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UK: The Decision To Leave The EU - What Next?
Last Updated: 5 July 2016Article by Bernardine Adkins, Martin Chitty, Peter Hall, Sunil Kakkad, Kieran Laird, Andrew Litchfield, David Lowe, Michael Luckman, Tom Price and Sarah Sasse
On Friday, 24 June, Gowling WLG hosted a live webinar giving clients the opportunity to discuss the potential impact of 'Brexit' with some of the firm's key partners. You can find the transcript from the webinar below.
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An audio version of this webinar is also available for download.
Michael Luckman: Welcome to Gowling WLG's webinar on Brexit. This is an audio webinar, so I think one of the disadvantages to those of you who are listenin
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Performance Impact of Inter-Layer Dependence in Infrastructure WLANs
- Gladys Bridges
- 6 months ago
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1 Performance Impact of Inter-Layer Dependence in Infrastructure WLANs Sunwoong Choi Kihong Park Chong-kwon Kim School of Computer Science and Engineering Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea 7 Department of Computer Sciences Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 797, U.S.A. Abstract Widespread deployment of infrastructure WLANs has made Wi-Fi an integral part of today s Internet access technology. Despite its crucial role in affecting end-to-end performance, past research has focused on MAC protocol enhancement, analysis and simulation-based performance evaluation without sufficient consideration for modeling inaccuracies stemming from inter-layer dependencies, including physical layer diversity, that significantly impact performance. We take a fresh look at IEEE 8. WLANs, and using experiment, simulation, and analysis demonstrate its surprisingly agile performance traits. Our findings are two-fold. First, contention-based MAC throughput degrades gracefully under congested conditions, enabled by physical layer channel diversity that reduces the effective level of MAC contention. In contrast, fairness degrades and jitter increases significantly at a critical offered load. This duality obviates the need for link layer flow control for throughput improvement. Second, TCP-over-WLAN achieves high throughput commensurate with that of wireline TCP under saturated conditions, challenging the widely held perception that TCP throughput fares poorly over WLANs when subject to heavy contention. We show that TCP-over-WLAN prowess is facilitated by the self-regulating actions of DCF and TCP feedback control that jointly drive the shared channel at an effective load of wireless stations, even when the number of active stations is large. We show that the mitigating influence of TCP extends to unfairness and adverse impact of dynamic rate shifting under multiple access contention. We use experimentation and simulation in a complementary fashion, pointing out performance characteristics where they agree and differ. Keywords: Wireless communication, access schemes, physical layer diversity, TCP-over-WLAN performance, experimentation vs. simulation
2 I. INTRODUCTION A. Background and Motivation Widespread deployment of wireless local area networks (WLANs) at campuses, enterprises, residential areas, and commercial hotspots has made IEEE 8. WLANs [], also referred to as Wi-Fi when complying with industry interoperability standards, a key component of today s integrated wireline/wireless Internet. As with ALOHA [] and Ethernet [] in the 97s, the advent of WLANs in the late 99s has spurred research aimed at understanding its properties, including performance analyses of IEEE 8. CSMA/CA [9], [], fair scheduling [8], [], capacity analyses of ad hoc WLANs [], [6] (and hybrid extensions [6], [7]), and measurement-oriented studies [7], [], [7]. The capacity of CSMA/CD Ethernet was not without controversy Boggs et al. [] discuss the wide ranging performance perceptions of the DIX and IEEE 8. Base Ethernets deployed in the 98s but the subsequent evolution to switched technology, with CSMA/CD preserved for backward compatibility, rendered many of the earlier issues moot. This is not the case for IEEE 8. WLANs as physical shielding of the wireless transmission medium from interference and localization of contention at a switch are infeasible. WLAN performance is influenced by three main variables: mobility, channel noise, and multiple access contention. Mobility across access points (APs) in an extended service set is facilitated by reassociation-based handoff augmented by legacy link layer forwarding over wireline distribution networks. Mobility support across extended service sets through Mobile IP, at the present, is rarely instituted even within a single organization due to security concerns and insufficient application demand. Mobility support across domains is hindered by administrative boundaries and policy barriers. Channel noise in the unlicensed./ GHz ISM/U-NNI bands can be a problem, especially when the distance between wireless station and AP is far. Current remedies include multi-rate support in physical layer modulation, with adaptive rate selection left to vendor discretion. The focus of this paper is on WLAN performance in hot spots the dominant mode of WLAN usage today where performance degradation from contention-based multiple access is the key concern. In several respects, there is ambiguity about the performance of WLANs today as there was about the capacity of Ethernet in the 98s. For example, in [9] it is shown that IEEE
3 8. DCF system throughput significantly declines as offered load is increased. The analysis and simulation, however, do not consider the effect of physical layer channel diversity (also called multiuser diversity [], [9]) that mitigates throughput degradation. Performance discrepancies between modeling/simulation and experimention with respect to transmission range and capture effect have been discussed in [6], []. In [] it is shown that 8.b throughput decreases from above 6 Mbps to below Mbps as the number of stations is increased from to. The performance results are stated as validating the 8. capacity analysis carried out in []. The results in [] are difficult to replicate, that is, unless dynamic rate shifting is activated the default case which easily confuses collision with channel noise. In [], [] it is indicated that forward TCP data traffic can collide with reverse acknowledgment traffic, dramatically increasing the frame error rate which may be more pronounced in pre-8. WLAN cards where MAC level retransmission is absent. In [7], an enhanced DCF protocol called DCF+ is proposed to address this problem. We