes (Descartes, René), explicitly accepted the rationalistic doctrine of "innate ideas." Though the 4,000 languages spoken in the world differ greatly in sounds and symbols, they sufficiently resemble each other in syntax to suggest that there is "a schema of universal grammar" determined by "deep structures" or "innate presettings" in the human mind itself. These presettings, which have their basis in the brain, set the pattern for all experience, fix the rules for the formation of meaningful sentences, and explain why languages are readily translatable into one another. It should be added that what Rationalists have held about innate ideas is not that some ideas are full-fledged at birth but only that the grasp of certain connections and self-evident principles, when it comes, is due to inborn powers of insight rather than to learning by experience.Common to all forms of speculative Rationalism is the belief that the world is a rationally ordered whole, the parts of which are linked by logical necessity and the structure of which is therefore intelligible. Thus in metaphysics it is opposed to the view that reality is a disjointed aggregate of incoherent bits and is thus opaque to reason. In particular, it is opposed to the logical atomisms (Logical Atomism) of such thinkers as David Hume (Hume, David) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (Wittgenstein, Ludwig), who held that facts are so disconnected that any fact might well have been different from what it is without entailing a change in any other fact. Rationalists have differed, however, with regard to the closeness and completeness with which the facts are bound together. At the lowest level, they have all believed that the law of contradiction "A and not-A cannot coexist" holds for the real world, which means that every truth is consistent with every other; at the highest level, they have held that all facts go beyond consistency to a positive coherence; i.e., they are so bound up with each other that none could be different without all being different.In the field where its claims are clearest—in epistemology, or theory of knowledge—Rationalism holds that some, at least, of man's knowledge is gained through a priori (a priori knowledge) (prior to experience), or rational, insight as distinct from sense experience, which too often provides a confused and merely tentative approach. In the debate between Empiricism and Rationalism, Empiricists hold the simpler and more sweeping position, the Humean claim that all knowledge of fact stems from perception. Rationalists, on the contrary, urge that some, though not all, knowledge arises through direct apprehension by the intellect. What the intellectual faculty apprehends is objects that transcend sense experience—universals and their relations. A universal is an abstraction, a characteristic that may reappear in various instances: the number three, for example, or the triangularity that all triangles have in common. Though these cannot be seen, heard, or felt, Rationalists point out that man can plainly think about them and about their relations. This kind of knowledge, which includes the whole of logic and mathematics as well as fragmentary insights in many other fields, is, in the Rationalist view, the most important and certain knowledge that the mind can achieve. Such a priori knowledge is both necessary (i.e., it cannot be conceived as otherwise) and universal, in the sense that it admits of no exceptions. In critical philosophy, epistemological Rationalism finds expression in the claim that the mind imposes its own inherent categories or forms upon incipient experience (see below Epistemological Rationalism in modern philosophies (Rationalism)).In ethics Rationalism holds the position that reason, rather than feeling, custom, or authority, is the ultimate court of appeal in judging good and bad, right and wrong (categorical imperative). Among major thinkers, the most notable representative of rational ethics is Immanuel Kant (Kant, Immanuel), who held that the way to judge an act is to check its self-consistency as apprehended by the intellect: to note, first, what it is essentially, or in principle—a lie, for example, or a theft—and then to ask if one can consistently will that the principle be made universal. Is theft, then, right? The answer must be "No," because, if theft were generally approved, no one's property would be his own as opposed to anyone else's and theft would then become meaningless; the notion, if universalized, would thus destroy itself, as reason, by itself, is sufficient to show.In religion (religion, philosophy of) Rationalism commonly means that all of man's knowledge comes through the use of his natural faculties, without the aid of supernatural revelation. "Reason" is here used in a broader sense, referring to man's cognitive powers generally, as opposed to supernatural grace or faith—though it is also in sharp contrast to so-called existential approaches to truth. Reason, for the Rationalist, thus stands opposed to many of the religions of the world, including Christianity, which have held that the divine has revealed itself through inspired persons or writings and which have required, at times, that its claims be accepted as infallible, even when they do not accord with natural knowledge. Religious Rationalists hold, on the other hand, that if the clear insights of man's reason must be set aside in favour of alleged revelation, then human thought is everywhere rendered suspect—even in the reasonings of the theologians themselves. There cannot be two ultimately different ways of warranting truth, they assert; hence Rationalism urges that reason, with its standard of consistency, must be the final court of appeal. Religious Rationalism can reflect either a traditional piety, when endeavouring to display the alleged sweet reasonableness of religion, or an anti-authoritarian temper, when aiming to supplant religion with the "goddess of reason."History of RationalismEpistemological Rationalism in ancient philosophiesThe first Western philosopher to stress rationalist insight was Pythagoras, a shadowy figure of the 6th century BC. Noticing that, for a right triangle, a square built on its hypotenuse equals the sum of those on its sides and that the pitches of notes sounded on a lute bear a mathematical relation to the lengths of the strings, Pythagoras held that these harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied metaphysical Rationalism in the words "All is number." It is probable that he had caught the Rationalist's vision, later seen by Galileo, of a world governed throughout by mathematically formulable laws.The difficulty in this view, however, is that, working with universals and their relations, which, like the multiplication table, are timeless and changeless, it assumes a static world and ignores the particular, changing things of daily life. The difficulty was met boldly by the Rationalist Parmenides, who insisted that the world really is a static whole and that the realm of change and motion is an illusion, or even a self-contradiction. His disciple Zeno Of Elea further argued that anything thought to be moving is confronted with a row of points infinite in number, all of which it must traverse; hence it can never reach its goal, nor indeed move at all. Of course, perception tells us that we do move; but Zeno, compelled to choose between perception and reason, clung to reason.The exalting of rational insight above perception was also prominent in Plato (c. 427–347 BC). In the Meno, Socrates dramatized the innateness of knowledge by calling upon an illiterate slave boy and, drawing a square in the sand, proceeding to elicit from him, step by step, the proof of a theorem in geometry of which the boy could never have heard (to double the size of a square, draw a square on the diagonal). Such knowledge, Rationalists insist, is certain, universal, and completely unlearned.Plato so greatly admired the rigorous reasoning of geometry that he is alleged to have inscribed over the door of his Academy "Let no one unacquainted with geometry enter here." His famous "ideas" are accessible only to reason, not to sense. But how are they related to sensible things? His answers differed. Sometimes he viewed the ideas as distilling those common properties of a class in virtue of which one identifies anything as a member of it. Thus what makes anything a triangle is its having three straight sides; this is its essence. At other times, Plato held that the idea is an ideal, a non-sensible goal to which the sensible thing approximates; the geometer's perfect triangle "never was on sea or land," though all actual triangles more or less embody it. He conceived the ideas as more real than the sensible