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Category: Shopping
Buy Hookah Hong Kong and Have Fun with Friends
When it comes to hookahs, they are waterpipes mainly used for smoking particularly made tobacco mixtures coming in a flavors wide range. By the air of passing charcoal heated, they usually work through the mixture of tobacco and ultimately by the water-filled chamber. Then a user inhales the smoke through a mouthpiece and tube. Often, hookah users perceive it to be less harmful in comparison to smoking cigarettes. A setup purchasing as newcomers may be a daunting challenge. They might require to get a great dealing according to preference. Hookah can be bought from anywhere buy hookah hong kong.
Hookah comprised
- Approx 82 toxic carcinogens and chemicals have been identified in the smoke of hookah.
- Through water, although the smoke passes and this failure to eliminate the addictive and hazardous chemicals released from tobacco.
- The charcoal combustion used for heating hookah tobacco might pose additional health risks. As this combustion process generates dangerous substances like metals, carbon monoxide, and other chemicals.
Consider before buying
- Hookah weight- It usually depends on the manufacturing material but the models of stainless steel are heavier compared to others. The weight fails to affect the smoking process features and quality.
- Hookah Height- The right height for a hookah choosing is most part a preference matter. The experienced hookah lovers go for hookahs between 45-70 cm.
It can be concluded that buying a hookah might be sometimes a confusing process. Thus, there are many things to consider and go to hookah store hong kong.
What You Need To Know About Buy Men's Clothing Online
The firm's size and industrial sector have a negligible impact on attire. Rather than risk seeming overdressed, it's best to play it safe and don a suit and tie.
Shirts, ties, and black suits are acceptable attire for buy men clothing online in the workplace. It's essential to look your best, and designer labels are a great way to do it. It's only natural for successful people to want to put up a show that they are.
You'll Find A Better Match
Anyone who cares about appearances is well aware of the significance of FIT. The best way to show off your physique is to stay in shape.
Custom-made clothes have this as their primary purpose. Your dimensions into account, yet it still provides comfort. You shouldn't feel any extreme tightness or looseness since these might lower your self-confidence.
The Use Of High-Quality Materials
Quality isn't a concern while purchasing off-the-rack items. That's how things work: mass manufacturing using industrial machinery at a low price. Those garments have not to the scrutiny of experts. Custom-made apparel men fashion hong kong, on the other hand, is an entirely different matter.
You'll Be Able To Show Off Your Individuality
A ready-to-wear outfit can only show so much of who you are. On the other hand, Custom clothes enable you to express your personality.
Manufacturers deal with various features and design alternatives, not only various materials. You have much say in how the final product turns out because of the high level of teamwork. You have the opportunity to use your imagination.
Talk about why people wear personalized shirts hong kong
People customize their clothes according to their style, and it is in trend to wear what you love. Let us talk below about why people love wearing personalized shirts hong kong.
You Improve Your Fit
Anyone who cares about their appearance understands how important fit is. Fit is essential for displaying their body in its most flattering light.
It is essential to healthy men, as better health is a significant asset. It's a sign of a great prospective partner if users appear healthy.
Custom clothing's primary goal is to achieve this. It's too well their measurements while still providing good comfortability. Extreme stiffness or looseness must be avoided because they reduce your confidence. You can also buy hand made belts onilne and wear them with your customized shirts.
The best materials are used-
Quality isn't a primary concern with off-the-shelf items. This is how the system works: low-cost mass production through industrial machinery.
Those garments do not pass through all the hands of an expert who examine every detail.
Precision is essential to custom bespoke suits. They can make adjustments and keep an eye out for discrepancies. They stick to the correct stitch count per inch, which needs to keep the fabric strong.
You Can Showcase Your Personality-
There's only so much "you" that can be reflected in ready-to-wear clothing. However, custom clothing allows us to express ourselves more uniquely.
Some companies work with not only different fabrics but also different features and design options. There is much collaboration where you can impact the product. You have the opportunity to be inventive.
Taking Great Consideration of Making Judaica Jewelry Models
Maybe quite possibly the most lovely, appealing and delicate piece of accessory to be found in your closets is the jewelry. Be it the cutting edge in vogue wristbands, accessory and rings that you wear, or the conventional Judaica Jewish gifts that you store, you want to take extraordinary consideration of them to make them keep going for long. It is not difficult to deal with them and keeping in mind that having said that, there is a clear need to routinely keep up with and tidy up your collectibles, Judaic gifts and other jewelry things to keep them sparkling for some more years to come.
Assuming you appropriately keep up with your Judaic gifts, you can without much of a stretch save money on large expenses and costs of your closet. The greater part of these jewelry things cost a major measure of bucks while others do not. Despite the fact that the Judaic Jewish gifts probably would not be just about as costly as other things, yet their value and associating with religion make them considerably more valuable and sacrosanct to the rehearsing Jews and Christians. Since a large number of the jewelry things are not observed at least a few times like the collectibles it is crucial for take appropriate consideration and upkeep of them to get ok for getting harmed or ruined. Make a point to appropriately appraise the financial worth of your whole mens white gold cross necklace things. In the event that the value comes to in great measure of thousands of dollars, including the valuable and the consecrated Judaica gifts, then, at that point, go on for the protection. Protection gives you an extraordinary monetary insurance in the event that you lose your valuable jewelry or you get them harmed.
Continuously buy Judaic presents from a believed Jewish present's store. Do not simply get them from any of the neighborhood seller. To get fair-minded and genuine pinions on where to buy them from, ensure you have great discussion with your companions, relatives and friends to direct you better the areas and shops to purchase these presents from. You cannot stand to get your Jewish gifts ruined or harmed, is not that right? Try not to place all the investments tied up on one place. Try to separate your jewelry in various fragments like gold, silver, platinum, and Jewish gifts. For some it is smart, while others see that it is alright to have the jewelry things at one spot. Pick a solid and safe storage in your room or any piece of the house which is not effortlessly known by your visitors or guests, and exclusively by you. To start with, you may get your jewelry demolished along these lines, and second, you do not need any guest or house cleaner takes it from your home.
International Grocery Delivery – Your Key to Building a Bigger Business
Finding a global delivery supplier that you can trust and depend upon to speed up your significant shipments will be your most noteworthy partner with regards to building your business. while joining forces up with different organizations can likewise assist with boosting your deals and your primary concern, nothing will help you more than having an accomplished delivery administrations provider that will ensure that the entirety of your shipments arrive at their objections on schedule and under spending plan. At the point when you are in any sort of import/send out business, you have to have somebody you can trust on your side. Employing moving organizations to help with your universal delivery needs bodes well as recruiting companions to help with your office movement. At the point when an occupation of such size tags along, you have to employ the correct labor to assist you with taking care of business appropriately. Universal delivery suppliers offer exceptionally particular delivery administrations.
So as to give legitimate business transportation answers for organizations, they should have the correct system set-up, they have to have contacts in vital spots, they have to either possess approach an armada of airplane, ships, trucks, trains and different transporters and they have to have specialists situated in each port over the globe that can meet shipments when they show up. The correct universal delivery accomplice can assist you with building your grocery delivery toronto business by keeping your customers content with on time shipments. They can deal with all your business delivery coordination's and a significant number of them will even go about as your private traditions dealer so you are not compelled to recruit an outsider to offer these genuinely necessary types of assistance. Moving organizations are fine for nearby or local business transportation needs, however they are not the sort of master you need when managing abroad shipments.
Universal delivery organizations will likewise assist people with their abroad evacuations if necessary. They are adaptable suppliers of delivery arrangements that can help with almost any sort of delivery need. Global delivery providers will even assistance business with the capacity prerequisites should the need emerge. Probably the most ideal approaches to locate a dependable universal delivery supplier are to approach your companions and partners for leads. For the most part individuals who manage delivery administrations will have the option to control you the correct way. Nonetheless, on the off chance that your hover of associates is without drives, at that point looking on the web is another awesome method of finding abroad trucking organizations that can assist you with getting the sort of business transportation administrations you require. For whatever length of time that the universal delivery organization you pick gives proficient and financially savvy administrations, at that point your business makes certain to flourish.
Know when and where to utilize divider lights
Ordinary divider lights are a kind of candelabra with revealed lights. disguises were then familiar with loosen up the glare from the lights. Divider lights have undeniably advanced essentially in regards to design starting now and into the foreseeable future. They can be used in different settings for both utilitarian and advancing purposes. In a zone where space is limited they can be used over a bed instead of bedside lights or this is routinely used as a decision when there is adequate room anyway a smoother viewpoint is needed. Divider lights are a good instrument to use in a layered lighting plan and it is fitting to do them switch on and off autonomously to the rest of your lighting so you can use them when required using a dimmer switch is furthermore a charming other option.
Divider lights are super for making different light ramifications for your dividers. You have the option of divider enlightens that light both and down in a coordinated V model, these look amazing in an entryway or as outside lights to highlight a section. It is possible to use lights that blend in totally with simig lighting. you can truly paint them a comparative tone as your divider. Where space is limited it is habitually possible to use a divider light as opposed to a standing light. This is a shrewd thoroughly considered a table and the right height to put the divider light is at eye level. Right when you are orchestrating your lighting strategy place a lot of thought into it like you submit a blunder and do not consider adequate lighting in the right regions it can end up costing you a considerable amount more true to form and money.
