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Lenape materials, American Philosophical Society Archives
Date: 1800-1893
Contributor: Du Ponceau, Peter Stephen, 1760-1844 | Henry, Mathew Schropp, 1790-1862 | Edwards, Howard, 1833-1925? | Henry, Joseph J. | Winsor, Henry | Murray, Nicholas, 1802-1861 | Brickenstein, H. A. | Heckewelder, John Gottlieb Ernestus, 1743-1823 | Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathen | Russell, Jonathan, 1771-1832
Subject: Linguistics | Missions | Pennsylvania--History | Place names
Type: Text
Genre: Correspondence | Reports | Memoranda | Vocabularies
Extent: 21 items
Description: Items relating to Lenape materials at the American Philosophical Society, generally referred to as "Delaware" in the original materials. Topics include requests for materials (a loan of a map of the "Indian Walk," or Walking Purchase, 1737; the Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel Among the Heathens wants the return of documents deposited by the Brethren for Heckewelder as listed in the Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society 1); requests for information (on David Zeisberger as a missionary to the Indians); of materials (Zeisberger's Delaware grammar; John G. E. Heckewelder's paper on Personal names; Heckewelder's edits in case of a second edition of his Account of the Indian nations (1819)); donated materials (Roth's "Life of Christ" in Delaware, #1176; a French translation of Heckewelder's account done by Chevalier John Du Ponceau; materials from Heckwelder himself; documents relating to the Paxton boys from Samuel Fisher; authentic extracts of official Swedish papers relative to their settlements in America as well as translations of extracts of Acrelius (1759)); Heckewelder's Delaware grammar and work in general; a list of botanical names with equivalents in Delaware, Onondaga, and occasionally Munsee; Matthew S. Henry's work on a dictionary of Place names (#1164) and his comparison of Heckwelder and Rev. Jesse Vogler; and Peter S. du Ponceau's own work on Native languages (mentions Delaware, Arawak, Natchez, Yuchi, Ojibwe, and Mahican) and his work for the APS. Other individuals mentioned include Robert M. Patterson, Zaccheus Collins, Mathew Carey, Daniel G. Brinton, Sir William Johnson, Severin Lorich, Charles Pickering, Samuel S. Haldeman, Rev. der Schweinitz, Usher Parsons, and John Vaughan.
Collection: American Philosophical Society Archives APS.Archives


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Create a Website Account - Manage notification subscriptions, save form progress and more.
If burned, handle with extreme care and as little as possible. Attempt to encase each crisp sheet in plastic wrap in order to salvage as much as possible. Take everything to your local bank for advice regarding replacement.
Show All Answers
Sometimes there is a residual smoke odor from a small fire that is annoying and lingering. Short of a good cleaning of everything in the house, you can place small saucers of household vanilla, wine, vinegar or activated charcoal about your home to help absorb these odors. Remember that the smoke is also inside the heating and cooling duct work and you get a fresh blast every time your air system is turned on.
If insured, consult your insurance company for assistance. If the odor does not go away in about a week, you may, and probably should, call a janitorial supply or cleaning service specializing in restoration of fire damaged property (refer to your yellow pages, under Fire and Water Damage Restoration). They have the equipment to scrub out the duct work and deodorize everything in the house.
Any food, beverages and/or medications exposed to heat or smoke should not be consumed. Medication especially, can change strength by exposure to heat. Please check with your doctor first before taking these medications.
If food was in a tightly closed or sealed container, or in airtight refrigerators or freezers, they may be salvageable. It is cheaper to replace the material than to jeopardize you or your family's health by taking a chance. If in doubt, throw it out!


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sissy bars > > Side plates for sissy bar
Product category: Side Plates For Sissy Bars. Quantity: 1 set of Side Plates. Contents of packing: 1 set of Side Plates. Materials specification: Steel. Surface treatment: Steel chromed. Mounting manual: None. General mounting information: The supplied side plates can be used with part no. 8927, when there are no side plates on your bike. Warranty: Standard warranty, see warranty details. Design protection: Registered model protection.


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The MYO gesture-control armband senses your muscle's movements
Harnessing muscular activity to provide computer input has many advantages over Kinect-like devices that use cameras or inertial sensors. A new gesture-based wireless input device that works by sensing the electrical signature of forearm contractions is now available for pre-order from a new company for $150. The armband, dubbed the MYO, comes with a developer API that lets you fully utilize this sophisticated piece of equipment.
John Hewitt


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President Barack Obama toured the rubble and relief efforts in Moore, Okla., Sunday following last week's devastating tornado that killed 24, destroyed over 1,200 homes and damaged 10,000 more.
"Everywhere, fellow Americans are praying with you, they're thinking about you, and they want to help," Obama told Moore residents and first responders at Plaza Towers Elementary School, where seven children died in the storm. "And so I'm just a messenger here today, letting everybody here know that you are not alone, that you've got folks behind you."
It was a familiar role for the consoler in chief, following the Boston Marathon bombing and the deadly fertilizer-plant explosion in West, Texas, last month. On Tuesday, Obama will travel to the Jersey Shore to speak with business owners and inspect Hurricane Sandy recovery efforts.
"When we say that we've got your back, I promise you, we keep our word," Obama said. "If you talk to folks in Alabama who have been affected over the last couple of years; you talk to the folks at Joplin, who I know have actually sent volunteers down here to Moore; if you talk to folks in New Jersey and New York, they'll tell you that when we say we're going to be there until you completely rebuild, we mean it."
Obama told the story of a Bible found after another deadly tornado in Shawnee, Okla., the day before Moore was hit. It was discovered opened to the words, "A man will be as a hiding place from the wind, and a cover from the tempest."
"And it's a reminder, as Scripture often is, that God has a plan, and it's important, though, that we also recognize we're an instrument of his will," Obama said. "And we need to know that as fellow Americans, we're going to be there as shelter from the storm for the people of Moore who have been impacted."
Obama saluted the National Weather Service forecasters who provided warning of the storm, the teachers who sheltered their students with their bodies during it, and the first responders and disaster-relief officials who sprung into action even as the twister continued its devastation.
"We could not be prouder of everyone here for the job they have done," he said.
The President toured the disaster scene along with Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin, walking through piles of twisted lumber 10 to 20 ft. tall, scattered bricks and personal belongings that had been in homes a week before. He walked past a bright pink stroller for a child's doll, a student's parka and schoolbooks.
Obama then visited a local fire station that had been turned into a command center, where he met with first responders and the families of the students who died at Plaza Towers.


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[Note: This recipe got a refresh and slight simplification in 2016. Read it here.]
This past summer, David Leite, whom you may know from the fantastic Leite's Culinaria, set out to find the consummate chocolate chip cookie.
He spoke to Herve Poussot, a baker and an owner of Almondine in Dumbo, Brooklyn, who warned him it was more than a recipe he was looking for.
He researched the technique of Ruth Graves Wakefield, who owned the Toll House Inn in Whitman, Massachusettes in the 1930s, where she invented the chocolate chip cookie, and who once wrote that she would let the dough rest overnight before using it. He spoke to Shirley Corriher, author of CookWise, a book about science in the kitchen, who agreed that an overnight rest was the best way to get a drier and richer dough that has fully soaked up the egg.
He spoke to Maury Rubin, owner of the rightly fawned-over City Bakery (a place as famed by the public at large for its chcolate chip cookies as it is on this site, for the cranberry caramel and almond tart), who said that they must be served warm, that the dough must rest for at least 36 hours and that they must be big enough to allow for three different textures: crisp edges, a soft center and a ring between them which is chewy, with hints of toffee.
He spoke to Jacques Torres of Jacques Torres Chocolates, who said that baking chocolate was best, as were large pieces.
He spoke to Dorie Greenspan who said that he shouldn't underestimate the value of salt in baked goods.
And then Leite came up with a recipe that was a sum of all of the things that he learned, and it was published in the New York Times.
Oh, and what did I do, so that my account of these cookies could live up to the amount of research, dedication and love put into their creation? I baked them.
And I broke one open.
And quickly discovered that I am not as generous of a person as I once thought I was. So if you're coming over to my apartment tonight to bite your nails and watch the election returns, don't be surprised if I'm all "what cookies?" and only bring out pepita brittle for dessert. The Smitten Kitchen, as it turns out, is no democracy.
One year ago: Roasted, Stuffed Onions
Leite's Consummate Chocolate Chip Cookies
Adapted from David Leite via The New York Times
[Note: This recipe got a refresh and slight simplification in 2016. Read it here.]
Yield: 1 1/2 dozen 5-inch cookies.
2 cups minus 2 tablespoons
(8 1/2 ounces) cake flour
1 2/3 cups (8 1/2 ounces) bread flour
1 1/4 teaspoons baking soda
1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder
1 1/2 teaspoons coarse salt
2 1/2 sticks (1 1/4 cups) unsalted butter
1 1/4 cups (10 ounces) light brown sugar
1 cup plus 2 tablespoons (8 ounces) granulated sugar
2 large eggs
2 teaspoons natural vanilla extract
1 1/4 pounds bittersweet chocolate disks or fèves, at least 60 percent cacao content
Sea salt
1. Sift flours, baking soda, baking powder and salt into a bowl. Set aside.
2. Using a mixer fitted with paddle attachment, cream butter and sugars together until very light, about 5 minutes. Add eggs, one at a time, mixing well after each addition. Stir in the vanilla. Reduce speed to low, add dry ingredients and mix until just combined, 5 to 10 seconds. Drop chocolate pieces in and try to incorporate them without breaking them. Press plastic wrap against dough and refrigerate for 24 to 36 hours. [Dough may be used in batches, and can be refrigerated for up to 72 hours.]
3. When ready to bake, preheat oven to 350 degrees. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper or a nonstick baking mat. Set aside.