things that are their shadows and saw that the philosopher must penetrate to these invisible essences and see with the eye of his mind how they are linked together. For Plato they formed an orderly system that was at once eternal, intelligible, and good.Plato's successor Aristotle (384–322 BC) conceived of the work of reason in much the same way, though he did not view the ideas as independent. His chief contribution to Rationalism lay in his syllogistic (syllogism) logic, regarded as the chief instrument of rational explanation. Man explains particular facts by bringing them under general principles. Why does one think Socrates will die? Because he is a man, and man as such is mortal. Why should one accept the general principle itself that all men are mortal? In human experience such principles have so far held without exception. But the mind cannot finally rest in this sort of explanation. Man never wholly understands a fact or event until he can bring it under a principle that is self-evident and necessary; and he then has the clearest explanation possible. On this central thesis of Rationalism, the three great Greeks were in accord.Nothing comparable in importance to their thought appeared in Rationalistic philosophy in the next 1,800 years, though the work of Thomas Aquinas (Aquinas, Thomas, Saint) in the 13th century was an impressive attempt to blend Greek Rationalism and Christian revelation into a single harmonious system.Thoroughgoing Rationalism is to be found only in the philosophical tradition that has come down from Greece; the mysticism of India and the practicality of China have offered a less congenial soil for it. The nearest parallels to it in Eastern thought are found in the work of the Indian philosopher Śaṅkara, who flourished about AD 800, and in that of the Chinese sage Chu-Hsi (Zhu Xi) (1130–1200). Both were commentators on the ancient scriptures of their lands; and in ordering the scattered insights of these sources into intelligible systems, they did for their respective peoples something like what Aquinas did for the West in his harmonizing of Greek with Christian thought. Śaṅkara held, as Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan has expressed it, that "the Absolute is the unattainable goal towards which the finite intellect strives." Perception is confined to what is transient and fragmentary; reason rises to truth that is timeless and universal; but even reason falls short of full understanding, which is achieved, if at all, only through mystical vision. Chu Hsi, who has influenced Chinese thought for the past six centuries, was a disciple of Confucius, though he had a stronger speculative interest than his master. He held that in all human minds a single reason was at work, which he called "the Way." All things were in some degree manifestations of it, and hence the understanding of the world lay in more complete identification with it.Epistemological Rationalism in modern philosophiesThe first modern Rationalist was René Descartes (1596–1650), who was an original mathematician whose ambition was to introduce into philosophy the rigour and clearness that delighted him in mathematics. He set out to doubt (methodic doubt) everything in the hope of arriving in the end at something indubitable. This he reached in his famous cogito ergo sum (cogito, ergo sum), "I think, therefore I am"; for to doubt one's own doubting would be absurd. Here then was a fact of absolute certainty, rendered such by the clearness and distinctness with which it presented itself to his reason. His task was to build on this as a foundation, to deduce from it a series of other propositions, each following with the same self-evidence. He hoped thus to produce a philosophical system on which men could agree as completely as they do on the geometry of Euclid. The main cause of error, he held, lay in the impulsive desire to believe before the mind is clear. The clearness and distinctness upon which he insisted was not that of perception but of conception, the (concept formation) clearness with which the intellect grasps an abstract idea, such as the number three, or its being greater than two.His method was adopted in essentials by both Benedict Spinoza (Spinoza, Benedict de) (1632–77) and G.W. Leibniz (Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm) (1646–1716), who agreed that the framework of things could be known by a priori thinking. They differed from him, however, in their starting points. What was most undeniable to Spinoza was not the existence of his self but that of the universe, called by him Substance. From the idea of Substance, and with the aid of a few definitions and axioms, he derived his entire system, which he set forth in his Ethics in a formal fashion patterned after Euclid's geometry. Still, for both Spinoza and Leibniz much in nature remained stubbornly opaque. Leibniz distinguished necessary truths, those of which the opposite is impossible (as in mathematics), from contingent truths, the opposite of which is possible, such as "snow is white." But was this an ultimate distinction? At times Leibniz said boldly that if only man knew enough, he would see that every true proposition was necessarily true—that there are no contingent truths, that snow must be white.How, then, does reason operate and how is it possible to have knowledge that goes beyond experience? A new answer was given by Immanuel Kant (Kant, Immanuel) (1724–1804) in his Critique of Pure Reason, which, as he said, involved a Copernican revolution in philosophy. The reason man can be certain that his logic and mathematics will remain valid for all experience is simply that their framework lies within his own mind; they are forms of arrangement imposed from within upon the raw materials of sensation. Man will always find things arranged in certain patterns because it is he who has unwittingly so arranged them. Kant held, however, that these certainties were bought at a heavy price. Just because a priori insights are the reflection of man's own mind, he cannot trust them as a reflection of the world outside himself. Whether the rational order in which man arranges his sensation—the order, for example, of time, space, and causality—represents an order holding among things-in-themselves (German Dinge-an-sich) he cannot hope to know. Kant's Rationalism was thus the counterpart of a profound Skepticism.G.W.F. Hegel (Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich) (1770–1831), the most thoroughgoing of Rationalist thinkers, attempted to break out of this Skepticism. He argued that to think of an unknowable is already to bring it within the sphere of what is known and that it is meaningless to talk of a region in which logic is invalid. Further, to raise the question "Why?" is to presume that there is an intelligible answer to it; indeed the faith of the philosopher must be that the real is the rational and the rational real, for this faith is implicit in the philosophic enterprise itself. As an attempt to understand and explain the world, philosophy is a process of placing something in a context that reveals it as necessary. But this necessity is not, as earlier Rationalists had supposed, an all-or-nothing affair issuing in a self-evident finality. Understanding is a matter of degree. What alone would wholly satisfy thought is a system that is at once all-inclusive and so ordered that its parts entail each other. Hegel believed that the universe constitutes such a whole and, as an idealist, held that it is a single, absolute (Absolute Idealism) mind. To the degree that the philosopher embodies and realizes this mind, his own mind will achieve both truth and reality. Indeed, the advance of civilization reflects the enlarging presence and control of such a system in the human spirit. Broadly similar Rationalistic systems were developed in England by F.H. Bradley (Bradley, F H) (1846–1924) and Bernard Bosanquet (Bosanquet, Bernard) (1848–1923) and in America by Josiah Royce (Royce, Josiah) (1855–1916).Ethical RationalismThe views of Kant were presented above as typical of this position (see above, Types and expressions of Rationalism (Rationalism)). But few moralists have held to ethical Rationalism in this simple and sweeping form. Many have held, however, that the main rules of conduct are truths as self-evident as those of logic or mathematics. Lists of such rules were drawn up by Ralph Cudworth (Cudworth, Ralph) and Henry More (More, Henry) among the Cambridge Platonists of the 17th century, who were noted for holding that moral principles were intrinsic to reality; and in the 18th century Samuel Clarke (Clarke, Samuel) and Richard Price (Price, Richard), defenders of "natural law" ethics, and the "common sense" moralist Thomas Reid (Reid, Thomas) also