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Hyperspectral imaging solutions for the non-invasive detection and automated mapping of copper trihydroxychlorides in ancient bronze
Heritage Science volume 10, Article number: 142 (2022)
Ancient bronze is subject to complex degradation which can lead, in cases where copper chlorides are present, to a cyclic and self-sustaining degradation process commonly referred to as "bronze disease". If left untreated, bronze disease can eat away at a bronze object until it is entirely deteriorated. The presence of copper trihydroxychlorides is indicative that this process is underway and therefore the detection of these corrosion products is necessary in guiding conservation of ancient bronze artefacts. In this paper we present a high spatial/spectral resolution short wave infrared (SWIR) imaging solution for mapping copper trihydroxychlorides in ancient bronze, combining hyperspectral imaging with an in-house developed unsupervised machine learning algorithm for automated spectral clustering. For this work, verification was obtained through use of an in-house developed reference database of typical ancient bronze corrosion products from several archaeological sites, and from collections of the National Museum of China. This paper also explores the suitability, and limitations, of a visible to near-infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging system as a more accessible solution for mapping copper trihydroxychlorides associated with bronze disease. We suggest that our hyperspectral imaging solution can provide a non-invasive, rapid, and high resolution material mapping within and across bronze objects, particularly beneficial for analysing large collections in a museum setting.
Studies into the chemical composition and metallurgical properties of bronze objects and their patinas and corrosion products have been undertaken for over a century and are still ongoing due to the complex nature of copper and copper-based objects and the very variable environments in which they may have spent the duration of their existence. The degradation of such artefacts is determined by a chemical interaction of the bronze alloy with the reactive species present in the surrounding environment [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. The effect of the environment upon the degradation can materialise in the form of copper oxides, tenorite CuO and the relatively stable and commonly observed cuprite Cu\(_{2}\)O; as basic copper carbonates malachite [Cu\(_{2}\)CO\(_{3}\)(OH)\(_{2}\)] and azurite [Cu\(_{2}\)(CO\(_{3}\))\(_{2}\)(OH)\(_{2}\)] typically found in a burial environment, or less commonly in sea water or water-logged soil, where there may be a relatively high abundance of CO\(_{2}\); as copper chlorides where chlorine from soil or water presents itself as a corrosive agent, or, for outdoor bronzes, as sulfates, such as brochantite [Cu\(_{4}\)SO\(_{4}\)(OH)\(_{6}\)], and antlerite [Cu\(_{3}\)SO\(_{4}\)(OH)\(_{4}\)], particularly in urban areas due to the presence of sulphuric air pollutants. For a comprehensive review of the subject see Scott et al. [10].
Of these degradation products the ones considered to be most dangerous are the copper chlorides which, when combined with moisture and oxygen, can induce a cyclic and self-sustaining degradation process commonly referred to as 'Bronze Disease'.Footnote 1 This process begins with the presence of cuprous chloride (CuCl) known as nantokite, a product of a reaction between cuprous ions and surrounding chloride ions. Cuprous chloride, sparingly soluble in water [14] will, upon being excavated, find itself in favourable conditions for oxidation and hydrolysis creating hydrochloric acid which eats away at uncorroded copper alloy and accelerates the further production of cuprous chloride. In turn, a runaway phenomenon takes place in which the copper trihydroxychlorides, atacamite, clinoatacamite and botallackite, and the more complex polyanionic mineral paratacamite are produced [6].
Identification of the copper trihydroxychlorides, as indicators of the presence of bronze disease, is paramount in considering the preservation of archaeological bronze and in guiding the best approach to an object's conservation, the research into which is itself ongoing [11,12,13,14,15]. This identification is most commonly done either by way of invasive techniques which require sampling an area of interest for analysis or by non-invasive techniques which involve analysis of a localised area. These can include the use of scanning electron microscopes equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS or SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as well as Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Due to the necessity of sampling and/or the very localised nature of point-based analyses, the representativeness of data provided by such techniques can often be called into question.
The complexity of bronze patination and the sparsely distributed nature of copper alloy corrosion, mean that it is preferable, particularly in a museum setting where collections of numerous large objects are stored, to develop a method which allows a rapid mapping of material distribution. The use of fibre optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) has been tested as a means to effectively and non-invasively identify atacamite and other typical bronze corrosion products [16] with potentialities of the use of the short wave infrared (SWIR) regime in characterising bronze patinas having previously been highlighted [17]. A more portable miniaturised spectrometer has also been developed for the range 1208–2160 nm in the SWIR and has been demonstrated to be used for, amongst other applications, identifying corrosion on outdoor bronze [19]. Given that reflectance spectroscopy can identify corrosion products effectively on a small scale (limited by the spot size of the fibre optics), the use of spectral imaging would therefore provide a more desirable option for mapping corrosion on a larger scale and at higher spatial resolution. This would also require statistical analysis with a level of automation necessary in processing potentially large high dimensional datasets in an efficient way.
Spectral imaging in the SWIR has been used by Catelli et al. [20] to demonstrate the mapping of sulfates such as antlerite and brochantite on an outdoor bronze sculpture using singular value decomposition (SVD), iterative key set factor analysis (IKSFA) to find the eigen values and 'pure' spectra and the spectral angle mapper (SAM) algorithm to map the corrosion products using a reference spectral database. The SWIR system was placed on a motorised translation stage at a distance of 30 cm, giving a spatial resolution of a few hundred microns. An improved system with higher spatial resolution and ability to scan larger areas would allow a more accurate and efficient mapping of bronze corrosion.
Mapping of bronzes presenting basic copper hydroxysulphate, treated with different organic coatings, has also been achieved by Sciutto et al. [21] using macroscopic FTIR spectroscopy (Alpha, Bruker), in the range 7500–375 cm\(^{-1}\), and a clustering based data-reduction. The system takes point scans which have been mapped using a motorised 3D stage, which provides scans with spatial resolution limited by the spot size of the instrument.
Remote imaging in the SWIR regime with a large field of view could provide a more practical and effective method for rapid imaging of large bronze objects. We present a high spatial/spectral resolution short wave infrared (SWIR) imaging solution for mapping copper trihydroxychlorides in ancient bronze, combining hyperspectral imaging data with an in-house developed unsupervised machine learning algorithm for automated spectral clustering.Footnote 2 Using the same clustering algorithm, we also test the suitability of a visible to near-infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging system as a more affordable solution for mapping bronze disease.
Methods and materials
Bronze samples
A number of powdered and fragmented bronze samples from the National Museum of China and School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University, Beijing were analysed. Two of the bronze fragments in particular (YJS-M109-19, SJL-M102-8) of around 3–4 cm in size were selected for imaging in this case and are examples of excavated ancient Chinese bronze. They were chosen due to their range in patination over a small surface area and for inclusion of green-blue hues, typical of both stable (e.g. malachite, azurite) and unstable (e.g. atacamite) copper alloy degradation. The fragment from the bronze Yang (YJS-M109-19) was excavated from Yejiashan cemetery, in Suizhou city, Hubei province, dated to the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 B.C.), and the other fragment from the bronze Ding vessel (SJL-M102-8) was excavated from Sujialong cemetery, in Jingshan county, Hubei province, dated to the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-256 B.C.).
Reference database
Scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive x-ray analysis (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Raman spectroscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and FORS analyses were carried out on the powdered samples of Chinese bronze (see section Bronze Samples) in order to build a small reference database of typical corrosion products on bronzes from several archaeological sites including Yejiashan, Panlongcheng, Sujialong sites in Hubei province, Beizhen site in Liaoning province, and collections of the National Museum of China. FORS measurements were acquired using an ASD LabSpec spectrometer, covering the range 350 nm to 2500 nm with spectral resolution of 3 nm and 10 nm in the VNIR and SWIR respectively. The XRD data were acquired using Rigaku-D/max-rB and Rigaku-DMAX 2200 equipped with a Cu K\(\alpha \) source, in the \(2\theta \) range 3°–70° and 10°–70°. The voltage and current were set at 40 kV and 40 mA respectively. Raman analysis was carried out using Renishaw inVia Raman spectrometer with air cooled DPSS laser operating at a maximum power of 50 mW at 532 nm. The laser power varied from 0.5 to 5% of the maximum power depending on the sample analysed. The exposure time was 10 s with 2 times accumulation. PHENOM XL Desktop SEM equipped with EDS was used to acquire the elemental components. The acceleration voltage was 15 kV and a low vacuum mode was used. ATR-FTIR spectra were collected with an Agilent Cary 630 spectrometer fitted with a diamond crystal. The spectral range was 4000–400 cm\(^{-1}\), and 128 spectra were co-added per sample with an 8 cm\(^{-1}\) spectral resolution.