4. Scoop 6 3 1/2-ounce mounds of dough (the size of generous golf balls) onto baking sheet, making sure to turn horizontally any chocolate pieces that are poking up; it will make for a more attractive cookie. Sprinkle lightly with sea salt and bake until golden brown but still soft, 18 to 20 minutes. Transfer sheet to a wire rack for 10 minutes, then slip cookies onto another rack to cool a bit more. Repeat with remaining dough, or reserve dough, refrigerated, for baking remaining batches the next day. Eat warm, with a big napkin.
* I found Valrhona's fèves or oval-shaped chocolate pieces, at Whole Foods in half pounds. Baking discs can be found from a number of brands, from Jacques Torres to E. Guittard (Fresh Direct used to sell these by the quarter pound, but now just in one pound boxes, but still at a very reasonable price) to Ghiradelli. Can't find them? Use the largest chocolate chips you can find. Ghiradelli sells some slighly larger ones in the brown bag (as opposed to the standard-sized chips in the gold bag) though I may have mixed the two varieties up. It wouldn't be the first time.


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発表日: 2017年11月08日 |
Setup of the Cruden DIL simulator. Picture credits: Cruden
Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulators play a crucial role in automotive research and development. OEMs, suppliers, and the academic institutions use them extensively to test sensors, controllers, actuators, and parts in the lab as if the vehicle was being driven on the road or track. However, engineers can achieve even more accurate and relevant results by combining the HIL test rig with a driving-in-the-loop (DIL) simulator. To have a human driver allows for subjective scoring methods to support subjective-objective assessments.
HIL setups often rely on synthetic or prerecorded input signals that lack the typical closed-loop behavior of a human driver. DIL simulators, on the other hand, have interactive drivers but might not provide precise models of the actual hardware, because specific components are too complex to be simulated in full detail. Another reason might be that controllers have many unknown variables, because suppliers provide them as black boxes. Merging HIL and DIL helps eliminate these shortcomings and can be achieved relatively easily when combining a Cruden DIL simulator and a dSPACE HIL set-up that includes the open and real-time capable simulation tool suite ASM (Automotive Simulation Models). An additional advantage is the ability to integrate peripheral hardware (such as instruments or other HMI equipment) via standard interfaces, for example, CAN.
To make this integration a success, the core of the simulation has to run in real-time. In other words, simulated time steps have to be very well synchronized with the real-world time steps. An ECU expects precisely timed updates from, for instance, the vehicle state. Test rigs are also not very forgiving if the next setpoint update is received later than expected. dSPACE is the leading producer of engineering tools for developing and testing mechatronic control systems. The product portfolio includes real-time systems used by most international OEMs and suppliers. "dSPACE essentially allows you to integrate any piece of hardware into a DIL simulator," highlights Martijn de Mooij, technical development manager at Cruden. "Our new solution combines Panthera's open architecture and flexibility with the almost unlimited hardware interfacing capabilities of dSPACE systems to create the ultimate development and testing system."
The idea for this quick and simple integration came from Professor Liu-Henke of the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences. She used a Cruden driving simulator together with a dSPACE real-time simulator and the ASM simulation tool suite. The university wanted its students to have the possibility to integrate hardware with a driving simulator. This has now been achieved thanks to Cruden's and dSPACE's solution.
To effectively integrate a dSPACE system into a DIL simulator, the only required hardware change is to replace the conventional Windows-based computer (which sends output to the motion, audio, and visual systems) with a dSPACE system. "dSPACE hardware running ASM becomes the third point in a triangle where it has direct communication with the motion system and our Panthera Master software, which is the main simulation engine," says Martijn.
Cruden's Panthera ePhyse HRT includes a Simulink blockset that targets the dSPACE system. It is an integrated solution to set up I/O interfaces between the dSPACE platform and the simulator environment. Initializing the simulator session is as simple as selecting the ASM model of choice and clicking a start session button in the user interface, which activates all relevant subsystems in the setup.
"We have worked hard on the usability of this system. We haven't proverbially duct-taped the motion system to the dSPACE box, we have ensured seamless integration throughout the entire system," continues Martijn. "Before, companies would have to buy a simulator and then buy an off-the-shelf dSPACE system and integrate the two. We've done all the hard work for them to provide a complete functional setup that works straight out of the box."
System setup of the DIL simulator at the Ostfalia University. Picture credits: Ostfalia University
Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences uses the dSPACE-Cruden system for both educational and research purposes within its Mechanical Engineering department and Institute for Measurement and Automation Technology. The development cycle of any mechatronic component consists of three main stages: model in the loop, software-in-the-loop, and hardware-in-the-loop simulation. "For us, there was a gap because the driver is not involved in any of these three stages," highlights Marian Göllner, research assistant at the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences and member of Professor Liu-Henke's research group for control engineering and automotive mechatronics. "We feel that the only way to achieve a complete and valid simulation is to receive the driver's feedback throughout the development process. To do this, we purchased a Cruden DIL simulator, which now represents the fourth and final stage of our simulation cycle."
In addition, the university uses the simulator in another non-traditional way. By changing the simulator's top platform with an interchangeable driver cell supplied by Cruden, the simulator can also be used for frequency domain tests.
"Thanks to the open controller environment of the simulator, which allows us to manipulate every setpoint of the motion platform, we can use the electric linear drive to generate controlled harmonic vibration. This can then be used to measure the response of the system in the frequency domain."
DIL simulators are increasingly being used for the final stages of the ADAS controller development process, where an essential step is observing and optimizing the interaction between humans and cars, for example, for Level 3 autonomous driving handover moments.
The Panthera ADAS Toolbox allows for easy integration with the traffic module from ASM and feeds Simulink-based controllers with environmental awareness that either comes directly from ASM Traffic via the Panthera interface or links to dSPACE MotionDesk sensor simulation." Controller action can be directly fed back to the ASM model or to the driver by using actuated controls, the instrument panel, the audio system, or any available system.
Cruden engineers have combined their in-depth understanding of the entire simulator environment with their knowledge of HIL simulations to achieve a fully integrated solution. Their extensive experience of building complex vehicle models whilst maintaining the usability of the overall system has allowed Cruden to develop a fit-for-purpose simulator. By using all these skills combined under one roof, Cruden's efficiency supports customers to get up and running quicker. Thus, they can start development testing sooner to receive the all-important driver feedback faster.
Martijn concludes: "Cruden's focus is to develop simulators, so its customers can focus on their own job. Too often we see engineers who should be focusing on developing cars struggle to do their own integration work as they are trying to combine various systems into one test rig. This is what we specialize in. We can provide you with a better test rig in less time, allowing you to actually work on the vehicle."
The dSPACE simulation platforms are dedicated to development and test tasks with strong real-time requirements and low latencies. The hardware is a combination of powerful processors with flexible I/O solutions. On these hardware platforms, the Automotive Simulations Models (ASM) from dSPACE offer a realistic representation of real-life events. In the context of driving simulations, ASM realistically represents the dynamic behavior of a vehicle within a certain environment. The environment ranges from roads with changing conditions, such as rain, snow and ice, to complex traffic scenarios with a multitude of vehicles at different speeds and trajectories. Thus, ASM is the perfect choice for developing and testing controllers for ADAS and autonomous driving.
Real traffic scenario simulation with the Automotive Simulations Models (ASM) from dSPACE. Picture credits: dSPACE


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I'm developing a theme and want to put an internal gallery. Do not want to use all photos uploaded to the media library. I want to create a field (checkbox) so you must select which of these photos should be in the gallery.
I'm using attachment_fields_to_edit
and attachment_fields_to_save
to add the checkbox, but to mark each picture you must click on "Show" and select the checkbox.
Some time ago I saw a plugin that adds a checkbox next to the link "Show" to not having to open each one of the options and select the photos checkbox. I do not remember the name of the plugin, but it was what I wanted to do.
In other words, I add the checkbox next to the link "Show" for the user to click on this option and then click on "Save all changes".


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Practical CryptographyWiley, 17.04.2003 ă. - 432 ńňđŕíčöč Security is the number one concern for businesses worldwide. The gold standard for attaining security is cryptography because it provides the most reliable tools for storing or transmitting digital information. Written by Niels Ferguson, lead cryptographer for Counterpane, Bruce Schneier's security company, and Bruce Schneier himself, this is the much anticipated follow-up book to Schneier's seminal encyclopedic reference, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition (0-471-11709-9), which has sold more than 150,000 copies. Niels Ferguson (Amsterdam, Netherlands) is a cryptographic engineer and consultant at Counterpane Internet Security. He has extensive experience in the creation and design of security algorithms, protocols, and multinational security infrastructures. Previously, Ferguson was a cryptographer for DigiCash and CWI. At CWI he developed the first generation of off-line payment protocols. He has published numerous scientific papers. Bruce Schneier (Minneapolis, MN) is Founder and Chief Technical Officer at Counterpane Internet Security, a managed-security monitoring company. He is also the author of Secrets and Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World (0-471-25311-1). |
The Context of Cryptography | 7 |
Cryptography Is Not the Solution | 17 |
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algorithm Alice and Bob Alice's authentication birthday attack bits long block cipher mode bytes certificate choose a random ciphertext ciphertext blocks clock collision attacks communicate compute cryptographic protocols cryptographic systems decryption digital signature discuss divisor easy encryption encryption function ensure entropy example hash function HMAC ideal block cipher implement input integer key negotiation protocol key server key size key stream large number memory message number modulo multiple Niels Ferguson nonce output padding password patent permutation plaintext blocks prime private key PRNG problem public key random data random number related-key attack requires reseed result S-boxes secret key secure channel security level security system seed file Serpent simple single situation solution specifications standard string structure subgroup transaction trust Twofish verify


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Identifying people by their bodies when faces are no help
Every day we recognize friends, family, and co-workers from afar—even before we can distinctly see a face. New research reveals that when facial features are difficult to make out, we readily use information about someone's body to identify them—even when we don't know we're doing so.