show that this potential TCP data/ack collision problem does not materialize due to the self-regulating actions of DCF and TCP feedback control. One of the goals of this paper is to help clarify some of the ambiguities surrounding WLAN performance through delineation of wireless and wireline features, incorporation of the impact of inter-layer dependencies, including those stemming from physical layer channel diversity, that impact performance. B. New Contribution The contribution of this paper is two-fold, discussed in two parts: DCF MAC layer performance and TCP-over-WLAN performance. First, we show that contention-based DCF throughput degrades gracefully as offered load or the number of wireless stations is increased. This is enabled by physical layer channel diversity that reduces the effective level of MAC layer contention, a form of multiuser diversity whose persistent manifestation in IEEE 8. WLANs DCF is able to exploit. This obviates the need for recently proposed link layer flow control schemes [], [] aimed at preventing MAC throughput degradation. We also show that empirical evidence of drastic throughput degradation of IEEE 8.b WLANs under moderate load [9], [] are likely to stem from the influence of dynamic rate shifting implemented in most WLAN cards,
4 which suffer from the problem of not being able to effectively distinguish collision from channel noise. Downshifting to fallback rates (e.g.,., and Mbps in 8.b) helps when increased distance or channel noise results in small SNR, but is ineffective in fact, detrimental when collisions are the primary cause of frame errors. In contrast to throughput, MAC layer fairness degrades and jitter increases significantly at a critical offered load, and can benefit from traffic controls aimed at operating the system outside the saturation region. Second, we show that TCP-over-WLAN achieves high throughput commensurate with that of wireline TCP, even under saturated conditions where the number of wireless stations is very large. We show that TCP-over-WLAN prowess is facilitated by the self-regulating actions of DCF and TCP feedback control, which jointly drive the shared baseband medium at an effective load of wireless stations. As a consequence, the TCP data/ack collision problem raised in [7], [], [] does not manifest as a real performance concern. TCP-over-WLAN also mitigates persistent unfairness due to physical layer channel diversity and throughput degradation stemming from dynamic rate shifting. We evaluate TCP-over-WLAN performance by analyzing a Markov chain over the state space counting the number of backlogged stations. We show a strong negative drift in the Markov chain which is established by inferring transition rates from measurement traces, both from experiment and simulation. We identify situations analogous to wireline TCP with mismatched low bandwidth access links [] where buffer overflow at the gateway or AP may become a dominant factor. We show that traffic controls utilizing receiver-side advertised window and virtual delay control can alleviate the essentially wireline bottleneck problem. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, we give the technical set-up. This is followed by Section III which discusses the performance properties of IEEE 8.b DCF. Section IV studies TCP-over-WLAN performance including control issues. We conclude with a discussion of our results. II. SYSTEM MODEL A. Infrastructure WLAN Environment We consider an integrated wireless/wireline IP internetwork where access networks are comprised of IEEE 8. infrastructure WLANs that service wireless hosts. An access point
5 (AP) may be connected to other APs by a wireline distribution network typically one or more Ethernet switches that is then connected to the Internet via a wireline access link. Figure depicts the components of such a network system. Our focus is on the wireless access MH client server MH client server client IP internetwork AP MH server VoIP... WLAN segment MH VoIP Fig.. Wireless/wireline IP internetwork with IEEE 8. infrastructure WLAN segment. segment representative of hot spots deployed at coffee houses, airport lounges, SOHOs, and residential home networks. Typical last mile access technology include broadband cable/dsl and DS/OC lines for small-to-medium enterprises. We model the wireless/wireline network system as a dumbbell network where n wireless hosts access the wireline network through an AP collectively forming a basic service set (BSS) which is connected to a router that, in turn, connects n wireline hosts. A canonical configuration treats the wireless hosts as clients that communicate with servers on the wireline side. In ns- simulations, the dumbbell configuration also serves as the physical topology. B. Experimental Set-up We connect an Enterasys RoamAbout R AP supporting IEEE 8.b through a Mbps Ethernet crossover cable to a Dell Inspiron 8 laptop with a GHz Mobile Pentium III processor and MB memory running Linux..7-. The kernel has netfilter enabled to facilitate TCP-transparent receiver-side traffic control that are implemented as IP hook callback functions. We also performed benchmark experiments on a private IP-over-SONET testbed comprised of 9 Cisco 76VXR routers the wireline backbone segment where the AP is directly connected to one of the routers and the PCs are connected to the other 8 routers acting as servers. The two set-ups yield similar results and we report benchmark suites from the laptopto-ap wireline configuration. The BSS wireless segment is populated by 6 Compaq/HP 8
6 6 and two 6 series ipaq pocket PCs with 6 MB memory running Familiar Linux v.7.. Figure (a) depicts some of the hardware components. Each pocket PC is housed in an external m 6 AP (a) (b) Fig.. (a) ipaq pocket PCs and Enterasys RoamAbout R AP forming BSS. (b) Basement indoor office experiment environment showing locations of AP and wireless stations and their antennae direction. PCMCIA jacket which connects an Enterasys RoamAbout 8.b PC Card. The data rate on the AP and pocket PCs is set to Mbps (fixed rate), RTS/CTS and power control are disabled, and the channel is fixed at an unoccupied frequency band with minimal cross-channel interference. We use WildPackets AiroPeek NX [], a state-of-the-art commercial WLAN sniffing and analysis tool, to determine the state of the wireless medium for channel selection and monitoring of MAC-level transmission activity. The latter, in conjunction with tcpdump traces collected at the laptop and pocket PCs, is used to infer backlog Markov chain associated with TCP-over-WLAN dynamics. The experiments in this paper focus on an indoor office environment in the basement of the Computer Science Building at Purdue University. Figure (b) depicts the physical layout. We also performed benchmarks in a table top configuration where all pocket PCs are co-located on a conference table which minimizes the influence of distance on signal strength and resultant throughput. C. Simulation Set-up We use ns [] with CMU s WLAN extension (version.7) to simulate the dumbbell wireless/wireline WLAN topology corresponding to Figure, where the IP network cloud is replaced by a single router. Wireline bandwidth is set to Mbps, with link latency between router and