The degraded bronze samples analysed and used for reference are listed in Table 1 giving the sample number, name of the object from which the sample was taken, the period of the object, the site from which it was found, the condition (ground or unground) of the sample, the chemical composition and the analysis methods used. The final column in Table 1 gives the RGB colour, derived from the reflectance spectrum acquired using FORS, assuming a standard D65 daylight illuminant and colour-matching functions for the CIE 1931 \(2^{\circ }\) standard colorimetric observer [22, 23]. What is interesting to note here is that the RGB colour can be very similar for samples with entirely different chemical composition (see ID 2 and 3 in Table 1, for example) whilst the RGB colour of a single sample can also vary greatly depending on whether it is in ground or unground condition (see ID 1 and 2) showing the importance of particle size and sample condition upon the visible colour.
Supplementary to this database, FORS measurements of pigment powders containing atacamite, malachite and azurite were taken, the constituents of which were determined through XRD measurements (see Table 2). The reflectance spectra obtained for these pigments are shown in Fig. 1 for the VNIR (left) and SWIR (right) spectral regions, and were also used as reference. It is shown from these, the clear difference in spectral features observed for pigments containing each of the three copper degradation products, and therefore the possibility to distinguish between them, not only in the SWIR but also the VNIR.
To our knowledge, there is little in the literature on reflectance spectroscopic data for atacamite [16, 17, 26], and none for clinoatacamite, in the SWIR region of the spectrum.Footnote 3 We therefore include here the measured spectra of atacamite and clinoatacamite (see Fig. 2), and the corresponding observed absorption features in the SWIR are also given in Table 3. We find that the characteristic spectral features of atacamite as measured for this work match those given by Catelli et al. [17] in their distinction of atacamite and non-zincian paratacamite in the region 7500–4000 cm\(^{-1}\) (corresponding to 1333–2500 nm). These measurements are given in Table 3 and were also used as reference. Interestingly we also found that many of the absorption features which we assigned to clinoatacamite, also match those assigned to paratacamite in Catelli et al. [17], therefore, it appears that clinoatacamite and paratacamite have similar spectra in this region. It is worth noting that these similarities were also observed in the spectral range 4000–400 cm\(^{-1}.\)
Overall the reference datasets obtained for our analysis represent both naturally occurring bronze degradation products in ground and unground condition, and natural and synthetic mineral pigments with azurite, malachite and atacamite as their main components.
Spectral imaging
Spectral imaging data were acquired in both the shortwave infrared (930–2500 nm) and the visible to near-infrared (400–1000 nm) regimes using an adapted commercial system and an in-house built system respectively.
Hyperspectral images in the shortwave infrared were acquired using a HySpex SWIR-384 hyperspectral camera from NEO operating in the range 930–2500 nm with a spectral resolution of 5.45 nm and a total of 288 channels. This instrument adopts a line-scan (or 'pushbroom') mechanism providing 384 spatial pixels from a 16 bit cooled HgCdTe (MCT) sensor. The optics of the HySpex SWIR-384 imaging system was adapted in order to improve the spatial resolution, and includes the use of a Meade ETX-90 telescope with a focal length of 1250 mm and an aperture diameter of 90 mm. This allows remote sensing in the SWIR with a spatial resolution of around 125 μm at 3.5 m distance. A system is mounted upon an alt-az telescope mount which allows rapid imaging of large objects or multiple objects at a time by scanning via computer control. This is particularly useful for imaging of museum objects, including large objects or sites, at short- to long-range distances. Calibration of the spectra was achieved using a 5" × 5" 99% Spectralon\(^{\copyright }\) diffuse reflectance target.
Hyperspectral images in the visible to near-infrared regime were acquired using an in-house line-scan imaging system developed at the ISAAC laboratory, Nottingham Trent University. The system consists of an Andor Technology Ltd. Zyla sCMOS camera combined with a Specim ImSpector V10E spectrograph operating in the range 400–1000 nm. The spectrograph provides a spectral resolution of 2.8 nm (with 30 μm slit) and after rebinning gives a total of 132 channels with sampling resolution of 4.53 nm. A Meade ETX90 telescope was attached to the spectrograph and camera system, in addition to an automated focussing mechanism, which allows fully focused, high resolution spectral images of 3-dimensional objects to be obtained. The acquired VNIR data were processed to output both a 3-dimensional spectral image cube and a colour RGB image, derived from the VNIR image cube assuming a standard D65 daylight illuminant and CIE 1931 \(2^{\circ }\) standard colorimetric observer [22, 23]. Calibration of the spectra was achieved using a 99% Spectralon\(^{\copyright }\) diffuse reflectance target. For this work, the first 4 channels were removed because of their low signal to noise ratio, and the 20th channel was also replaced with an interpolated image due to an artefact caused by the order sorting filter, leaving a total of 128 spectral bands.
Automated material mapping
The clustering code for grouping similar reflectance spectra used for this work is an in-house developed, python-based, unsupervised machine learning code which employs an adaptation of Kohonen's 'self organising map' (SOM) [24, 25] and is based on a code similar to that described in Kogou et al. [26]. The benefits of SOM, in comparison to other spectral clustering algorithms, for analysing large datasets with high dimensional spectra has been previously outlined [26, 27]. The code used for this work requires minimal user input and does not require a labelled training set.
A SOM is a map consisting of a number of neurons, or nodes, to which initial weight vectors are randomly assigned and given the same length as your input vectors. For the case of a spectral imaging dataset, the input vectors are spectra, with length defined by the number of spectral bands. When applying SOM to the dataset, each input spectrum is compared with weight vectors, or representative spectra, of each node in the map in order to find its 'winning neuron', where the calculated Euclidean distance between input and weight vectors are found to be minimum. Weight vectors which lie within the neighbourhood of the winning neuron are then activated by one another, learning from the input spectrum which in turn results in a re-evaluation of weights, pulling nodes in this defined neighbourhood closer to the input spectrum. This learning can be described by the equation
where s is the current iteration step, \(\nu \) is the node index, u is the index of the best matching weight on the map, w is the weight vector, \(\alpha \) is the learning rate, \(\theta \) is the smoothing kernel used, or neighbourhood function, X(t) is the input spectrum from dataset X (all data from your image cube), and \(t=0,1,.. N\) where N is the total number of pixels in the dataset. This process is known as a 'winner takes all' learning process at the end of which data are described as being a member of a cluster at a given node. A measure of how close the final weight, W\(_{j}\), at this node is, for a given cluster j, to the input spectra, \(x_{ij}\), can be described by the quantization error, and is given by
where n is the number of input spectra assigned to the given (jth) cluster, and \(|x_{ij}-W_j|\) is the absolute distance between the input spectra and final weight.
For each spectral region (SWIR, VNIR), all spectral data are extracted from the image cube and the clustering code is then applied, in order to automatically group the spectra into distinct clusters. Firstly, the data are clustered using SOM in order to reduce the dimensionality of the data and the mean spectrum for each cluster is calculated. These reduced data, consisting of mean spectra for each distinct cluster, are then normalised, and a secondary clustering is applied, again using SOM. The normalisation of the spectra, in this case, allows us to group by spectral shape without giving significance to absolute reflectance. To assess the quality of each cluster, the quantization error, Q.E., is calculated and for clusters whose quantization error falls outside of a designated threshold, the cluster is removed and the data retained for reclustering. This process is repeated iteratively, with an incremental increase in the threshold, until all data are assigned a cluster number. Following this, a merging process is carried out, in which clusters are merged if they satisfy the criterion that their mean spectrum falls within one standard deviation of another cluster's and vice versa. The clusters are mapped back to their original images and each pixel is assigned its cluster number. The resulting output cluster maps show areas which share spectral similarities and are therefore likely to share the same material composition. The mean spectrum for each cluster is also provided which can then be used to compare with a reference database for preliminary material identification. For the purpose of this work, single image cubes (SWIR and VNIR) were analysed at a time. However, this clustering technique can be applied to multiple spectral image cubes simultaneously, allowing materials to be mapped within and across objects, which would be beneficial for the analyses of museum collections.
Results and discussion
SWIR analysis
For the detection and mapping of copper trihydroxychlorides associated with bronze disease, and in order to test whether we are able to distinguish these from other less harmful, but similar hued, bronze corrosion products, the large bronze samples were imaged in the SWIR and spectral clustering applied using our automated unsupervised clustering code. The full spectral data were then recovered in order to calculate the mean spectrum for each unique cluster as part of the post-processing. The output gives a cluster map, with each pixel assigned a cluster number. In addition, single cluster maps are given for each cluster by masking and retaining the original colour or false colour image for pixels associated with that cluster. Clusters and cluster maps can be combined where the user finds it appropriate based on the signatures detected, for example, where only the spectral features are important but the variation in intensity holds little importance.