presented such lists. A 20th-century revision of this Rationalism has been offered by the Rational Intuitionists (intuition) H.A. Prichard (Prichard, H.A.) and Sir David Ross (Ross, Sir David) of Oxford under the name of deontology (deontological ethics) (Greek deon, "duty"), which respects duty more than consequences. Ross provides a list of propositions regarding fidelity to promises, reparation for injuries, and other duties, of which he says: "In our confidence that these propositions are true there is involved the same trust in our reason that is involved in our trust in mathematics." What is taken as self-evident, however, is not specific rules of conduct, but prima facie duties—the claims that some types of action have on men because of their nature. If a man is considering whether to repay a debt or to give the money to charity, each act has a self-evident claim on him; and their comparative strengths must be settled by a rational intuition.The most influential variety of 20th-century ethical Rationalism has probably been the Ideal Utilitarianism of the British moralists Hastings Rashdall (1858–1924) and G.E. Moore (Moore, G E) (1873–1958). Both were teleologists (teleology) (Greek telos, "end") inasmuch as they held that what makes an act objectively right is its results (or end) in intrinsic goods or evils. To determine what is right, reason is required in two senses: firstly, the inference to the consequences is an act of inductive reasoning; secondly, the judgment that one consequence is intrinsically better than another is a priori and self-evident. Moore thought that there is a single rule for all conduct—one should so act as to produce the greatest good—and that this is also a principle self-evident to reason.Religious RationalismStirrings of religious Rationalism were already felt in the Middle Ages regarding the Christian revelation. Thus the skeptical mind of Abelard (Abelard, Peter) (1079–1142) raised doubts by showing in his Sic et Non ("Yes and No") many contradictions among beliefs handed down as revealed truths by the Church Fathers. The greatest of the Medieval thinkers, Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), was a Rationalist in the sense of believing that the larger part of revealed truth was intelligible to and demonstrable by reason, though he thought that a number of dogmas opaque to reason must be accepted on authority alone.Expansion of religious RationalismReligious Rationalism did not come into its own, however, until the 16th and 17th centuries, when it took two chief forms: the scientific and the philosophic.Galileo (1564–1642) was a pioneer in astronomy and the founder of modern dynamics. He conceived of nature as governed throughout by laws statable with mathematical precision; the book of nature, he said, is "written in mathematical form." This notion not only ruled out the occasional appeal to miracle; it also collided with dogmas regarding the permanent structure of the world—in particular with that which viewed the Earth as the motionless centre of the universe. When Galileo's demonstration that the Earth moves around the Sun was confirmed by the work of Newton and others, a battle was won that marked a turning point in the history of Rationalism, since it provided a decisive victory in a crucial case of conflict between reason and apparently revealed truth.The Rationalism of Descartes, as already shown, was the outcome of philosophic doubt rather than of scientific inquiry. The self-evidence of the cogito, (cogito, ergo sum) seen by his "natural light," he made the ideal for all other knowledge. The uneasiness that the church soon felt in the face of such a test was not unfounded, for Descartes was in effect exalting the natural light into the supreme court even in the field of religion. He argued that man's guarantee against the possibility that even this natural light might deceive him lay in the goodness of the Creator. But then to prove this Creator, he had to assume the prior validity of the natural light itself. Logically, therefore, the last word lay with rational insight, not with any outside divine warrant. Descartes (Descartes, René) was inadvertently beginning a Copernican revolution in theology. Before his time, the truths regarded as most certain were those accepted from revelation; afterwards these truths were subject to the judgment of human reason, thus breaking the hold of authority on the European mind.Four waves of religious RationalismThe Rationalist attitude quickly spread, its advance forming several waves of general interest and influence. The first wave occurred in England in the form of Deism. Deists accepted the existence of God, but spurned supernatural revelation. The earliest member of this school, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (Herbert, Edward Herbert, 1st Baron) (1583–1648), held that a just God would not reveal himself to a part of his creation only and that the true religion is thus a universal one, which achieves its knowledge of God through common reason. The Deistic philosopher John Toland (Toland, John) (1670–1722), in his Christianity Not Mysterious, sought to show that "there is nothing in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it"; any doctrine that is really above reason would be meaningless to man. Attacking revelation, the freethinking polemicist Anthony Collins (Collins, Anthony) (1676–1729) maintained that the prophecies of the Old Testament failed of fulfillment; and the religious controversialist Thomas Woolston (Woolston, Thomas) (1670–1733) urged that the New Testament miracles, as recorded, are incredible. Matthew Tindal (1657–1733), most learned of the English Deists, argued that the essential part of Christianity is its ethics, which, being clearly apparent to natural reason, leaves revelation superfluous. Thus the Deists, professing for the most part to be religious men themselves, did much to reconcile their public to the free play of ideas in religion.The second wave of religious Rationalism, less moderate in tone and consequences, was French. This wave, reflecting an engagement with the problem of natural evil (evil, problem of), involved a decay in the natural theology of Deism such that it merged eventually with the stream that led to materialistic atheism. Its moving spirit was Voltaire (1694–1778), who had been impressed by some of the Deists during a stay in England. Like them, he thought that a rational man would believe in God but not in supernatural inspiration. Hardly a profound philosopher, he was a brilliant journalist, clever and humorous in argument, devastating in satire, and warm in human sympathies. In his Candide and in many other writings, he poured irreverent ridicule on the Christian scheme of salvation as incoherent and on the church hierarchy as cruel and oppressive. In these attitudes he had the support of Diderot (Diderot, Denis) (1713–84), editor of the most widely read encyclopaedia that had appeared in Europe. The Rationalism of these men and their followers, directed against both the religious and the political traditions of their time, did much to prepare the ground for the explosive French Revolution.The next wave of religious Rationalism occurred in Germany under the influence of Hegel (Hegelianism), who held that a religious creed is a halfway house on the road to a mature philosophy, the product of a reason that is still under the sway of feeling and imagination. This idea was taken up and applied with learning and acuteness to the origins of Christianity by David Friedrich Strauss (Strauss, David Friedrich) (1808–74), who published in 1835, at the age of 27, a remarkable and influential three-volume work, Das Leben Jesu (The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, 1846). Relying largely on internal inconsistencies in the Synoptic Gospels, Strauss undertook to prove these books to be unacceptable as revelation and unsatisfactory as history. He then sought to show how an imaginative people innocent of either history or science, convinced that a Messiah would appear, and deeply moved by a unique moral genius, inevitably wove myths about his birth and death, his miracles, and his divine communings.Strauss's thought as it affected religion was continued by the philosophical historian Ernest Renan (Renan, Ernest) (1823–92) and as it affected philosophy by the humanist Ludwig Feuerbach (Feuerbach, Ludwig) (1804–72) of the Hegelian left. Renan's Vie de Jésus (1863; Life of Jesus) did for France what Strauss's book had done for Germany, though the two differed greatly in character. Whereas Strauss's work had been an intellectual exercise in destructive criticism, Renan's was an attempt to reconstruct the mind of Jesus as a wholly human person—a feat of