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Filed under: Uncategorized | Tags: archeopteryx, avian foot, avian hindlimb, birds, dinosaurs, huxley, theropod hindlimb
NOTE: This post is lengthy and, as usual, I'd strongly caution against trying to scroll through it all in one sitting. I'll try and make my future posts more navigable and less unwieldy. Credit for the Velociraptor on the front banner goes to Matt Martyniuk. Apart from the hand-drawn anatomical diagrams, none of the images reproduced below belong to me.
Use these links to wade through this article: Introduction, Huxley's paper, What are Theropods?, The Theropod Foot, The Bird Foot, The Theropod leg, Theropod leg to Avian leg.
Part 2: Huxley and Hind Feet
I cant help but feel like a ragged and untried fisherboy trying to harpoon a marlin of tremendous proportions whenever I sit down to write one of these articles. I'm ill-equipped and inexpert, I'll admit, but what I lack in skill I try to make up for in sheer assiduousness. A throng of dinosaur-related journal articles – digitized in luxuriant PDF format and headed with such inviting titles as "TAPHONOMY AND PALEOBIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF TENONTOSA UR US-DEINONYCHUS ASSOCIATIONS" and "THE ASYMMETRY OF THE CARPAL JOINT AND THE EVOLUTION OF WING FOLDING IN MANIRAPTORAN THEROPOD DINOSAURS" – have made their way onto my computer desktop over the course of the past few weeks. I can't claim to have read them all but I'm getting there.
And here's another confession: I'm not well-versed or particularly interested in the History of Science – I like my historical figures warlike and domineering and I haven't much patience for the armchair exploits of monocled Victorian pedants (world-changing though their ideas might be). But my poor taste in historical reading (I've read atleast 4 separate books on Napoleon Bonaparte but I've scarcely read a paragraph on Newton) should not hinder my duties as a Natural history writer. I will try to provide a historical context for the problem of Bird Origins as we move along. Why, I hear you ask, is that neccessary? Well, I'll let George Gaylord Simpson field that question:
"Actually most scientific problems are far better
understood by studying their history than their logic"
But how will I go about it? I won't bludgeon you with a tedious catalogue of names, dates and discoveries. I've settled on a far less intensive approach: I've decided to use just one scientific paper in particular as a historical starting point for our study – a "springboard" of sorts for discussing the various pieces of evidence for the dinosaur-bird connection. The work in question is Huxley's 1870 paper titled "Further Evidence of the Affinity between the Dinosaurian Reptiles and Birds".
Some observations: One need only skim over the opening paragraphs of Huxley's paper to understand how much scientific literature has changed over the last century. Most modern scientists are writers in the strictly functional sense – their principal goal, as authors, is the clear and concise communication of ideas. (Most) Professional astrophysicists do not pause mid-paragraph in their journal articles to poeticize over star formation or ramble on about the airy majesty of Supernovae. And for good reason. Rhetorical flourishes obscure your message and disrupt the logical flow of your arguments. And thus, science students in institutions worldwide are encouraged to adopt a direct and workmanlike style of writing – to excise any hint of emotion from their compositions and to avoid the pronouns 'me', 'I' and 'my' like the plague.*
So how does Huxley's paper measure up? Well, four sentences in and he's already – rather dramatically – broken all three of the (modern) "conventions" I briefly alluded to in the previous paragraph. Bizarrely, his first sentence (which ambles on for a whopping 94 words before reaching a period) builds up to a quotation from Dante's The Divine Comedy. The introductory passages alone include 12+ incidences of the personal nouns 'I', 'me' and 'my'. A 1600 word long personal letter from one of Huxley's fellow anatomists, full of anatomical ramblilngs and the occasional Latin phrase (it could almost make a sci-journal article in and of itself), makes its way into the text. His work bears no hint of the of the Abstract-Intro-Methods-Results format that characterizes modern science literature. You have to hop around the text to connect his conclusions to his premises.
This should not come as a surprise. A gulf of 130 years separates me from Huxley – science writing has changed a great deal since.
It is also worth mentioning that the fossil collections Huxley was working off were sorely lacking. He writes-
"In none of these animals [the Dinosaurs] are the skull or the cervical region of the vertebral column completely known, while the sternum and the manus have not yet been obtained in any of the genera. In none has any trace of a clavicle been observed."
Happily, we have dinosaur skulls, neck vertebrae and clavicles galore today.