Picking after your expressive topic has been done that you genuinely may need some divider lights is an obfuscated work. You need to seek after up the divider which clearly incorporates a lot of wreck and extra expense so I cannot pressure adequate that it is so basic to get a specialist lighting modeler to get an eyeful of an eye over your plans. Regularly mentioning the advice from a circuit analyzer is not sufficient as an electrical semi would offer direction as indicated by the point of view as for which is the least work concentrated and this does not for the most part give you the result you might be looking for. Something to avoid while using divider lights are up lights on your means as when you are plummeting the glare can be extremely obnoxious.
Being fit with a skateboard
Skating is a game which has been around for just about thirty years. It is a straightforward, fun and a non convoluted game. It is additionally a famous and a cutting edge sport. It is enjoyed by children, youngsters and grown-ups as well. It is accepted that skating is really gotten from surfing and has its foundations in Hawaii. Some trust it was a pleasant pastime which was begun by some kid's. However, for whatever reasons this game took off for, it surprised the world. By the 1980's the skateboarders got its first present day skateboard. Gradually the other skating items were brought into the skating scene making a serious mix around the world. What is more, in this Baker skateboard items have consistently stuck out and sparkled like a prize for all it skateboarder fans Regardless of whether it is a novice skateboarder or an expert skateboarder, they trust items from the Baker skateboard organization.
Skating is extraordinary approach to stay in shape, rather than going to an exhausting red center or taking long strolls at the recreation center or take a dip why not work put in a pleasant manner and why not launch your new workout schedule with a Baker Skateboards. They are numerous incredible looking unrivaled quality skateboards accessible and at all potential costs. The group at the Baker skateboard organization understands what a novice skateboarder would require and what an expert skateboarder will require. There is continually something new accessible for all its skateboarder fans. Skateboard frill are an absolute necessity to give a total look to the skateboarder and who comprehends this better than the Baker skateboard organization. One can look cool and crazy in Baker logos, Baker defensive cog wheels, Baker Skateboard clothes and substantially more.
To keep up your skateboard Baker has excellent upkeep instruments for you, for example, skateboard course and lubes, skateboard rails, skateboard wheels, skateboard wax and skateboard stray pieces. Dough puncher likewise arranges significant skating occasions distributes skating magazines and is a pioneer in the skating design. Pastry specialist has urged numerous families to appreciate skating and they are devoted Baker fans. You will discover numerous families get together at the skate park and what do you see best skateboard truck. A wide range of Baker items Skating is essentially fun whether it is a method of transportation or is taken a calling or on the off chance that it taken as a diversion. Nowadays it has been received by numerous individuals to stay in shape and sound. With such incredible skating item like Baker Skateboards, it is nevertheless normal that the quantity of skateboarders is expanding by gigantic numbers.
Most effective method to personalize Moon Lamp Photo
Need innovative thoughts for customizing your photo collections? On the off chance that you need the vibe of a scrapbook without constantly and cost, take a stab at adorning your photo collections with one of these simple tips. My significant other and I as of late got back from commending our 10th commemoration in Hawaii. We took bunches of pictures and I needed to toss something together rapidly and effectively to show the entirety of our photos to companions and family members. I did not have the opportunity to make a scrapbook for our outing.
We went through the entirety of our outing keepsakes and managed down the data I needed to keep, actually like I would do while setting up a scrapbook. Rather than feeling free to make a scrapbook, I chose to put our get-away recollections in a photo collection.
Subsequent to gathering all my photos and tokens, I masterminded all the photos in sequential request. We at that point tucked the tokens in the middle of the photos, setting them with the photos I needed to show them with.
My mother by marriage had given me some adorable Hawaiian scrapbooking Photo moonlamp embellishments for Christmas a year ago, in expectation for our excursion, so I orchestrated them in the main photo sleeve in the photo collection (see photo). I at that point put the photos in the photo collection, organizing the keepsakes in their own photo sleeves close by the photos.
The photo collection ended up incredible and got loads of praises! It is the ideal mix of photo collection and scrapbook. Here are some more tips to kick you off:
- When going through your keepsakes, just cut out the main things you need to keep, similar to parts of a visit pamphlet. We went on a nightfall supper journey and I cut out of the pamphlet the name of the voyage transport and the menu we were served. I likewise saved leaflets that depicted visits we took. These portrayals come incredible with the photos you take of the spots you visit.
- Ticket hits fit into the photo sleeves well and are an incredible photo highlight.
- We utilized scrapbook stickers to mark the front of my photo collection (see photo). I purchased a photo collection from Target that generally had a palm tree on the front! I just added the name of the collection and the date.
There are numerous ways you can adorn your photo collection. Anything you can get into a photo sleeve will truly highlight your photos.
These collections are not only forget-always. They would likewise be extraordinary for saving occasion, infant, or school recollections. Utilize your creative mind and you can make a photo token a few hours!
Does CBD Online Oil Work? – Studies Suggest So
There are numerous cases about CBD oil attempting to help ease torment, nervousness, the manifestations of MS, colds, joint inflammation and substantially more. This is something we have investigated, alongside any proof that underpins it. While investigation into the advantages of utilizing Cannabidiol oil is as yet in the beginning phases. On saying this, there has been bounty directed and the investigations have started to show that the oil appears to have restorative impacts when used to treat a wide scope of conditions.
What is CBD oil?
To start with, let us take a gander at what the item is. The oil is a compound taken from the Cannabis plant. The oil is made by extraction at that point weakened utilizing a transporter oil, normally hemp or coconut oil. While the oil comes from the very plant that delivers a high when smoked, CBD Online oil does exclude THC or in the event that it does practically nothing which gives this high. This implies it is not psychoactive and it is protected to take. While it is accessible in oil structure, it is likewise accessible in containers, creams, delicate gels and more items. There are a wide range of types and qualities of oil however just those fabricated 100% naturally ought to be utilized and from trustworthy organizations.
Anyway, does CBD oil work?
Allow us to take a gander at a portion of the investigations that have been attempted to decide how effective CBD oil is at assisting with different sicknesses and manifestations.
Skin inflammation
Skin inflammation is supposed to be one of the numerous things that the oil can assist with, alongside the scars that it gives up. These phones achieve sebum that can cause spots. The investigation concerned effective oil and found that it very well might be advantageous.
A large number of individuals around the globe experience the ill effects of nervousness and in 2019; an investigation into the viability of CBD oil occurred with youngsters in Japan. The young people took CBD oil tablets to lessen their sensations of social nervousness and it demonstrated promising outcomes.
Alzheimer's sickness
An investigation into the viability of CBD in Alzheimer's patients uncovered that the oil could have properties that give neuroprotection to avoid the beginning of the illness.
Ongoing torment
Analysts directed an examination into whether CBD oil could assist with lessening persistent torment. An investigation demonstrated that the oil may undoubtedly assist with decreasing agony alongside irritation in joints for example, related with joint pain.
There is a solid recommendation that CBD oil may assist with side effects of epilepsy as the FDA offered endorsement to Epidolex which contains the oil. It is utilized in the treatment of individuals with uncommon or extreme epilepsy and the exploration uncovered that CBD can possibly diminish the quantity of seizures.
Utilizing Custom Orthotics For Foot Stabilization
An orthotic is a client gadget which is produced using lightweight material. It can go from an exceptionally confounded gadget that you have hand crafted for your utilization, to an extremely basic one that you can purchase over the counter. The more convoluted assortment require various techniques to make obviously. There is a lot of contrast between a specially crafted orthotic and one that you purchase at an overall store. The custom assortment necessitate that you have custom impressions and projecting, as well as the utilization of PCs to make them. The mass made assortment do not consistently do the work. The do not really address the issues that the client may have and much of the time do not offer the help that you need for your feet. Custom orthotics for foot adjustment are needed for various reasons. The orthotics that you will arrange hand crafted are intended to convey help from tendonitis, tarsal passage disorder, bunions, and numerous different issues.
In the event that these are conditions from which you endure, it is possible that a uniquely crafted orthotic is the correct response for you. Orthotics can assist with reestablishing your capacity to stroll without agony or inconvenience. They may likewise assist you with having the option to run, to walk and to try and hop all the more adequately and without torment. They can assist with bringing down the agony, to assist with expanding your portability and steadiness on your feet, to offer you better help for curves and even to bring down the growing that happens from influenced territories. Custom orthotics for foot adjustment can assist with keeping the foot situated in the shoe in the way that it ought to be. This can assist with keeping you more steady on your feet and to ensure your different joints.
Only a couple of the custom foot orthotics that you may find being used incorporate the impact point flares, that help to oppose foot reversal or eversion, the all-inclusive impact points, which offer curve help, the impact point lift that lifts one foot somewhat higher to help it coordinate the other leg, and the impact point wedge that can advance reversal. There are others, including metatarsal bars, sole flares, toe peaks and numerous others, replace orthotic top covers can offer you the help that you need to assist you with being more dynamic and to assist you with moving around with less torment and issues. The custom orthotics for foot adjustment might be one of a few different ways that your clinical supplier prescribes to assist with keeping you more portable and torment free. When all is said in done, useful orthotics should just be utilized in conditions that have a foot underlying reason, are not yet created from a bone point of view, and are from feet adaptable enough for the orthotic to consider movement decrease at the subtalar joint. In any case their advantage and adequacy might be dicey.