"Psychologists and computer scientists have concentrated almost exclusively on the role of the face in person recognition," explains lead researcher, Allyson Rice of the University of Texas at Dallas. "But our results show that the body can also provide important and useful identity information for person recognition."
The new findings are published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
In several experiments, the researchers had college-age participants look at images of two people side by side and identify whether the images showed the same person or different people. Some of the image pairs looked very similar even though they actually showed different people, while other image pairs looked very different even though the pictures showed the same person.
The image pairs were chosen this way so that the information provided by the subjects' faces was ambiguous and not very helpful in determining the subjects' identity, based on a computer face recognition system's performance with these image pairs. The researchers edited the pictures in several of the experiments, omitting the subjects' bodies or faces to determine which features were most important for successful identification.
Overall, participants were able to accurately discern whether the images showed the same person when they were provided complete images. And participants were as accurate in identifying image pairs in which the faces were blocked out and only the bodies were shown.
But accuracy dropped off when participants saw images that included the subjects' faces but not their bodies. Surprisingly, seeing the subjects' bodies seemed to increase their accuracy in identifying the subjects.
Participants stated afterward that they used the nose, face shape, ears, mouth, and eyes as tools for identifying even though their results suggested otherwise.
"This left us with a paradox," the researchers write. "The recognition data clearly indicated the use of body information for identification. However, the subjective ratings suggested that participants were unaware of how important the body was in their decision."
To unravel the paradox, the researchers used eye-tracking equipment to determine where participants were actually looking while identifying the images, and the resulting data were clear: Participants spent relatively more time looking at the body when the face did not provide enough information to identify the subjects.
"Eye movements revealed a highly efficient and adaptive strategy for finding the most useful identity information in any given image of a person," Rice explains.
By showing that humans don't just rely on faces to identify others, this study opens up new avenues for developing and refining computer-based recognition systems.
"These systems are employed currently in law enforcement and security settings, but they sometimes fail when the quality of the facial image is poor," says Rice.
Rice, a newly graduated student in psychology and criminology, conducted this new research with Prof. Alice O'Toole at The University of Texas at Dallas. The UT Dallas research team has been collaborating with researcher Jonathon Phillips and others at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in examining how humans and computers stack up when it comes to recognizing faces and people. Every couple of years, NIST organizes an international competition for computer-based face recognition systems, introducing increasingly difficult problems.
"We will continue comparing humans to machines on these new challenges," says O'Toole. "By looking at the way computer face recognition systems work, we often learn new and surprising things about the way humans recognize other people."
More information: pss.sagepub.com/content/early/ … 97613492986.abstract


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REI Mars 80
An REI homerun! Perfect performance/price ratio. REI always comes through. Love their R&D folks and great products (like this!) and support.
- great weight distribution and adjusments
- fits a wide range of torso lengths perfectly
- durable
- larger and heavier than pricier brands
- no lumbar ventilation
- the elastic side pockets could be made of a better material
I am a father, so i frequently carry more than my own full load. i often backpack with my 11-year-old daughter, and i don't want to ruin her experience (or love of backpacking!) by making her carry more than a fifth of her body weight. this is why i have a pack this large.
I have used this pack in yosemite (30 miles per trip of backpacking <35 lbs. because i also carried daughters' food and other items), zion (30 miles per trip of backpacking <25 lbs.), and all over texas (including 25+ miles in guadalupe mountains and 45+ pounds due to having to carry water).
I love this pack. for summer backpacking it is a bit large for one person and anything less than three nights, but i think it nevertheless compresses well and carries both heavy and light loads perfectly. Another REI homerun!
Source: bought it new
Price Paid: applied a 20% discount to full price - $172 with tax in Texas
This pack is for the strong hiker who knows what he wants. If you want to go for a 5-day trip and be ready for everything then you'll need some space. The Mars pack from REI has the space, durability, and features to make a good length trip very enjoyable.
- Versitility
- Durability
- Space
- Durability leads to heavier pack
- No rain cover
Fit: Nice and adjustable
Comfort: Classic hiker pack feel. Good shoulder straps.
Capacity: Perfect amount for the longer trip.
Organization: 7 pockets give you options
Ride: Weight goes to hips so well. Just what you need.
Compression: Like all good packs, there are compression straps that hold it all in place once loaded.
Ease of use: For now, no problems at all. Good quality.
Features: Nothing too flashy, which is good. Classic features hold through.
Construction/Durability: Nylon is the way to go. Good in the backwoods.
Source: bought it new
Price Paid: $140
You can disappear for seven days with this very comfortable pack without leaving any gear behind.
- Lots of room
- Rugged construction
- Comfortable
- Easily adjustable
- Easy to get to any part of the pack quickly
- No rain cover
- Wish top pocket converted to a fanny pack
Great Pack. I have used this on a 50-mile trip hiking the north loop in Glacier National Park and a 38-mile trip on the AT in North Carolina. I carried six days worth of food on both trips. I tend to bring a lot of unnecessary gear, chairs, hammock, electronics, and a big first aid kit. The Glacier trip I carried 65 pounds without discomfort and had to scramble a couple of times.
Pack feels like a part of your body. Easy to adjust on the move. I will own this one until it falls apart from old age. No rain cover, but I bought the 100 liter REI pack cover and it fits like it was made for it. The top expands 10 more liters if you need extra space. The side pockets are deep and each one will hold two 1 liter smart water bottles.
Source: bought it new
Price Paid: $150
Super awesome pack, great for hiking. Don't worry about the weight as the hip straps are awesome. The duffle bag feature is great as well.
- Plenty of storage
- Can open like a duffle bag
- The hydration pack sleeve is a little small
- Very large, not for hyperlite hiking at all
The REI Mars 80 has multiple sizing options so fit is always taylorable and makes the bag extremely comfortable. This was my first larger pack and I am super happy with it. It has a sleeping bag compartment which is nice.
I just took it on a weekend trip in 80 degree weather and it was still comfortable and didn't heat me up too much. I even wore it shirtless and the mesh was comfortable. There are plenty of different compartments which is nice but not so many that you can never remember where you put everything. There aren't any loops on the outside so if you want to hang things from it this is not the backpack for you.
All in all a great buy. Good price and awesome quality.
Source: bought it new
Price Paid: $200
I purchased this pack for a 4-day 3-night backpacking trip along Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore in early spring. The threat of rain and snow was present in the Upper Peninsula, so I needed a pack which would hold all of my gear (including a 25-year-old The North Face synthetic bag and an original Therm-a-Rest pad) including foul weather gear, tent, clothes, extra clothes, cooking system, and the 10 essentials.
Seeking value in this investment was important to me, as my budget is limited, but I want to invest in long lasting gear.
All that said, I was VERY comfortable with the Mars 80. Not being in prime shape (duh) this pack ensured my comfort during hikes between 6 miles (after 7 hours in a car) and two to eight miles a day on relatively flat trails.
I will continue to update this review as I go winter backpacking, another round at PRNL, and all great areas around America's High Five!
Price Paid: $165
I bought this pack for a Philmont trip in 2011. Have used many times and still going strong. Very durable and holds everything I need.
- Storage capacity
- Multiple pockets
- Easy access from top or through back zipper
- Separate compartment for sleeping bag/tent
This pack has great flexibility and is easily adjusted while on the trail. Plenty of capacity to really pack in everything you need. Always seems to have more room even when it doesn't seem possible. Love all the easy access pockets.
Source: bought it new
Price Paid: $150
I don't own this pack, but a friend of mine did. I was backpacking with him on the first day of a 5ive-day trip in 2004 in north Yosemite when the shoulder strap broke off from the plastic adjustable suspension plate, while hiking. Brand new pack, it was the first time he'd used it.
He tied the strap back with regular pack straps, but it was an annoying interruption, and it was no longer adjustable. REI refunded his money. They're pretty good about that type of thing. I dislike plastic on packs.
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The Power Of Aged Garlic
Eating cloves of garlic has well-known health benefits, but the practice doesn't exactly promote fresh breath or digestive ease. How, then, do you get garlic's antioxidant benefits, including cancer and heart-disease prevention as well as cholesterol reduction, without the drawbacks? Simple: Odor-free supplements are just as effective as eating what some call the "stinking rose."
Researchers at Pennsylvania State University found that aged garlic extract (AGE), an odorless and concentrated form of the bulb, reduced cholesterol levels in the male subjects they tested. Every day the men took either nine capsules containing 800 mg of AGE or placebo for five months. At the end of the study, the men taking AGE showed a 7 percent reduction in their total cholesterol, and their LDL (bad) cholesterol levels dropped by 10 percent. The placebo group showed no change (Journal of Nutrition, 2001, vol. 131).
AGE also appears to be an effective antioxidant, protecting against cancer, diabetes, and heart disease, all generated by free radical damage. Free radical molecules form in the body in reaction to chemicals and pollutants. In a recent study conducted at Liverpool John Moores University in England, researchers compared a group of adult smokers, who are more prone to developing free radicals, to a group of adult nonsmokers. Both groups took five ml of AGE daily. After two weeks, lipoprotein lipids, evident when high levels of free radical damage exist, decreased by 37 percent in nonsmokers and 48 percent in smokers. Two weeks after the subjects stopped supplementation, however, the measured lipoprotein lipids returned to pretest levels, indicating that AGE, taken regularly, could act as an inhibitor of free radical damage and thus protect against disease (Journal of Nutrition, 2001, vol. 132).
And if that's not enough good news about AGE, researchers performing another recent study at Loma Linda University in California found that aged garlic extract holds promise for reversing age-related immune, memory, and learning deficiencies. However, this effect has not yet been tested on human subjects (Growth Hormone and IGF Research, 2002, vol. 12, no. 1).