7 7 AP set to msec and the link latency between wireline hosts and router set to msec. The IEEE 8. BSS data rate is set at Mbps and ACK frames are transmitted at Mbps. Default channel noise is set at 6 BER (bit error rate). Other IEEE 8.b related parameter specifications are summarized in Figure (a). An upper bound on the maximum achievable throughput by a single wireless station may be computed based on these parameters, which yields a frame completion time of + T BO +9+(+8l)/ / (µs) where l is the frame payload size and T BO is the length of the backoff interval. Figure (b) shows the components of a DCF frame transmission and acknowledgment schedule. Frame payload is slot time µs SIFS µs DIFS µs CWmin CWmax physical preamble bits DIFS Backoff PHY MAC Data SIFS PHY ACK physical header 8 bits (b) ACK frame bits MAC header + CRC bits (a) Fig.. (a) IEEE 8.b parameter specification. (b) DCF frame transmission and acknowledgment schedule. transmitted at Mbps and acknowledgment control frames are transmitted at Mbps. The physical part (preamble + physical header) of both data and ACK frames is transmitted using Mbps DBPSK modulation []. If the backoff interval is ignored, it takes about. msec to transmit a frame of size l = bytes, which implies a MAC throughput bound of 6. Mbps. The bound varies as a function of frame size l. The theoretically expected single station throughput, considering the backoff counter, is.6 Mbps. The actual value obtained in simulation is.7 Mbps. In ipaq experiments the single station measured throughput is. Mbps. Both agree well with the calculated value. When wireless stations are present, the total throughput, despite collisions, can be higher than that of a single station due to a concurrent countdown effect of DCF with respect to backoff counters that leaves the channel less idle on average.
8 8 III. CHARACTERISTICS OF IEEE 8. DCF PERFORMANCE A. DCF Throughput: Agility The first issue concerns the throughput of DCF which has been claimed to degrade significantly as the contention level offered load or number of stations is increased. We start with simulation-based performance evaluation, then incorporate the impact of physical layer channel diversity and dynamic code rate shifting using experimentation. ) Equidistant DCF Throughput Simulation: We consider a BSS configuration where wireless nodes are symmetrically placed on a circle of radius m with the AP located at the center. Equidistance and symmetry affect maximal DCF contention. Single point location a logical configuration commonly used in contention-based MAC studies where all stations, including the AP, are co-located at a single point, random location, and other layout configurations are considered in Section III-A.. Figure (a) shows simulated DCF throughput as a function of total offered load for wireless stations where each station generates an equal share of the offered load. Individual offered load is constant bit rate traffic with a small uniformly random inter-packet noise (within % of the packet spacing interval) added to break up deterministic synchronization 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes Collision Rate number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes Offered Load (Mb/s) Offered Load (Mb/s) (a) (b) Fig.. (a) Simulated IEEE 8. DCF throughput as a function of offered load for wireless stations. (b) Corresponding DCF collision rate. effects. A single simulation run lasts for seconds during which approximately 8, frame transmission events are generated with wireless stations at saturation. Experiments also last for seconds. We exclude the first seconds from the reported performance measurements
9 9 to remove transient effects. First, we note that the and station throughput is higher than the single station throughput of.7 Mbps due to the concurrent countdown effect (cf. Section II- C). The single station throughput is not shown to reduce clutter. As offered load is increased, throughput grows linearly until a saturation point is reached at which throughput ceases to increase; in fact, it may decline. Onset of saturation throughput occurs after a critical offered load where the collision rate increases sharply as shown in Figure (b). When the number of stations is large, both peak and saturation throughput decrease and their relative gap widens. The drop in peak and saturation throughput as a function of the number of wireless stations is shown in Figure. Throughput decline is overall gradual with saturation throughput exhibiting a faster drop. At a moderate load of 6 wireless stations, peak throughput decreases.9% from the throughput level of wireless stations and saturation throughput decreases by.%. At a heavy load of stations, the reductions are.% and.%, respectively. Peak throughput 6 peak throughput saturation throughput Fig Number of Nodes Decrease in DCF peak and saturation throughput as the number of wireless stations is increased. vis-à-vis saturation throughput is relevant for two reasons. In [9] it is argued that saturation throughput should be considered as the attainable equilibrium performance measure. We find that when physical layer channel diversity is incorporated, the gap between peak and saturation throughput shrinks markedly, and when TCP operates over WLAN the joint actions of DCF and TCP feedback control drive the baseband channel near the peak throughput level. We discuss the first point next. ) Physical Layer Diversity Experiment: Physical layer channel diversity a form of multiuser diversity [], [9] plays a significant role in mitigating DCF throughput degradation