But Huxley's paper has more than just antiquarian appeal. He was one heck of a scientist. The incompleteness of the fossil record notwithstanding, he rigorously catalogued – as best as any man of his day could – the anatomical similarities between birds and dinosaurs. His observations are, by and large, still true. For this reason, his work shall be the sturdy, if somewhat timeworn, plinth upon which we will build our investigation. We shall augment and greatly expand this foundation with the knowledge of the 20th and 21st centuries as we forge ahead.
Each of the following sections will begin with an excerpt from Huxley's paper. We will investigate the relationships and homologies between Avian and Dinosaur anatomy – organ by organ. Unless you're some kind of glutton for punishment (I'm looking at you anatomophiles) it would be wise to skim-read the anatomical descriptions and focus primarily on the diagrams. Also, when I use the term "Theropod", I mean non-avian Theropod. Back to top
The Hind Leg
"However this may be, there can be no doubt that the hind quarters of the Dinosauria wonderfully approached those of birds in their general structure, and, therefore, that these extinct reptiles were more closely allied to birds than any which now live."
Huxley had little over a dozen dinosaur taxa to look to for evidence of a bird-dinosaur connection. Fortunately, we have well over 300+ valid dinosaur genera at our disposal today. Does Huxley's – rather premature – conclusion still hold true? Let's find out.
How do Birds figure within the scheme of Dinosaur taxonomy?
As one might expect, not all dinosaur species are equally closely related to the bird clade. The dinosaurian suborder to which the Aves belong is called "Theropoda", which means "beast feet" (a phrase I instinctively associate with snuggly jungle-themed footwear). The term was coined just 11 years after the publication of Huxley's paper.
The term "Theropoda" refers to a group of dinosaurs that is largely, but not exclusively, composed of carnivorous terrestrial bipeds. Amidst their ranks are such celebrated predators as Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptor mongolensis. In fact, pretty much all the meat-eating dinosaurs you can name off the top of your head are probably Theropods. Despite their firm anchorage in the public mind as colossal, roaring Mesozoic harbingers of doom, not all Theropods were creatures of gigantic aspect – many were scarcely larger than the average house cat.
Theropod remains usually constitute less than 20% of the fossils obtained from any given dinosaur site.
The precise evolutionary relationships between the various Theropod subgroups is a matter of some contention. Nonetheless, I will use "trees" (some pilfered from primary research papers, others salvaged from the footnotes of Wikipedia articles) repeatedly to put the various parts of theropod anatomy into some kind of phylogenetic perspective. The following diagram deals with the evolution of the Theropod foot over time (in addition to plotting out the basic structure of the Theropod family tree).
Don't be flustered by the exotic-sounding names listed above. Only three are of any immediate import to us.
During the early 20th century, the classification "Coelurosauria" was used as sort of waste-basket for various species of fairly unrelated small Theropods. It has since been redefined to include all Theropods that are more closely related to birds than to the Allosaurs (click the link). Examples: Tyrannosaurus rex, Velociraptor mongolensis and Gallus gallus (Chicken)
Maniraptora means "Hand snatcher". These dinosaurs had long, slender arms, pulley-like wrist bones and three fingered hands. Examples: Velociraptor mongolensis and Gallus gallus
Deinonychosauria includes all the dinosaurs that are popularly thought of as "raptors". They brandish long, curved claws on their third toe. They are the evolutionary cousins of the Aves. Examples: Velociraptor mongolensis. Back to top
How does the Theropod foot work?
The classic Theropod foot sports three weight-bearing toes – the 2nd, 3rd and 4th digits. The first toe is small and – in many cases – raised such that it does not make contact (or makes limited contact) with the ground during normal locomotion on a hard substrate. It also diverted towards the rear in a number of Theropod groups. The fifth digit is either greatly reduced or altogether absent.
Each toe connects with a metatarsal.The metatarsal bones are a collection of long foot bones located between the skeletal elements of the toes and the bones of the hindfoot. In humans, they collectively constitute the central portion of the foot. The metatarsus of these dinosaurs is held up at an angle to the ground surface. This is one of the most striking differences between Theropod foot design and Human foot design. Our foot posture is such that the entire foot touches the ground during locomotion (plantigrade) – we share this feature with crocodiles, bears and baboons. In Theropod locomotion, however, only the digits touch the ground (digitigrade) and the ankle is held aloft.
You can simulate theropod bipedal locomotion (in a crude and innacurate sort of way) with your own legs by bending your knees and shuffling on the balls of your feet with your heels raised above the ground (avoid performing this exercise in public areas unless you want to be seen as certifiably insane – trust me, I speak from experience).