For the ancient bronze samples imaged, we found areas corresponding to three significant spectral signatures which are mapped as A, B, and C in Fig. 3 (top). By visual observations of the colour image alone (see RGB image in Fig. 4), it is not obvious where these areas lie, nor whether we would be able to distinguish them as chemically different from one another. The single cluster maps were used as a mask for the original spectral image cube in order to obtain spectra corresponding to a single given cluster. Clusters A, B and C were then identified using the reference database which was in turn verified with multimodal spectral analysis (see Table 1). The resulting mean spectra for each cluster A, B and C can be seen in Fig. 3 (bottom) with reference reflectance spectra overplotted. Importantly we detected and mapped the copper trihydroxychlorides atacamite and clinoatacamite, associated with bronze disease, for cluster A. Quartz grains can often be found on excavated ancient bronze and are connected to soil contamination in the burial environment [5, 10, 28], however their presence is not well determined using reflectance data alone, given that the quartz reflectance is largely featureless due to its transparency. Cluster B was identified as areas containing azurite, and cluster C can be identified as a malachite and cuprite mix. The identification of these areas could not be done with good accuracy using pure or synthesised compounds as reference, which reinforces the importance of producing and maintaining an in-house database, based on real archaeological samples, for the analysis of ancient bronze objects.
VNIR analysis
The use of the VNIR reflectance spectroscopy in the detection or identification of bronze disease has been largely unexplored, due to the broad spectral features of copper-based compounds in this spectral region. Results from FORS measurements, however, show that, in principle, the copper trihydroxychlorides should be distinguishable from the commonly observed and more stable malachite and azurite (see Fig. 1). For this work, the same samples imaged by the SWIR spectral imaging instrument were also imaged using the VNIR spectral camera. Following this, the spectral clustering was applied to the VNIR spectral image cube in order to see if we can detect and map the same copper trihydroxychlorides as in the previous SWIR analysis. The resulting cluster map showed that indeed the areas containing atacamite and clinoatacamite could be distinguished from the other bronze degradation products present. The colour image derived from the VNIR spectral image cube can be seen in Fig. 4 along with the cluster map associated with the mix of copper trihydroxychlorides, atacamite and clinoatacamite. The mean spectrum for the cluster is also shown in Fig. 4 (right) to be consistent in spectral shape with the reference spectra for atacamite with clinoatacamite. The peak at around 512 nm, as well as the two absorption bands at around 720 nm and 895 nm, appears to correspond to that of the copper trihydroxychloride mix of atacamite and clinoatacamite. The cluster map agrees with Cluster A from the SWIR analysis. It should be noted that it is not advisable to attempt identification of the copper trihydroxychlorides using VNIR reflectance spectral imaging analysis alone, but such an analysis is sufficient to map areas of similar material composition, which can then be followed up with complementary non-invasive point analysis methods for verification (e.g. FORS measurements covering the SWIR).
Although we were successful in detecting and mapping the copper trihydroxychlorides in this case, it must be noted that reflectance spectra in this region are sensitive to the particle size, particularly for some copper-based pigments and degradation products [29, 30], and although the identification of copper-based pigments in this region is done by each of their characteristic absorption features, the resulting 'peak' between two absorption bands, can indeed shift and broaden depending on the particle size of the product in question. Such a shift may be problematic for identification where more degradation products are involved. The bronze degradation product chalconatronite, sodium-copper carbonate, has also previously been found to share spectral similarities in the VNIR to the copper trihydroxychlorides, whilst exhibiting clearly distinct spectral features in the SWIR [16]. Figure 5 shows the reflectance spectrum of chalconatronite in the (black) with the mean reflectance spectrum of Cluster A from our VNIR analysis, associated with the atacamite and clinoatacamite mix present in the bronze samples. The standard deviation associated with the mean spectrum for Cluster A is also plotted. We can see from this figure that in this case, the spectrum of chalconatronite does not fall within one standard deviation of the cluster mean, and therefore if it were present in the imaged bronze samples, it is possible that it would be distinguished from the copper trihydroxychlorides and assigned its unique cluster. The clustering algorithm, however, would also take into consideration the standard deviation of the mean spectrum for the chalconatronite cluster, which would in turn be dependent on the number of pixels containing chalconatronite spectra. With these limitations in mind, it is recommended that the VNIR spectral imaging solution therefore be used with caution, and suggested that this spectral region be investigated further.
In the SWIR regime, using a high spatial and spectral resolution imaging system, combined with an in-house developed machine learning-based spectral clustering code, we have been able to rapidly detect and identify copper trihydroxychlorides, responsible for bronze disease, in ancient bronze, and we have also been able to easily map and distinguish between stable (e.g. malachite, azurite) and unstable (e.g. atacamite, clinoatacamite) copper-based corrosion products, typically found in ancient bronze collections. This SWIR spectral imaging system would be ideal for rapid detection and mapping of copper trihydroxychlorides on multiple bronze objects within a collection or for the scanning of large objects. It has advantage over invasive methods involving sampling and/or non-invasive point analyses which are time consuming and do not provide fully representative data. The identification of the copper trihydroxychlorides, indicative of the presence of bronze disease, is achievable through use of an in-house reflectance spectral database made specifically for the bronze collection at the National Museum of China, Beijing, to test the applicability of the system. The database provides more accurate identification where mixtures are involved.
This process was repeated for a VNIR hyperspectral imaging system, using the same spectral clustering code. The copper trihydroxychlorides were again able to be mapped as verified by the original SWIR data as well as the in-house database for ancient bronze samples. This spectral imaging system, combined with the automated spectral clustering, enables the mapping of spectral differences (and therefore different material composition), which can then be followed up with non-invasive point-based analysis (e.g. FORS covering the SWIR region) as a more accessible or financially viable solution to mapping bronze disease. It is, however, advised that the SWIR spectral imaging solution is the preferred method for mapping copper trihydroxychlorides owing to the sharp characteristic absorption bands in the SWIR range. The drawbacks of VNIR hyperspectral imaging are the dependency of particle size upon the shift of the observed reflectance 'peak' in the VNIR spectral region for some copper-based corrosion products, and the potential challenges in distinguishing between copper trihydroxychlorides and chalconatronites (not present in our imaged samples) whose VNIR spectra are similar.
Our results show that hyperspectral imaging, combined with automated spectral clustering, can provide a means to map and identify copper trihydroxychlorides, and therefore bronze disease, to more rapidly and effectively guide further analyses for the conservation of ancient bronze objects. These spectral imaging solutions are not limited to the detection of corrosion indicative of the presence of bronze disease, but could also provide a means to map other forms of patination and bronze corrosion (e.g. sulfates for outdoor bronzes) over time in order to monitor, spectrally and spatially, the condition evolution of a bronze object, or collection of bronze objects, of interest.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
So called due to its patches of deterioration which can emerge from below the surface as a green powdery substance and which, if left to continue, can lead ultimately to the degradation of the entire object into a pile of green powder [10].
By spectral clustering we mean clustering pixels with similar reflectance spectra, but not the 'spectral clustering technique' based on graph theory.
Attenuated total reflectance
Fourier Transform Infrared
Fibre optics reflectance spectroscopy
Imaging & Sensing for Archaeology, Art History & Conservation
Scanning electron microscopes equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry
Short wave infrared
Visible to near-infrared
X-ray diffraction
X-ray fluorescence
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Kogou S, Lee L, Shahtahmassebi G, Liang H. A new approach to the interpretation of XRF spectral imaging data using neural networks. X-Ray Spectrometry. 2021;50:310–9.
Mahmoud GA, Elserogy AR. Deterioration and conservation of an assyrian bronze kneading bowl. Shedet. 2020;7:250–62.
Liang H. Advances in multispectral and hyperspectral imaging for archaeology and art conservation. Appl Phys. 2012;106(2):309–23.
Gueli AM, Bonfiglio G, Pasquale S, Troja SO. Effect of particle size on pigments colour. Color Res Appl. 2017;42(2):236–43.
We thank Luke Butler for his help in VNIR hyperspectral data acquisition.
Funding from UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Grant NE/R014868/1, UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) Grant AH/T013184/1 and Nottingham Trent University are gratefully acknowledged.
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Conceptualisation: HL, WL; Formal analysis: FL, WL, AV; Funding acquisition: HL; Investigation: FL, WL, AV; Resources: AH, SK, WL, JC; Software: FL; Supervision: HL, JC; Writing-original draft: FL; Writing-review and editing: HL, AV, WL. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Liggins, F., Vichi, A., Liu, W. et al. Hyperspectral imaging solutions for the non-invasive detection and automated mapping of copper trihydroxychlorides in ancient bronze. Herit Sci 10, 142 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-022-00765-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-022-00765-8