10 under heavy contention. Figure 6(a) shows measured throughput of 8. DCF from experiments in the indoor office environment depicted in Figure (b). Offered load is increased from Mbps to 7 Mbps with 6 ipaq pocket PCs competing for the shared channel. UDP is used as the transport protocol. We observe two differences when compared to equidistant simulated DCF throughput in Figure (a): the overall throughput for,, and 6 wireless stations is higher in the range Mbps for experiment vs..86. Mbps for simulation and the gap between peak and saturation throughput is much narrower. For 6 stations, the gap is 6 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes Offered Load (Mb/s) (a) Offered Load (Mb/s) (b) Fig. 6. (a) Empirical IEEE 8. DCF throughput as a function of offered load for,,,, 6 ipaq pocket PCs in indoor office environment. (b) Corresponding DCF throughput in indoor table top environment..9% in simulation versus essentially % in experiment. Figure 6(b) shows DCF throughput as a function of offered load from the indoor table top experiment. The less varied physical layer channel diversity resulting from close station proximity effects a smaller throughput gain vis-à-vis the indoor office configuration. Figure 7 compares the saturation throughput of DCF as the number of wireless stations is increased for the indoor office experiment, indoor table top experiment, and equidistant circle simulation. For or 6 stations, we observe a Mbps (%) difference in achieved throughput between simulation and indoor office experiment, indicating the influence of physical layer diversity. When only a single wireless station is accessing the channel, saturation throughput for both simulation and experiment is in the.. Mbps range. In general, multiuser diversity may result from mobility and time-varying fading effects, and
11 6 indoor office experiment indoor table top experiment equidistant circle simulation Number of Nodes Fig. 7. Comparison of IEEE 8. DCF saturation throughput as a function of the number of wireless stations for indoor office experiment, indoor table top experiment, and equidistant circle simulation. a scheduler that wishes to harness channel diversity for throughput maximization may try to allocate the channel at a given moment in time to an user with the best channel condition. In infrastructure WLAN hot spots where users, for the most part, change their location infrequently, physical layer channel diversity manifests in a persistent, location-dependent manner. That is, advantaged stations continue to be advantaged, and disadvantaged stations remain disadvantaged. Figure 8(a) shows the throughput share of 8 wireless stations under different offered loads in the indoor office environment. We observe that biases in channel diversity are preserved across different experiments which translates to corresponding biases in individual throughput share. The bias is location dependent e.g., switching the pocket PCs makes little difference node node node node. node node 6 node 7 node Offered Load (Mb/s).6.. node node node node Time (sec) (a) (b) Fig. 8. (a) Persistent channel diversity and resultant stratification of throughput share in indoor office WLAN experiment with 8 ipaq pocket PCs. (b) Persistent throughput stratification over time at offered load 7. Mbps for four nodes.
12 determined by the geometry of radio propagation in indoor environments. It is well-known that signal strength distribution in closed spaces is varied [], [], [8], whose theoretical foundation with respect to persistence, sensitivity, and high variability may be found in the chaotic nature of radio wave propagation in cavities [6]. DCF exploits this physical layer channel diversity in two ways: one, by a simple capture effect where a collision between two frames of different strengths may result in a successful decoding of the dominant frame due to signal strength differential, and two, by subsequent exponential backoff of the weaker station which amplifies the access priority that the stronger station receives. In Figure 8(a), we observe that as collision rate increases with increased offered load, the throughput share of the strongest station increases due to the reinforcing action of DCF. The DCF amplification effect is reminiscent of the rich get richer and the poor get poorer dynamics. From a system throughput perspective, because DCF schedules stations with stronger signal strength more frequently, system throughput improves by the maxim of multiuser diversity scheduling []. Figure 8(b), which shows throughput time dynamics of of the 8 pocket PCs over a second time window, indicates that persistent physical layer channel diversity also holds over time. ) Non-equidistant DCF Throughput Simulation: In the CMU wireless extension of ns-, capture effect may be considered by an application of SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) thresholding. We consider four additional BSS configurations where distance-based capture effect may be isolated and discerned: line (configuration) where all stations are aligned m apart on a line with the AP at one end, near random where stations are placed uniformly randomly inside a disk of radius m with the AP at the center, far random where the AP is not at the center of the random disk but outside at a distance of m from the center, and single point where all nodes, including the AP, are co-located at a single point. Figure 9 shows simulated DCF throughput as a function of the number of stations for the five configurations. We observe that the line configuration achieves the highest throughput, closely followed by the near random configuration. This is expected since channel diversity due to path loss modeled by distance is highest for the line configuration followed by the near random configuration. In the far random configuration, which is in distant fourth place, relative channel diversity inside the disk is dampened by the far distance of the wireless stations from the AP. The circle and
13 6 line near random circle far random single point Fig Number of Nodes Simulated DCF throughput as a function of the number of stations for line, near random, far random, single point, and circle configurations. single point configurations achieve similar throughputs as the far random configuration due to their lack of diversity and resultant unbiased DCF multiple access competition. ) Dynamic Rate Shifting Experiment: In [] it is shown that empirical IEEE 8.b throughput in an infrastructure WLAN decreases from above 6 Mbps to below Mbps as the number of stations is increased from to. Perception of significant throughput degradation at moderate load is widespread, for example, in [9] it is claimed that as the number of contending stations increases, aggregate capacity drops precipitously (to less than Mb/s with contending stations) which is attributed to the multiple access nature of IEEE 8. CSMA/CA. We do not doubt the validity of the empirical observations we believe they are factually accurate but we question the conclusions drawn from the observations, in particular, the assignment of responsibility to DCF. Figure shows IEEE 8. DCF throughput as a function of the number of stations from an indoor table top experiment for different data rates of 8.b Mbps,. Mbps, Mbps and Mbps and dynamic rate shifting ( auto rate ) implemented in Enterasys WLAN cards. At fixed data rates, the throughput curves are relatively flat as the number of pocket PCs is increased from to 8, consistent with the graded throughput behavior seen in Figure 7. When auto rate is enabled the default mode in most WLAN cards aggregate throughput declines drastically as seen in Figure, dropping below Mbps at wireless stations. The prominent throughput decline, however, is not due to DCF. Testing of several 8.b vendor cards with AiroPeek NX [] monitoring MAC transmission activity reveals that the dynamic rate shifting algorithms