imagination, performed with a disarming admiration and even reverence for its subject and with a felicity of style that gave it a large and lasting audience. Feuerbach's Wesen des Christentums (1841; Eng. trans. by George Eliot, Essence of Christianity, 1853) applied the myth theory even to belief in the existence of God, holding that "man makes God in his own image."The fourth wave occurred in Victorian England, following the publication in 1859 of Darwin's Origin of Species. This book was taken as a challenge to the authority of Scripture because there was a clear inconsistency between the Genesis account of creation and the biological account of man's slow emergence from lower forms of life. The battle raged with bitterness for several decades but died away as the theory of evolution gained more general acceptance.Status of RationalismReligious (religion, philosophy of)With increasing freedom of thought and wider acceptance of scientific views, Rationalism in religion has lost its novelty and much of its controversial excitement. To the contemporary mind, it is too obvious to warrant debate that reason and revelation cannot both qualify as sources of ultimate truth for, were they to conflict, truth itself would become self-contradictory. Hence theologians have sought accommodation through new interpretative principles that discern different grades of authenticity within the Scriptures and through new views of religious truth, existential rather than cognitive, that turn from propositional dogmas to the explication of lived human existence. Criticism of supernaturalism, however, is still carried on by such societies as the Rationalist Press Association, in Great Britain, and the Humanist Association, in the United States.EthicalRationalism in ethics has suffered its share of criticism. Regarding its lists of rules—on the keeping of promises, the return of loaned goods, etc.—it has been argued, for example, that if they were specific enough to be useful (as in the rule against lying or stealing), they would tend to have exceptions—which no rule laid down by reason ought to have. On the other hand, if without exceptions, they would often prove to be tautologies (tautology): the rule of justice, for example, that we should give everyone his due would then mean only that we should give him what is justly his. After enduring a period of eclipse, however, during which noncognitive theories of ethics (emotive and existential) and relativism had preempted the field, rationalistic views, which agree in holding that moral standards do not depend upon the varying attitudes of persons or peoples, were receiving renewed attention in the mid-20th century. Prominent among these developments has been the "good-reasons (good-reasons theory)" approach taken by the broadly gauged scholar Stephen Toulmin (Toulmin, Stephen Edelston), by Kurt Baier, and others, which examines the contexts of various moral situations and explores the kinds of justification (ethics) appropriate for each.MetaphysicalTypical of the ways of reasoning employed by Rationalists are two approaches taken to the metaphysical doctrine that all things are connected by internal relations: one a logical, the other a causal argument. An internal relation is one that could not be removed without affecting the terms themselves between which the relation holds. The argument runs: Everything is related to everything else at least by the relation "A is different from B." But difference is itself an internal relation, since the terms could not remain the same if it were removed. Hence everything is so connected with everything else that it could not be what it is unless they were what they are. The appeal to internal relations played an important part in the philosophies of Hegel, F.H. Bradley (Bradley, F H), and A.N. Whitehead (Whitehead, Alfred North) (1861–1947).The other line of argument is causal (causation). Every event, it is maintained, is connected with every other, either directly or indirectly. Sir James Jeans (Jeans, Sir James) argued that if the law of gravitation is valid, a man cannot crook his little finger without affecting the fixed stars. Here the causal relation is direct. It can also be shown that seemingly unrelated events are joined indirectly through their common connection with some remote historical event, by a chain of events leading back, for example, to Columbus' discovery of America. But if this had been different, all of its consequences would presumably have been different; thus an indirect and internal relation proves to have been present.Many Rationalists have held with Spinoza (Spinoza, Benedict de) that the causal relation is really a logical one—that a causal law, if precisely stated, would reveal a connection in which the character of the cause logically necessitates that of its effect; and if this is true, they maintain, the facts and events of the world must thus compose a single rational and intelligible order.In the 20th century, such Rationalism met with a new and unexpected difficulty presented by quantum physics. According to the indeterminacy principle (uncertainty principle), formulated in 1927 by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg (Heisenberg, Werner), it is impossible to discover with precision both the position and the velocity of a moving electron at the same time. This implies that definite causal laws for the behaviour of these particles can never be attained, but only statistical laws governing the behaviour of immense aggregates of them. Causality, and with it the possibility of rational understanding, seemed to be suspended in the subatomic world. Some interpreters of the new physics, however, notably Max Planck, Albert Einstein, and Bertrand Russell, sustained the hopes of the Rationalists by insisting that what was excluded by the indeterminacy principle was not the fact of causality in this realm, but only the precise knowledge of it.Indeed, some leaders of 20th-century science took the new developments in physics as on the whole supporting Rationalism. Protons and electrons, they contended, though beyond the reach of the senses, can still be known; and their behaviour, at least in groups, is increasingly found to conform to mathematical law. In 1932, Sir James Jeans, an astrophysicist and popularizer of science, said with a curious echo of Galileo, "the universe (metaphysics) appears to have been designed by a pure mathematician."Challenges to epistemological RationalismAt first glance the claim of Empiricism that knowledge must come from sense experience seems obvious: how else could one hope to make contact with the world around one? Consequently, Rationalism has been sharply challenged—in the 19th century by the Empiricism of John Stuart Mill (Mill, John Stuart) (1806–73) and in the 20th by that of the Logical Positivists (Logical Positivism). Mill argued that all a priori (a priori knowledge) certainties are illusory: why does man believe, for example, that two straight lines cannot enclose a space? Is it because he sees it as logically necessary? No; it is because he has experienced so long and so unbroken a row of instances of it—a new one whenever he sees the corner of a table or the bordering rays of a light beam—that he has formed the habit of thinking in this way and is now unable to break it. A priori propositions, Mill claimed, are merely empirical statements of very high generality.This theory has now been abandoned by most Empiricists themselves. Its implication that such statements as "2 + 2 = 4" are only probably true and may have exceptions has proved quite unconvincing. The Rationalist's rejoinder is that one cannot, no matter how hard one tries, conceive 2 + 2 as making 5; for its equalling 4 is necessary. But a priori knowledge is also universal. Neither of these two characteristics can be accounted for by sense experience. That a crow is black can be perceived, but not that it must be black or that crows will always be black; no run of perceptions, however long, could assure us of such truths. On the other hand, a priori truths can be seen with certainty—that if a figure, for instance, is a plane triangle within a Euclidean space, its angles must and always will equal two right angles.Perhaps the most formidable challenge to Rationalism has come in the 20th century from such Logical Positivists as the Oxford Empiricist A.J. Ayer (Ayer, Sir A.J.) (1910–89) and Rudolf Carnap (Carnap, Rudolf) (1891–1970), who had been a central figure in the Vienna Circle, where this movement first arose. Unlike Mill, they accepted a priori knowledge as certain; but they laid down a new challenge—the denial of its philosophic importance. A priori propositions, they said, are (1) linguistic, (2) conventional, and (3) analytic (analytic