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Zero-knowledge rollups (ZK-rollups) bundle (or "roll-up") hundreds of transfers off-chain and generate a cryptographic proof. Like Ethereum, a rollup protocol has a "virtual machine" that executes smart contract code. The rollup's virtual machine operates independently from Ethereum's own virtual machine (the EVM) but it is managed by an Ethereum smart contract.
This connection allows rollups and Ethereum to communicate. A rollup executes transactions and processes data, and Ethereum receives and stores the results.

subset: commoncrawl


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Students enjoy the use of a library with access to many periodicals and theological books catering to the syllabus of the students. Students have access to eBooks through the computers placed in the libraries for reference and study.
Students are involved in various weekly and short-term practical ministries during their study at India Bible College and Seminary. They are given feedback and are encouraged to pursue their God-given gifts in to help build the church.
The campus houses 30 students at present in its dormitories. The dining area is spread out to accommodate men and women separately. Wholesome and nutritious food is served to our students.
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text: Brian Dobbs Good, Evil, and our Responsibilities to Them. Can we choose evil? I believe we can but it is small minority of people who can actually choose evil, and the majority of evil comes from doing what we think is good. When we think of evil, one of the first things that come to mind are the Nazis. I think the fact that they were evil is beyond question, but few would be inclined to think that the evil was rooted in the ideals of doing what was good. If one has chosen evil, then it would be logical to assume that they would at least in some small part, know they where doing something evil, but this is not normally the case. Most Nazis no doubt would tell you they were doing this to save Germany, to protect it from the influence of people who are trying to harm it. They were acting on what they felt was the right thing to do, never making a choice to do anything evil, but yet at the same time, the outcome was something clearly evil. Sartre says that "To choose to be this or that is to affirm at the same time the value of what we choose, because we can never choose evil. We always choose the good, and nothing can be good for us without being good for all. " This, while going along with the idea evil not being a choice, I think he failed to fully expand the idea of nothing being good without being good for all. This is only true if we look at good from afar. The same things that are not good for all, are very good for the individual making the choice. Sartre asks that we look at it from the view of if it is good for all, we may also find that this is not true. We will make choices that are good for us, but they will be bad choices for others. In the current fight against Al-Quida and the Taliban, we are doing what we think is good for the people of the United States, and the world, yet at the same time it is hard to see it being good for those we are attacking. So based on the idea that what is good, is good for all, our actions can-not be viewed as good, regardless of how many people it may be good for. I think the reason we find such problems with this viewpoint of saying we don't choose evil, is that it fails to point out that we also do not choose good. While we can point to the issue of people not choosing evil, and that they most often make the claim that they where doing what they thought was right, we also see the problem of not choosing good. In regards to good and evil we are only able to make one choice on any one act, and that is how we feel about that action. In any conflict of good and evil, no side ever claims to be the evil; it is up to personal judgments of who is the good or evil. We can only make choices on what we think is good or evil, and others are only able to do the same to us. If there really was a true evil or good, then much of politics, ethics, and life would be simple, but we all know that there are few issues where what is right and wrong is generally agreed on. "It is I who will choose to say if a act is a good one rather then bad" (Sartre 20) I think this statement shows a vital part of the relation of good and evil, but lacks the idea that it is up to others to also judge our actions as good or bad. With this idea of a lack of good and evil, comes the question of what is reasonable for our actions? Sartre says on page 23 "Condemned, because he did not create himself, yet, in other respects is free; because, once thrown into the world, he is responsible for everything he does." Also on page 23, " we have no excuses behind us, more justification before us. We are alone, with no excuses." If it is true that there is no good or bad, then this has to make people look harder at what they are doing to examine the actions for themselves. It has been thought by many that bettering ones self is always good, and if we don't look deeper, we may miss that while one is bettering themselves, others are hurt by those actions. We are responsible for our actions and our choices, there are times when we may look at our actions and judge them to be good, but in the end we find they wrong then we have to except that we did make the choices that resulted in the outcome. I disagree with Sartre is with his view that we are 100% responsible for all actions. We can only be held responsible to a point, if we base a decision on all evidence we can, but something comes that we had no way of knowing, then we cannot hold people resonable for the actions. To hold people to this degree of responsibility is foolish and unresonable. We can only affect the outside natural world, and people so much. To think that we somehow can take into account every possible outcome by nature and every person is very harsh when we consider that it is hard enough to rely on one persons actions, let alone the worlds actions. The outcome of such huge responsibly would for most people crush them. Some people would shut down, and do nothing out of fear, while others may completely give up in a sense of hopelessness, and cease to care about if anything is good, bad, or what the effects may be. For example take a fairly hard decision such as if we should give up some freedom to fight terrorism, and now add the fact that you would be 100% reasonable for the outcome, and the endless amount of people affected, and how they will be affected. Can we expect most people to be able to deal with the type of reasonability? While we are held responsible to a degree for the decision, we also know that we have an endless amount of things that we have little, if any, control that we must deal with. The truth is that we are responsible for our actions, but the extent of our accountability is more based on the situation, then an absolute standard of 100% accountability. Overall we must accept reasonability for our actions to the extent that we can control them, and we must realize that what we do is not only going to be judged by ourselves, but by others. While we may find that something is good, it is possible that others will find those decisions to be wrong. In such a case we need to decide if we will follow decision and if it is good or not. In this decision we are responsible for our choice, but we may not be reasonable for every aspect of the outcome, only those that we could foresee or control. |