Although there's more research to be done, these results affirm that aged garlic, though not the most powerful flavor and aroma for pasta, is a powerful antioxidant, cancer fighter, and fountain of youth.


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Freestyle Watch Shark Classic White Out
$ 70.00Product Details
Manufacturer : Freestyle
Our most popular style, The Shark Classic, just got a subtle upgrade that results in a radical improvement in comfort and durability. The new Shark Classic now comes with a silicone band which is more durable and fade resistant than polyurethane, not to mention also has increased flexibility for an improved fit. Like all Shark Watches, the Shark Classic is water resistant to 100 meters and backed by a limited lifetime warranty. Additional features are night vision, dual time, alarm, and stop watch.


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Our standard 3 sided or 4 sided table covers are a great table topper for trade shows, exhibitions, and any presentations. Our table covers are dye sublimated and are 100% washable. This table cover is made of 8.8 oz. polyester table fabric with rounded corners and hangs approximately 2" above the floor. Complete your presentation with our simple and cost-effective table cover. Your logo will be placed on three sides of the table cloth for HIGH VISIBILITY at your events.
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Stylistic origins Primarily Cuban son and jazz Cultural origins Immigrant communities from Cuba and Puerto Rico in New York in the 1960s Typical instruments Piano, bongos, congas, timbales, trumpet, trombone, claves, cowbell, maracas, güiro, double bass/bass guitar, guitar, electric guitar, flute, saxophone, vibraphone, violin, tres/cuatro and jam block |
Salsa music is a popular dance music that initially arose in New York City during the 1960s. Salsa is the product of various musical genres including the Cuban son montuno, guaracha, cha cha chá, mambo, and to a certain extent bolero, and the Puerto Rican bomba and plena. Latin jazz, which was also developed in New York City, has had a significant influence on salsa arrangers, piano guajeos, and instrumental soloists.
- Salsa as a musical term
- Issues of identity and ownership
- Lyrics
- Son Conjunto
- String charanga
- Percussion
- Verse and chorus sections
- Clave
- Percussion and clave alignment
- Guajeo
- Bass tumbao
- Moas
- Pre salsa Cuban dance music in New York City 1940s 1970s
- 1970s
- Divergence of salsa and Cuban popular music
- 1980s
- Salsa cubana and the birth of timba
- African salsa
- 1990s to the present
- Films
- References
Salsa is primarily Cuban son, itself a fusion of Spanish canción and guitar and Afro-Cuban percussion, merged with North American music styles such as jazz. Salsa also occasionally incorporates elements of rock, R&B, and funk. All of these non-Cuban elements are grafted onto the basic Cuban son montuno template when performed within the context of salsa.
The first salsa bands were predominantly "Cubans and Puerto Ricans" who moved to New York since 1930's. The music eventually spread throughout Colombia and the rest of the Americas. Ultimately, it became a global phenomenon. Some of the founding salsa artists were Johnny Pacheco (the creator of the Fania All-Stars), Celia Cruz, Ray Barretto, Rubén Blades, Willie Colón, Larry Harlow, Roberto Roena, Bobby Valentín, Eddie Palmieri, and Héctor Lavoe.
Salsa as a musical term
Salsa means 'sauce' in the Spanish language, and carries connotations of the spiciness common in Latin and Caribbean cuisine. In the 20th century, salsa acquired a musical meaning in both English and Spanish. In this sense salsa has been described as a word with "vivid associations." Cuban immigrants and Puerto Rican in New York have used the term analogously to swing or soul music. In this usage salsa connotes a frenzied, "hot" and wild musical experience that draws upon or reflects elements of Latin culture, regardless of the style.
Various music writers and historians have traced the use of salsa to different periods of the 20th century. Max Salazar traces the word back to the early 1930s, when Ignacio Piñeiro composed "Échale salsita", a Cuban son protesting tasteless food. While Salazar describes this song as the origin of salsa meaning "danceable Latin music", Ed Morales describes the usage in the same song as a cry from Piñeiro to his band, telling them to increase the tempo to "put the dancers into high gear". Morales claims that later in the 1930s, vocalist Beny Moré would shout salsa during a performance "to acknowledge a musical moment's heat, to express a kind of cultural nationalist sloganeering [and to celebrate the] 'hotness' or 'spiciness' of Latin American cultures". World music author Sue Steward claims salsa was originally used in music as a "cry of appreciation for a particularly piquant or flashy solo". She cites the first use in this manner to a Venezuelan radio DJ named Phidias Danilo Escalona; In 1955 Cheo Marquetti created a new band called Conjunto Los Salseros and recorded some new songs ( Sonero and Que no muera el son ).In 1955 José Curbelo recorded some others salsa songs (La familia, La la la and Sun sun sun ba bae). The contemporary meaning of salsa as a musical genre can be traced back to New York City Latin music promoter Izzy Sanabria:
"In 1973, I hosted the television show Salsa which was the first reference to this particular music as salsa. I was using [the term] salsa, but the music wasn't defined by that. The music was still defined as Latin music. And that was a very, very broad category, because it even includes mariachi music. It includes everything. So salsa defined this particular type of music... It's a name that everyone could pronounce."
Sanabria's Latin New York magazine was an English language publication. Consequently, his promoted events were covered in The New York Times, as well as Time and Newsweek magazines. They reported on this "new" phenomenon taking New York by storm—salsa.
But promotion certainly wasn't the only factor in the music's success, as Sanabria makes clear: "Musicians were busy creating the music but played no role in promoting the name salsa." Johnny Pacheco, the creative director and producer of Fania Records, molded New York salsa into a tight, polished and commercially successful sound. The unprecedented appeal of New York salsa, particularly the "Fania sound," led to its adoption across Latin America and elsewhere.
Globally, the term salsa has eclipsed the original names of the various Cuban musical genres it encompasses. Ironically, Cuban-based music was promoted more effectively worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s by the salsa industry, than by Cuba. For a brief time in the early 1990s a fair number of Cuban musicians embraced the term, calling their own music salsa Cubana. The practice did not catch on however.
Issues of identity and ownership
There is considerable controversy surrounding the term salsa and the idea that it is its own distinct genre. Several New York musicians who had already been performing Cuban dance music for decades when salsa was popularized initially scoffed at the term. For example, Cuban-born Machito declared: "There's nothing new about salsa, it is just the same old music that was played in Cuba for over fifty years." Similarly, New York native Tito Puente stated: "The only salsa I know is sold in a bottle called ketchup. I play Cuban music." Eventually though, both Machito and Puente embraced the term as a financial necessity.
The salsa conflict can be summarized as a disagreement between those who do not recognize salsa as anything other than Cuban music with another name, and those who strongly identify with salsa as a music and culture distinct from its Cuban primogenitor.
The concept of salsa music which began as a marketing ploy created by Izzy Sanabria was successfully exploited by Fania Records, then eventually took on a life of its own, organically evolving into an authentic pan-Latin American cultural identity. Music professor and salsa trombonist Christopher Washburne writes:
"This pan-Latino association of salsa stems from what Felix Padilla labels a 'Latinizing' process that occurred in the 1960s and was consciously marketed by Fania Records: 'To Fania, the Latinizing of salsa came to mean homogenizing the product, presenting an all-embracing Puerto Rican, Pan-American or Latino sound with which the people from all of Latin America and Spanish-speaking communities in the United States could identify and purchase.' Motivated primarily by economic factors, Fania's push for countries throughout Latin America to embrace salsa did result in an expanded market. But in addition, throughout the 1970s, salsa groups from Colombia, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela, among other Latin American nations, emerged, composing and performing music that related to their own specific cultural experiences and affiliations, which posited salsa as a cultural identity marker for those nations as well."
The Cuban origins of the music do not conveniently fit into the pan-Latino narrative. Many leading salsa artists have described salsa in broad and inclusive, but vague terms, making no mention of the music's Cuban foundation. For example, Johnny Pacheco has consistently articulated a vision of salsa as a broad, multi-ethnic movement: "Salsa was, and still is, a Caribbean musical movement." Similarly, Willie Colón sees the scope of salsa's power to unite in the broadest terms: "Salsa was the force that united diverse Latino and other non-Latino racial and ethnic groups... It is a concept. An open, ever-evolving musical, cultural, socio-political concept." Rubén Blades' definition of salsa is also inclusive: "Salsa music is urban folklore at the international level." In the pivotal documentary movie Salsa: Latin Pop Music in Cities (1979), the history of salsa is explained as a mixing of African, Caribbean, and New York cultures and musics, with no mention of Cuba. In one scene, the Afro-Cuban folkloric genres of batá and rumba are shown being performed in Puerto Rico, implying that they originated there.
In advancing the concept of salsa as a musical "sauce", containing many different ingredients from various cultures mixed together, some point to the occasional use of non-Cuban forms in salsa, such as the Puerto Rican bomba. The percentage of salsa compositions based in non-Cuban genres is low though, and despite an openness to experimentation and a willingness to absorb non-Cuban influences, salsa has remained consistently wedded to its Cuban templates. It was common practice for salsa bands to resurrect pre-salsa Cuban classics. For example, several of Arsenio Rodriguez's son montunos from the 1940s, such as "Fuego en el 23" (recorded by Sonora Ponceña) and "El divorcio" (recorded by Johnny Pacheco) were modernized by salsa arrangers. The pan-Latin Americanism of salsa is found in its cultural milieu, more than its musical structure. Today, competing nationalities claim ownership of the music, as there are musicians in New York City, Puerto Rico, Colombia, and Venezuela, who claim salsa was invented in their country.