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Home » Nigeria Phone Number
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01/8COVID's Omicron symptoms have been 'mild' so far
The rapid surge in the number of Omicron cases has become a major source of concern. Several countries have been impacted and health officials around the world have urged people to take all necessary precautions. As per the World Health Organization (WHO), the new COVID variant continues to pose 'very high' risk to the general population and could overwhelm healthcare systems.
Also See: Coronavirus: Could Omicron variant act as a 'natural vaccine'? We try to find out
In light of such chaos, scientists and medical professionals are closely observing the new variant and keeping an eye out for any new developments. While most symptoms associated with the new COVID variants remain to be the same, there have been some new ailments reported in those infected with the Omicron, even in the fully vaccinated.
Read also: Coronavirus: One Omicron symptom that appears on your skin
02/8COVID's Omicron variant may cause cold-like symptoms
As of now, the Omicron variant has been associated with mild infections, which has resulted in a number of symptoms resembling common cold.
Having headaches, a sore throat, a runny nose, feeling fatigued and frequent sneezing may all feel like a regular cold or a flu. However, Professor Tim Spector, Head of UK's ZOE Covid study app, urges everyone suffering with cold-like symptoms to get tested immediately.
Additionally, he highlighted that symptoms like fever, cough and loss of smell are now in the "minority of symptoms".
"Most people don't have classic symptoms," he said.
That said, some of the most common symptoms reported in Omicron-infected people so far are mild fever, fatigue, scratchy throat, body pain and night sweats, without any sign of impaired sense of smell and taste.
03/8Do not dismiss possibilities of severity
While Omicron symptoms may appear to be 'mild' and harmless, do not let your guards down yet. The rate of transmissibility is extraordinarily high in Omicron infections and in several countries the new variant has become the most dominant strain. Health officials and experts have urged people to remain cautious and warned against mistaking mild symptoms for a regular cold or flu.
04/8Fully vaccinated people may also contract Omicron infection, develop symptoms
While coronavirus vaccines and booster shots are the only silver bullet against the virus and its variants, breakthrough infections are a possibility.
During the second wave of COVID-19, apart from the unvaccinated individuals, many fully vaccinated people were also infected and developed mild to moderate symptoms. This was evidence that even though the vaccinated population is safe from severe infections, they can still contract the virus.
Read also: COVID symptoms: Four symptoms of Omicron that are different from Delta
According to Professor Spector, Omicron variant is as prevalent in unvaccinated as in vaccinated. However, the latter are more likely to report milder symptoms. "Quite a few of them had nausea, slight temperature, sore throats and headaches," he said.
05/8New symptoms have been reported
The ZOE Covid study app has recently listed down two of the most unusual Omicron symptoms that you probably haven't heard of yet.
- Vomiting
- Loss of appetite
The head of the study app, Spector said that these two symptoms have been prevalent in double jabbed people and those who have received their booster shots.
06/8Get tested immediately, do not forget to isolate
After analyzing thousands of COVID-19 cases, the app found that runny nose, headache, fatigue, sneezing and sore throats were common COVID-19 symptoms at the time when omicron began to emerge.
That said, if you fall ill and develop any of the abovementioned symptoms, get yourself tested as soon as possible. Remember to isolate yourself until the results come out as 'negative'.
The Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention recommends isolating for at least 10 days after symptoms onset.
07/8If you have had COVID in the past, you can still catch the infection
Those of you who have contracted the virus earlier must not let their guards down. Even if you have some amount of natural immunity from previous infection, Omicron reinfection is a possibility, as per WHO report.
"Preliminary evidence suggests there may be an increased risk of reinfection with Omicron as compared to other variants of concern, but information is limited," the global health agency has said.
Having said that, it is important to follow a COVID-appropriate behavior, wear your masks and continue practicing social distancing.
08/8Prevention is important
During such critical times, when the Omicron is spreading like wildfire, focus on preventing the disease. It is important that you take all necessary steps to stay on guard. Wear your masks regularly, maintain proper hand hygiene, do not mingle with crowds and watch out for any of the above mentioned symptoms.


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Economic Theory
Of The Rise And Progress Of Cities And Towns After The Fall Of The Roman Empire
The inhabitants of cities and towns were, after the fall of the Roman
empire, not more favoured than those of the country. They consisted,
indeed, of a very different order of people from the first inhabitants
of the ancient republics of Greece and Italy. These last were composed
chiefly of the proprietors of lands, among whom the public territory was
originally divided, and who found it convenient to build their houses in
/> the neighbourhood of one another, and to surround them with a wall, for
the sake of common defence. After the fall of the Roman empire, on
the contrary, the proprietors of land seem generally to have lived in
fortified castles on their own estates, and in the midst of their own
tenants and dependants. The towns were chiefly inhabited by tradesmen
and mechanics, who seem, in those days, to have been of servile, or very
nearly of servile condition. The privileges which we find granted by
ancient charters to the inhabitants of some of the principal towns in
Europe, sufficiently show what they were before those grants. The people
to whom it is granted as a privilege, that they might give away their
own daughters in marriage without the consent of their lord, that upon
their death their own children, and not their lord, should succeed to
their goods, and that they might dispose of their own effects by will,
must, before those grants, have been either altogether, or very nearly,
in the same state of villanage with the occupiers of land in the
They seem, indeed, to have been a very poor, mean set of people, who
seemed to travel about with their goods from place to place, and from
fair to fair, like the hawkers and pedlars of the present times. In all
the different countries of Europe then, in the same manner as in several
of the Tartar governments of Asia at present, taxes used to be levied
upon the persons and goods of travellers, when they passed through
certain manors, when they went over certain bridges, when they carried
about their goods from place to place in a fair, when they erected in
it a booth or stall to sell them in. These different taxes were known
in England by the names of passage, pontage, lastage, and stallage.
Sometimes the king, sometimes a great lord, who had, it seems, upon some
occasions, authority to do this, would grant to particular traders, to
such particularly as lived in their own demesnes, a general exemption
from such taxes. Such traders, though in other respects of servile, or
very nearly of servile condition, were upon this account called free
traders. They, in return, usually paid to their protector a sort of
annual poll-tax. In those days protection was seldom granted without
a valuable consideration, and this tax might perhaps be considered as
compensation for what their patrons might lose by their exemption from
other taxes. At first, both those poll-taxes and those exemptions seem
to have been altogether personal, and to have affected only particular
individuals, during either their lives, or the pleasure of their
protectors. In the very imperfect accounts which have been published
from Doomsday-book, of several of the towns of England, mention is
frequently made, sometimes of the tax which particular burghers paid,
each of them, either to the king, or to some other great lord, for this
sort of protection, and sometimes of the general amount only of all
those taxes. {see Brady's Historical Treatise of Cities and Boroughs, p.
3. etc.}
But how servile soever may have been originally the condition of the
inhabitants of the towns, it appears evidently, that they arrived at
liberty and independency much earlier than the occupiers of land in
the country. That part of the king's revenue which arose from such
poll-taxes in any particular town, used commonly to be let in farm,
during a term of years, for a rent certain, sometimes to the sheriff
of the county, and sometimes to other persons. The burghers themselves
frequently got credit enough to be admitted to farm the revenues of
this sort winch arose out of their own town, they becoming jointly and
severally answerable for the whole rent. {See Madox, Firma Burgi, p.
18; also History of the Exchequer, chap. 10, sect. v, p. 223, first
edition.} To let a farm in this manner, was quite agreeable to the usual
economy of, I believe, the sovereigns of all the different countries of
Europe, who used frequently to let whole manors to all the tenants of
those manors, they becoming jointly and severally answerable for the
whole rent; but in return being allowed to collect it in their own
way, and to pay it into the king's exchequer by the hands of their
own bailiff, and being thus altogether freed from the insolence of
the king's officers; a circumstance in those days regarded as of the
greatest importance.
At first, the farm of the town was probably let to the burghers, in the
same manner as it had been to other farmers, for a term of years
only. In process of time, however, it seems to have become the general
practice to grant it to them in fee, that is for ever, reserving a
rent certain, never afterwards to be augmented. The payment having thus
become perpetual, the exemptions, in return, for which it was made,
naturally became perpetual too. Those exemptions, therefore, ceased
to be personal, and could not afterwards be considered as belonging
to individuals, as individuals, but as burghers of a particular burgh,
which, upon this account, was called a free burgh, for the same reason
that they had been called free burghers or free traders.
Along with this grant, the important privileges, above mentioned,
that they might give away their own daughters in marriage, that their
children should succeed to them, and that they might dispose of their
own effects by will, were generally bestowed upon the burghers of the
town to whom it was given. Whether such privileges had before been
usually granted, along with the freedom of trade, to particular
burghers, as individuals, I know not. I reckon it not improbable that
they were, though I cannot produce any direct evidence of it. But
however this may have been, the principal attributes of villanage and
slavery being thus taken away from them, they now at least became really
free, in our present sense of the word freedom.