14 7 6 M auto M fixed.m fixed M fixed M fixed Fig Number of Nodes Empirical IEEE 8. DCF throughput as a function of the number of pocket PCs for auto rate and fixed data rates Mbps,. Mbps, Mbps and Mbps in indoor table top environment. implemented in WLAN cards most are realized in firmware have difficulty distinguishing collision from channel noise. For example, in the Enterasys RoamAbout 8. DS High Rate card (Orinoco chipset), down shifting is triggered by consecutive failures to receive an 8. ACK frame. When an ACK control frame is not forthcoming, the sender cannot determine if the corresponding 8. data frame was corrupted by channel noise or collision. The rudimentary nature of vendor-specific dynamic rate shifting schemes rate control is not part of the IEEE 8. standard has the detrimental effect of significantly reducing throughput under moderate contention, even when channel noise is small. TCP exerts an interesting mitigating effect on throughput degradation under dynamic rate shifting which is discussed in Section IV-D. ) VBR Traffic and Channel Noise Simulation: The benchmark results are robust in the sense that variations in the set-up such as variable bit rate (VBR) input traffic as opposed to constant bit rate (CBR) traffic and BER do not fundamentally affect the conclusions. Figure (a) shows peak and saturation WLAN throughput as a function of the number of wireless stations when traffic impinging on the MAC layer is Poisson. We observe that saturation throughput of Poisson input coincides with that of CBR input. Peak throughput exhibits a small gap.% for 6 nodes that stems from the more bursty nature of Poisson input which leads to periods of higher and lower contention, neither of which is conducive to improved DCF throughput. A more realistic workload in the form of heavy-tailed file sizes for TCP-over-WLAN traffic is considered in Section IV-E. Figure (b) shows peak and saturation DCF throughput as a function of BER for 6 wireless stations in the equidistant circle configuration. We observe a
15 6 6 peak throughput saturation throughput peak throughput (CBR) peak throughput (VBR) saturation throughput (CBR) saturation throughput (VBR) 6 8 Number of Nodes (a) e- e- 6e- 8e-... BER (b) Fig.. (a) Peak throughput and saturation throughput for CBR and Poisson VBR input traffic. (b) Peak and saturation throughput as a function of BER for 6 wireless stations. near-linear decline in throughput as BER is increased from 6 a typical indoor noise level [], [8] to., a two orders of magnitude increase. Peak and saturation throughput merge for large BER where frame errors from channel noise dominate their counterpart from collision. A discussion of BER s influence on throughput may be found in []. B. DCF Fairness and Jitter In this section, we discuss the sensitive dependence of DCF fairness and jitter on offered load, and issues related to its control. ) DCF Fairness Diversity Amplification: Figure shows fairness, presented as the ratio of minimum throughput over maximum throughput across participating stations, as a function of offered load for stations in the equidistant circle configuration simulation. We observe a sharp degradation of fairness at a critical offered load commensurate with a sharp increase in the collision rate (cf. Figure (b)). Unlike throughput, which is mitigated by physical layer channel diversity, unfairness is further amplified by DCF. This is discernible on a per-flow basis in Figure (a) where the individual throughput share of 6 wireless stations in a line configuration is shown as a function of offered load. Up to the critical offered load, throughput share is overall equitable. After the critical load where collision rate sharply increases, individual throughput share stratifies into persistent levels whose total width the minimum throughput
16 6.8 (Min Th)/(Max Th).6.. number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes Fig Offered Load (Mb/s) Simulated DCF fairness as a function of offered load for wireless stations in equidistant circle configuration. over maximum throughput ratio continues to expand. DCF exerts a self-reinforcing the rich get richer the poor get poorer effect that amplifies unfairness triggered by multiuser diversity. In the line configuration, multiuser diversity stems from SIR capture effect that puts distant stations at a competitive disadvantage. Figure (b), which plots the corresponding throughput share of 6 wireless stations in the equidistant circle configuration, shows that when persistent multiuser diversity is removed, so is DCF s diversity amplification effect Offered Load (Mb/s) Offered Load (Mb/s) (a) (b) Fig.. (a) Simulated DCF fairness with respect to individual throughput share as a function of offered load for 6 wireless stations in line configuration. (b) Corresponding DCF fairness plots in equidistant circle configuration. ) DCF Jitter Sensitivity: We consider jitter performance in the sense of throughput variation over time at different offered loads. We use normalized standard deviation to capture throughput variability in time. Figure (a) shows normalized standard deviation as a function