The salsa controversy is also closely tied to the decades-long estrangement between the governments of the United States and Cuba, and the United States embargo against Cuba. Radio stations in the United States would get bomb threats (presumably from Cuban exiles) for playing Cuban records over the air. Homegrown salsa on the other hand, was embraced. For a time the Cuban state media officially claimed that the term salsa music was a euphemism for authentic Cuban music stolen by American imperialists, though the media has since abandoned this theory.
Mayra Martínez, a Cuban musicologist, writes that "the term salsa was used to obscure the Cuban base, the music's history or part of its history in Cuba. And salsa was a way to do this so that Jerry Masucci, Fania and other record companies, like CBS, could have a hegemony on the music and keep the Cuban musicians from spreading their music abroad." Izzy Sanabria responds that Martínez was likely giving an accurate Cuban viewpoint, "but salsa was not planned that way."
Salsa lyrics range from simple dance numbers, and sentimental romantic songs, to risque and politically radical subject matter. Music author Isabelle Leymarie notes that salsa performers often incorporate machoistic bravado (guapería) in their lyrics, in a manner reminiscent of calypso and samba, a theme she ascribes to the performers' "humble backgrounds" and subsequent need to compensate for their origins. Leymarie claims that salsa is "essentially virile, an affirmation of the man's pride and identity." As an extension of salsa's macho stance, manly taunts and challenges (desafio) are also a traditional part of salsa.
Salsa lyrics often quote from traditional Cuban sones and rumbas. Sometimes there are references to Afro-Cuban religions, such as Santeria, even by artists who are not themselves practitioners of the faith. Salsa lyrics also exhibit Puerto Rican influences. Hector LaVoe, who sang with Willie Colón for nearly a decade used typical Puerto Rican phrasing in his singing. It's not uncommon now to hear the Puerto Rican declamatory exclamation "le-lo-lai" in salsa. Politically and socially activist composers have long been an important part of salsa, and some of their works, like Eddie Palmieri's "La libertad - lógico," became Latin, and especially Puerto Rican anthems. The Panamanian-born singer Ruben Blades in particular is well known for his socially-conscious and incisive salsa lyrics about everything from imperialism to disarmament and environmentalism, which have resonated with audiences throughout Latin America. Many salsa songs contain a nationalist theme, centered around a sense of pride in black Latino identity, and may be in Spanish, English or a mixture of the two called Spanglish.
Son Conjunto
Salsa ensembles are typically based on one of two different Cuban instrument formats, either the horn-based son conjunto or the string-based charanga. Some bands are expanded to the size of a mambo big band, but they can be thought of as an enlarged conjunto. The traditional conjunto format consists of congas, bongos, bass, piano, tres, a horn section, and the smaller hand-held percussion instruments: claves, guíro, or maracas, played by the singers. The Cuban horn section traditionally consists of trumpets, but trombones are frequently used in salsa. The section can also use a combination of different horns. Most salsa bands are based on the conjunto model, but the tres is almost never used.
String charanga
The traditional charanga format consists of congas, timbales, bass, piano, flute, and a string section of violins, viola, and cello. The claves and güiro are played by the singers. Bongos are not typically used in charanga bands. Típica 73 and Orquesta Broadway were two popular New York salsa bands in the charanga format.
New York based Machito's Afro-Cubans was the first band to make the triumvirate of congas, bongo, and timbales the standard battery of percussion in Cuban-based dance music. The three drums are used together in most salsa bands and function in ways similar to a traditional folkloric drum ensemble. The timbales play the bell pattern, the congas play the supportive drum part, and the bongos improvise, simulating a lead drum. The improvised variations of the bongos are executed within the context of a repetitive marcha, known as the martillo ('hammer'), and do not constitute a solo. The bongos play primarily during the verses and the piano solos. When the song transitions into the montuno section, the bongo player picks up a large hand held cowbell called the bongo bell. Often the bongocero plays the bell more during a piece, than the actual bongos. The interlocking counterpoint of the timbale bell and bongo bell provides a propelling force during the montuno. The maracas and guíro sound a steady flow of regular pulses (subdivisions) and are ordinarily clave-neutral.
Verse and chorus sections
Most salsa compositions follow the basic son montuno model of a verse section, followed by a coro-pregón (call-and-response) chorus section known as the montuno. The verse section can be short, or expanded to feature the lead vocalist and/or carefully crafted melodies with clever rhythmic devices. Once the montuno section begins, it usually continues until the end of the song. The tempo may gradually increase during the montuno in order to build excitement. The montuno section can be divided into various sub-sections sometimes referred to as mambo, diablo, moña, and especial.
The most fundamental rhythmic element in salsa music is a pattern and concept known as clave. Clave is a Spanish word meaning 'code,' 'key,' as in key to a mystery or puzzle, or 'keystone,' the wedge-shaped stone in the center of an arch that ties the other stones together. Clave is also the name of the patterns played on claves; two hardwood sticks used in Afro-Cuban music ensembles. The five-stroke clave represents the structural core of many Afro-Cuban rhythms, both popular and folkloric. Just as a keystone holds an arch in place, the clave pattern holds the rhythm together. The clave patterns originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where they serve the same function as they do in salsa.
The two most common five-stroke African bell parts, which are also the two main clave patterns used in Afro-Cuban music, are known to salsa musicians as son clave and rumba clave. Son and rumba clave can be played in either a triple-pulse (12/8 or 6/8) or duple-pulse (4/4, 2/4 or 2/2) structure. Salsa uses duple-pulse son clave almost exclusively.
The contemporary Cuban practice is to write clave in a single measure of 4/4. Clave is written in this way in the following example in order to illustrate the underlying metric structure of four main beats, which is fundamental to the dynamism of the pattern.
Concerning the role of clave in salsa music, Charley Gerard states: "The clave feeling is in the music whether or not the claves are actually being played." Every ostinato part which spans a cycle of four main beats, has a specific alignment with clave, and expresses the rhythmic qualities of clave either explicitly or implicitly. Every salsa musician must know how their particular part fits with clave, and with the other parts of the ensemble.
The basic conga tumbao, or marcha sounds slaps (triangle noteheads) and open tones (regular noteheads) on the "and" offbeats. The single tone coinciding with the third stroke of clave is known as ponche, an important syncopated accent. The specific alignment between clave and the conga is critical.
The concept of clave as a form of music theory with its accompanying terminology, was fully developed during the big band era of the 1940s, when dance bands in Havana and New York City were enlarged. By the time salsa emerged in the 1970s, there was already a second generation of clave savvy composers and arrangers working in New York. John Santos stresses the importance of this skill:
"One of the most difficult applications of the clave is in the realm of composition and arrangement of Cuban and Cuban-based dance music. Regardless of the instrumentation, the music for all of the instruments of the ensemble must be written with a very keen and conscious rhythmic relationship to the clave . . . Any 'breaks' and/or 'stops' in the arrangements must also be 'in clave'. If these procedures are not properly taken into consideration, then the music is 'out of clave' which, if not done intentionally, is considered an error. When the rhythm and music are 'in clave,' a great natural 'swing' is produced, regardless of the tempo. All musicians who write and/or interpret Cuban-based music must be 'clave conscious,' not just the percussionists."
Salsa is a potent expression of clave, and clave became a rhythmic symbol of the musical movement, as its popularity spread. Clave awareness within the salsa community has served as a cultural "boundary marker," creating an insider/outsider dichotomy, between Cuban and non-Cuban, and between Latino and non-Latino. At the same time though, clave serves its ancient function of providing a means of profound inclusion. As Washburne observes:
"Clapping clave at a concert in sync with the performing musicians provides for a group participation in music-making even for a novice. However, the messages transmitted can be, and often are, imbued with more meaning than simply, 'Let's all participate!' A newcomer to salsa, whether performer, dancer, listener, or consumer, must acquire some level of clave competence before engaging in these 'clave dialogues' in a deeper, more significant way."
Before salsa pianist Eddie Palmieri takes his first solo at a live concert, he will often stand up, and start clapping clave. Once the audience is clapping clave along with him, Palmieri will sit back down at the piano and proceed to take his solo. Palmieri's solos tend to be rhythmically complex, with avant-garde elements such as harmonic dissonance. By clapping clave along with Palmieri's solo, the audience is able to both "de-code" its rather esoteric musical "message," and participate in its creation at a fundamental level.
Clave is the basic period, composed of two rhythmically opposed cells, one antecedent and the other consequent. Clave was initially written in two measures of 2/4 (below). When clave is written in two measures, each cell or clave half is represented within a single measure. The antecedent half has three strokes and is referred to as the three-side of clave in the parlance of salsa. In Cuban popular music, the first three strokes of son clave are also known collectively as tresillo, a Spanish word meaning 'triplet' (three equal beats in the same time as two main beats). However, in the Cuban vernacular, the term refers to the figure shown below in the first measure. The consequent half (second measure) of clave has two strokes and is called the two-side by salsa musicians.
The first measure of clave is considered "strong," contradicting the meter with three cross beats and generating a sense of forward momentum. The second measure is considered "weak." Clave resolves in the second measure when the last stroke coincides with the last main beat of the cycle. John Amria describes the rhythmic sequence of clave:
"[With] clave . . . the two measures are not at odds, but rather, they are balanced opposites like positive and negative, expansive and contractive or the poles of a magnet. As the pattern is repeated, an alternation from one polarity to the other takes place creating pulse and rhythmic drive. Were the pattern to be suddenly reversed, the rhythm would be destroyed as in a reversing of one magnet within a series . . . the patterns are held in place according to both the internal relationships between the drums and their relationship with clave . . . Should the [music] fall out of clave the internal momentum of the rhythm will be dissipated and perhaps even broken."
Percussion and clave alignment
Since a chord progression can begin on either side of clave, percussionists have to be able to initiate their parts in either half (a single measure in 2/2 or 2/4). The following examples show clave with the bongo bell and timbale bell parts in both a 3-2 and a 2-3 sequence. The timbale bell comes from a stick pattern (cáscara) used in the Afro-Cuban folkloric rhythm guaguancó.