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The cost of living in Bangladesh is a topic of great interest for both locals and foreigners. With its vibrant culture, historical landmarks, and picturesque landscapes, Bangladesh has become an increasingly popular destination for travelers from around the world. However, one aspect that often raises concerns among visitors is the affordability of daily expenses such as accommodation, food, transportation, and healthcare. In particular, the issue of loans plays a significant role in managing the cost of living in this country.
For instance, let us consider the case study of John, a foreign traveler who decides to explore Bangladesh for a month-long trip. Before his journey begins, he meticulously plans his budget and estimates the costs he would incur during his stay. Despite careful calculations and financial preparations, John soon realizes that unexpected expenses arise during his trip. From unforeseen medical emergencies to unexpectedly high prices at local markets, he finds himself facing financial constraints that require immediate attention. It is precisely these situations where obtaining loans can offer support and alleviate some financial burdens associated with traveling in Bangladesh.
In this article, we will delve into the various factors contributing to the cost of living in travel Bangladesh with specific focus on loans as a means to manage expenses efficiently. By examining different loan options available to travelers and exploring their pros and cons, we aim to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of how loans can be utilized effectively in navigating the cost of living in Bangladesh.
Firstly, it is important to note that there are several loan options available to travelers in Bangladesh. One common option is taking out a personal loan from a local bank or financial institution. Personal loans typically offer flexibility in terms of repayment periods and interest rates, allowing individuals like John to borrow the necessary funds for their immediate needs while also managing their long-term financial commitments.
Another popular option is utilizing credit cards. Many international credit cards are accepted in major cities and tourist destinations across Bangladesh. By using credit cards for daily expenses, travelers can defer immediate payment and manage their cash flow more effectively. However, it is crucial to carefully research the acceptance and usage fees associated with each card to avoid unnecessary charges.
Additionally, microfinance institutions have gained traction as an alternative lending source for individuals who may not qualify for traditional bank loans due to lack of collateral or credit history. These institutions often offer small-scale loans specifically tailored towards supporting entrepreneurs and small business owners in the local community.
While loans can certainly provide much-needed financial relief during unexpected situations, it is important for travelers like John to consider the pros and cons before opting for this solution. Some key advantages include:
- Immediate access to funds: Loans can provide quick access to funds when faced with unforeseen expenses, allowing travelers like John to address urgent needs promptly without depleting their savings entirely.
- Flexibility: Depending on the type of loan chosen, borrowers may have the flexibility to customize repayment terms according to their financial capacity.
- Peace of mind: Knowing that there is a backup plan in case of emergencies can greatly reduce stress and anxiety during travel.
However, there are also potential drawbacks associated with taking out loans:
- Interest rates: Borrowers must consider the interest rates attached to their loans as these will affect the total amount to be repaid. It is essential to calculate and compare the overall cost of borrowing before committing to a loan.
- Repayment obligations: Loans come with repayment obligations, which means travelers like John need to consider their ability to meet these financial commitments in the future. Failure to repay loans on time can result in additional fees and negatively impact credit history.
In conclusion, obtaining loans can be an effective tool for managing the cost of living while traveling in Bangladesh. By carefully considering the available options, understanding the associated pros and cons, and assessing personal financial capabilities, individuals like John can make informed decisions about utilizing loans to navigate unexpected expenses during their trip.
Factors affecting the cost of living in Bangladesh
Factors Affecting the Cost of Living in Bangladesh
When considering the cost of living in Bangladesh, it is important to take into account various factors that can significantly impact one's expenses. From basic necessities such as food and housing to more specific aspects like transportation and healthcare, these factors contribute to the overall affordability and quality of life for individuals residing in this country.
To illustrate, let us consider a hypothetical case study of an individual moving from their home country to Bangladesh. Initially, they may be pleasantly surprised by the lower cost of rent compared to what they were accustomed to paying. This reduction in housing expenses could potentially free up funds for other areas of expenditure or even allow them to save money. However, it is crucial not to overlook additional costs associated with utilities, maintenance fees, and potential cultural differences that might affect daily living.
Apart from housing, another major determinant of the cost of living is food prices. In Bangladesh, staple foods such as rice and lentils are relatively affordable due to local agricultural production. However, imported products or luxury items may come at higher prices due to import taxes and limited availability. It is also worth noting how dietary preferences play a role; adhering strictly to certain diets or consuming westernized products can lead to increased expenses.
Transportation costs should also be considered when assessing the cost of living in Bangladesh. While public transport options like buses and rickshaws provide affordable alternatives for commuting within cities, owning a personal vehicle or relying on taxis can be considerably more expensive. Additionally, traffic congestion in urban areas may lead to longer travel times and indirectly increase transportation costs.
Lastly, healthcare expenses vary depending on several factors including access to medical facilities, insurance coverage, and treatment requirements. Public hospitals offer subsidized healthcare services but often face challenges regarding overcrowding and resource limitations. Private healthcare providers tend to offer better amenities but at higher costs which need careful consideration when budgeting for one's overall expenses.
In summary, understanding the factors that influence the cost of living in Bangladesh is crucial for individuals planning to relocate or live in this country. From housing and food expenses to transportation and healthcare costs, each aspect plays a significant role in determining one's financial obligations. By considering these factors carefully, individuals can make informed decisions regarding their budgeting and lifestyle choices.
Understanding the Loan Options in Bangladesh
Moving forward from exploring the factors affecting the cost of living, it is important to delve into available loan options for those who may require additional financial assistance while residing in Bangladesh.
Understanding the loan options in Bangladesh
Factors Affecting the Cost of Living in Bangladesh
One example that showcases the impact of various factors on the cost of living in Bangladesh is Mr. Rahman, a middle-aged individual residing in Dhaka. He has recently retired and lives with his wife in an apartment. To maintain their standard of living, they need to carefully consider several aspects that influence their monthly expenses.
Firstly, housing costs play a significant role in determining the overall cost of living. The rental prices for apartments vary depending on location, size, and amenities offered. In major cities like Dhaka or Chittagong, where demand is high, rental rates tend to be higher compared to smaller towns or rural areas. Additionally, utility bills such as electricity, water, gas, and internet services further contribute to housing expenses.
Secondly, transportation costs significantly affect one's budget in Bangladesh. For individuals like Mr. Rahman who do not own private vehicles, public transportation becomes crucial for daily commuting. Public buses and rickshaws are popular modes of transport due to their affordability; however, traffic congestion can lead to longer travel times and increased expenses.
Furthermore, healthcare expenses form another vital aspect when considering the cost of living in Bangladesh. Private medical facilities often charge higher fees than government hospitals but may provide better quality care and shorter waiting times. It is important for individuals like Mr. Rahman to allocate funds for regular check-ups, medication costs if needed, and potential emergencies.
Lastly, food expenditure forms a significant portion of monthly expenses for most households in Bangladesh. Factors such as dietary preferences (e.g., vegetarian vs non-vegetarian), eating habits (home-cooked meals vs dining out), and consumption patterns all contribute to varying levels of spending on groceries or restaurant meals.
To evoke an emotional response from readers regarding these financial considerations impacting individuals like Mr.Rahman:
- Rising inflation rates make it challenging for retirees like him to afford essential goods.
- Limited income sources, such as pensions or savings, can restrict their ability to adapt to cost-of-living fluctuations.
- The need for proper healthcare services becomes crucial with age-related health issues becoming more prevalent.
- Balancing basic necessities like food and housing amidst rising prices poses significant challenges.
The following table illustrates a comparison of the average monthly expenses in Bangladesh based on various factors:
Expense Category | Average Monthly Cost (BDT) |
Housing | 15,000 |
Transportation | 4,000 |
Healthcare | 2,500 |
Food | 8,000 |
Considering these factors and their associated costs, individuals like Mr. Rahman must plan their finances carefully to ensure a comfortable lifestyle within their means.
Transitioning into the subsequent section about calculating monthly expenses in Bangladesh: By understanding the key factors influencing the cost of living in Bangladesh, it becomes essential to calculate one's monthly expenses accurately. This enables individuals like Mr. Rahman to effectively manage their budget and make informed financial decisions.
Calculating the monthly expenses in Bangladesh
Understanding the loan options in Bangladesh is essential for individuals planning to live and travel within the country. Let's consider a hypothetical case study of Sarah, an expatriate who recently moved to Bangladesh. She wants to understand the various loans available to cover her living expenses.
One common type of loan option in Bangladesh is personal loans. These are unsecured loans that individuals can obtain without providing any collateral. Personal loans can be used for a variety of purposes, including covering monthly rent, utility bills, or other day-to-day expenses. They typically have flexible repayment terms and competitive interest rates.
Another popular loan option is education loans. Many Bangladeshi banks offer these loans specifically designed to finance higher education expenses both domestically and abroad. Education loans often come with favorable terms such as lower interest rates and longer repayment periods, allowing students like Sarah to pursue their academic goals without worrying about immediate financial burdens.
In addition to personal and education loans, there are also specialized financing options available in Bangladesh tailored towards specific needs such as healthcare or housing. For instance, medical loans provide financial assistance for expensive medical treatments or surgeries, ensuring individuals like Sarah can access quality healthcare services when needed. On the other hand, home loans enable people to purchase property or construct houses by offering long-term funding solutions at affordable interest rates.
These diverse loan options not only help address immediate financial requirements but also play a crucial role in improving the overall standard of living while residing in Bangladesh. By availing themselves of these opportunities, individuals like Sarah can ensure they have enough resources to meet their daily needs comfortably.
Moving forward into managing finances while living in Bangladesh, it becomes important to explore effective strategies for budgeting and saving money during your time in this vibrant country.
Managing finances while living in Bangladesh
Calculating the monthly expenses in Bangladesh can give you a clear understanding of how much it will cost you to live there. Let's take the case of Sarah, an expatriate who recently moved to Bangladesh for work. By examining her monthly expenses, we can gain insights into the overall cost of living in this country.
Sarah's main expenses include rent, utilities, transportation, and food. Rent is one of the most significant costs she has to consider. In Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, the average monthly rent for a one-bedroom apartment in a decent neighborhood ranges from 25,000 to 40,000 Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) ($295 – $470). Additionally, Sarah needs to budget for utilities such as electricity and water bills which typically amount to around 4,000 BDT ($47).
Transportation costs also play a vital role in Sarah's budgeting. She prefers using public transport like buses or rickshaws due to their affordability compared to private taxis. On average, Sarah spends about 2,500 BDT ($30) per month on transportation.
When it comes to grocery shopping and dining out, prices can vary depending on where Sarah chooses to buy her groceries or eat meals. Here are some approximate price ranges for common food items:
- Rice: 50-100 BDT/kg
- Chicken breast: 250-350 BDT/kg
- Milk: 70-90 BDT/liter
- Local restaurant meal: 150-300 BDT
Now let's explore an emotional aspect by considering four potential challenges that expatriates might face while managing their finances in Bangladesh:
- Currency fluctuation: The value of foreign currencies against the Bangladeshi Taka may change frequently, impacting expatriates' purchasing power.
- Costly imported goods: Imported products often come with higher price tags due to additional taxes and import duties, making them less affordable for expatriates.
- Inflation: Bangladesh experiences an average inflation rate of around 5-6% annually, which can lead to increased living expenses over time.
- Emergency expenses: Unforeseen circumstances like medical emergencies or unexpected repairs may arise, requiring extra funds that might not have been budgeted.
To provide a visual representation of the cost of living in Bangladesh, let's take a look at the following table:
Expense | Average Monthly Cost (BDT) | Approximate Monthly Cost ($) |
Rent | 30,000 | $355 |
Utilities | 4,000 | $47 |
Transportation | 2,500 | $30 |
Food | Varies | Varies |
By understanding these costs and challenges associated with managing finances in Bangladesh, expatriates like Sarah can be better prepared to navigate their financial responsibilities while enjoying their stay in this vibrant country.
Transitioning into the next section about "Tips for saving money in Bangladesh," it is essential to explore strategies that can help individuals make the most out of their budgets and reduce unnecessary expenses.
Tips for saving money in Bangladesh
Managing finances while living in Bangladesh can be a challenging task, especially when it comes to covering the cost of living. In this section, we will explore one possible solution for financing your expenses: taking out loans. To illustrate how loans can help individuals navigate the high cost of living in Bangladesh, let's consider the case of Sarah, an expatriate working in Dhaka.
Sarah is an English teacher who recently moved to Dhaka from her home country. She quickly realized that the cost of living in Bangladesh is significantly higher than what she had anticipated. With limited savings and a modest income, Sarah found herself struggling to meet basic needs such as housing, transportation, and daily expenses.
To alleviate her financial burden, Sarah decided to explore loan options available to foreigners residing in Bangladesh. Taking out a loan allowed her to cover immediate expenses without depleting her savings entirely. By carefully considering different lenders' interest rates and repayment terms, Sarah was able to select a loan option that suited her needs best.
While loans can provide temporary relief for individuals facing financial constraints during their time in Bangladesh, it is essential to approach them with caution. Here are some key points to consider before deciding whether taking out a loan is the right choice for you:
- Interest Rates: Different lenders offer varying interest rates on loans; therefore, it is crucial to compare multiple options and choose the one with the most favorable rate.
- Repayment Terms: Understanding the repayment schedule and terms is vital before committing to any loan agreement. Ensure that you can comfortably manage monthly payments within your budget.
- Hidden Costs: Be aware of any hidden fees or charges associated with taking out a loan. These additional costs may impact your overall financial situation.
- Future Implications: Consider how taking on debt through a loan may affect your long-term financial goals and plans beyond your time in Bangladesh.
By weighing these factors carefully and seeking professional advice if necessary, individuals like Sarah can make informed decisions about whether to take out a loan to manage their finances while living in Bangladesh.
Transitioning from discussing loan options, let's now explore the pros and cons of utilizing loans as a means of financing your life in Bangladesh.
Pros and cons of taking loans for living in Bangladesh
Transitioning from the previous section where we discussed tips for saving money in Bangladesh, it is important to also consider the pros and cons of taking loans as a means to sustain your living expenses. Let's explore this topic further.
To illustrate the potential benefits of taking loans, let's consider a hypothetical scenario. Imagine you are an expatriate living in Bangladesh, working on a fixed-term contract with limited savings. Unexpected medical expenses arise, requiring immediate attention. In such a situation, obtaining a loan can provide the necessary funds to cover these unforeseen costs promptly.
However, it is crucial to carefully evaluate the implications before making any financial decisions. Here are some key points to consider when contemplating taking loans:
Interest Rates:
- Loan interest rates vary depending on factors like creditworthiness and loan type.
- Higher interest rates may lead to increased overall repayment amounts.
- Analyze various loan options available and compare their interest rates before committing.
Repayment Terms:
- Understand the terms and conditions associated with loan repayments.
- Longer repayment periods might result in lower monthly installments but higher total interest payments over time.
- On the other hand, shorter repayment periods could mean larger monthly payments but reduced overall borrowing costs.
Financial Stability:
- Assess your financial stability both presently and in the foreseeable future.
- Consider whether you have a stable income source that will allow you to meet regular loan repayments without undue strain.
- A thorough analysis of your financial circumstances will help determine if taking a loan aligns with your long-term goals.
Impact on Credit Score:
- Borrowing money through loans affects your credit score.
- Timely repayments contribute positively towards building good credit history while defaulting or late payments can damage it significantly.
Before deciding whether or not to take out a loan for living expenses in Bangladesh, it is essential to carefully weigh the pros and cons. Consider your unique circumstances, financial goals, and long-term implications of taking on debt. By conducting thorough research and seeking advice from financial experts if necessary, you can make an informed decision that aligns with your overall financial well-being.
Table: Pros and Cons of Taking Loans for Living in Bangladesh
Pros | Cons |
Immediate access to funds | High-interest rates |
Potential flexibility | Long repayment periods |
Ability to cover emergencies | Impact on credit score |
Opportunity to improve credit history | Responsibility of regular repayments |
In summary, loans can offer a lifeline during unforeseen circumstances or provide opportunities for growth when used responsibly. However, borrowers must consider factors such as interest rates, repayment terms, financial stability, and the impact on their credit score before deciding whether taking a loan is the right choice for them. Making an informed decision will help ensure long-term financial well-being without undue burden.
- [source1]
- [source2]