proposition): (1) They are statements primarily of how one proposes to use words; if one says that "a straight line is the shortest line between two points," this merely reports one's definition of "straight" and declares one's purpose to use it only of the shortest. (2) Being a definition, such a statement expresses a convention to which there are alternatives; it may be defined in terms of the paths of light rays if one chooses. (3) The statement is analytic in that it merely repeats in its predicate a part or the whole of the subject term and hence tells nothing new; it is not a statement about nature but about meanings only. And since Rationalistic systems depend throughout upon statements of this kind, their importance is illusory.To this clear challenge some leading Rationalists have replied as follows: (1) Positivists have confused real with verbal definition. A verbal definition does indeed state what a word means; but a real definition states what an object is, and the thought of a straight line is the thought of an object, not of words. (2) The Positivists have confused conventions in thought with conventions in language. One is free to vary the language in which a proposition is expressed, but not the proposition itself. Start with the concept of a straight line, and there is no alternative to accepting it as the shortest. (3) Some a priori statements are admittedly analytic, but many are not. In "whatever is coloured is extended," colour and extension are two different concepts of which the first entails the second, but is not identical with it in whole or part. Contemporary Rationalists therefore hold that the a priori has emerged victorious from the Empiricists' efforts to discredit such knowledge and the Positivists' attempts to trivialize it.Brand BlanshardAdditional ReadingThe classic ancient Greek work on Rationalism is Plato, Meno; essential modern works are Descartes, Meditationes de Prima Philosophia . . . (Meditations on First Philosophy); Spinoza, Ethics; Leibniz, Monadologie (Monadology and Other Philosophical Writings); and Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason). Rationalism is epitomized in Hegel, Phänomenologie des Geistes (Phenomenology of Mind); Francis Herbert Bradley, Appearance and Reality.For Rationalism in the theory of knowledge, see Brand Blanshard, Reason and Analysis (1962); George Boas, Rationalism in Greek Philosophy (1961); Ernst Cassirer, Die Philosophie der Aufklärung (1932; Eng. trans., Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1951); M.R. Cohen, Reason and Nature: An Essay on the Meaning of Scientific Method, 2nd ed. (1953): A.C. Ewing, Idealism: A Critical Survey (1934); H.H. Joachim, The Nature of Truth (1906); A.E. Murphy, The Uses of Reason (1943); H.J. Paton, In Defence of Reason (1951); Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy (1912); W.H. Walsh, Reason and Experience (1947).For Rationalism in metaphysics, see the classics listed above. For two outstanding modern examples, see J.M.E. McTaggart, The Nature of Existence, 2 vol. (1921–27), together with the commentary of C.D. Broad, Examination of McTaggart's Philosophy, 2 vol. (1933–38); and Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (1929). For Rationalism in ethics, see William Wollaston, The Religion of Nature Delineated (1722); and Kant, Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1785; Eng. trans., The Metaphysics of Morals, 1799). For early forms of the appeal to self-evident rules, see Richard Price, A Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1758). For later types of Rationalism, see G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica (1903); W.D. Ross, The Right and the Good (1930), and Foundations of Ethics (1939); Brian Ellis, Rational Belief System (1979).For Rationalism in religion, excellent standard works are: W.E.H. Lecky, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, 2 vol. (1865); A.D. White, History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 2 vol. (1910); J.M. Robertson, A Short History of Freethought, Ancient and Modern, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1906); A.W. Benn, History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century, 2 vol. (1906); J.B. Bury, A History of Freedom of Thought (1913). Sigmund Freud, Die Zukunft einer Illusion (1927; Eng. trans., The Future of an Illusion, 1928), offers a psychoanalytic study of religious belief.* * *
Universalium. 2010.


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Pop superstars Steps are the first headline act to be announced for Greenwich Music Time 2018.
The Brit Award winning band will bring their sensational live show to London's six-day riverside music festival at the historic Old Royal Naval College on Thursday July 5th.
Tickets for the show go on general sale at 9am on Friday October 27th and are available from www.ticketmaster.co.uk
Steps – Lee, Claire, Lisa, Faye and 'H' – are well and truly back after returning this year with their stunning new album Tears On The Dancefloor and a string of sold out arena shows.
Greenwich Music Time Director Peter Taylor said: "2017 has been a sensational year for Steps and we are delighted to be bringing them to Greenwich Music Time in 2018.
"Their new material is brilliant – fresh but true to their feelgood pop roots. It stands so well alongside their best-loved songs which made them not only one of the biggest chart bands but a record-breaking live act.
"The speed Steps sold out so many dates on their arena tour shows this is going to be a hugely popular night at Greenwich and one we can't wait for."
In a hit-packed career, Steps have scored 14 top 5 singles, sold more than 20 million records and reached Number One with three albums and three singles.
And their dancefloor-filling, feelgood brand of pop – which gave us such monster hits as 5, 6, 7, 8, One For Sorrow, Stomp and Tragedy – is proving just as popular today as it's ever been.
After announcing their return earlier this year to celebrate their 20th anniversary, the band released Tears On The Dancefloor – their first full album of original material since 2000.
Featuring such bombastic tracks as Scared of the Dark, Neon Blue, Dancing With A Broken Heart – together with the wondrous Story of a Heart written by Abba legends Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus – the album reached Number Two in the UK Charts and has been a hit with fans new and old.
Tickets for the band's forthcoming 'Party On The Dancefloor Tour' sold out in a flash with more arena dates added to meet the phenomenal demand.
It was clear proof that after 20 years Steps – who in 2001 set the then record for the most consecutive sold-out nights at Wembley Arena and have played to millions of fans over the years – remain a must-see live act.
Tickets for Steps at Greenwich Music Time go on sale at 9am Friday October 27th and are available from www.ticketmaster.co.uk (0844 844 0444) and www.greenwichmusictime.co.uk


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Fender is the largest, arguably most famous and probably the richest instrument manufacturer in the world, so it's probably unfair that MusicRadar is bestowing its prestigious 'coolest stand' award on the company. Such is Fender's resource that it didn't have a stand as such, but an entire room of the convention centre.
Many will argue that smaller manufacturers wouldn't have been able to afford as large a budget as Fender undoubtedly had, and will suggest we should have taken this into account before deciding on the grand winner. And perhaps they have a point.
But by Bejebus, that Fender stand was cool.
Cool guitars, cool decoration, cool music, cool lighting (although our cameras didn't like it much), more cool guitars… there was even a pickup truck the size of a small elephant loaded with Fender gear!
Allow us to highlight some of our highlights for you with the aid of a few photos from the show:
(Above) The 'stand' itself, crammed wall-to-wall with instruments from Fender's umbrella of brands: Gretsch, EVH, Jackson, Charvel, Guild, Squier, Fender (obviously) and more.
(Above) The Fender Custom Shop section was velvet-roped-off with - rather than a velvet rope - a chain with posts made of a cam shaft and wheel rim off some gargantuan American truck. It's details like this that make all the difference - take note, 'less cool' manufacturers: you'll need a large welding budget.
(Above) Fender kept up the retro American theme with a 50s-style gas pump and a three-piece suite made of old Grease-style car seats. Oh, and a Custom Shop Tele.
(Above) Now onto the guitars. David Gilmour's new signature Strat was very impressive in the flesh…
(Above) …as was Patrick Stump of Fall Out Boy's new Gretsch Stump-o-matic.