The following example shows the most common conga (two drums), timbale bell, and bongo bell pattern combination used in salsa music.
According to Bobby Sanabria, the 3-2, 2-3 concept and terminology was developed in New York City during the 1940s by Cuban-born Mario Bauzá, when he was music director of Machito's Afro-Cubans. The 3-2, 2-3 concept is a basic tenet of salsa, but it is not widely used in Cuba.
A guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns. Guajeos are a seamless blend of European harmonic and African rhythmic structures. A piano guajeo may be played during the verse section of a song, but it is at the center of the montuno section. That is why some salsa musicians refer to piano guajeos as montunos. Piano guajeos are one of the most recognizable elements in salsa music. As Sonny Bravo explains: "In salsa, the piano is more of a percussion instrument than a melodic one, especially in ensemble playing. When you're backing a soloist, you play a riff over and over again. This is what we call guajeo. The pianist uses this guajeo to provide the rhythm section with its drive."
Clave and guajeos are commonly written in two measures of cut-time (2/2) in salsa charts. This is most likely an influence of jazz conventions.
Most guajeos have a binary structure that expresses clave. Kevin Moore states: "There are two common ways that the three-side is expressed in Cuban popular music. The first to come into regular use, which David Peñalosa calls 'clave motif,' is based on the decorated version of the three-side of the clave rhythm." The following guajeo example is based on a clave motif. The three-side (first measure) consists of the tresillo variant known as cinquillo.
A chord progression can begin on either side of clave. In salsa "one" can be on either side of clave, because the harmonic progression, rather than the rhythmic progression is the primary referent. When a chord progression begins on the two-side of clave, the music is said to be in two-three clave. The following guajeo is based on the clave motif in a two-three sequence. The cinquillo rhythm is now in the second measure.
Moore: "By the 1940s [there was] a trend toward the use of what Peñalosa calls the 'offbeat/onbeat motif.' Today, the offbeat/onbeat motif method is much more common." With this type of guajeo motif, the three-side of clave is expressed with all offbeats. The following I IV V IV progression is in a three-two clave sequence. It begins with an offbeat pick-up on the pulse immediately before beat 1. With some guajeos, offbeats at the end of the two-side, or onbeats at the end of the three-side serve as pick-ups leading into the next measure (when clave is written in two measures).
This guajeo is in two-three clave because it begins on the downbeat, emphasizing the onbeat quality of the two-side. The figure has the same exact harmonic sequence as the previous example, but rhythmically, the attack-point sequence of the two measures is reversed. Most salsa is in two-three clave, and most salsa piano guajeos are based on the two-three onbeat/offbeat motif.
When salsa uses non-Cuban rhythms, such as a Puerto Rican plena, guajeos are essential to tie that genre in with the salsa format. The expression of the 2-3 onbeat/offbeat motif is more abstract in this guajeo than in others previous mentioned. The offbeat and onbeat pick ups begin at their extreme limit in the preceding measures. The third measure outlines a G7 chord. The other measures outline C.
Bass tumbao
Most salsa bass tumbaos are based on the tresillo pattern. Often the last note of the measure (ponche) is held over the downbeat of the next measure. In this way, only the two offbeats of tresillo are sounded. This tumbao is clave-neutral.
Some salsa tumbaos that have a specific alignment with clave. The following 2-3 bass line coincides with three of the clave's five strokes.
A moña is a horn guajeo, which can be written or improvised. What's known as the Cuban típico style of soloing on trombone draws upon the technique of stringing together moña variations. The following example shows five different variants of a 2-3 trombone moña improvised by José Rodríguez on "Bilongo" (c. 1969), performed by Eddie Palmieri.
Moña 1 sounds every stroke of 2-3 clave except the first stroke of the three-side. Melodic variety is created by transposing the module in accordance to the harmonic sequence, as Rick Davies observes in his detailed analysis of the first moña:
The moña consists of a two-measure module and its repetition, which is altered to reflect the montuno chord progression. The module begins with four ascending eighth-notes starting on the second [quarter-note of the measure]. This configuration emphasizes the . . . two-side of the clave. In both of the modules, these four notes move from G3 to Eb4. Although the first, third, and fourth notes (G3, C4, and Eb4) are identical in both modules, the second note reflects the change in harmony. In the first module, this note is the Bb3 third of the tonic harmony; in the module repetition, the A3 is the fifth of the dominant. Of the final five notes in the module, the first four are [offbeats]; the final D4 is on the [last quarter-note] in the second measure of the module. Along with the final D4, the initial D4 on the [last offbeat] in the first measure of the module and the Eb4 on the [offbeat] immediately preceding the final note of the module are identical in both modules. The [offbeats] in the second-module measure reflect the harmonic changes. The first version of the module is over the dominant chord and contains the pitches A3 (the fifth) and C4 (the seventh). A Bb3 is sounded twice on the two [offbeats] in the module's repetition and represents the third G minor tonic chord.
A section of layered, contrapuntal horn guajeos is also referred to sometimes as a moña. Moñas differ from typical rhythm section guajeos in that they often will rest for a beat or two within their cycle. Those beats within a measure not sounded by the moña are often "filled" by a chorus, or counter moña. The trumpet and trombone moñas shown below ("Bilongo") can be repeated verbatim, or altered. Improvisation is within a framework of repetition and the melodic contour of the moñas. In this way, multiple instrumentalists can improvise simultaneously while reinforcing the rhythmic/melodic momentum of the rhythm section.
The next moña layers are from the descarga "Guatacando" by the Fania All-Stars (1968). Listen: Guatacando." The trumpet figure is one clave in length, while the trombone figure is two claves. This is a classic example of how moñas are layered. The trombone Moña consists of two parts, a call-and-response structure. The trumpet moña begins on the last note of first half of the trombone moña. The second half of the trombone moña begins on the pulse (subdivision) immediately following the last note of the trumpet moña.
Pre-salsa: Cuban dance music in New York City 1940s-1970s
Salsa emerged from New York City in the mid-1970s, then spread throughout Latin America and the Western Hemisphere. However, the music had already been going strong in the city for several decades prior to the use of the label salsa. New York had been a center of Cuban-style dance music since the 1940s, when landmark innovations by Machito's Afro-Cubans helped usher in the mambo era. Tito Puente worked for a time in the Afro-Cubans before starting up his own successful band. By the early 1950s, there were three very popular mambo big bands in New York: Machito and his Afro-Cubans, Tito Puente, and Tito Rodríguez. There were many other working bands as well. The Palladium Ballroom was the epicenter of mambo in New York. At the height of its popularity, the Palladium attracted Hollywood and Broadway stars, especially on Wednesday nights, when a free dance lesson was offered. The mambo and its "temple," the Palladium, were racially and ethnically integrated phenomena.
The next Cuban "dance craze" to hit the United States was the chachachá. The chachachá originated in the Cuban charanga bands, but was adopted by the horn-based groups in New York. By the early 1960s, there were several charanga bands in New York, led by future salsa icons Johnny Pacheco, Charlie Palmieri, and Ray Barretto. Mongo Santamaría also had a charanga during this period. The pachanga was popularized by Orquesta Sublime and other Cuban charangas. The pachanga was the last Cuban popular dance to take ahold in New York's Latin community. The U.S. embargo against Cuba (1962) halted the two-way flow of music and musicians between Cuba and the United States.
The first post-Revolution Cuban dance music genre was the short-lived, but highly influential mozambique (1963). Neither the dance, nor the music caught on outside of Cuba. In spite of this, members of Eddie Palmieri's Conjunto la Perfecta did hear this new music over shortwave radio, inspiring them to create a similar rhythm which they also called mozambique. Although the two rhythms share no parts in common, the band received death threats because some right wing Cuban exiles thought Palmieri's band was playing contemporary Cuban music.
There was one final distinct Latin music era in New York before salsa emerged, and it was an original, home-grown hybrid: the Latin boogaloo (or boogalú). By the mid-1960s, a hybrid Nuyorican cultural identity emerged, primarily Puerto Rican but influenced by many Latin cultures as well as the close contact with African Americans. The boogaloo was a true Nuyorican music, a bi-lingual mix of R&B and Cuban rhythms. It had two Top 20 hits in 1963: Mongo Santamaría's performance of the Herbie Hancock piece "Watermelon Man" and Ray Barretto's "El Watusi," which in a sense, established the basic boogaloo formula. The term boogaloo was probably coined in about 1966 by Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz. The biggest boogaloo hit of the 60s was "Bang Bang" by the Joe Cuba Sextet, which achieved unprecedented success for Latin music in the United States in 1966 when it sold over one million copies. "El Pito" was another hit by this popular combo. Hits by other groups included Johnny Colón's "Boogaloo Blues", Pete Rodríguez's "I Like It like That", and Hector Rivera's "At the Party". Joe Bataan and the Lebron Brothers are two other important boogaloo bands.
In 1966, the same year as Joe Cuba's pop success, the Palladium closed because it lost its liquor license. The mambo faded away, and a new generation came into their own with the boogaloo, the jala-jala and the shing-a-ling. Some of the older, established band leaders took a stab at recording boogaloos—Tito Puente, Eddie Palmieri, and even Machito and Arsenio Rodríguez. But the establishment didn't have their hearts in it. As Puente later recounted: "It stunk . . . I recorded it to keep up with the times. The young boogaloo upstarts were outselling their older counterparts. Johnny Colón claims that "Boogaloo Blues" sold over four million copies domestically. By the end of the 1960s though, the Latin music establishment shut down boogaloo airplay and the movement fizzled out. Some of the young boogaloo artists, like Willie Colón, were able to transition into the next phase—salsa.