The tarsus refers to the various small bones of the ankle and the hindfoot. Theropods – and dinosaurs in general – possess a simple hinge-like ankle joint that permits motion in only one plane (that is, up-and-down motion of the foot within a vertical plane of motion). This sort of ankle joint is called a "Mesotarsal joint" and is a diagnostic feature of the group Dinosauria. Back to top
What about the bird foot?
Birds are toe-walkers too. Foot morphology is markedly less conserved among birds than among non-avian Theropods. The most general sort of Avian foot involves three forward-directed toes and a reversed first toe. Oftentimes the first toe isn't raised or reduced – this arrangement gives many bird species the ability to perch on branches. It is seen in prehistoric bird species like Ichthyornis.
Of course, this description does not even begin to cover the sheer anatomical diversity of the avian foot – which ranges from the webbed pes of ducks to the robust two-toed feet of ostriches. This diversity reflects the astonishing range of environments and niches that birds occupy today. Theropods, on the other hand, seem to have been more or less confined to the role of ground dwelling cursorial bipeds.**
Nonetheless – the basic elements of the architecture of the foot are already in place among the Theropods. The foot of the Jurassic bird Archeopteryx and that of a Coelurosaurian dinosaur called Compsognathus bear a striking resemblance (scroll down to the end of this post to see the diagram). The first digit of the Archeopteryx foot remains raised above the ground as in earlier Theropods.
The first toe descends to the same level as the other toes and becomes fully opposable in later bird species as an adaptation for arboreality (eg. Iberomesornis and Concornis).
In birds. the various bones of the lower tarsus and the metatarsus are fused into a single skeletal unit called the "Tarsometatarsus". The tibia and the upper tarsal bones are fused to form the "Tibiotarsus". The various features of bird hind-limb anatomy are sketched out below.
How does the Theropod leg work?
The remainder of the leg is made up of three bones. The tibia and fibula together constitute the lower leg. They run lateral to one another. Among theropods, the Tibia is generally larger than the Fibula. The upper leg bone – or thigh bone – is called the Femur. The head of the femur fits into a socket in the pelvis.
It should be noted that Theropod hind-limbs are erect and bear only a passing semblance (structurally speaking) to the sprawling legs of modern crocodiles. Although, interestingly, crocodiles are actually capable of bouts of erect walking.
Small bony processes called "Trochanters" are found near the upper end of the femur. These are attachment sites for various hip and thigh muscles. Dinosaurs are distinguished from mammals by the presence of a fourth trochanter where the potent-sounding "Caudofemoralis longus" muscle inserts into the femur. This muscle runs from the tail (where exactly is a little uncertain) to the upper end of the thigh bone.
The Caudofemo-wha..?
So why do I bring up the Caudofemoralis longus (CFL) muscle? Well, because it plays a critical role in the locomotor system of Theropods. It is the chief muscle responsible for retracting the femur during walking and running bipedal motion. Quite simply, CFL – and the muscles allied to it – form a muscular propulsive system of sorts. It is situated in the Thigh-tail region.
Most theropods possess long muscular tails to balance the frontal portion of the body and bring the center of mass to the hip region. The nose-down force created by the weight of the body after the hip joint is counterbalanced by the nose-up force generated by the weight of the tail.
Birds, on the other hand, have largely done away with this particular muscoskeletal complex. They have 'decoupled' the musculature of the Hindlimb from that of the tail. We shall discuss this in the next paragraph.
How do we go from "Beast Feet" to "Bird feet"?
Well, lets review the similarities we have at hand:
– Both non-avian Theropods and Birds are digitigrade walkers – they support their weight on their toes.
– The 5th toe is reduced in all cases.***
– The hind limb bones are filled with air spaces (pneumatized would be the fancy word).
– Erect stance and gait.
– The tibia is thicker than the fibula.
And now for the changes:
1) Modern birds are knee-walkers. Knee flexion (refer to diagram) is the process that underlies foot displacement in birds. In the Guinea fowl (this shall be our model bird), the femur is held close to the body and is angled at around 35° to the horizontal.
The lower leg (tibiotarsus+fibula) does most of the moving during normal locomotion. The femur barely swivels through an angle of 5° at slow speeds. The lower leg, on the other hand, swings through angles as great as 70°. At higher speeds though, the femur does swing through larger arcs. However, birds – by and large – are anatomically incapable of bringing their knees directly underneath their hips. This is almost certainly not true of the Theropods. Refer to the diagrams if you're not sure what I'm talking about.