17 7 of offered load for stations in the equidistant circle configuration. We observe that at the critical load where collision rate sharply increases (and fairness sharply degrades), jitter exhibits.7 Normalized Standard Deviation number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes 6 number of nodes number of nodes number of nodes offered load =.Mb/s offered load =.Mb/s Offered Load (Mb/s) (a) 6 8 Time (sec) (b) Fig.. (a) Simulated DCF jitter performance captured as normalized standard deviation of throughput for the equidistant circle configuration. (b) Throughput variation over time before (. Mbps) and after (. Mbps) critical offered load. a sudden jump. Operating an infrastructure WLAN in the saturation regime need not degrade throughput, however, it markedly increases throughput variability which has bearing on VoIP (voice-over-ip) and multimedia streaming applications. Figure (b) shows throughput variation over time for a wireless station there are a total of 6 nodes when offered load is slightly below (. Mbps) the critical offered load and when it is slightly larger (. Mbps). Second-order throughput and delay performance experiences a phase transition at the critical offered load. ) Link Layer Rate Control: In [], [] link layer rate control is proposed to mitigate CSMA/CA throughput decline under excessive offered load. Our results show that unless the number of wireless stations in a BSS is very large, DCF throughput degrades gracefully, aided by DCF s ability to exploit physical layer channel diversity. Fairness and jitter, however, suffer significantly under excessive offered load, and rate controls that limit traffic impinging on the 8. MAC can improve fairness and jitter. Viewing the dome shaped static input-output profile of IEEE 8. DCF (cf. Figure (a)) as a dynamic feedback control problem, it is not difficult to design a PI controller that is asymptotically stable and efficient. The well-known instability problem of ALOHA (and ALOHA-like) contention-based protocols [], [] applies only in the queuing sense backlog growing unboundedly if the application layer arrival rate
18 8 exceeds the link layer service rate but not for maximizing the link layer s throughput which is a function of the controlled link layer arrival rate. For open-loop applications such as VoIP link layer rate shaping may be harmful. With IEEE 8.e support, prioritized MAC access may be affected using EDCF which significantly reduces jitter. Figure shows MAC throughput over time in the saturation regime for high- and normal-priority traffic under 8.e. For closed-.7.6 high priority normal priority..... Fig Time (sec) Throughput variability in time under IEEE 8.e EDCF for high- and normal-priority traffic under saturation. loop or elastic applications such as TCP-based file transfer the dominant constituent of Internet traffic which has also been confirmed for WLANs [7], [] link layer rate control may be beneficial, especially due to the increased collision rate associated with the saturation regime (cf. Figure (b)) that may translate to increased frame error rate. We established in Section III-A. that dynamic rate shifting implemented in WLAN cards easily confuse collision with channel noise leading to significant throughput degradation. In the case of TCP which is sensitive to spurious packet loss this may prove to be problematic. Interestingly TCP-over-WLAN performance does not suffer under this problem, achieving performance on par with wireline TCP. The reasons underlying this surprising agility is the subject of the next section. IV. TCP-OVER-WLAN PERFORMANCE We first discuss throughput performance of TCP-over-WLAN, followed by explication of its prowess, and benchmarking of receiver-side traffic controls aimed at improving fairness/jitter. The latter is relevant when TCP coexists with VoIP. We use simulation to study the details of TCP-over-WLAN dynamics augmented by experimental benchmarks.
19 9 A. Scalable Throughput It is known from steady-state TCP analysis [] that TCP throughput depends polynomially on packet loss rate (i.e., p / ) which renders TCP sensitive to spurious packet loss. An important focus of past TCP-over-Wireless research [8], [] has been distinguishing channel noise from congestion, so that TCP s congestion control may be desensitized against random packet loss. Pronounced collision, a form of congestion on the wireless segment, can in indoor environments dominate channel noise the reason why WLAN throughput, under the action of dynamic rate shifting, drastically degrades when subject to moderate contention (cf. Figure ) and significantly diminish TCP throughput. To evaluate TCP-over-WLAN performance under multiple access contention, we use the single point simulation configuration which suffers under the heaviest collision and throughput drop, providing maximal challenge to TCP. We consider a client/server environment where wireless stations, acting as clients, fetch files from wireline servers. This incorporates the TCP data/ack collision problem [7], []. We use TCP NewReno without selective and delayed ACK, and study infinite source sessions in steady-state. TCP sessions with heavy-tailed file transfers are considered separately. Figure 6(a) shows TCP throughput as a function of the number of wireless stations. As multiple access contention is increased from to, TCP-over-WLAN throughput remains flat. The same goes for TCP ACK traffic which is at the same packet rate (pps) but smaller data rate (bps). In contrast, UDP TCP UDP TCP DATA (B) TCP ACK (B) UDP (B) Collision Rate Number of Nodes (a) 6 8 Number of Nodes (b) Fig. 6. (a) TCP-over-WLAN throughput and ACK traffic as a function of the number of wireless stations; UDP throughput is shown for comparative purposes. (b) Corresponding collision rate.
20 (i.e., DCF) throughput declines under high contention. Figure 6(b) shows the corresponding collision rate experienced by TCP data and ACK frames at the DCF MAC layer which also remains essentially flat. We use a MSS of bytes for the above benchmarks but the same qualitative profile holds for other frame sizes. The AP has a buffer size of (in frame units), a capacity in the same range as the Enterasys RoamAbout R AP. Figure 7 shows frame error rate, collision rate, channel error rate (FER + collision rate), frame discard rate, and AP buffer drop rate as the number of contending stations is increased. At the given BER level 6, common for indoor environments [], [8], collisions make up the bulk of frame errors. However, no frames are discarded by the 8. MAC layer due to DCF s ARQ which performs 7 retransmissions under exponential backoff before giving up. The loss rate at the AP shows that it is downstream buffer overflow at the AP a classical wireline bottleneck that exists in other pure wireline contexts such as low bandwidth access links [] that throttles the application layer data rate. The flat TCP throughput curve is caused by the flat... collision rate channel error rate frame error rate MAC discard rate AP buffer drop rate Fig Number of Nodes Frame error rate, collision rate, channel error rate, frame discard rate, and AP buffer drop rate as a function of the number of stations. WLAN collision rate. Collision rate stays flat even if the AP is endowed with infinite buffer capacity. TCP-over-WLAN is able to operate at a small, constant collision rate independent of the number of TCP flows competing for the shared wireless baseband bandwidth. We refer to this as TCP-over-WLAN s scalable throughput property. The TCP data/ack collision problem raised in [7], [] does not materialize. In Section IV-C we explicate how the scalable throughput property comes about.