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Laura Schulte
By hwa_cognate |
Publish On: September 7, 2020 |
I was pursuing my MSN degree when I thought of specializing in musculo-skeletal patients and it was back in 2008 when I came across HwA and learnt a lot about the interventions and assessment strategies.
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So Why Are You Planning a Wedding?
If you answered "to get married" *sound the buzzer* because that's the wrong answer.
Getting married is simply the function of a wedding, not the purpose. When we talk about purpose, we want to know why you're going through the time, expense and effort to host a wedding.
The truth is you can get married in your backyard for a few hundred dollars and be just as married as those who plan luxury multi-million dollar weddings.
That's why before you plan your wedding it's important for you as a couple to figure out your purpose and have this be the driving force behind any and all wedding decisions you make.
So, what are some examples of the purpose of a wedding? There are many possibilities, but here are a few:
- bringing your families together to celebrate with you
- having an amazing experience
- honouring cultural or religious traditions
- celebrating the future you're creating together
Every wedding purpose is as unique as the couple it defines and explains the why, the what, and the who of your wedding. It's what will make your wedding feel like it belongs to you.
But how do you figure out what your purpose is?
Ask Yourself…
What need does having a wedding fulfill?
Why is it important to have a wedding and why now?
Who are you celebrating with? Why?
What impact do you want the wedding to have on them?
What would have had to happen for you both to feel really great about your wedding day?
These questions aren't something you should be able to answer off the top of your head: spend some time really thinking about and discussing each answer. Putting time and effort into this very beginning stage of planning is going to give you direction, ease, and reassurance throughout every other stage of your wedding planning process.
Once you have your answers look at them together and see the similarities and themes across all of them. Are the presence and experiences of your guests a major or minor part of your purpose? What is going to make this day special to you and your partner(s) when you look back at it? Are the reasons driving you to have a wedding truly about you and your partner(s). Remember that your wedding and its purpose should be all about you and your partner(s): you're never going to please everyone so don't try, have a wedding because you want to have a wedding.
Many people have weddings because it's what you're supposed to do when you get married, and how they plan their weddings is about following tradition and pleasing the people in their lives. A wedding purpose is about finding the true intentions behind your decision to have a wedding, and ensuring that in every step of planning the focus is on you and your partner(s), not about tradition or the expectations of others. Your wedding should be a reflection of your relationship and love with and for your partners, find a purpose that reflects that and the actual planning of your wedding will start to make a lot more sense.


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uPcoming Events at first presbyterian fargo
Winter is an exciting time at FPC-Fargo. Check out all of our wonderful opportunities.
This Lent, the Presentation Prayer Center is working with The Pilgrimage to have Centering Prayer in the Jennie Roberts Room, starting at 12:15 on Thursday afternoons. All are welcome to attend and spend some time drawing nearer to God.
Holden Evening Prayer this year will feature brief reflections on poetry and art from Wandering Heart: Figuring out faith with Peter, our theme for the season. Come and join us in the Jennie Roberts Room for this time of Lenten devotion.
Summer is right around the corner, and we're looking for materials to build our set and decorations for this year's Vacation Bible Study! Donations can be dropped off in the church office.
Mark your calendars - Second Sunday is back again soon! Breakfast starts at 8:45 in the Social Hall, with fun activities and education to follow on March 10th.
This free event is sponsored by the Deacons, and will take place in the Social Hall on Wednesday, March 20th from 1:00-3:15pm. For more information, please contact Steve Dawson. You can register by scanning the QR code on the flyer, or sign up online here.


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Features: Wireless BT headset, compatible with BT enabled devices, such as,for iPhone, for iPad, for HTC, for Lenovo, for Samsung, Tablet PC, etc. 2.4G BT 3.0 + EDR, support HSP/HFP/A2DP/AVRCP, connect two BT equipments at the same time. Built-in microphone, voice prompt power on/off and pairing, support voice dial for iPhone. Enhanced noise reduction, good choice for listening music, watching movie, talking on the phone, etc. Multifunctional key allows you power on/off, answer/hang up/reject/redial the last number, pause and play. After connected to for iPhone / iPad, the BT headset's battery level will show on the for iPhone / iPad. Build-in rechargeable li-battery, charge via USB cable for 2~3 hours. Standby time up to 100 hours, can work for 4-5 hours continuously (depends on volume level). Light weight, length adjustable hinges, comfortable to wear. Good quality and fashionable appearance.
How to use: Power on: keep pressing Multifunctional key until you see the blue LED shine. Power off: keep pressing Multifunctional key until you see the red LED shine. Pairing: First, please make sure the headset is power off and the BT devices is within 10m. Second, press Multifunctional key for 5-6 seconds until blue and red LED shine by turn. Third, activate BT of the device you want to pair, search and select "BH-02" in the BT list. Fourth, according to indication, input the code "0000" and confirm. After pairing succeed, the blue LED of the headset shines twice or three times every 4 seconds. Specifications:
Package list: 1 * BT Headset 1 * USB Charge Cable 1 * Instruction Manual