The Caudofemoralis longus is greatly reduced or absent amongst modern bird species. It is used primarily for respiration and plays a very minor role in the avian locomotor system. The tail and the hindlimb are, in effect, decoupled with respect to the locomotory process.
As stated earlier, Theropod locomotion is more heavily predicated on the movement of the femur (about the hip) and on the activity of the CLF (a tail to femur muscle).
So how does one move from hip-based walking to knee-based walking?
This transformation appears to be intimately related with one major evolutionary trend: The reduction of the tail. As one moves closer towards modern Aves (Theropoda –> Coelurosauria –> Maniraptora–> Early birds –> Modern birds), a decrease in tail size and the number of tail vertebrae is perceptible. In all modern birds, the tail vertebrae are fused into a single stumpy mass called the pygostyle. This reduction in tail diameter and length causes the center of gravity to shift forward.
As obligate bipeds, both birds and tyrannosaurs must have their center of gravity fall between their feet. As I've related in the paragraphs above, tyrannosaurs solve this problem with their hefty stabilizing tails. But what of modern birds? Their solution: limb reorientation. The femur assumed a sub horizontal orientation close to the body (it is usually hidden from external view) and the tibia grew in length. This positioned the feet further forward underneath the center of mass. Thus, the hip-based motion of the earlier Theropods transitioned into the knee-driven motion of modern Aves to deal with the myriad balance issues that accompanied tail loss. Knee walking allows Birds to move on two legs without pitching nose-downward. Without the need for powerful femoral retractions, the CLF diminished in size and the fourth trochanter disappeared (among the maniraptoran theropods anyway). The flexor muscles of the knee, on the other hand, grew in size.
In an interesting evolutionary parallel, the pterosaurs – a group of distantly related flying reptiles – also lost the 4th trochanter.
2) The tibia, fibula and metatarsals lengthened considerably over the course of Theropod evolution. This is generally associated with increasing speed. This is especially true of the forms leading up to modern birds. The lower leg is longer than the thigh (refer to diagram) among living aves.
As for some less interesting changes: The beginnings of the tarsometatarsus (fused metatarsals+ lower tarsals) appear during the mid-Cretaceous in forms like Iberomesornis. The fused tibiotarsus is primarily seen in birds of modern aspect (Neornithes).
The earliest Coelurosaurs possessed long, narrow metatarsals. In some groups (notably the Tyrannosaurs and a group of bird-relatives that I referred to in the first post – the Troodontids) a cursorial (running) adaptation called the arctometatarsus evolved. Here the third metatarsal was slender and "pinched" by the flanking metatarsals. The third toe is ordinarily the first digit to make contact with the ground during locomotion. When it does, the arcometatarsus acts as a shock-absorber of sorts, preventing stress-related injuries to the foot.
The similarities between the Hindlimbs of Archeopteryx and Compsognathus are elucidated below:
– Three weight-bearing toes and one toe directed towards the rear
– The presence of a hinge-like ankle joint (mesotarsal joint)
– Vertical orientation of the hind limbs
However, Archeopteryx is not a 'modern' bird by any stretch. Its hind leg is primitive and relatively unspecialized compared to most of its successors.
3) Further similarities and changes in foot design have been discussed under the heading "How does the Theropod foot work?" and "What about the avian foot?"
The scene is set, but the Theropod hind limb has a some distance to go before it can be called a "bird leg". The development of the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus (which developed much later) still haven't been discussed in much detail. I will cover it in further posts on Bird evolution (not in this series though). However, we have covered some of the major functional changes in hind-limb anatomy – and I'm content with that.
I'll end with this fabulous piece of vintage science writing from Mr. Huxley's paper:
"And if the whole hind quarters, from the ilium to the toes, of a half-hatched chicken could be suddenly enlarged, ossified, and fossilized as they are, they would furnish us with the last step of the transition between Birds and Reptiles; for there would be nothing in their characters to prevent us from referring them to the Dinosauria." Back to top
*Or sparingly at the very most.
** I came across this post at tetrapod zoology that might throw some water on that idea.
***There are some exceptions to this statement. Off the top of my head, I think the 5th digit is modified into a defensive spur in Chicken.
It might also be worthwile referencing a paper by Stephen M. Gatesy titled "Caudofemoral musculature and the evolution of theropod locomotion" which was the source for much of the "Theropod leg to Avian leg" section.
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Major stock indexes climbed off the floor Tuesday morning, helped by a turnaround in the bond market as longer-term Treasury yields pulled back from an earlier charge toward new highs.