21 B. Efficiency: UDP Emulation To evaluate how efficiently TCP utilizes WLAN capacity, we emulate TCP using UDP in a ratematched, open-loop fashion where n downstream UDP sessions transmit byte data frames at λ pps that is matched by n upstream UDP flows transmitting byte packets (mimicking ACK packets) at the same rate. From Section III we know that under excessive offered load collision increases sharply and DCF throughput declines, albeit gradually. Our aim is to understand at what offered load TCP drives DCF which determines channel utilization and capacity. Figure 8 6 Downstream UDP (B) Upstream UDP (B) TCP 6 8 Frame Generation Rate (frame/sec) Fig. 8. UDP emulation of TCP with wireless stations with varying frame generation rate λ. shows downstream and upstream UDP throughput as the frame generation rate λ is varied. We also show the throughput attained by TCP under the same benchmark setting. We observe that UDP throughput increases with increased offered load until it hits a peak coinciding with TCP s throughput after which it declines due to increased collision. The UDP emulation result shows that when the AP-to-wireless station traffic ratio (in pps) is n :, a typical scenario for WLAN hot spots that are used as Internet access networks, TCP is able to drive DCF at its maximal throughput level. In other words, TCP-over-WLAN operates the WLAN at its peak throughput. C. TCP-over-WLAN Dynamics: Effective Contention ) Markov Chain Analysis Negative Drift: Our goal is to understand how TCP-over-WLAN is able to achieve a constant collision rate over a wide contention range of wireless stations. We define a Markov chain that tracks TCP-over-WLAN dynamics at the WLAN level: at any instant in time, the state of the birth-death Markov chain is given by the number of backlogged
22 wireless stations, including the AP, where backlogged means that the MAC protocol typically implemented as firmware in NICs has received one or more frames from the upper layer that have not been successfully transmitted yet. Thus the backlog chain counts the number of actually active stations participating in the multiple access competition at an instant in time. In simulation, it is straightforward to infer the backlog Markov chain from measurement logs: starting from time, we have a point process whose realization or sample path we track. Conditioned on these states, we tabulate next state transition statistics from which the transition rates can be estimated. Figure 9 shows the backlog Markov chain inferred from a single point configuration simulation with wireless stations. Starting from counting state, we see a strong negative Fig. 9. TCP-over-WLAN dynamics: inferred backlog Markov chain from simulation benchmark with wireless stations. drift rate. to state versus rate. to state that ends at state 6. In the client/server wireless/wireline TCP environment, the AP is a conduit for all downstream traffic from wireline servers to wireless clients, and vice versa for the resultant upstream ACK traffic. When the AP successfully grabs the shared channel, it may send a TCP data frame to a wireless station with an existing backlog in which case the counting state remains put (i.e., a self-loop) or the AP may send it to a non-backlogged station in which case the counting state increases by. The full Markov chain contains micro-states that count the number of backlogged packets per station. The chain shown in Figure 9 is a projection of the full chain. A client station, upon grabbing the channel, may have more than one frame in its backlog, in which case the counting state stays put; otherwise, it is decremented by. DCF s contribution to the negative drift is as follows: the AP in a BSS, by virtue of its conduit role with a n :traffic ratio, is in a special forwarding position. However, under DCF all wireless stations, including the AP, are treated equal with respect to channel access. For the counting chain to grow, it requires that the AP transmit a TCP data frame. But the larger the counting state k, the smaller the probability ( /k) that the AP will win in the channel grabbing competition. Conversely, the larger the likelihood ( /k) that one of the wireless stations
23 will win the competition. Hence the strong negative drift that pulls the Markov chain toward the origin. Figure (a) shows the equilibrium probability distribution of the Markov chain. Figure (b) shows a typical sample path of TCP-over-WLAN dynamics over the state-space of backlogged stations. Figure shows the average, maximum, and average plus two standard.6 6. Steady-State Probability... Number of Backlogged Nodes. 6 7 Number of Backlogged Nodes Time (sec) (a) (b) Fig.. (a) Equilibrium probability distribution of backlog Markov chain with wireless stations. (b) Sample path of TCP-over-WLAN dynamics over the state-space of backlogged stations. deviations counting states, in equilibrium, of all backlog Markov chains for stations in the simulation benchmarks of Figure 6. The average counting state is., even when there are contending wireless stations. This implies that the WLAN operates under an effective contention level of wireless stations. 9% of all data points fall within two standard deviations of the mean which, in Figure, is around active stations. The maximum is 7 active stations which are reached less than % of the time. Pertinent WLAN performance measures such as MAC throughput and collision rate also correspond to that of wireless stations, albeit in saturation mode. The throughput and collision rate for wireless stations may be discerned in Figure. Overall it is desirable to operate a WLAN at an effective contention level of wireless stations, even in saturation mode. ) Verification through Experiment: Simulation is well-suited for carrying out accurate backlog Markov chain analysis because all relevant events can be logged with certainty and there is a global clock that makes event synchronization simple. In experimental benchmarking, there is system noise and synchronization of events, given only local clocks, is an inherent technical
24 7 Number of Backlogged Nodes 6 max avg + *std average 6 8 Number of Nodes Fig.. Average counting state in equilibrium for wireless station simulation benchmark. problem. With the aid of AiroPeek NX, a state-of-the-art commercial WLAN sniffing and analysis tool, and tcpdump logging at the laptop and all pocket PCs, we are able to estimate the backlog Markov chain using sequential event ordering at the AiroPeek sniffer. This method works but with a caveat: due to channel noise, collision, and system noise, not all frame transmission events are sensed by the sniffer. This leads to ambiguity and resultant frames that cannot be resolved. The fraction of such frames, however, is less than %, and we estimate the backlog chain after excluding these frames. Figure shows the inferred Markov chain from a table top experiment with pocket PCs. The average counting state is.9 a little higher than that of simulation-based benchmark results which we attribute to the aforementioned inaccuracies. A strong negative drift is discernible consistent with backlog Markov chain analysis Fig.. Backlog Markov chain inferred from table top client/server TCP benchmark experiment with ipaq pocket PCs. ) DCF vs. TCP Feedback Control Contribution to Negative Drift: Both DCF and TCP feedback control contribute to the strong negative drift in the backlog Markov chain, with DCF being the dominant factor. Figure shows the average and average plus two standard deviation counting states of open-loop UDP emulation of TCP with a n :AP-to-wireless client traffic ratio for wireless stations. For a given number of wireless stations, the traffic rate λ is set at a value that achieves peak throughput (cf. Figure 8). It turns out that the relation