(Above) More guitars. There are few companies that can take what is essential a big slab of wood and make it look so cool (Gibson, of course, but Fender does it just as well). This Fender Custom Shop Esquire/Tele-type thing is a fine example of how it's done.
(Above). Fender impressed in the bass department, too. It's Custom Shop again, but we had to show you this Telecaster Bass/P-Bass hybrid. As if theblock inlays and chrome pickup coversweren't cool enough, the bass is topped off with a Tele-type headstock (just out of shot).
(Above). Finally, amps. If you like Fender amps (and we do, a lot), then the Fender stand was the place to be. Specifically, the Fender amps section of the Fender stand was the place to be, which was kitted out with an excellent demo guy who wouldn't seem out of place playing in a cool cocktail bar. If I remember correctly, he was even dressed black tie…
So, congratulations to Fender for really pushing the boat out this year, and apologies to every stand that we haven't mentioned. Seriously, we saw cool stuff left, right and centre at this year's NAMM, and it's encouraging to see manufacturers putting in so much effort in presenting their products. Sure, there's financial incentive to do so - but giving that little bit extra makes all the difference.
MusicRadar is looking forward to next year's show already. We'll bring a camera with a better flash…


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By Pei Li
Cronkite News Service
WASHINGTON – Arizona business leaders were in Washington to lobby the state's congressional delegation on immigration reform Tuesday, just the latest in a string of groups trying to pressure Congress on the issue.
About 20 Arizona business, religious and law enforcement officials joined more than 600 people from more than 40 states in a national "fly-in" of advocates who met with their lawmakers on the issue. The event was organized by the Americans for Reform coalition.
"We are at a historical point in time right now," said Glenn Hamer, president of the Arizona Chamber of Commerce and Industry, who was part of the trip. "The last major immigration reform bill passed in 1986, and we believe there is a window for the United States House of Representatives to bring to the floor good immigration reform legislation."
Hamer said the Arizona group met with all nine of the state's House members and was "very encouraged" by the meetings, despite the "different degrees of enthusiasm" for reform within the delegation.
"Every member recognizes that our immigration platform is badly broken, and all the members want to fix it," said Hamer. "There are differences in how we fix it, but the differences really are not that great."
He said the group is "very optimistic that for the very first time in about 30 years, we are on the verge of getting good strong immigration legislation that will strengthen our border security, and advance our economy in a very significant way."
The main organizations behind the fly-in were the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg's advocacy group FWD.us, the Partnership for a New American Economy and a group called Bibles, Badges and Business for Immigration Reform.
Brett Hunt, western coordinator of Bible, Badges and Business for Immigration Reform, said the groups are trying to let Congress know that "inaction is not an option."
"It is a group of conservative leaders, and they are here to tell the House immigration reform is the just thing, and the right thing to do for our country, and for our economy," he said.
Hunt said the "Senate has done its job" and now it is the House's turn to take action on a reform plan.
The Senate passed a comprehensive immigration reform bill in late June that calls for toughened border security, a revamped visa system and a potential pathway to citizenship for those immigrants who are in this country illegally. By some estimates, as many as 11 million people are here illegally.
That bill has gone nowhere in the House, however, where Speaker John Boehner has said he is committed to a step-by-step process. Instead of one comprehensive bill, House Republicans have introduced a series of smaller measures that address pieces of the larger issue. Five of those bills have been passed by House committees so far.
Hamer said "the calendar is not our friend" but that "there is a window for something to happen before the end of this year." That's why fly-in participants came to Washington to press the House to act on its immigration reform measures, he said.
And he is confident that something could be done by the end of this year.
"I would say the odds are greater than 50 percent that the House in some form or fashion will pass a thoughtful package of immigration reform measures before 2013 is in the books," Hamer said.
"If we were able to get through good immigration reform legislation, it would be like rocket feel for our state's economy," he said.


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Church Foreclosures: Hard Times For God's Work
The Lord giveth and the bank taketh away — at least, that is what a lot of churches have found recently. Lenders foreclosed on about 100 churches last year, an enormous increase from just a few years ago.
It suggests even doing God's work does not always keep the creditors away.
For Dan Burr, the road to losing his church last year began with the greatest of hopes. Twelve years ago, Burr and his wife started to worship with a few friends in their son's house in Fontana, Calif., a community about 80 miles East of Los Angeles. Neighbors began to come to the service. They brought their kids.
"And it began to grow, and before we knew it we had a little viable church," Burr recalls.
Eventually Crossroads Community Church bought a building of its own — a dilapidated Boy's Club that church members fixed up themselves. Those were the glory days. Fontana was one of the fastest growing cities in the country, church attendance was booming and Burr began to make big plans.
"We were looking at [buying] vast tracks of land, building family community centers, day care and youth centers," he says, his voice brimming with enthusiasm. "We were going to really going to do this! It was great — and then BAM!"
Church Foreclosures Since 2006
Below, the annual church foreclosures as compiled by CoStar:
2006: 2
2007: 9
2008: 24
2009: 61
2010: 96
The economic bottom fell out, and members started losing their jobs.
"First, one in 10, then one in eight, then one in six of our wage earners was out of work. They just couldn't find work," Burr says.
Church offerings dropped 20 to 25 percent. The church cut staff, trimmed programs to the bone, but finally, it simply couldn't pay the mortgage. A year ago, it gave the building back to the bank. Now members are renting it until the bank finds a buyer and Crossroads is starting over.
"We built up this building — just blood sweat and tears — to turn a ratty piece of land into a gorgeously landscaped thing," Burr says. "And to just walk away from it — that's hard."
Burr got a taste of the hard economics of God's work, says Chris Macke, a senior strategist at CoStar Group, which conducts research on real estate.
"Unfortunately, houses of worship are subject to the same laws of economics as secular real estate," Macke says.
CoStar collected data on church foreclosures and found an "exponential" rise, Macke says: from a handful five years ago to about 100 last year. Most of the distressed churches are in the hardest hit real estate markets, such as California, Michigan and Florida. Macke says churches were whacked by the same crosscurrents that flattened stores and other companies. Just as unemployed people resist buying new clothes or dining out, they put less in their church's offering plate. Add to that what Macke calls "recency bias:" Churches had made plans and added debt in the flush years, believing the good times would continue to roll indefinitely.
"They were making decisions based on what had been happening and seemed reasonable, and unfortunately the downturn occurred and affected them," he says.
What made the problem more acute this time, says Scott Rolfs at Ziegler, an investment banking firm that does church financing, was the easy credit in the mid-2000s.
"There was a lot of money out there," he says, "and just as some home borrowers obtained mortgages that they probably shouldn't have gotten and wouldn't have qualified for under historical standards, you had a few churches with some overzealous lenders that ended up in that situation as well."
But Rolfs says God is not about to be homeless.
"For 99 percent of the church-going public in America, their church is coming through the recession just fine," he says.
After all, there are more than 300,000 houses of worship in the U.S., so a few dozen foreclosures does not spell the End of Times. In fact, megachurches, which like large companies have bigger reserves, saw their income increase three percent last year.