By 1:15 p.m., the Dow Jones Industrial Average was down around 135 points, at 25,081, or 0.55%, after falling more than 200 points in earlier trading. The Nasdaq Composite ticked up another 40 points, to 7279, as technology stocks gained, while the S&P 500 large-cap index and the Russell 2000 small cap index were both flat.
For the Dow, and the overall market, the big story of the day was Walmart (WMT). The world's biggest retailer, one of the Dow's 30 components, tumbled nearly 10% after missing expectations on fourth-quarter earnings and reporting disappointing online sales.
Meanwhile, Treasury bond prices continued to slide and yields to rise. (Bond prices and yields move in opposite directions, like two ends of a seesaw.) The yield on the benchmark 10-year was up another 0.02% at lunchtime, to 2.90%, after earlier hitting 2.92%. Rates on the five-year note surged as high as 2.69%, their highest levels since the financial crisis in 2008, before easing back to 2.66%, a gain of 0.03% on the day.
Gold is down about $10, to $1,343 per troy ounce.
Bond market guru Jeffrey Gundlach warns that the recent volatility probably isn't over. On the positive front, Goldman Sachs reports that companies are planning to use plenty of their corporate tax cut to support stock prices through share buybacks: Announced repurchases so far this year are up 22% from a year ago, the investment bank says.
Walmart Faces New Headwinds
Walmart (WMT) is tumbling nearly 10% on Tuesday, hurt by its mixed fourth-quarter results and lower guidance as its online sales come under pressure.
The retail giant said it earned $1.33 a share, on revenue that rose 4.2% year over year, to $135.15 billion. Analysts were looking for earnings of $1.37 a share on revenue of $133.63 billion. Its comparable sales increased 2.6%, above the 1.5% to 2% guidance. Yet investors were focused on the downbeat news that Walmart expects to earn between $4.75 and $5 in fiscal 2019, below the $5.08 consensus estimate.
Part of the problem may be that investors had finally gotten more confident about retail, and Walmart specifically after its great 2017. So while the company's still doing fairly well holding its own against Amazon.com (AMZN), the market had gotten its hopes up even higher.
Cowen & Co.'s Oliver Chen and his team are keeping the faith. Chen reiterated an Outperform rating and $120 price target on Walmart today, highlighting its 1.6% store traffic growth and 23% increase in online sales. He notes that guidance was ahead of his 2019 estimates, although these didn't include the benefits of lower corporate taxes.
Walmart is down 9.7% to $94.61 in recent trading. —Teresa Rivas
Duke Takes a Hit on Earnings
Speaking of earnings, Duke Energy (DUK) is down 2% on Tuesday, after its mixed fourth-quarter earnings report.
Duke Energy said it earned 94 cents a share, two pennies ahead of the consensus estimates. However, its revenues—up 4.1% year over year, to $5.85 billion—were below the $6.09 billion analysts were expecting. Duke said the higher-than-expected earnings were due to lower maintenance costs.
For the full year, Duke expects to earn between $4.55 to $4.85 a share, with a midpoint below the $4.78-per-share consensus, with the results taking a one-time hit from tax reform. The company also reaffirmed its long-term earnings growth target of 4% to 6% to 2022.
The shares were off 2% to $75.17 in recent trading, and are down about 10.5% since the start of the year. Earlier this month, UBS started coverage of the stock with a Buy rating, and Duke got a bit of a boost after the White House's new infrastructure plan. —T.R.
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This form uses PayPal as the only method of payment. This format also charges a higher fee per awards category per level than using a printed form, to cover the fees associated with using Paypal. If you do not want to complete your WDCTA Eventing Championship application using PayPal, you must download and complete the hardcopy from the Forms Page and mail it with your check. Remember:
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When night falls, police officers blanket some eight odd blocks of Brownsville,
On the inner streets, dozens of officers, many fresh out of the police academy, walk in pairs or linger on corners. Others, deeper within the urban grid, navigate a maze of public housing complexes, patrolling the stairwells and hallways.
This small army of officers, night after night, spends much of its energy pursuing the controversial Police Department tactic known as "Stop, Question, Frisk," and it does so at a rate unmatched anywhere else in the city.
The officers stop people they think might be carrying guns; they stop and question people who merely enter the public housing project buildings without a key; they ask for identification from, and run warrant checks on, young people halted for riding bicycles on the sidewalk.