The late 1960s also saw white youth joining a counterculture heavily associated with political activism, while black youth formed radical organizations like the Black Panthers. Inspired by these movements, Latinos in New York formed the Young Lords, rejected assimilation and "made the barrio a cauldron of militant assertiveness and artistic creativity". The musical aspect of this social change was based on the Cuban son, which had long been the favored musical form for urbanites in both Puerto Rico and New York. The Manhattan-based recording company Fania Records introduced many of the first-generation salsa singers and musicians to the world. Founded by Dominican flautist and band-leader Johnny Pacheco and impresario Jerry Masucci, Fania was launched with Willie Colón and Héctor Lavoe's El Malo in 1967. This was followed by a series of updated son montuno and plena tunes that evolved into modern salsa by 1973. Pacheco put together a team that included percussionist Louie Ramirez, bassist Bobby Valentín and arranger Larry Harlow. The Fania team released a string of successful singles, mostly son and plena, performing live after forming the Fania All-Stars
In 1971 the Fania All Stars sold out Yankee Stadium. By the early 1970s, the music's center moved to Manhattan and the Cheetah, where promoter Ralph Mercado introduced many future Puerto Rican salsa stars to an ever-growing and diverse crowd of Latino audiences. In 1975 New York, DJ and conga drummer, Roger Dawson created the "Sunday Salsa Show" over WRVR FM which became one of the highest rated radio shows in the New York market with a reported audience of over a quarter of a million listeners every Sunday (per Arbitron Radio Ratings). Ironically, although New York's Hispanic population at that time was over two million, there had been no commercial Hispanic FM. Given his jazz and salsa conga playing experience and knowledge (working as a sideman with such bands as salsa's Frankie Dante's Orquesta Flamboyan and jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp), Dawson also created the long running "Salsa Meets Jazz" weekly concert series at the Village Gate jazz club where jazz musicians would sit in with an established salsa band, for example Dexter Gordon jamming with the Machito band. Dawson helped to broaden New York's salsa audience and introduced new artists such as the bi-lingual Angel Canales who were not given play on the Hispanic AM stations of that time. His show won several awards from the readers of Latin New York magazine, Izzy Sanabria's Salsa Magazine at that time and ran until late 1980 when Viacom changed the format of WRVR to country music.
From New York, salsa quickly expanded to Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, and other Latin American countries. The number of salsa bands, both in New York and elsewhere, increased dramatically, as did salsa-oriented radio stations and record labels.
The 1970s saw a number of musical innovations among salsa musicians. Willie Colón introduced the cuatro, a rural Puerto Rican plucked string instrument, as well as some songs with jazz, rock, and Panamanian and Brazilian music influences.
Celia Cruz, who had a successful career in Cuba, was able to transition well to salsa in the United States. She became known as the Queen of Salsa. Larry Harlow, a band leader and arranger for Fania Records, modernized salsa by adding an electric piano. Harlow also stretched out from the typical salsa formula with his ambitious opera Hommy (1973), inspired by the Who's Tommy, and integral to Celia Cruz's comeback from an early retirement. In 1979 Harlow released his critically acclaimed La raza latina, a Salsa Suite.
The slick, highly produced Fania sound was too predictably formulaic for some tastes. There was a niche for more adventurous Puerto Rican bands, such as Eddie Palmieri, and Manny Oquendo's Libre. The two bands were the main proponents of NY-style mozambique, drew inspiration from the classic Cuban composers, and Afro-Cuban folkloric rhythms, while pushing the limits of salsa, and incorporating jazz elements. They also featured some of the best trombone soloists in the business, several of whom were "Anglo" jazz musicians who had mastered the típico style. Most famous of these was Barry Rogers. The Gonzalez brothers, Jerry and Andy, played congas and bass respectively, in Libre. Prior to the founding of Libre, they had played in one of Palmieri's most experimental salsa bands. Andy Gonzalez recounts: "We were into improvising. . . doing that thing Miles Davis was doing—playing themes and just improvising on the themes of songs, and we never stopped playing through the whole set." While in Palmieri's band (1974-1976), the Gonzalez brothers started showing up in the Down Beat Reader's Poll. Palmieri and Libre caught the attention of jazz critics and reached listening audiences who were not necessarily a part of the salsa culture.
By the end of the decade, Fania Records' longtime leadership of salsa was weakened by the arrival of the labels TH-Rodven and RMM.
Divergence of salsa and Cuban popular music
Ironically, Cuban popular music during the 1970s incorporated North American jazz, rock, and funk in much more significant ways than did salsa. Whereas salsa occasionally superimposes elements of another genre, or incorporates a non-salsa style in the bridge of a song, Cuban popular music since the 1970s has fully integrated North American jazz and funk to the point of true hybrid. It began with Juan Formell, the former director for Orquesta Revé (1968), and the founder and current director of Los Van Van. Formell fused American pop with clave-based Cuban elements. Moore states: "The harmonies, never before heard in Cuban music, were clearly borrowed from North American pop [and] shattered the formulaic limitations on harmony to which Cuban popular music had faithfully adhered for so long." The Cuban super group Irakere fused bebop and funk with batá drums and other Afro-Cuban folkloric elements. The 1970s was the songo era in Cuba, with groups like Los Van Van and Orquesta Ritmo Oriental playing a highly syncopated, rumba-influenced form of charanga.
For the most part, salsa music was not influenced by developments in Cuban popular music during the 1970s. One notable exception was Sonny Bravo of Típica '73, who arranged songs by contemporary Cuban charangas. In 1979 Típica '73 travelled to Havana to record Típica '73 en Cuba, a collaboration between the band and Cuban musicians.
In 1980 the Mariel boatlift brought thousands of Cuban refugees to the United States. Many of these refugees were musicians, who were astonished to hear what sounded to them like Cuban music from the 1950s. It was as if the 60s never happened. Cuban conguero Daniel Ponce summarized this sentiment: "When the Cubans arrived in New York, they all said 'Yuk! This is old music.' The music and the feelings and arrangements [haven't] changed." In fundamental ways, salsa is the preservation of the late 1950s Cuban sound.
The influx of Cuban musicians had more of an impact on jazz than salsa. After the boatlift though, there was obviously more awareness of the modern Cuban styles. Tito Puente recorded the Irakere composition "Bacalao con pan" (1980), and Rubén Blades covered Los Van Van's "Muevete" (1985). The bands Batacumbele and Zaperoko of Puerto Rico fully embraced songo. Led by Angel "Cachete" Maldonado and featuring a young Giovanni Hidalgo, Batacumbele interpreted songo in a horn-based format, with a strong jazz influence.
By the early 1980s a generation of New York City musicians had come of age playing both salsa dance music and jazz. The time had come for a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers of Conjunto Libre (as the band was originally called). Jerry Gonzalez founded the jazz group the Fort Apache Band, which included his brother Andy and established a new standard for Latin jazz. During this same period, Tito Puente changed to performing and recording primarily Latin jazz for the remainder of his career. By 1989 Eddie Palmieri had also switched to playing mostly Latin jazz.
The 1980s saw salsa expand to Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Europe and Japan, and diversify into new stylistic interpretations. Oscar D'León from Venezuela is a huge salsa star. In Colombia, a new generation of musicians began to combine salsa with elements of cumbia and vallenato; this fusion tradition can be traced back to the 1960s work of Peregoyo y su Combo Vacana. However, it was Joe Arroyo and La Verdad, his band, that popularized Colombian salsa beginning in the 1980s. The Colombian singer Joe Arroyo first rose to fame in the 1970s, but became a renowned exponent of Colombian salsa in the 1980s. Arroyo worked for many years with the Colombian arranger Fruko y sus Tesos (Fruko and his band Los Tesos). Grupo Niche is based in Cali, Colombia, and enjoys great popularity throughout Latin America. One of their biggest hits, "Cali Pachanguero" (1989), was seemingly arranged oblivious to clave. As salsa grew and flourished in other countries, removed by both time and space from the New York epicenter, it adopted local sensibilities and drifted away from its Afro-Cuban moorings.
The 1980s was a time of diversification, as popular salsa evolved into sweet and smooth Puerto Rican salsa romantica, with lyrics dwelling on love and romance, and its more explicit cousin, salsa erotica. Salsa romantica can be traced back to Noches Calientes, a 1984 album by singer José Alberto with producer Louie Ramirez. A wave of romantica singers, found wide audiences with a new style characterized by romantic lyrics, an emphasis on the melody over rhythm, and use of percussion breaks and chord changes. Some viewed salsa romantica as a rhythmically watered-down version of the genre. Critics of salsa romántica, especially in the late 80s and early 90s, called it a commercialized, diluted form of Latin pop, in which formulaic, sentimental love ballads were simply put to Afro-Cuban rhythms—leaving no room for classic salsa's brilliant musical improvisation, or for classic salsa lyrics that tell stories of daily life or provide social and political commentary. The marketing of salsa romántica singers has often been based more on their youthful sex appeal than on the quality of their music. For these reasons, the form sometimes has been derided as salsa monga (limp or flaccid salsa), as opposed to salsa gorda or salsa dura (fat or 'hard salsa').Omar Alfanno is probably the most prolific songwriter in the salsa romántica genre he was hand held into the business by Salsa Dura songwriter Johnny Ortiz. Other notable composers include Palmer Hernandez and Jorge Luis Piloto. Antonio "Tony" Moreno, Chino Rodriguez, Sergio George and Julio "Gunda" Merced are some of the most notable producers in the salsa romántica genre. Salsa lost popularity among many Latino youth, who were drawn to American rock in large numbers, while the popularization of Dominican merengue further sapped the audience among Latinos in both New York and Puerto Rico.