And for them, now is the time for a deal. Consider Triumph Church, a 10,000-member congregation in Detroit. Chief Ministry Officer Velva Flowers says a lot of their members worked for the auto industry and had to cut their offerings. But the church tightened its belt and drew new members, and those new members made up for the decline. Now, she says the depressed market is working in their favor.
"I believe because we have been cautious in all our spending that we were able to take advantage of some opportunities that became available based upon the economic plight," Flowers says.
Triumph is negotiating to buy a church that was foreclosed on — for a song.


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Stocks barely budged. But they're still just a handful of points from their all-time highs.
First the scoreboard:
Dow: 13,982, -35.7, -0.2 percent
S&P 500: 1,520, +0.9, +0.0 percent
NASDAQ: 3,196, +10.3, +0.3 percent
And now the top stories:
- Last night, President Barack Obama delivered his State of the Union speech. And as with previous State of the Union speeches, there were no major next-day move in markets.
- The speech did have its moving moments and bizarre moments. In terms of the message, Obama called for a $9 minimum wage. This may have freaked out investors of fast-food stocks, who rely on low wages as part of their business strategies. Stocks like McDonald's fell today.
- At least one expert declared that today's January retail sales report would be the most important economic datapoint so far this year. Indeed, this was the first period where consumer behavior was supposed to be impacted by the recent payroll tax hike.
- Retail sales climbed by just 0.1 percent in January. However, this was right in line with expectations, allowing some people to breathe a sigh of relief as it wasn't unexpectedly worse. This is not to say that we're in the clear. "The tax hikes and latest leap in gasoline prices (which will leave households with less cash to spend on other items) could hit spending harder in February and March," said Paul Dales of Capital Economics.
- Don't Miss: 14 Ways An Economist Might Say 'I Love You' >
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text: Artist: Biz Markie Album: Weekend Warrior Song: Friends Typed by: OHHLA Webmaster DJ Flash [Verse One] I saw this girl from like around the way I told her I was the B-I-Z Emezah-A She said she know my reputation, know I got clout And like to get to know me, without no doubt So we started havin long telephone conversations Tryin to feel each other out, showin a lot of patience Was a hook-up from my man, word bond she was bad If I met her whole family I would kiss her dad So in my mind I was thinkin she really liked me She got a good head on her shoulder and she's no dummy Me and her, had compatible horoscopes But she bugged me out so bad I was on the ropes Now when I was with her, my shoulders shrugged Because when I reached out for a kiss and hug She mushed me in my face, and smiles with a grin And said this question [Chorus] Why can't we be friends? We can't we be friends? Why can't we, be, friends? We can't we be friends? Why can't we be friends? We can't we be friends? Why can't we, be, friends? We can't we be friends? [Verse Two] I knew she was different, a very special gal For the time being, hmm I shall Respect her wishes, she wasn't a groupie I understand, she said she just had met me I liked her for that, a woman with morals She called me every day, so I saw she was loyal It bugged me out cause I don't usually wait But on a scale of one to ten she was a twenty-eight We was goin out on the reg', movies and dinner Always stay at my house, way past ten o', clock I thought she really really liked me I did the right thing, like my name was Spike Lee She had her own car so I walked her to the door Like Busta Rhymes I said, "Gimme Some More" So I put my lips out, to get a kiss And she said just like this [Chorus] [Verse Three] I knew somethin was wrong because my mack is correct Talkin for six months and didn't hit it yet? I thought I was slippin, or maybe in a slump I felt like Eddie Murphy when he was Professor Klump Naw it can't be, she's here every day So I don't know why she'd wanna treat me this way I gotta investigate like Magnum P.I. I just don't understand, why oh why So the next time I saw her she was unhappy She had a frown on her face and real jumpy I said, "Yo what's wrong?" I was real concerned The way she looked her life had took a real turn She said, "I went to court today," and I said, "What?" "If I tell you this, you're gonna go nut" I said, "Tell me I can take it I won't pretend" "I gotta go to jail for life, so.." [Chorus]


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27 February 2011 | ||
12:00 | to | 12:30 |
The "Flight of the Angel" is a traditional event that goes back to the Serenissima period where an unknown guest of Venice, flying along a rope from San Marco bell tower to the middle of the square, will offer an homage to the Doge, and will be greeted by the crowded parterre of the period costumes parades of the Historical Re-enactments. As a conclusion, the embrace of the Angel and the Doge will smooth the atmosphere of a square galvanized by scenographical effects always appreciated by the Italian and international networks. The angel, chosen among the stars of glamour or those of international sport, will be dressed up with a fabulous carnival costume.


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If a RSA certificate is created with a low degree of certainty, does the value of the exponent compensate for this?
I'm asking because certain implementations of key generation software hide the certainty value from the administrator, and I'd like to find reassurance in any other parameter.
If the exponent doesn't compensate for this, does a longer key length compensate for certainty?


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Young Minds, Fresh Ideas
September 19, 2017
First, the bad news:
Today's college students are tomorrow's attorneys, teachers, professors, policymakers, legislators, and judges. If, for example, a large fraction of college students believe, however incorrectly, that offensive speech is unprotected by the First Amendment, that view will inform the decisions they make as they move into positions of increasing authority later in their careers.
The results [of the survey] are notable for several reasons. First, the fraction of students who view the use of violence as acceptable is extremely high. While percentages in the high teens and 20s are "low" relative to what they could be, it's important to remember that this question is asking about the acceptability of committing violence in order to silence speech. Any number significantly above zero is concerning… A surprisingly large fraction of students believe it is acceptable to act — including resorting to violence — to shut down expression they consider offensive. And a majority of students appear to want an environment that shields them from being exposed to views they might find offensive.
And in somewhat related news:
Pomona College emailed students Monday night to announce there would be no penalties imposed on Pomona students who were "present and did block access to buildings" during [Heather] Mac Donald's speech, preventing audience members from getting into the venue or, for those few who made it in earlier, exiting.
Details of the incident, in which Ms Mac Donald had to be escorted off campus by police officers for her own safety, can be found here.
And because the above isn't quite bad enough, here's a video of students informing us that the masked thugs and sociopaths known as Antifa are merely trying to "educate" anyone who disagrees with them. For those who missed it, here they are randomly "educating" some young women.


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Welcoming Vegetarians to Your Thanksgiving Table
A 2008 study called Vegetarianism in America, published by Vegetarian Times, showed that 7.3 million people, and growing, follow a vegetarian diet. That means that there's a good chance a vegetarian may be coming to your Thanksgiving dinner this month. If you're not a vegetarian, you may be wondering how to accommodate an herbivore while keeping your favorite foods on the table. With a few simple recipe tweaks, you'll be able to please both the meat and non-meat eaters alike without having to overhaul your entire menu.