One night, 20 officers surrounded a man outside the Brownsville Houses after he would not let an officer smell the contents of his orange juice container.Continue reading the main story
Between January 2006 and March 2010, the police made nearly 52,000 stops on these blocks and in these buildings, according to a
These encounters amounted to nearly one stop a year for every one of the 14,000 residents of these blocks. In some instances, people were stopped because the police said they fit the description of a suspect. But the data show that fewer than 9 percent of stops were made based on "fit description." Far more — nearly 26,000 times — the police listed either "furtive movement," a catch-all category that critics say can mean anything, or "other" as the only reason for the stop. Many of the stops, the data show, were driven by the police's ability to enforce seemingly minor violations of rules governing who can come and go in the city's public housing.
The encounters — most urgently meant to get guns off the streets — yield few arrests. Across the city, 6 percent of stops result in arrests. In these roughly eight square blocks of Brownsville, the arrest rate is less than 1 percent. The 13,200 stops the police made in this neighborhood last year resulted in arrests of 109 people. In the more than 50,000 stops since 2006, the police recovered 25 guns.
Greg Jackson, 58, a former professional basketball player who runs the Brownsville Recreation Center, said the rising tide of stops had left many who wanted a strong police presence here feeling conflicted.
"Do we welcome the police?" he said, "Of course I do. Ninety-nine percent of the people in the area do. But they also fear the police because you can get stopped at any time."
New York is among several major cities across the country that rely heavily on the stop-and-frisk tactic, but few cities, according to law enforcement experts, employ it with such intensity. In 2002, the police citywide documented 97,000 of these stops; last year, the department registered a record: 580,000.
There are, to be sure, plenty of reasons for the police to be out in force in this section of Brooklyn, and plenty of reasons for residents to want them there. Murders, shootings and drug dealing have historically made this one of the worst crime corridors in the city.
But now, in an era of lower crime rates, both in this part of Brooklyn and across the city, questions are swirling over what is emerging as a central tool in the crime fight, one intended to give officers the power to engage anyone they reasonably suspect has committed a crime or is about to.
The practice has come under intense scrutiny. Lawmakers are monitoring the situation. Civil libertarians are challenging it. The Police Department is studying it. And police officials, from Commissioner
"I don't know what too many stops are," said Deputy Inspector Juanita Holmes, who until recently was in charge of the department's officers specifically assigned to protect the housing projects that largely make up these blocks of Brownsville. "The stops conducted by us are to address the crime, or the quality-of-life issues."
A Troubled Neighborhood
In a dank stairwell inside 340 Dumont Avenue, a dim light flickers and the stench of urine fills the air. It was here in 1988 in the Samuel J. Tilden Houses that Officer Anthony O. McLean took a bullet to the chest. He had been searching for a missing 10-year-old girl when he stumbled into a drug deal.
Crime here — a rectangle of housing developments and faded commercial strips — is hardly what it was in those bloody days. But the labyrinth of stairwells, hallways, courtyards, lobbies and roofs of the complexes — 65 buildings ranging from 6-story apartment buildings to 20-story towers — still presents a dangerous challenge for police.
Lobby mailboxes are used for drug transactions. Locks and intercoms meant to allow in only residents and their visitors are routinely broken. Officers say they often find bullet casings on the roofs, where people take target practice or fire in the air in celebration.
In November 2008, a man delivering meals for charity was shot dead in a lobby of the Brownsville Houses after delivering food to two elderly women. Five months later, a 43-year-old woman was stabbed to death trying to break up a fight outside her apartment in the Tilden Houses.
"It's tough," said Deputy Inspector Holmes, who took over command of these housing projects in 2008. "A lot of our kids in the area carry guns. Whether they carry them for protection, 'because I'm trying to get to school without being victimized,' or they carry them 'because I'm going to rob somebody today,' there are a lot of guns out there. And it creates a challenge."
In 2007, the year before she took command, shootings in the five developments had reached a five-year high. During her first six months on the job, her officers increased stops by 23 percent from the previous six months, the data show. The next year, her officers made more than 10,000 stops.
Deputy Inspector Holmes said she studied the number of stop-and-frisks in her area closely, and credited them with making the houses safer for law-abiding residents. She said over the first six months of this year violent crime was down in almost every category in the five complexes.
But that same success has not been seen outside the developments. Shootings are up 39 percent in the 73rd Precinct this year. In 2008 the precinct, which includes these blocks of public housing, led the city in murders, and it consistently has one of the city's highest rates of violent crime.
Still, Deputy Inspector Samuel Wright, who took over command of the precinct in January 2009, says stop-and-frisks have "had a significant impact" on crime reduction.
"In 2008 there were a lot of murders in the 73rd Precinct," he said. "We were able to reduce homicides by 32 percent in 2009, and I think that was attributed to the stop, question and frisk policy. We had a reduction in robberies. We had a reduction in grand larcenies."