Nor was this all. They were generally at the same time erected into a
commonalty or corporation, with the privilege of having magistrates
and a town-council of their own, of making bye-laws for their own
government, of building walls for their own defence, and of reducing all
their inhabitants under a sort of military discipline, by obliging them
to watch and ward; that is, as anciently understood, to guard and defend
those walls against all attacks and surprises, by night as well as by
day. In England they were generally exempted from suit to the hundred
and county courts: and all such pleas as should arise among them, the
pleas of the crown excepted, were left to the decision of their own
magistrates. In other countries, much greater and more extensive
jurisdictions were frequently granted to them. {See Madox, Firma Burgi.
See also Pfeffel in the Remarkable events under Frederick II. and his
Successors of the House of Suabia.}
It might, probably, be necessary to grant to such towns as were admitted
to farm their own revenues, some sort of compulsive jurisdiction to
oblige their own citizens to make payment. In those disorderly times,
it might have been extremely inconvenient to have left them to seek this
sort of justice from any other tribunal. But it must seem extraordinary,
that the sovereigns of all the different countries of Europe should have
exchanged in this manner for a rent certain, never more to be augmented,
that branch of their revenue, which was, perhaps, of all others, the
most likely to be improved by the natural course of things, without
either expense or attention of their own; and that they should, besides,
have in this manner voluntarily erected a sort of independent republics
in the heart of their own dominions.
In order to understand this, it must be remembered, that, in those
days, the sovereign of perhaps no country in Europe was able to protect,
through the whole extent of his dominions, the weaker part of his
subjects from the oppression of the great lords. Those whom the law
could not protect, and who were not strong enough to defend themselves,
were obliged either to have recourse to the protection of some great
lord, and in order to obtain it, to become either his slaves or vassals;
or to enter into a league of mutual defence for the common protection of
one another. The inhabitants of cities and burghs, considered as single
individuals, had no power to defend themselves; but by entering into
a league of mutual defence with their neighbours, they were capable of
making no contemptible resistance. The lords despised the burghers,
whom they considered not only as a different order, but as a parcel of
emancipated slaves, almost of a different species from themselves.
The wealth of the burghers never failed to provoke their envy and
indignation, and they plundered them upon every occasion without mercy
or remorse. The burghers naturally hated and feared the lords. The king
hated and feared them too; but though, perhaps, he might despise, he
had no reason either to hate or fear the burghers. Mutual interest,
therefore, disposed them to support the king, and the king to support
them against the lords. They were the enemies of his enemies, and it was
his interest to render them as secure and independent of those enemies
as he could. By granting them magistrates of their own, the privilege
of making bye-laws for their own government, that of building walls for
their own defence, and that of reducing all their inhabitants under a
sort of military discipline, he gave them all the means of security and
independency of the barons which it was in his power to bestow. Without
the establishment of some regular government of this kind, without some
authority to compel their inhabitants to act according to some certain
plan or system, no voluntary league of mutual defence could either have
afforded them any permanent security, or have enabled them to give the
king any considerable support. By granting them the farm of their own
town in fee, he took away from those whom he wished to have for his
friends, and, if one may say so, for his allies, all ground of jealousy
and suspicion, that he was ever afterwards to oppress them, either by
raising the farm-rent of their town, or by granting it to some other
The princes who lived upon the worst terms with their barons, seem
accordingly to have been the most liberal in grants of this kind to
their burghs. King John of England, for example, appears to have been
a most munificent benefactor to his towns. {See Madox.} Philip I. of
France lost all authority over his barons. Towards the end of his reign,
his son Lewis, known afterwards by the name of Lewis the Fat, consulted,
according to Father Daniel, with the bishops of the royal demesnes,
concerning the most proper means of restraining the violence of the
great lords. Their advice consisted of two different proposals. One was
to erect a new order of jurisdiction, by establishing magistrates and a
town-council in every considerable town of his demesnes. The other was
to form a new militia, by making the inhabitants of those towns, under
the command of their own magistrates, march out upon proper occasions
to the assistance of the king. It is from this period, according to
the French antiquarians, that we are to date the institution of
the magistrates and councils of cities in France. It was during the
unprosperous reigns of the princes of the house of Suabia, that the
greater part of the free towns of Germany received the first grants
of their privileges, and that the famous Hanseatic league first became
formidable. {See Pfeffel.}
The militia of the cities seems, in those times, not to have been
inferior to that of the country; and as they could be more readily
assembled upon any sudden occasion, they frequently had the advantage in
their disputes with the neighbouring lords. In countries such as Italy
or Switzerland, in which, on account either of their distance from the
principal seat of government, of the natural strength of the country
itself, or of some other reason, the sovereign came to lose the whole
of his authority; the cities generally became independent republics, and
conquered all the nobility in their neighbourhood; obliging them to pull
down their castles in the country, and to live, like other peaceable
inhabitants, in the city. This is the short history of the republic of
Berne, as well as of several other cities in Switzerland. If you except
Venice, for of that city the history is somewhat different, it is the
history of all the considerable Italian republics, of which so great
a number arose and perished between the end of the twelfth and the
beginning of the sixteenth century.
In countries such as France and England, where the authority of the
sovereign, though frequently very low, never was destroyed altogether,
the cities had no opportunity of becoming entirely independent. They
became, however, so considerable, that the sovereign could impose no tax
upon them, besides the stated farm-rent of the town, without their
own consent. They were, therefore, called upon to send deputies to the
general assembly of the states of the kingdom, where they might join
with the clergy and the barons in granting, upon urgent occasions, some
extraordinary aid to the king. Being generally, too, more favourable to
his power, their deputies seem sometimes to have been employed by him
as a counterbalance in those assemblies to the authority of the
great lords. Hence the origin of the representation of burghs in the
states-general of all great monarchies in Europe.
Order and good government, and along with them the liberty and security
of individuals, were in this manner established in cities, at a time
when the occupiers of land in the country, were exposed to every sort of
violence. But men in this defenceless state naturally content themselves
with their necessary subsistence; because, to acquire more, might only
tempt the injustice of their oppressors. On the contrary, when they are
secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry, they naturally exert it
to better their condition, and to acquire not only the necessaries,
but the conveniencies and elegancies of life. That industry, therefore,
which aims at something more than necessary subsistence, was established
in cities long before it was commonly practised by the occupiers of land
in the country. If, in the hands of a poor cultivator, oppressed with
the servitude of villanage, some little stock should accumulate, he
would naturally conceal it with great care from his master, to whom it
would otherwise have belonged, and take the first opportunity of running
away to a town. The law was at that time so indulgent to the inhabitants
of towns, and so desirous of diminishing the authority of the lords over
those of the country, that if he could conceal himself there from the
pursuit of his lord for a year, he was free for ever. Whatever stock,
therefore, accumulated in the hands of the industrious part of the
inhabitants of the country, naturally took refuge in cities, as the only
sanctuaries in which it could be secure to the person that acquired it.
The inhabitants of a city, it is true, must always ultimately derive
their subsistence, and the whole materials and means of their industry,
from the country. But those of a city, situated near either the
sea-coast or the banks of a navigable river, are not necessarily
confined to derive them from the country in their neighbourhood. They
have a much wider range, and may draw them from the most remote corners
of the world, either in exchange for the manufactured produce of their
own industry, or by performing the office of carriers between distant
countries, and exchanging the produce of one for that of another. A city
might, in this manner, grow up to great wealth and splendour, while not
only the country in its neighbourhood, but all those to which it traded,
were in poverty and wretchedness. Each of those countries, perhaps,
taken singly, could afford it but a small part, either of its
subsistence or of its employment; but all of them taken together, could
afford it both a great subsistence and a great employment. There were,
however, within the narrow circle of the commerce of those times, some
countries that were opulent and industrious. Such was the Greek empire
as long as it subsisted, and that of the Saracens during the reigns of
the Abassides. Such, too, was Egypt till it was conquered by the Turks,
some part of the coast of Barbary, and all those provinces of Spain
which were under the government of the Moors.
The cities of Italy seem to have been the first in Europe which were
raised by commerce to any considerable degree of opulence. Italy lay in
the centre of what was at that time the improved and civilized part of
the world. The crusades, too, though, by the great waste of stock and
destruction of inhabitants which they occasioned, they must necessarily
have retarded the progress of the greater part of Europe, were extremely
favourable to that of some Italian cities. The great armies which
marched from all parts to the conquest of the Holy Land, gave
extraordinary encouragement to the shipping of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa,
sometimes in transporting them thither, and always in supplying them
with provisions. They were the commissaries, if one may say so, of those
armies; and the most destructive frenzy that ever befel the European
nations, was a source of opulence to those republics.
The inhabitants of trading cities, by importing the improved
manufactures and expensive luxuries of richer countries, afforded some
food to the vanity of the great proprietors, who eagerly purchased
them with great quantities of the rude produce of their own lands.