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Want To Buy Latest Modern Leather Office Chair?Here Is Why You Should Prefer Online Shopping?
Be it avoiding the unnecessary crowd or saving time, there are plenty of reasons that make customers shop online. Among all the online shopping is considered much convenient than brick shopping. From getting the makeup products like Rose Quartz facial roller online to grocery products, you can buy a vast number of items through online shopping. As online shopping is highly preferred by most customers, here are some of the top reasons why you should go for online shopping:
Bag-free Shopping: Gone those days when you need to carry huge shopping bags, now you can get your products delivered to your door. Carrying a shopping bag is a pain and this is where online shopping comes in. It allows customers to have bag-free shopping as you get your items delivered at your home or office address. Imagine you have to buy the latest modern leather office chair or any furniture for your home or office, how painful it would be to get it delivered by all yourself. But with online shopping, stores take the complete responsibility of delivering your products to your doorstep. Not only big items like furniture, but you can also get any small or big item delivered to your home. And, this is not possible in offline shopping. With offline, you need to carry your shopping bags yourself and it could be a headache. So, if you love to have bag-free shopping, you must go online shopping.
Shop from the comfort of your House: One of the best reasons that make people shop online is that it allows you to shop at your comfort. Unlike brick shopping, you don't have to get ready to go out and purchase your favorite products. With online shopping, you can shop from the comfort of your sofa while sipping a glass of wine or having tea. Other than this, online shopping is more personal as nobody gets to know what you bought. All your products get delivered in a secretive box, keeping shopping personal to you. On the other hand, offline shopping can be sometimes embarrassing when buying certain items that you don't want anyone to see. Therefore if you want secret shopping without anyone to know it, then online shopping is just right for you.
Find cheapest deals: Another reason to shop online is its cost-effectiveness. Yes, online shopping is very much cost-effective as compared to offline shopping. As you can do online shopping from the comfort of your home, you can save on fuel or travel charges. Other than this, you can compare the prices from different online stores and find the best prices, whereas, it is not possible to visit different offline stores and compare prices. Other than this, online stores offer discount coupons and other deals for their regular customers. Therefore, online shopping is always cheaper than brick store shopping.
More Convenient: As compared to offline shopping, online shopping is considered more convenient. Online stores allow you to shop around the clock and you need not worry about its closing or opening timings like brick stores. You can shop while having your breakfast in the morning or just relaxing on your couch at home. On the other hand, offline stores have strict timings that are difficult to follow for working professionals. Having convenience is one of the prime reasons that buyers prefer to go for online shopping instead of mortar shopping.
Whether you want to buy the latest modern leather office chair or Rose Quartz facial roller online or any other product, you will always find better options online. However, before purchasing anything online, make sure you buy from reputed online retailers who offer the best customer services. You can read reviews of other customers to know more about the online store and their services offered. To get the best quality products at the best prices, you can consider Favstock. They have been offering flawless services to customers across the country. Other than this, they have a wide range of products for our daily needs and requirements. From health care products to home furniture items, you will find a vast variety of products at Favstock's online store.


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It, perhaps, does not have to be said that cybersquatting is an intentional tort. No one would expect the respondent to admit unlawful intention, but complainant's proof must nevertheless support that contention. The Panel in Hästens Sängar AB v. Jeff Bader / Organic Mattresses, Inc. FA2005001895951 (Forum July 31, 2020) reminds us that it takes more than bad faith use of a domain name to find cybersquatting. And in the process of analyzing the facts, it shows us the shortcomings of proof to establish bad faith registration.
As it happens, there is no issue of intention in Hastens. Respondent was well aware of Complainant's trademark; in fact, admits targeting it but for a legitimate purpose: "[I]t asserts that [in registering <comparetohastens.com>] it intends to employ the disputed domain name, as well as the other 'compare to' domain names that it registered, in connection with its bona fide sales of commercial products." Respondent explains that "consumers can compare its commercial products with Complainant's at in-person retail locations."
"Compare to" advertising has received attention in trademark and false advertising cases in the U.S, and most likely in other jurisdictions but (to my knowledge) this is its first appearance in a UDRP dispute. There is a question as to whether this matter is even within the scope of the UDRP. The Panel appears to have it both ways as indicated by the italicized final clause:
It is true that such a comparison website, if launched, may attract consumers to it. But, if the website is properly designed, it likely would not cause confusion as to source, sponsorship or affiliation; rather, it should be clear that the website does not come from Complainant but rather from a competitor of Complainant. It also is true that such a comparison website might be designed to divert business from Complainant to Respondent, but that is not the kind of disruption of a competitor's business contemplated by the Policy as evidence of bad faith registration and use. (Emphasis added)
But instead of dismissing the complaint on this ground, the Panel finds an alternative reason which essentially contradicts the first:
Whether Respondent engaged in bad faith registration requires consideration of Respondent's intent. Respondent asserts that it registered the domain name in order to establish a comparison website, which, as noted above, could be a permissible use of the disputed domain name. Although Respondent did not come forward with affirmative evidence to establish demonstrable preparations to create such a website (which is a specific requirement under the policy for establishing rights or legitimate interests in a domain name), a finding a bad faith requires more.
In following through on the alternative, the Panel continues:
It is not enough that Complainant show that Respondent failed to come forward with evidence of its demonstrable preparations; rather, Complainant must come forward with evidence the establishes, by a preponderance of the evidence, that Respondent in fact registered the disputed domain name with a bad faith intention to cybersquat on the domain name. Such evidence might include evidence of an intent to sell the disputed domain name to Complainant for a profit, to prevent Complainant from reflecting its own trademark in a corresponding domain name, to disrupt Complainant's business, or to attract consumers to the website to which the domain name resolves by creating a likelihood of confusion as to the source, sponsorship or affiliation of the website.
For a complainant to succeed it must submit "sufficient evidence to establish any of these examples of bad faith registration" but it has failed to do so, and this coupled with Respondent's proof in the form of an affidavit which the Panel finds "credible with respect to Respondent's intent at the time of registration" warrants dismissing the complaint.
The decision is remarkable in examining the facts and circumstances from different perspectives, which is highly educational, but it is also serpentine in the manner in which the Panel reaches its conclusion. The Panel was absolutely correct in noting that while a "compare to" domain name may have a disruptive impact on a complainant, it "is not the kind of disruption of a competitor's business contemplated by the Policy as evidence of bad faith registration and use." If this is so, cannot the bad faith analysis be dispensed with entirely? If a claim exists, it belongs in another forum.
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In the world of e-commerce and rapid home deliveries, the term 'Indirect Signature Required' has become increasingly prevalent. As consumers, it's crucial to understand what this term means for us, especially when it comes to receiving our much-awaited parcels. This article provides a thorough look at 'Indirect Signature Required', comparing it with direct signature requirements, highlighting its benefits and potential risks, and explaining how to request this delivery option.
Different Types of Signatures
When shipping a package, there are typically four types of signature requirements or delivery confirmation options available:
- Direct Signature: As mentioned earlier, a direct signature requires the recipient or an authorized representative to sign for the package at the delivery address. This type of signature ensures a higher level of security and accountability, as the package is handed directly to the intended recipient.
- Indirect Signature: An indirect signature allows the courier to leave the package at a safe location or obtain a signature from someone nearby, such as a neighbor or building manager. It provides more flexibility for recipients who may not be available at the time of delivery.
- No Signature Required: Some deliveries may not require any signature. In such cases, the courier can leave the package at the doorstep or in a designated safe spot without obtaining any acknowledgment of receipt.
- Adult Signature Required: This type of signature is typically used for packages containing age-restricted items, such as alcohol or tobacco. The recipient or an authorized adult must be present to sign for the package and confirm their age.
Definition of 'Indirect Signature Required'
An 'Indirect Signature Required' is a shipping policy employed by courier companies to confirm the delivery of a package.
When a package has an indirect signature requirement, it means the courier can complete the delivery even if the recipient isn't physically present to sign for it. The courier can leave the package at a safe location or obtain a signature from someone nearby such as a neighbor or building manager. It's a flexible alternative to the traditional direct signature required method, designed to ensure more successful deliveries.
Direct Signature vs. Indirect Signature
Comparing indirect and direct signature requirements can shed more light on their specificities. A direct signature requires the addressee or a person at the delivery address to sign for the package, providing a direct acknowledgment of receipt.
On the other hand, an indirect signature allows for more flexibility, enabling a package to be signed for by someone other than the recipient or at a different location. This comparison underlines the increased convenience of indirect signature deliveries, especially for recipients who can't always be at home to receive their parcels.
When is an Indirect Signature Required?
Courier companies typically require an indirect signature for deliveries that are valuable or need to be tracked but aren't so high-value that they necessitate a direct signature. They may also be used when sending packages to residential addresses where the recipient may not be home during delivery hours.
Companies might also use this method for repeated deliveries, where a previous direct signature requirement failed due to the recipient's absence.
Benefits of Indirect Signature Required Option
The 'Indirect Signature Required' option comes with several benefits:
- Flexibility: This option offers more flexibility to recipients who aren't able to be present at the time of delivery.
- Convenience: It saves recipients the trouble of rescheduling deliveries or picking up packages from courier offices.
- Efficiency: It benefits courier companies by reducing the number of failed delivery attempts.
Potential Risks or Downsides
While 'Indirect Signature Required' offers convenience, it also carries potential risks:
- Package Safety: There's a chance that the package might get stolen or damaged if left unattended.
- Misdelivery: There's a possibility of misdelivery if the courier leaves the package with an unreliable third party.
Responsibility of The Courier
Couriers have a responsibility to ensure the package's safe delivery while following the 'Indirect Signature Required' policy.
They must find a secure location to leave the package or identify a reliable neighbour or building manager who can sign on the recipient's behalf.
How to Request an Indirect Signature
Requesting an indirect signature is relatively straightforward. When placing an order, customers can choose the 'Indirect Signature Required' delivery option if offered by the courier. In some cases, the courier company may provide the option on their website or app where the recipient can change delivery preferences.
To request an indirect signature for your delivery, follow these steps:
- Check Availability: Verify if the courier company offers the indirect signature option.
- During Checkout: Review the delivery options and look for 'Indirect Signature Required' or a similar description.
- Select the Option: Choose the indirect signature requirement during the checkout process.
- Confirm Selection: Double-check that the indirect signature requirement is correctly indicated.
- Provide Instructions (if necessary): If needed, provide specific details like a preferred safe location or trusted neighbor for the indirect signature.
- Complete the Order: Proceed to finalize your order, following the platform or courier's guidelines.
Note that the availability of the indirect signature option may vary, so contact customer support if you have any questions or need further assistance.
Also Read: What does 'Delayed, Not Yet Shipped' Mean on Amazon? (2023)
Frequently Asked Questions
Can I waive my right to sign for a package?
No, you cannot waive your right to sign for a package if the delivery requires an indirect signature.
What happens if the courier can't find a safe location or reliable third party for the indirect signature?
The courier may follow the specific policies of the courier company, such as leaving a notice for re-delivery or providing instructions for package pickup.
Can I change the delivery preference after placing an order?
It depends on the courier company's policies. Contact the courier directly to inquire about changing the delivery preference.
Are there any additional fees associated with the indirect signature requirement?
Typically, there are no additional fees associated with the indirect signature requirement, but review the courier service's terms and conditions for any potential charges.
Can I track the status of my package when an indirect signature is required?
Yes, you can generally track the status of your package even when an indirect signature is required using the provided tracking number from the courier.
Understanding the 'Indirect Signature Required' option can greatly enhance your e-commerce experience. It's a flexible, efficient method that ensures the successful delivery of your packages, especially when you can't be present to receive them. However, remember to weigh its convenience against potential risks and always ensure you're making informed decisions about your deliveries.
By being aware of the different types of signatures and their implications, you can better navigate the delivery process and enjoy a hassle-free shopping experience.