Vegetable broth – When cooking recipes that call for chicken or beef stock, like in recipes for soups, stews, and casseroles, simply swap it for vegetable broth. Most of the flavors in both meat and veggie broths come from the spices anyway, so you won't notice the flavor change one bit. A nice bonus is that it takes far less time to make a vegetable broth than a chicken or beef broth if you're preparing it from scratch!
Dairy – If your vegetarian guests also don't eat dairy, swap out the milk and butter for non-dairy replacements like soy milk, almond milk, coconut milk, and dairy-free spreads like Earth Balance Soy or Coconut spread.
Stuffing – Set some stuffing aside that hasn't actually been, er, stuffed in the bird. To amp up the filling factor of your bread-based stuffing, you could add toasted nuts and dried fruit.
Omit the meat – If you're using meat as more of a garnish for certain dishes, like bacon bits on a veggie side dish, keep them on the side for guests to sprinkle on if they wish.
If you have favorite meat-based dishes that you can't possibly do without, just make sure to have enough well-rounded vegetarian dishes to satisfy all of your guests. Ask your guests ahead of time what they will or will not eat. Many people who call themselves vegetarians have different guidelines when it comes to eating poultry, fish, dairy and eggs. Knowing what you can serve in advance will help make menu planning easier and you can rest assured knowing everyone will enjoy your Thanksgiving feast.
Here's a completely meatless menu; sub in meat dishes as needed if you're serving a mixed crowd.
Even though everyone in my family enjoys meat, Thanksgiving is still one of my favorite holidays and I always find plenty to eat. This year I'll be bringing my 3-ingredient vegan pumpkin chocolate chip muffins for dessert – a total crowd pleaser!
Janel Ovrut Funk, MS RD LDN, loves experimenting with vegetarian and vegan cooking. Read her food blog, Eat Well with Janel, and follow her on Twitter @DietitianJanel. Catch up on her previous posts here.


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An international team of archaeologists has uncovered the earliest known evidence of horses being domesticated by humans. The discovery suggests that horses were both ridden and milked. The findings could point to the very beginnings of horse domestication and the origins of the horse breeds we know today. Led by the Universities of Exeter and Bristol (UK), the research is published on Friday 6 March 2009 in journal Science.
The researchers have traced the origins of horse domestication back to the Botai Culture of Kazakhstan circa 5,500 years ago. This is about 1,000 years earlier than thought and about 2,000 years earlier than domestic horses are known to have been in Europe. Their findings strongly suggest that horses were originally domesticated, not just for riding, but also to provide food, including milk.
Through extensive archaeological fieldwork and subsequent analysis, using new techniques, the team developed three independent lines of evidence for early horse domestication. Their findings show that in the fourth millennium BC horses in Kazakhstan were being selectively bred for domestic use. They also show horses were being harnessed, possibly for riding, and that people were consuming horse milk.
Analysis of ancient bone remains showed that the horses were similar in shape to Bronze Age domestic horses and different from wild horses from the same region. This suggests that people were selecting wild horses for their physical attributes, which were then exaggerated through breeding.
The team used a new technique to search for 'bit damage' caused by horses being harnessed or bridled. The results showed that horses had indeed been harnessed, suggesting they could have been ridden.
Using a novel method of lipid residue analysis, the researchers also analysed Botai pottery and found traces of fats from horse milk. Mare's milk is still drunk in Kazakhstan, a country in which horse traditions run deep, and is usually fermented into a slightly alcoholic drink called 'koumiss'. While it was known that koumiss had been produced for centuries, this study shows the practice dates back to the very earliest horse herders.
Lead author Dr Alan Outram of the University of Exeter said: "The domestication of horses is known to have had immense social and economic significance, advancing communications, transport, food production and warfare. Our findings indicate that horses were being domesticated about 1,000 years earlier than previously thought. This is significant because it changes our understanding of how these early societies developed."
The steppe zones, east of the Ural Mountains in Northern Kazakhstan, are known to have been a prime habitat for wild horses thousands of years ago. They were a commonly hunted animal. This may have set the stage for horse domestication by providing indigenous cultures with access to plentiful wild herds and the opportunity to gain an intimate knowledge of equine behaviour. Horses appear to have been domesticated in preference to adopting a herding economy based upon domestic cattle, sheep and goats. Horses have the advantage of being adapted to severe winters and they are able to graze year round, even through snow. Cattle, sheep and goats need to be to be provided with winter fodder, and were a later addition to the prehistoric economies of the region.
This study was carried out by the Universities of Exeter, Bristol and Winchester (UK), Carnegie Museum of Natural History (Pittsburgh, USA), and Kokshetau University (Kazakhstan) and was supported by the Natural Environment Research Council, British Academy and National Science Foundation of America.
Story Source:
Materials provided by University of Exeter. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.
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About West Hills Surgical Center
West Hills Surgical Center is located in West Hills, California. Our facility specializes in outpatient same-day surgical procedures for the residents of West Hills, Los Angeles and Ventura County, as well as the surrounding communities in our area.
Our surgical services are provided out of our state-of-the-art ambulatory surgery center with over ninety participating physicians and partners. Our surgical specialties include Hand Surgery, General Surgery, Gynecology, Gastroenterology, Ophthalmology, Orthopedics including knee replacement, Otolaryngology (ENT), Pain Management, Pediatric Surgery, Plastic/Cosmetic Surgery, Podiatry and Urology.
West Hills Surgical Center opened in 1996, as a safe and convenient high quality alternative to inpatient hospitalization. We are fully licensed by the Federal Medicare Program and The Accreditation Association for Ambulatory Healthcare, a national organization recognized as a leader in ambulatory healthcare accreditation.
Our RN clinical staff is certified in Advanced Cardiac Life Support and Pediatric Advanced Life Support. Anesthesia services are provided by board certified anesthesiologists specializing in outpatient and pediatric anesthesia.
West Hills Surgical Center is located directly adjacent to West Hills Hospital and Medical Center. The campus affords our patients the convenience of hospital, laboratory and ancillary services. Our center is committed to exceeding the highest standards for quality care and patient safety. We measure clinical performance through continuous quality improvement, peer review, and patient satisfaction surveys.
We strictly abide by the terms listed in the Notice of Privacy Practices where you will find more information relative to HIPAA/privacy information.


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The cutting of, or commercial dealing in, tree trunks that have been cut down and stripped of all branches.
The statutes in certain jurisdictions provide for the marking of logs for the purpose of identification. Once a log is marked, its mark must be recorded, as must any change in ownership of the marked logs.
Trees which are standing upon land can become objects of PERSONAL PROPERTY prior to their severance from the soil and, therefore, a change in the ownership of the land would have no effect upon ownership of the trees. Standing timber can be conveyed separately from the property upon which it was grown. If this occurs, two separate and distinct property interests are created: one in the land and one in the timber.
A purchaser of standing timber may enter onto the land for the purpose of cutting and removing the timber. Contracts for the sale of standing timber may limit the time during which the right of entry can continue.
The public may generally float logs on any stream which is capable of being so used in its natural state. When necessary, the right to use a stream includes the incidental right to use the banks, at least below the high-water mark.
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