The commerce of a great part of Europe in those times, accordingly,
consisted chiefly in the exchange of their own rude, for the
manufactured produce of more civilized nations. Thus the wool of England
used to be exchanged for the wines of France, and the fine cloths of
Flanders, in the same manner as the corn in Poland is at this day,
exchanged for the wines and brandies of France, and for the silks and
velvets of France and Italy.
A taste for the finer and more improved manufactures was, in this
manner, introduced by foreign commerce into countries where no such
works were carried on. But when this taste became so general as to
occasion a considerable demand, the merchants, in order to save
the expense of carriage, naturally endeavoured to establish some
manufactures of the same kind in their own country. Hence the origin
of the first manufactures for distant sale, that seem to have been
established in the western provinces of Europe, after the fall of the
Roman empire.
No large country, it must be observed, ever did or could subsist without
some sort of manufactures being carried on in it; and when it is said
of any such country that it has no manufactures, it must always be
understood of the finer and more improved, or of such as are fit for
distant sale. In every large country both the clothing and household
furniture or the far greater part of the people, are the produce of
their own industry. This is even more universally the case in those poor
countries which are commonly said to have no manufactures, than in
those rich ones that are said to abound in them. In the latter you
will generally find, both in the clothes and household furniture of the
lowest rank of people, a much greater proportion of foreign productions
than in the former.
Those manufactures which are fit for distant sale, seem to have been
introduced into different countries in two different ways.
Sometimes they have been introduced in the manner above mentioned, by
the violent operation, if one may say so, of the stocks of particular
merchants and undertakers, who established them in imitation of some
foreign manufactures of the same kind. Such manufactures, therefore,
are the offspring of foreign commerce; and such seem to have been the
ancient manufactures of silks, velvets, and brocades, which flourished
in Lucca during the thirteenth century. They were banished from thence
by the tyranny of one of Machiavel's heroes, Castruccio Castracani. In
1310, nine hundred families were driven out of Lucca, of whom thirty-one
retired to Venice, and offered to introduce there the silk manufacture.
{See Sandi Istoria civile de Vinezia, part 2 vol. i, page 247 and 256.}
Their offer was accepted, many privileges were conferred upon them, and
they began the manufacture with three hundred workmen. Such, too, seem
to have been the manufactures of fine cloths that anciently flourished
in Flanders, and which were introduced into England in the beginning of
the reign of Elizabeth, and such are the present silk manufactures
of Lyons and Spitalfields. Manufactures introduced in this manner are
generally employed upon foreign materials, being imitations of foreign
manufactures. When the Venetian manufacture was first established, the
materials were all brought from Sicily and the Levant. The more ancient
manufacture of Lucca was likewise carried on with foreign materials. The
cultivation of mulberry trees, and the breeding of silk-worms, seem not
to have been common in the northern parts of Italy before the sixteenth
century. Those arts were not introduced into France till the reign of
Charles IX. The manufactures of Flanders were carried on chiefly with
Spanish and English wool. Spanish wool was the material, not of the
first woollen manufacture of England, but of the first that was fit for
distant sale. More than one half the materials of the Lyons manufacture
is at this day foreign silk; when it was first established, the whole,
or very nearly the whole, was so. No part of the materials of the
Spitalfields manufacture is ever likely to be the produce of England.
The seat of such manufactures, as they are generally introduced by the
scheme and project of a few individuals, is sometimes established in
a maritime city, and sometimes in an inland town, according as their
interest, judgment, or caprice, happen to determine.
At other times, manufactures for distant sale grow up naturally, and
as it were of their own accord, by the gradual refinement of those
household and coarser manufactures which must at all times be carried
on even in the poorest and rudest countries. Such manufactures are
generally employed upon the materials which the country produces, and
they seem frequently to have been first refined and improved in
such inland countries as were not, indeed, at a very great, but at a
considerable distance from the sea-coast, and sometimes even from
all water carriage. An inland country, naturally fertile and easily
cultivated, produces a great surplus of provisions beyond what is
necessary for maintaining the cultivators; and on account of the
expense of land carriage, and inconveniency of river navigation, it
may frequently be difficult to send this surplus abroad. Abundance,
therefore, renders provisions cheap, and encourages a great number of
workmen to settle in the neighbourhood, who find that their industry
can there procure them more of the necessaries and conveniencies of life
than in other places. They work up the materials of manufacture which
the land produces, and exchange their finished work, or, what is the
same thing, the price of it, for more materials and provisions. They
give a new value to the surplus part of the rude produce, by saving the
expense of carrying it to the water-side, or to some distant market; and
they furnish the cultivators with something in exchange for it that is
either useful or agreeable to them, upon easier terms than they could
have obtained it before. The cultivators get a better price for their
surplus produce, and can purchase cheaper other conveniencies which they
have occasion for. They are thus both encouraged and enabled to increase
this surplus produce by a further improvement and better cultivation
of the land; and as the fertility of she land had given birth to the
manufacture, so the progress of the manufacture reacts upon the land,
and increases still further it's fertility. The manufacturers first
supply the neighbourhood, and afterwards, as their work improves and
refines, more distant markets. For though neither the rude produce, nor
even the coarse manufacture, could, without the greatest difficulty,
support the expense of a considerable land-carriage, the refined and
improved manufacture easily may. In a small bulk it frequently contains
the price of a great quantity of rude produce. A piece of fine cloth,
for example which weighs only eighty pounds, contains in it the price,
not only of eighty pounds weight of wool, but sometimes of several
thousand weight of corn, the maintenance of the different working
people, and of their immediate employers. The corn which could with
difficulty have been carried abroad in its own shape, is in this manner
virtually exported in that of the complete manufacture, and may easily
be sent to the remotest corners of the world. In this manner have grown
up naturally, and, as it were, of their own accord, the manufactures
of Leeds, Halifax, Sheffield, Birmingham, and Wolverhampton. Such
manufactures are the offspring of agriculture. In the modern history of
Europe, their extension and improvement have generally been posterior
to those which were the offspring of foreign commerce. England was noted
for the manufacture of fine cloths made of Spanish wool, more than
a century before any of those which now flourish in the places above
mentioned were fit for foreign sale. The extension and improvement of
these last could not take place but in consequence of the extension
and improvement of agriculture, the last and greatest effect of foreign
commerce, and of the manufactures immediately introduced by it, and
which I shall now proceed to explain.
Of The Rent Of Land
Of The Sources Of The General Or Public Revenue Of The Society
Conclusion Of The Mercantile System
Though the encouragement of exportation, and the discouragement of importation, are the two great engines by which the mercantile system proposes to enrich every country, yet, with regard to some particular commodities, it seems to follow an opposit...
How The Commerce Of Towns Contributed To The Improvement Of The Country
The increase and riches of commercial and manufacturing towns contributed to the improvement and cultivation of the countries to which they belonged, in three different ways: First, by affording a great and ready market for the rude produce of th...
Introduction To Stock Theory
In that rude state of society, in which there is no division of labour, in which exchanges are seldom made, and in which every man provides every thing for himself, it is not necessary that any stock should be accumulated, or stored up before-hand, ...
Of Bounties
Bounties upon exportation are, in Great Britain, frequently petitioned for, and sometimes granted, to the produce of particular branches of domestic industry. By means of them, our merchants and manufacturers, it is pretended, will be enabled to sel...
Of Colonies
PART I. Of the Motives for Establishing New Colonies. The interest which occasioned the first settlement of the different European colonies in America and the West Indies, was not altogether so plain and distinct as that which directed the establi...
Of Drawbacks
Merchants and manufacturers are not contented with the monopoly of the home market, but desire likewise the most extensive foreign sale for their goods. Their country has no jurisdiction in foreign nations, and therefore can seldom procure them any ...
Of Money Considered As A Particular Branch Of The General Stock Of The Society
It has been shown in the First Book, that the price of the greater part of commodities resolves itself into three parts, of which one pays the wages of the labour, another the profits of the stock, and a third the rent of the land which had been emp...
Of Public Debts
In that rude state of society which precedes the extension of commerce and the improvement of manufactures; when those expensive luxuries, which commerce and manufactures can alone introduce, are altogether unknown; the person who possesses a large ...
Of Restraints Upon Importation From Foreign Countries Of Such Goods As Can Be Produced At Home
By restraining, either by high duties, or by absolute prohibitions, the importation of such goods from foreign countries as can be produced at home, the monopoly of the home market is more or less secured to the domestic industry employed in produci...
Of Stock Lent At Interest
The stock which is lent at interest is always considered as a capital by the lender. He expects that in due time it is to be restored to him, and that, in the mean time, the borrower is to pay him a certain annual rent for the use of it. The borrowe...
Of Taxes
The private revenue of individuals, it has been shown in the first book of this Inquiry, arises, ultimately from three different sources; rent, profit, and wages. Every tax must finally be paid from some one or other of those three different sources...
Of The Accumulation Of Capital Or Of Productive And Unproductive Labour
There is one sort of labour which adds to the value of the subject upon which it is bestowed; there is another which has no such effect. The former as it produces a value, may be called productive, the latter, unproductive labour. {Some French autho...