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Survival Under Attack
Amazing how many of these cold war tips still apply to everyday life:
Always put first things first-Never second or third.
1. Try to get shielded or carry a shield- To deflect FOD. (Flying object damage: hail, sneeze spray, space debris, and random acts of nonsense.) After all, I live in tornado alley.
2. Drop flat on the ground or the floor- If on fire, for a quick cross fit work-out or if you really need a place to hide.
3. Bury face in your arms: From frustration, disgust or if you're bored out of your mind.
Never, ever, lose your head- Like I always say, helmet on, tighten the strap.
4. Don't rush- I have a broken toe as evidence of this one.
5. Don't take chances with food or water in open containers- Sounds oddly similar to programming from my mother.
6. Don't start rumors- Imagine that. Even in the 50's, gossip was sac-religious.
E.L. Chappel author of Risk/Spirit Dance
Still feeling the affects of the Titian II silo visit
aka The Glamorous Wife


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FreedomWorks has traitor awards for senators against repeal
By Solange Reyner From Newsmax
The conservative group FreedomWorks said Wednesday it will dole out a "Freedom Traitors Award" to Republican senators who refuse to vote to repeal Obamacare, CNS News reported.
Jason Pye, the Vice President of Legislative Affairs for FreedomWorks, said during a conference call of conservative leaders the award will be sent to the senators' offices, along with busts of famous traitor Benedict Arnold.
"We can discuss replacement later, but this law has, we've seen premiums increase . . . five states are down to one insurer in the marketplace, dozens of counties are down to zero insurers in the market place," Pye said. "Lower premiums promote individual choice and give taxpayers relief from Obamacare."
The Republican senators opposing the bill are Lisa Murkowski of Alaska, Rob Portman of Ohio, Susan Collins of Maine, and Shelley Moore Capito of West Virginia.
Leaders from other conservative groups – Club for Growth, Family Research Council, Tea Party Patriots, ForAmerica and Senate Conservatives fund – called the senators "traitors" who needed to keep their promise to the American people.
"Traitorous senators . . . they need to repeal Obamacare," said Tea Party Patriots co-founder Jenny Beth Martin. "Our activists also realize that it seems to be really easy for these senators and their staff to sit in Washington and be exempt from Obamacare. . . . It is completely unjust to live exempt from the law, while others suffer because of the law."
Image: FreedomWorks Has Traitor Awards for Senators Against Repeal
(Getty Images/Steven E. Frischling)
For more on this story go to: http://www.newsmax.com/Politics/freedomworks-giving-traitor-awards/2017/07/19/id/802676/?ns_mail_uid=64942667&ns_mail_job=1742868_07202017&s=al&dkt_nbr=010102fbg7rr


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Prof. Victor Cha: Unpacking North Korea's isolation
Subscribe and Listen
We sit down again with Victor Cha, Professor at Georgetown University and Senior Vice President at CSIS, for an update on what we know, suspect, and do not know about a North Korea still in extreme isolation from the rest of the world; the status of its Covid outbreak and response; the heightened risk of famine; and the burgeoning exchange of North Korean weapons and ammunition in return for Russian food and energy. A narrow reopening with China is underway, while the continued high pace of missile launches is unnerving much of the world and is crowding out humanitarian considerations. The international presence inside North Korea remains miniscule. How might this isolation be cracked? Give a listen.


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Five-star review of Killing Fog by Jeff Wheeler
Quite a bit different from the Kingfountain series by the author I'd read over the years, and even more engrossing. I enjoyed reading about Young Bingmei, her connection to the Phoenix Blade, her freeing of the Dragon King and all the other people involved in her story. First in a series, this novel was full of action, tension, world- and character-building. According to the author, his visits to the glaciers in Alaska and to China gave him the ideas for this story and that shows. The fight scenes are reminiscent of Martial Arts movies, especially when Bingmei flies over her opponents and performs well-practiced maneuvers with staff and sword. I look forward to the other titles in the series.


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Bar Maid BER-860S BEARING SET
ASC1 Part #: BARBER-860S
Bar Maid
Quantity Available*: 0
*Please note that you will still be able to place your order even if your QTY exceeds the Quanty Available. We can drop ship most items directly from the manufacturer. Please call us at 800-236-6460 if you have any questions.


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LOOT - NFT Marketplace
LOOT is the ultimate gaming NFT marketplace an all-in-one place to swap, trade, or buy gaming-related Non-Fungible-Tokens. Special NFT platform that uses multiple DeFi-mechanisms
2. Click Loot
4. On the Loot you'll find Top Games
5. Click on the any game icon
There you'll see all the available games
*Click Back on the upper left corner to exit to the previous page
6. Select Explore Assets
or View more at the bottom of the game
you may find all the NFT's, listed on MarketPlace. There is also: network where they are listed, seller, number and price
7. You may filter NFT's according to the network (AVAX or Binance) and game implementation
8. Click on the NFT card you to overview it's: Amount, Contract Address, Token ID, Token Standard, Price. Also, you may purchase it
1. Select the card and Click on Buy for … YAY
2. Click Approve on the appeared menu
3. Click Confirm in the wallet
4. Approve the transaction by clicking Buy for … YAY on the appeared menu
5. One more time click Confirm in your wallet
6. Congratulations! You're now an NFT owner!
7. Check My collections page in the Owned tab
1. Click on the wallet icon in the right upper corner
2. Click on My collections on the appeared tab
3. Slide on Owned. There you may check your collection and sell some of them
4. Click on the NFT, you want to sell
5. Click Make order in the opened tap
6. In the Make order select the sale price and click Approve
- Our market holds 5% of the amount declared by your NFT (that 5% fee will not go to your wallet - keep this in mind)
7. Click Confirm on you wallet
8. Click Make order
9. Click Confirm on you wallet
10. Your NFT put up for sale.
Click on Explore Loot
11. NFT is now on Explore Assets
- You may check the list of all NFT's on My collections sliding to On sale
- After your NFT is bought, it disappears from the On sale section, and your wallet is automatically replenished with the amount specified by you (minus 5% commission)
- 1.You may remove your NFT from sale, to do it select Loot or My collections
2. In the opened tab click on Remove from sell
3. Click on Confirm
4. Your NFT will be now removed from sale (and returned to My collections > Owned)
Last modified 1yr ago