25 nλ = 8 fps holds for peak throughput. Figure also shows the counting states for TCP for comparative purposes. The average counting state of UDP emulation is in the range, closer 7 Number of Active Nodes 6 avg + *std (UDP emulation) avg + *std (TCP) average (UDP emulation) average (TCP) Fig Number of Nodes Average counting state of UDP emulation for wireless stations. to, whereas in the case of TCP it is closer to. We observe the characteristic flatness of the effective contention level as the number of wireless stations is increased from to. Since UDP emulation is open-loop, TCP s self-clocking feedback mechanism doesn t enter into play, and it is DCF s self regulating mechanism (cf. Section IV-C.) along with the n :traffic ratio characteristic of hot spot infrastructure WLANs that leads to scalable performance. The average plus two standard deviation curve lies in the 6 counting stage range, somewhat higher than the range for TCP. Qualitatively the scalable throughput property is achieved by DCF alone, although quantitatively the counting states are a little higher without TCP running on top of DCF. It is in the latter that TCP s self-clocking feedback mechanism additionally contributes to negative drift in the backlog chain. D. Dynamic Rate Shifting under TCP-over-WLAN In Section III-A. we showed that dynamic rate shifting implemented in WLAN cards easily confuse collision with channel noise resulting in significant throughput degradation even under moderate load when channel conditions are good. Figure shows empirical TCP throughput in the indoor office environment for auto rate and fixed rates,.,, and Mbps as the number of contending ipaq pocket PCs is increased from to. Unlike in Figure, we observe a flat throughput curve under auto rate that is facilitated by the n :traffic ratio of hot spot WLANs and the mitigating influence of TCP s self-clocking mechanism. TCP-over-WLAN, by
26 6 6 M auto M fixed.m fixed M fixed M fixed Fig Number of Nodes Empirical TCP throughput as a function of the number of pocket PCs for auto rate and fixed data rates Mbps,. Mbps, Mbps and Mbps in indoor office environment. operating the shared baseband channel at an effective contention level of wireless stations, is able to keep the collision rate in check preventing frequent occurrence of two consecutive missing 8. ACK frames that trigger downshifting to fallback rates. With pocket PCs, less than.% of IEEE 8. data frames carrying TCP payload are transmitted at fallback rate. Mbps (or below) under dynamic rate shifting data frames with and Mbps data rates are essentially nonexistent whose low occurrence stems from the fact that less than.% of 8. ACK frames are missing back-to-back. The higher fraction (.%) of data frames transmitted at fallback rates is due to an asymmetry in the downshift/upshift procedure: upshift in data rate is instituted more conservatively than downshift. Nonetheless, their low frequency renders their performance impact negligible. E. Heavy-Tailed File Sizes TCP file transfer constitutes the bulk of Internet traffic and file sizes tend to be heavy-tailed [] which has also been noted for WLANs [7], []. We consider on/off TCP file transfer workload with exponential session interarrival time mean msec and heavy-tailed files modeled by a Pareto distribution with tail index. and location parameter. The simulation was run for seconds to allow for the sample mean to converge to the population mean, a process significantly slower than with light-tailed distributions. The population and sample means were. and.8 (in packet units), respectively. Figure (a) shows TCP throughput under heavytailed and infinite source workloads as the number of wireless stations is increased. For the
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NY Times: People In Texas Will Buy Trucks Even If They Don't Need Them
Texans' truck mania? Wow these smartypants have us all figured out, don't they…
Tim Spell has noticed a peculiar condition that affects Texans' mental, physical and automotive well-being.
"I call it 'truck-itis,'" said Mr. Spell, the former automotive editor for The Houston Chronicle. "People in Texas will buy trucks even if they're not going to haul anything heavier than raindrops. I was interviewing one guy. He had a 4-by-4. I said: 'You live in Houston. Why do you have this 4-by-4?' He said, 'Well, I own a bar, and 4-by-4s are higher, and I can climb up on the cab and change out the letters of my marquee.'"
Whether for high-up urban letter-switching or more rural and rugged purposes, pickup trucks are to Texas what cowboy boots and oil derricks are to the state — a potent part of the brand. No other state has a bigger influence on the marketing of American pickup trucks. More
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Dongfeng Honda Automobile Co., Ltd., a joint venture of Dongfeng and Honda in China, introduced a new variant of the Honda Civic that's equipped with a 1.0L engine.
The Honda Civic 180Turbo has 2 Comfort Edition variants: a 6-speed manual and a 6-speed continuously variable transmission (CVT). Both variants generate a power output of 123 hp and 173 Nm of torque.
Some of the features of the Comfort Edition manual variant are the ECON intelligent green energy-saving auxiliary system, Ultra-high-strength steel front bumper beam, Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA), and an inside adjustable dimming rearview mirror.
The CVT variant, on the other hand, features additional features like fog lamps, Idle-stop energy-saving automatic engine start-stop system, and an electric sunroof.
In terms of performance, Honda claims that the Civic 1.0L manual can go from 0 to 100 km/h in 11.6 seconds and has a top speed of 204 km/h. The CVT variant can reach 100 km/h in 11.3 seconds with a top speed of 200 km/h.
The models are currently available only in China, for now. Yet, as far as the excitement relating to its 1.0L turbo engine, there are still no news from Honda Philippines whether the model is going to be available in the local dealerships.
For more information about Honda and its vehicles, visit the AutoDeal Car Brands page.
Want to find out more about the Honda CivicFind out more info, request a brochure, or request a quote by sending an inquiry below
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