Of The Agricultural Systems Or Of Those Systems Of Political Economy Which Represent The Produce Of Land
The agricultural systems of political economy will not require so long an explanation as that which I have thought it necessary to bestow upon the mercantile or commercial system. That system which represents the produce of land as the sole source...
Of The Component Part Of The Price Of Commodities
In that early and rude state of society which precedes both the accumulation of stock and the appropriation of land, the proportion between the quantities of labour necessary for acquiring different objects, seems to be the only circumstance which c...
Of The Different Employments Of Capitals
Though all capitals are destined for the maintenance of productive labour only, yet the quantity of that labour which equal capitals are capable of putting into motion, varies extremely according to the diversity of their employment; as does likewis...
Of The Discouragement Of Agriculture In The Ancient State Of Europe After The Fall Of The Roman Empire
When the German and Scythian nations overran the western provinces of the Roman empire, the confusions which followed so great a revolution lasted for several centuries. The rapine and violence which the barbarians exercised against the ancient inha...
Of The Division Of Labour
The greatest improvements in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment, with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour. The effects of the div...
Of The Division Of Stock
When the stock which a man possesses is no more than sufficient to maintain him for a few days or a few weeks, he seldom thinks of deriving any revenue from it. He consumes it as sparingly as he can, and endeavours, by his labour, to acquire somethi...
Of The Expenses Of The Sovereign Or Commonwealth
PART I. Of the Expense of Defence. The first duty of the sovereign, that of protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies, can be performed only by means of a military force. But the expense both of prepari...
Of The Extraordinary Restraints Upon The Importation Of Goods Of Almost All Kinds
Part I--Of the Unreasonableness of those Restraints, even upon the Principles of the Commercial System. To lay extraordinary restraints upon the importation of goods of almost all kinds, from those particular countries with which the balance of t...
Of The Natural And Market Price Of Commodities
There is in every society or neighbourhood an ordinary or average rate, both of wages and profit, in every different employment of labour and stock. This rate is naturally regulated, as I shall shew hereafter, partly by the general circumstances of ...
Of The Natural Progress Of Opulence
The great commerce of every civilized society is that carried on between the inhabitants of the town and those of the country. It consists in the exchange of rude for manufactured produce, either immediately, or by the intervention of money, or of s...
Of The Origin And Use Of Money
When the division of labour has been once thoroughly established, it is but a very small part of a man's wants which the produce of his own labour can supply. He supplies the far greater part of them by exchanging that surplus part of the produce of...
Of The Principle Of The Commercial Or Mercantile System
That wealth consists in money, or in gold and silver, is a popular notion which naturally arises from the double function of money, as the instrument of commerce, and as the measure of value. In consequence of its being the instrument of commerce, w...
Of The Principle Which Gives Occasion To The Division Of Labour
This division of labour, from which so many advantages are derived, is not originally the effect of any human wisdom, which foresees and intends that general opulence to which it gives occasion. It is the necessary, though very slow and gradual, con...
Of The Profits Of Stock
The rise and fall in the profits of stock depend upon the same causes with the rise and fall in the wages of labour, the increasing or declining state of the wealth of the society; but those causes affect the one and the other very differently. T...
Of The Real And Nominal Price Of Commodities Or Of Their Price In Labour And Their Price In Money
Every man is rich or poor according to the degree in which he can afford to enjoy the necessaries, conveniencies, and amusements of human life. But after the division of labour has once thoroughly taken place, it is but a very small part of these wi...
Of The Rent Of Land
Rent, considered as the price paid for the use of land, is naturally the highest which the tenant can afford to pay in the actual circumstances of the land. In adjusting the terms of the lease, the landlord endeavours to leave him no greater share o...
Of The Rise And Progress Of Cities And Towns After The Fall Of The Roman Empire
The inhabitants of cities and towns were, after the fall of the Roman empire, not more favoured than those of the country. They consisted, indeed, of a very different order of people from the first inhabitants of the ancient republics of Greece and ...
Of The Sources Of The General Or Public Revenue Of The Society
The revenue which must defray, not only the expense of defending the society and of supporting the dignity of the chief magistrate, but all the other necessary expenses of government, for which the constitution of the state has not provided any part...
Of The Wages Of Labour
The produce of labour constitutes the natural recompence or wages of labour. In that original state of things which precedes both the appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock, the whole produce of labour belongs to the labourer. He has...
Of Treaties Of Commerce
When a nation binds itself by treaty, either to permit the entry of certain goods from one foreign country which it prohibits from all others, or to exempt the goods of one country from duties to which it subjects those of all others, the country, o...
Of Wages And Profit In The Different Employments Of Labour And Stock
The whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different employments of labour and stock, must, in the same neighbourhood, be either perfectly equal, or continually tending to equality. If, in the same neighbourhood, there was any employment e...
That The Division Of Labour Is Limited By The Extent Of The Market
As it is the power of exchanging that gives occasion to the division of labour, so the extent of this division must always be limited by the extent of that power, or, in other words, by the extent of the market. When the market is very small, no per...


text:
Deborah Powell
MUNICIPALITY OF PONTIAC – More than 40 people attended a forum, November 2, intended to relaunch the project of the Chats Falls Park. The meeting was held at the Camp des Voyageurs Tim Horton near Quyon, part of thearea identified as "the
Deborah Powell
MUNICIPALITY OF PONTIAC – More than 40 people attended a forum, November 2, intended to relaunch the project of the Chats Falls Park. The meeting was held at the Camp des Voyageurs Tim Horton near Quyon, part of thearea identified as "the
Chats". Historian Maude-Emmanuelle Lambert was able to point out the window instead of to a map when referring to some of the points of interest during her presentation of the history of the area.
Lambert asked participants to picture the falls as they have been portrayed in paintings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, when their natural beauty attracted the attention of artists and tourists, just as the site had impressed Samuel de Champlain 400 years ago. The history of the area is long and colourful: first Nation's trade route for thousands of years; European fur trade route; settlements that were a hub of the timber trade; and an unfinished canal meant to replace the horse-drawn railway and open an easy passage to the west of Canada.
Caroline Gagné, the Canadian Nature Conservancy's Project Manager for the Outaouais, provided an overview of another key value of the area – its
biodiversity. The presence of a number of rare animal and plant species has led the Nature Conservancy to purchase a number of hectares locally in order to protect the unique and often fragile habitat and create local stewardship groups to help with ongoing studies and other conservation activities.
Familiar with the history and natural wealth of the area, Katharine Fletcher addressed the Chats' potential for the development of story telling linked with
environmentally responsible tourism.
CLD des Collines Interim Director, Louise Marchildon, reminded participants that plans had been formulated for a regional park in the area but subsequently shelved as they lacked a base in local reality and required a large financial commitment. "A regional park must be developed from the ground up,
by local citizens devoted to the cause. The development doesn't
happen overnight," she explained.
Participants worked in groups to come up with concrete ideas on the ways and means to promote and develop the Chats area. All recognized the essential importance of working together with other interested organizations and local stakeholders.
The first step of forming a non-profit organization was the object of a subsequent meeting, held November 11 at the Pontiac municipal offices, where a
smaller group of people worked on a name, mission statement and goals for the group. Another meeting is planned for mid-December to complete the task.


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Below please find the alphabetical list of U.S. cities that start with letter R. You may notice that some cities share exactly the same name but located within different states. For detail, please click on the link below to see zip codes of each city beginning with R. See Countryaah for list of countries beginning with letter R.
- What does letter R mean? Please visit slang and acronym directory on https://www.abbreviationfinder.org/dir/r/ for detailed meaning of all abbreviations beginning with R.
Rich Square
Riverside (California)
Riverside is the sixty-first largest city in the United States, the twelfth in California.
Founded in 1870 by a group from the eastern United States who wanted to establish a colony dedicated to education and culture, the city is named after the nearby Santa Ana River, and is the birthplace of California's citrus industry.. Built on what, originally, had been a Spanish ranch. The first golf and polo courses in Southern California were built in Riverside. There they were planted in 1871 the first orange trees for which the city is famous. It is the sixty-first largest city in the United States, the twelfth in California, the first in the Inland Empire region and the fourth in the interior of California, it has the fourteenth largest metropolitan area in the nation, and is also part of the second combined area largest statistic in the country. The population exceeds 320,000 residents. It is one of the fastest growing cities in the United States. Real estate prices in Riverside are significantly lower than those in the adjoining counties. This has led to stable growth. This has contributed to the heavy traffic that is made up of residents commuting to their work centers in Orange County and Los Angeles.. It is home to La Sierra University, California Baptist College, and the University of California, Riverside, which has a citrus experiment station and a salinity laboratory. Also in the city is Riverside International Raceway, a racetrack that hosted national and international motor racing races.
The Riverside Public Education System serves all K – 12 students, in addition to other educational resources in the city such as the California School for the Deaf that serves children from preschool through 12th grade, there is also Notre Dame High School and Riverside Christian Schools that are of religious affiliation and private institutions. Riverside locals have many options for higher education. The 161 -feet Carillon Tower marks the location of one of California's most progressive universities. UC Riverside is not only a prestigious research center, it is one of the smallest and most personalized of all the schools in the UC system. In the city is the San Bernardino campus of California State University. The facility is located at the base of the San Bernardino mountain range. The university offers a wide variety of course studies to complete a student's education. Riverside Community College, Cal Baptist College, and La Sierra University also offer significant higher education options.