Along with the salsa-pop fusion of salsa romántica, the 1980s saw the combining elements of salsa with soul, R&B, and hip hop music. The dilution of Afro-Cuban rhythmic principles created problems for some. Washburne recounts: "As arrangers struggled to 'fit' these music styles into a salsa format, a variety of 'clave discrepancies,' or clashes, like in 'Cali Pachanguero,' often resulted. As the salsa style became more culturally diverse, Nuyorican and Puerto Rican traditionalists often reacted by emphatically positing clave as a representative of, or essential to, Puerto Rican cultural identity."
"Salsa cubana" and the birth of timba
In the mid-1980s salsa finally caught on in Cuba. However, the development of Salsa Cubana is drastically different. Moore:
"Venezuelan salsa star Oscar D'León's 1983 tour of Cuba is mentioned prominently by every Cuban I've ever interviewed on the subject. Rubén Blades' album Siembra was heard everywhere on the island throughout the mid-80s and has been quoted extensively in the guías and coros of everyone from Van Van's Mayito Rivera (who quotes [Blades'] 'Plástico' in his guías on the 1997 classic Llévala a tu vacilón), to El Médico de la Salsa (quoting another major hook from 'Plástico'—'se ven en la cara, se ven en la cara, nunca en el corazón'—in his final masterpiece before leaving Cuba, Diós sabe)."
Prior to D'León's performance, Cuban musicians had for the most part, rejected salsa, considering it bad imitation Cuban music. Something changed after d'León's performance. By that time, Cuban popular music had moved way beyond the old Cuban templates used in salsa. Cuba's momentary "salsa craze" brought back some of those older templates. For example, Orquesta Ritmo Oriental started using the most common salsa timbale bell and bongo bell combination. That bell arrangement became the standard for timba, which emerged at the end of the 1980s.
The release of En la calle (1989) by NG La Banda, marked the beginning of the post-songo era. This new music shared more with salsa than the Cuban music of the previous decade. Departing from the rumba-inspired percussion parts of the previous songo era, "La expresiva" uses typical salsa bell patterns creatively incorporated into a Cuban-style timbales/drum kit hybrid. The tumbadora ('conga') plays elaborate variations on the son montuno-based tumbao, rather than in the songo style. In contrast to salsa though, NG's bass tumbaos are busier, and rhythmically and harmonically more complex than typically heard in salsa. The breakdown sections in En la calle have more in common with both the folkloric guaguancó of that time, and hip-hop, than with salsa.
Some Cuban musicians referred to this late-80s sound as salsa cubana, a term which for the first time, included Cuban music as a part of salsa. In the mid-1990s California-based Bembe Records released CDs by several Cuban bands, as part of their salsa cubana series. Those bands included Manolito y su Trabuco, Orquesta Sublime, and Irakere which was nominated for a Grammy. Other North American labels such as Qbadic and Xenophile also released CDs by contemporary Cuban bands. It would seem at last that Cuban popular music could be marketed as salsa. In 1997, the film and CD Buena Vista Social Club, produced by Ry Cooder, was a big hit in the United States. America "discovered" Cuban music once again. However, for the most part, the music of the BVSC and its spin-offs was from the pre-mambo era. They do not play salsa. One exception was the BVSC spin-off, the Afro-Cuban All Stars. When touring the United States the All Stars performed arrangements that began very much like salsa tunes, but they would also employ breakdowns about halfway through the pieces. The Buena Vista Social Club and its spin-off groups did not exist in Cuba as working bands. They were put together for touring outside of Cuba. The bands that were playing in Havana had meanwhile been steadily evolving into something quite distinctly Cuban, and less like salsa. The Cuban jazz pianist Gonzalo Rubalcaba developed a technique of pattern and harmonic displacement in the 1980s, which was adopted into timba guajeos in the 1990s. The guajeo (shown above) for Issac Delgado's "La temática" (1997) demonstrates some of the innovations of timba piano. A series of repeated octaves invoke a characteristic metric ambiguity. Techniques like guajeo pattern displacement often make the music difficult for non-Cubans to dance to.
The term salsa cubana which had barely taken hold, eventually fell out of favor, and was replaced with timba. Some of the other important timba bands include Azúcar Negra, Bamboleo, Manolín "El Médico de la salsa". Charanga Habanera, Havana d'Primera, Klimax, Paulito FG, Pupy y Los Que Son, Salsa Mayor, and Tiempo Libre. Cuban timba musicians and New York salsa musicians have had positive and creative exchanges over the years, but the two genres remain somewhat separated, appealing to different audiences. Nevertheless, some people today include Cuban groups in the salsa category.
African salsa
Cuban music has been popular in sub-Saharan Africa since the mid twentieth century. To the Africans, clave-based Cuban popular music sounded both familiar and exotic. The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. states:
"Beginning in the 1940s, Afro-Cuban [son] groups such as Septeto Habanero and Trio Matamoros gained widespread popularity in the Congo region as a result of airplay over Radio Congo Belge, a powerful radio station based in Léopoldville (now Kinshasa DRC). A proliferation of music clubs, recording studios, and concert appearances of Cuban bands in Léopoldville spurred on the Cuban music trend during the late 1940s and 1950s."
Congolese bands started doing Cuban covers and singing the lyrics phonetically. Soon, they were creating their own original Cuban-like compositions, with lyrics sung in French or Lingala, a lingua franca of the western Congo region. The Congolese called this new music rumba, although it was really based on the son. The Africans adapted guajeos to electric guitars, and gave them their own regional flavor. The guitar-based music gradually spread out from the Congo, increasingly taking on local sensibilities. This process eventually resulted in the establishment of several different distinct regional genres, such as soukous.
Cuban popular music played a major role in the development of many contemporary genres of African popular music. John Storm Roberts states: "It was the Cuban connection, but increasingly also New York salsa, that provided the major and enduring influences—the ones that went deeper than earlier imitation or passing fashion. The Cuban connection began very early and was to last at least twenty years, being gradually absorbed and re-Africanized." The re-working of Afro-Cuban rhythmic patterns by Africans brings the rhythms full circle.
The re-working of the harmonic patterns reveals a striking difference in perception. The I IV V IV harmonic progression, so common in Cuban music, is heard in pop music all across the African continent, thanks to the influence of Cuban music. Those chords move in accordance with the basic tenets of Western music theory. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, performers of African popular music do not necessarily perceive these progressions in the same way: "The harmonic cycle of C-F-G-F [I-IV-V-IV] prominent in Congo/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music."
The largest wave of Cuban-based music to hit Africa was in the form of salsa. In 1974 the Fania All Stars performed in Zaire (known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo), Africa, at the 80,000-seat Stadu du Hai in Kinshasa. This was captured on film and released as Live In Africa (Salsa Madness in the UK). The Zairean appearance occurred at a music festival held in conjunction with the Muhammad Ali/George Foreman heavyweight title fight. Local genres were already well established by this time. Even so, salsa caught on in many African countries, especially in the Senegambia and Mali. Cuban music had been the favorite of Senegal's nightspot in the 1950s to 1960s. The Senegalese band Orchestra Baobab plays in a basic salsa style with congas and timbales, but with the addition of Wolof and Mandinka instruments and lyrics.
According to Lise Waxer, "African salsa points not so much to a return of salsa to African soil (Steward 1999: 157) but to a complex process of cultural appropriation between two regions of the so-called Third World." Since the mid-1990s African artists have also been very active through the super-group Africando, where African and New York musicians mix with leading African singers such as Bambino Diabate, Ricardo Lemvo, Ismael Lo and Salif Keita. It is still common today for an African artist to record a salsa tune, and add their own particular regional touch to it.
1990s to the present
Producer and pianist Sergio George helped to revive salsa's commercial success in the 1990s by mixing salsa with contemporary pop styles with Puerto Rican artists like Tito Nieves, La India, and Marc Anthony. George also produced the Japanese salsa band Orquesta de la Luz. Brenda K. Starr, Son By Four, Víctor Manuelle, and the Cuban-American singer Gloria Estefan enjoyed crossover success within the Anglo-American pop market with their Latin-influenced hits, usually sung in English. More often than not, clave was not a major consideration in the composing or arranging of these hits. Sergio George is up front and unapologetic about his attitude towards clave: "Though clave is considered, it is not always the most important thing in my music. The foremost issue in my mind is marketability. If the song hits, that's what matters. When I stopped trying to impress musicians and started getting in touch with what the people on the street were listening to, I started writing hits. Some songs, especially English ones originating in the United States, are at times impossible to place in clave." As Washburne points out however, a lack of clave awareness does not always get a pass:
"Marc Anthony is a product of George's innovationist approach. As a novice to Latin music, he was propelled into band leader position with little knowledge of how the music was structured. One revealing moment came during a performance in 1994, just after he had launched his salsa career. During a piano solo he approached the timbales, picked up a stick, and attempted to play clave on the clave block along with the band. It became apparent that he had no idea where to place the rhythm. Shortly thereafter during a radio interview in San Juan Puerto Rico, he exclaimed that his commercial success proved that you did not need to know about clave to make it in Latin music. This comment caused an uproar both in Puerto Rico and New York. After receiving the bad press, Anthony refrained from discussing the subject in public, and he did not attempt to play clave on stage until he had received some private lessons."
Salsa remained a major part of Colombian music through the 1990s, producing popular bands like Sonora Carruseles, while the singer Carlos Vives created his own style that blends salsa with vallenato and rock. Vives' popularization of vallenato-salsa led to the accordion-led vallenato style being used by mainstream pop stars such as Gloria Estefan. The city of Cali, is known as Colombia's "capital of salsa", having produced such groups as Orquesta Guayacan, Grupo Niche, songwriter Kike Santander, and Julian Collazos, the producer of the Marco Barrientos Band. Cabijazz from Venezuela plays a unique blend of timba-like salsa with a strong jazz influence.
The most recent innovations in salsa genre include hybrids like Latin house, salsa-merengue and salsaton, alongside salsa gorda.