Law enforcement experts say that it is very hard, perhaps even impossible, to draw direct connections between the stop-and-frisk tactic and significant long-term crime reduction.
Certainly, some say that the
And some, from academics to the residents of these streets in Brooklyn, believe the stops could have a corrosive effect, alienating young and old alike in a community that has long had a tenuous relationship with the police.
"This is an important issue, right now, that the
Without that evidence, he said, the stop-and-frisks that do not result in arrests could "reduce the perceived legitimacy of the police in the eyes of the public."
One researcher who has studied the impact of stop-and-frisk on crime insists it is effective. In a 2008 study presented to the
"One important implication is that effective crime fighting requires continuous innovation," wrote Professor Smith, who is an expert witness for the Police Department in a lawsuit brought by the Center for Constitutional Rights over allegations of racial profiling in stop-and-frisk. "Another is the interventions are blunt instruments that need to be used with care."
Calls for Sensitivity
To many residents here, care is exactly what is not being used. To them, the flood of young officers who roam the community each day are not equipped to make the subtle judgments required to tell one young man in low-hanging jeans concealing a weapon from another young man wearing similar clothes on his way to school.
The United States Supreme Court established the legal basis for stops and frisks — reasonable belief that a person is armed and dangerous — in the 1968 case of Terry v.
By comparison, the nearly 200 officers who operate in the neighborhood as part of Mr. Kelly's
The data show the initiative is conducted aggressively, sometimes in what can seem like a frenzy. During one month — January 2007 — the police executed an average of 61 stops a day.
The high number of stops in this part of Brooklyn can be explained in part by the fact that police can use violations of city Housing Authority rules to justify stops. For instance, the Housing Authority, which oversees public housing developments, forbids people from being in their buildings unless they live there or are visiting someone.
And so on a single Friday in January 2009, the police stopped 109 people in this area, 55 of them inside the project buildings, almost half for suspicion of trespassing. The show of force resulted in two arrests for misdemeanor possession of
Inside the project buildings and out, males 15 to 34 years of age, who make up about 11 percent of the area's population, accounted for 68 percent of the stops over the years. That amounted to about five stops a year each, though it was impossible to tell how often someone was stopped or if that person lived in the neighborhood, because the data did not include the names or addresses of those stopped. Police officials say the age figures sound right, since most crime suspects fit that description.
Young black men get stopped so often that a few years ago, Gus Cyrus, coach of the football team at nearby Thomas Jefferson High School, started letting his players leave practice with their bright orange helmets so the police would not confuse them with gang members.
"My players were always calling me saying 'Coach, the police have me,' " Mr. Cyrus said.
At an entrance to 305 Livonia Avenue, a 16-story building in Tilden Houses, the door lock has been broken for weeks. It is the same at 360 Dumont Avenue, negating anyone's need for a key to get inside. At 363 Dumont Avenue, in the Brownsville Houses, another metal lock is broken to another door.
Young men cluster around the doorways on hot summer evenings. Mothers sit on benches outside them as they guard children in the courtyard playgrounds.
And officers are watching. If someone enters without a key, it is reason to stop them, check for identification and, if necessary, take out handcuffs.
Many residents say they philosophically embrace the police presence. They say they know too well how the violence around them — the drugs and gangs — can swallow up young people.
Yet the day-to-day interactions with officers can seem so arbitrary that many residents say they often come away from encounters with officers feeling violated, degraded and resentful.
Almost everyone in the projects has a story. There is Jonathan Guity, a 26-year-old legal assistant with no criminal record, who, when asked how many times he had been stopped in the neighborhood where he grew up, said, "Honestly, I'd say 30 to 40 times. I'm serious."
The most recent stop, he said, was about three months ago after he had dropped his girlfriend off at the subway. As he walked home listening to his
"I slapped his hand away and I'm like, 'What are you doing?' " Mr. Guity said. "He was like, 'Oh,' and he pulled out his badge, so he was like, it was like, 'There was a shooting around here five minutes ago and you fit the description.' "
Oddly, years ago when crime was higher, relations with the police seemed better, several residents said. The officers seemed to show a greater sense of who was law abiding and who was not, they said. Now, many residents say, the newer crop of officers seem to be more interested in small offenses than engaging with residents.
Several residents painted a portrait of officers moving in only to enforce rules that seemed to always be changing. Once, officers suddenly began telling people they could not congregate around the metal hand rails surrounding an entrance to the building, residents said.