Geographic information about the city of Riverside:
- Riverside Geographic Coordinate System:
- Latitude: 33. 9381, Length: – 117. 393 33 ° 56 ' 17 ? North, 117 ° 23 ' 35 ? West
- Riverside Area: 21. 0 20 hectares 210, 20 square kilometers (81, 16 sq mi)
- Riverside Altitude: 273 m
- Climate Riverside: Climate Mediterranean
Information about the residents and the population of Riverside:
- Riverside Population: 303. 871 residents
- Riverside Population Density: 1. 445, 6 / km
Summer temperatures rise quite high, but humidity is low. The average in July days is 85 degrees. The 100- degree heat wave occasionally hits, reminding locals of its proximity to the desert.
In winter freezing rarely hits, and most days hover in the 60 degree range.
Most of the precipitation falls during the winter months, forcing residents to carry umbrellas at this time of year. Snow falls only on the surrounding mountain ranges.
Riverside's winter weather compares to summer in many other places, and residents rarely have a reason to complain.
Spring comes early in winter heels, and it lingers longer than any other time of the year.
Riverside locals regularly wake up to sunny skies and warm temperatures, and can spend the entire day in short sleeves and sunglasses.
Nearby cities and towns
- Jurupa Valley 10. 2 km
- Terrace 12. 7 km
- Norco 14. 8 km
- Eastvale 16 km
- Moreno Valley 17. 4 km
- Loma Linda 17. 7 km
- Crown 17. 9 km
- Rialto 19. 3 km
Riverside Hotels
- Hotel Arlington Inn
- Thunderbird Lodge Hotel
- Hotel Skylark Motel
- Hotel Americas Best Value Inn Riverside
- Hotel Budget Inn Riverside
- Riverside Hotel


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Destira Children's Treat Yourself Unitard
Availability: | In stock (1) |
Twist, tumble, and treat! Cool off after an intense workout (or just because!) with these refreshing sweets. Your doll can join the party too, in her own matching leo!
- This unitard features a repeating print of colorful ice cream cones, ice pops, and watermelon slices on a dark blue background.
- Made of durable, high quality, 4-way stretch fabric that is lightweight and highly breathable with superior flexibility.
- If you're looking for a style that will assure great coverage, our unitard design is for you. Cartwheel and flip with confidence. The styling will provide great mobility and comfort even during her most active workouts.
- Matching scrunchie included.
* If an item you need is out of stock please call (203-622-0591) or email ([email protected]) to place your order.


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MEDINFO offers blood transfusion centres a specialised solution, specially designed to improve transplant and transfusion safety whilst optimising traceability and haemovigilance. Developed to meet a global requirement, eHEMATOS can be rolled out in any country, and adapts perfectly thanks to its powerful configuration tool. As such, the software easily conforms with any and all regulations in force, as well as to local practices and procedures. eHEMATOS is constantly evolving, in line with the most recent scientific discoveries, to better meet the needs expressed by blood transfusion centres.
More than a mere management system, eHEMATOS is a true decision-making aid, designed to safeguard transfusion safety under all circumstances.
Blood drive schedule management
Donation management
Mobile blood drive management
Donor management
Invoice management
Product preparation management
Stock management
Patient laboratory management
Product distribution and delivery management
Traceability and haemovigilance management
Management of the laboratory in charge of biological qualification
Telecar IIG
Telecar IIG is a portable system designed for mobile blood drives, making it possible to work with the same programmes, the same database and the same level of security as in a blood transfusion centre. From welcoming new donors to managing the donor-recipient association and running medical consultations, it can be used directly on-site for all tasks pertaining to the blood drive. Telecar IIG also includes a self-directed medical questionnaire, and a donor authentication system using a photo or fingerprint.
Blood drive schedule
With its blood drive schedule module, eHEMATOS comprehensively manages drive locations, correspondents, letters and necessary resources. In it, users can also schedule and monitor an unlimited number of tasks assigned to each blood drive location. Lastly, communication with correspondents and invitations to blood drives can be configured and generated as printed letters, emails, text messages or phone calls.
eHEMATOS contributes to monitoring donors from A to Z, at every step of the collection, by memorising and time-stamping all associated tasks and workers. During the medical consultation, the software displays all the donor's information for the doctor to see. It also informs healthcare workers of their next appropriate step, based on an automatic analyses of the answers provided in both administrative and medical questionnaires. Lastly, any instructions left by the doctor to be applied during the blood collection can be viewed by nurses directly in the software.
With its Laboratory module, eHEMATOS makes managing donor laboratories much easier during all three of the donation's biological qualification processes: pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical. The software is able to configure an unlimited number of tests, manage qualification algorithms, generate conclusions and monitor confirmation tests. In addition, eHEMATOS can handle all types of tests, whether mandatory, conditional, periodic or specific to a single blood drive.
eHEMATOS manages the production, transformation and quality control testing for products, thanks to its comprehensive operational monitoring and management module. As such, the software can record all data relating to the various operations, boasting unlimited and configurable storage. To verify product conformity every step of the way, personalised quality control checks can also be implemented. This way, the system is able to automatically detect non-compliant features and suggest adequate actions to be taken: downgraded, put on hold, destroyed, etc.
eHEMATOS covers the blood product distribution chain, from prescription entry to product delivery and assignment. Thanks to its user-friendly and customisable interface, the Distribution module makes it easy to view the protocols to be applied for each patient and each product type. During the product assignment phase, the software is able to suggest the most suitable products for each patient, and check both their availability and conditions required for completing the transfusion. Lastly, eHEMATOS makes hospital stock and blood bank management much easier, by ensuring meticulous product traceability.
The Invoicing module automatically generates invoices based on the elements input during previous phases: it does therefore not require any further intervention. Having considered VAT and the amount paid to the Transfusion Fund, eHEMATOS can be used to directly export all accounting entries and thus update the general accounts. Lastly, the module can be used to create invoices upon request for a list of customers or a specific period.


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Welcome to the Full HARVEST MOON! This gorgeous full moon in Pisces will reach peak illumination at 5:58am EST on Saturday, September 10th.
In many ways the Harvest Moon symbolizes the beginning of Fall. The Harvest Moon is unique in that due to the closeness of the equinox, the moonlight shines early in the evening, around sunset, for several nights in a row. Historically, this early evening moonlight gave farmers extra time to finish harvesting their crops before the first frosts would arrive. This is why the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox is called the Harvest Moon.
Besides being strikingly beautiful, the Harvest Moon is powerful. This may be a time to focus on spiritual and emotional wellness and awareness. This full moon is in Pisces, which means it will serve you well to go with the flow. Fluidity, flexibility, openness and acceptance are the name of the game right now. If you happen to be a control freak, this is going to be a tough full moon for you. Try your best to surrender and bob and weave! Be aware that this Piscine full moon is coming at the same time as Mercury Retrograde (in case you missed it yesterday, see astrologer Julie Starr's video message here). We know that Mercury Retrograde is not a great time for communications, so keep in mind that there may be missteps of all kinds around this time. Use this time to slow your pace, relax, surrender, and be open to the beauty life has to offer!
I remember a beautiful song my dad played in our house often by Neil Young called "Harvest Moon." I still listen to it and love it today. It celebrates appreciation of a great love and dancing under the full Harvest Moon. I can hear it now….
"Come a little bit closer
Hear what I have to say
Just like children sleepin'
We could dream this night away
But there's a full moon risin'
Let's go dancin' in the light
We know where the music's playin'
Let's go out and feel the night
Because I'm still in love with you
I want to see you dance again
Because I'm still in love with you
On this harvest moon
When we were strangers
I watched you from afar
When we were lovers
I loved you with all my heart
But now its gettin' late
And the moon is climbin' high
I want to celebrate
See it shinin' in your eye"
Happy Full Harvest Moon to all! May you dance under the full moon and celebrate the beauty of life!
Marci Lingelbach is co-founder of the New Earth Almanac and a Crystal Reiki Master in Franklin, TN. You can find her at reikibymarci.com, and on Instagram and Facebook @reikibymarci.


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Detention of Nissan's Ghosn extended through Dec. 20
A Tokyo court ruled Tuesday that Nissan Motor Co.'s former chairman, Carlos Ghosn, and another executive will remain in custody through Dec. 20, more than a month after their arrest. Their detention could continue for months more under the Japanese legal system.
The Tokyo District Court said Tuesday that it had rejected a protest filed by Ghosn's lawyer against the prolonged detention.
The court decision comes a day after Ghosn, fellow Nissan executive Greg Kelly and Nissan Motor were charged with violating financial laws by underreporting Ghosn's pay by about 5 billion yen ($44 million) in 2011-2015. They were arrested on Nov. 19 and are being held at a Tokyo detention center.
The extension of their detention is to allow time for investigation into additional allegations prosecutors issued Monday, against Ghosn and Kelly, of underreporting another 4 billion yen ($36 million) in 2016-2018.
The arrest of the man credited with saving Nissan when it was on the verge of bankruptcy two decades ago has stunned many and has raised concerns over the Japanese automaker and the future of its alliance with Renault SA of France.
No trial date has been set, as is routine in Japan. Prosecutors can add more allegations to extend detention, and it remains unclear when Ghosn and Kelly might be released.
The prosecutors say they consider Ghosn and Kelly flight risks.
Ghosn's legal team has not issued an official statement, but those close to him have said he is asserting innocence. The office of Motonari Ohtsuru, one of the lawyers, declined comment, saying he was not there.
The U.S. lawyer for Kelly, Aubrey Harwell, has said his client insists he is innocent and that Nissan insiders and outside experts had advised him that their financial reporting was proper.
The maximum penalty for violating Japan's financial laws is 10 years in prison, a 10 million yen ($89,000) fine, or both. The conviction rate in Japan is over 99 percent.
Nissan has said an internal investigation found three types of misconduct: underreporting income to financial authorities, using investment funds for personal gain and illicit use of company expenses.
Nissan, as a legal entity, was also charged Monday. Nissan is not under supervision or being monitored, although it is cooperating with the prosecutors' investigation, according to company spokesman Nicholas Maxfield. Nissan said in a statement that it takes the indictment "extremely seriously." It promised to strengthen its governance.
Yuri Kageyama is on Twitter at https://twitter.com/yurikageyama
On Instagram at https://www.instagram.com/yurikageyama/?hl=en
Follow Mari Yamaguchi on Twitter at https://www.twitter.com/mariyamaguchi


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I would bet that most people reading this signed up for a gym membership at some point in their lives. I can still remember the first time that I got roped into joining a gym. I was still in high school, paying $20/month for five years after putting down a $100 down payment. I think I used that membership for about two months before I got tired of traveling to the gym.
In today's money, that is almost $4,000 that I wasted on a gym membership that I used for two months.
Unless you are a hardcore bodybuilder, quite frankly, you can create your own home gym for pretty much the same amount as that 5-year membership and have your equipment all to yourself. More importantly, you can have the exact equipment you need rather than a bunch of gear that you will never touch.
Creating Your Gym
I am a cyclist, so the most expensive piece of equipment in my home gym is my Peloton. After that, I have some stretch bands, ab rollers, and light weights… all for about $3,500, and it is all mine.
Your gym can be as simple or as complex as you need it to be. Regardless, there are some common factors in how you should put the room together to maximize the space and ensure the room actually gets used.
Choose Your Space
First and foremost, you are going to have to pick the room in the home so you can start to work on the floor plan. There is no sense in dedicating a huge space to the project if you do not need it. For instance, in my case, my home gym made use of an extra walk-in closet that I had that was not being used. It had more than enough space for the equipment that I needed.
That will probably not work for most people, so look through your space (a lot of people are using the basement or garage these days) and map it out.
My one recommendation here is, if possible, to have the room near a bathroom so you are not dripping sweat around the entire house after a good workout.
Choose Your Equipment
Once you have your space, you can start to map out your equipment. There are some amazing all-in-one machines these days, such as Tonal, that can be hung on a wall and eliminate the need for a bunch of benches and free weights. If you are challenged for space, this could be a great investment.
Again, only buy the equipment you need and will use. Do not buy something to impress your friends if you are not going to use it.
Keep in mind, when you are developing your floor plan, you must take into consideration if you need additional space. For instance, if you are using a treadmill, you will need space in front and behind the machine. You may also need outlets nearby to plug them in. For cardio, yoga, and the like, you are going to need floor space.
I would recommend putting your equipment around the room's perimeter and leaving the center open to serve as your stretching area and for floor exercises. It will also give the appearance of the room having more space.
Floors and Walls
For a home gym, you are going to want to use rubber tile or something similar. This will help soundproof the room, as well as creating a protective barrier over the regular flooring to protect it against sweat and the equipment.
For the walls, I would suggest some mirrors and a TV. The mirrors are great to check your form and the TV can keep you occupied when you are knocking out a 20-mile ride or a 5-mile run.
Finishing Touches
As far as lighting goes, you do not need to create the feel of your old gym with bright overhead lighting. I actually prefer to workout in lower lights, but this is a preference thing. Mind where the lights are placed relative to your equipment. For instance, if you have a yoga area or sit-up bar, you do not want to be face-to-face with a bright light every time you look up.
Something you will want to replicate from the gym is a water cooler and towels. You may also want to place some laundry baskets around the room so you have a place to throw your dirty, sweaty towels. There should also be a cabinet with cleaning supplies to wipe down the machines after they are used. Yes, it is your gym, but that does not mean it should smell like an old pair of shoes when you walk in there the next day.
Give it your personal touch because remember, you WANT to go in there and work out, not dread heading into that room.


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Rip Haywire by Dan Thompson for February 02, 2011
Lolly: That lummox tried to kill me! Who is he? Cobra Carson: I'm not sure, but I'm going to have to go all Jack Bauer on him to find out. Lolly: So, underneath that layer of makeup lies a real Cobra? TNT: Trust me, Honey, she's got more layers than Photoshop.


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Endangered Species |
This Special Edition show features ENDANGERED SPECIES, "The Thin Green Line in Action". California Fish and Game Wardens take you on a journey of their incredible service and the work they do to protect our wildlife and wilderness areas. They are the first line of defense for the environment, enforcing a wide range of the law. For more information contact James Swan at www.jamesswan.com/snowgoose/cp.html ATSN.tv and Trigger Sports LIVE! wish to thank James Snow for making this film possible. |


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Design by K+CO Living | Interiors by Karen B. Wolf
Photography by Raquel Langworthy
Text by Nayda Rondon
Built in Teddy Roosevelt's time, a Short Hills colonial was ready for an interior that would be more modern, more sophisticated—and more practical.
On the outside, the Short Hills home, a 3,800-square-foot Dutch Colonial built in 1904, was all charm with its mahogany wraparound porch and historic character. On the inside, not so much. The home's primarily white décor lacked personality and its main floor's odd, narrow configurations posed challenges to flow.
The homeowners turned to Karen B. Wolf of K+Co Living Interiors in Short Hills for stylish solutions. "We wanted to keep the bones of the house while modernizing it and making it livable," the wife says.
"I understood the client's inherent tailored taste," says Wolf. "She wanted us to push her out of her safety zone and provide fresh resources not seen everywhere else." Wolf had designed the owners' home office when they purchased the property in 2017. For this 2021 project, which took eight months to complete, Wolf and her team tackled the first floor, including a foyer, a mudroom, a powder room and living, family and dining spaces.
Because visitors are greeted with a front-to-back view of the home upon entry, it was important to visually connect the spaces. "We wove a salmon and charcoal palette throughout the rooms with a transition wallpaper in the foyer as our anchor," Wolf explains.
The dining room, the first area guests see when entering, was the first one Wolf tackled. While quite narrow, it enjoyed lots of natural light streaming in from the French doors and bay windows. To enhance the open feel, Wolf opted for lighter colors and modern forms. Airy Lucite chairs cushioned in light-striped crocodile vinyl counterbalance dark-colored Klismos end chairs and a Robert James dining table with a cerused oak top and a brass base. A John Richard credenza blends into the creamy Winfield Thybony Saville Row buff wallpaper, the tone-on-tone effect adding to the expansive feel. The John Beard "swoosh" painting creates movement in the galley-style space while the Visual Comfort ceiling pendant's glass globes add to the room's lightness.
Also visible from the front entry area, the living room—once again, narrow—was similarly "expanded" and glamourized for tailored yet practical elegance. Satisfying the owners' sophisticated tastes while accommodating the rough-and-tumble needs of their three boys and frequent social traffic, the living room features comfy swivel chairs in plush performance velvet and a round coffee table that lends itself to a four-chair setup perfect for overflow seating from the nearby dining room.
Wolf carried the relaxed luxe sensibility into the family room. Luckily this main hangout area is also the most spacious, affording space to place a roomy performance sectional offering comfortable seating for everyday use and social gatherings. Given the sectional's substantial dimensions, Wolf paired it with a clear Interlude Home Surrey coffee table. "We needed a large table to anchor the sofa, but we didn't want the room to feel heavy or crowded, so we chose an acrylic and glass table to create a more open feel," she says. Two Luna Grey cerused oak cabinets do double duty as bar storage and decorative accents. Overhead, the "big and bold" Maxwell chandelier imparts refined radiance. "The beautiful barrel ceiling lent itself to a slightly more formal environment than a typical den," the designer explains.
Connecting the living and family rooms as well as a side mudroom, the foyer creates its own singular sensation with walls bedecked in Aviva Standoff Horizon wallpaper. The decorative accents atop the Melange Lisette Hall chest serve as color block elements juxtaposed with the bold wallpaper. Benjamin Moore's Chantilly Lace paint on the ceiling and trim also complements without competing.
"Each room flows into the next," the homeowner says. "We're so pleased with how livable yet sophisticated every room is and how everything ties together."