At the local recreation center in Brownsville, Darryl Glenn, 49, stood in the gym with his son, Darryl Jr., and spoke of the need for officers to be there — but also of the equal need for them to improve their performance.
"If anything, there needs to be more police around," said the teenager, who is headed to college. But, he said, the officers could better handle some stop situations, particularly by working to get better descriptions of suspects and by communicating more effectively the reason for the stop.
"When they give a description, it's, 'Young black man, black pants, blue shirt, black hat,' " he said. 'That's mostly everybody. A better description would be better, so they can know who they're looking for, rather than just everyone walking around."
High Number of Stops
The Times, for this article, interviewed 12 current or former officers who had worked in this part of Brooklyn in the last five years, and all defended the necessity of the stop-and-frisks.
But some former officers who worked the area say the stops seem less geared to bringing down crime than feeding the department's appetite for numbers — a charge police officials steadfastly deny. Though none said they were ever given quotas to hit, all but two said that certain performance measures were implicitly expected in their monthly activity reports. Lots of stop-and-frisk reports suggested a vigilant officer.
"When I was there the floor number was 10 a month," one officer said. Like many of the officers interviewed for this article, he asked not to be identified because he was still in law enforcement and worried that being seen as critical of the New York department could hurt his future employment opportunities.
He said if you produced 10 stops — known as a UF-250 for the standardized departmental reports the stops generate — you were not likely to draw the attention of a supervisor. "And in all fairness," he said, "if you're working in that area, 10 a month is very low. All you have to do is open your eyes."
Another former officer who worked in the 73rd Precinct said the pressure was felt more overtly to get an arrest or a criminal summons, but in lieu of those, extra 250s would compensate.
"A lot of us didn't want to bang everyone," the officer said. "These people have a hard enough time in the situation they're living in without making it worse by hitting them with a summons, having them travel to
While each 250 is required to be approved and signed by a supervisor, one former housing officer said getting them was easy: "Just go to the well."
The well, said this officer, is the lobby of any of the many housing buildings. Ryan Sheridan, one of the former officers who said he had never heard supervisors emphasize numbers, nonetheless acknowledged that the lobby and hallways were a legitimate source of 250s.
"Once they walk into the building, every UF-250 can come from a do-not-enter, meaning entering without a key," he said. "But once you ask them for an ID, 90 percent of the people live in the building. That's why the arrest rate is so low. They're not acting suspiciously, but like I said, they don't have a key to enter."
Deputy Inspector Holmes said she never emphasized numbers and scoffed at the notion that her officers were using broken locks to initiate 250s.
"I think that was bad information," she said.
One recent evening, the police stopped a 19-year-old man for spitting on the sidewalk, a health code violation, and entering
The reaction was natural. "People don't enjoy being stopped going to and from where they're going," one of the officers, Robert McNamara, said later. But the officers also had another rationale, he said. They had spotted the same man near the scene of a dropped gun some days earlier, and hoped to use the stop to check for outstanding warrants. None found, they let him go without citing him, using the kind of discretion necessary in these situations, Officer McNamara said.
Stop-and-frisk is a "valuable tool," he said, "but there needs to be some common sense when using the tool."
An article on July 12 about the New York Police Department's tactic known as "Stop, Question, Frisk" and its application in eight blocks of Brownsville, Brooklyn, referred imprecisely to the legal standard that governs when police officers are permitted to frisk someone. The United States Supreme Court has held that in order for the police to frisk someone they must have a reasonable belief that the person is armed and dangerous. The standard cited in the article — reasonable suspicion of a crime — is enough to justify a stop, but not enough to make a legal frisk.


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By highwater (registered) | Posted February 16, 2011 at 13:56:35 in reply to Comment 59862
Oy vey. It was a lighthearted reference to the pencil-throwing incident. I upvoted it because things having been getting a little dreary around here lately. The self-pitying trolling of late, has had the effect of making much of the discussion here all too earnest. I miss the days when you could toss off a remark like Matt's without fear of the voting police reaching for their smelling salts.
Let's hope the bitter after taste of the stadium debate melts away with blackened slush, and we can all come back out of our foxholes and engage in a little community-building banter once again.
I held back from posting a cartoon to the Citizen Journalism thread yesterday because I feared it wasn't 'serious' enough. Screw that. I'm heading over there right now.


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According to the Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary, sulfur, one of the most important elements in nature, plays a crucial role in the existence of all living organisms. Sulfur is a key component of certain proteins that make life possible. It is also one of the most abundant elements in the universe.
In addition to playing a vital role in the biology of animals and plants, sulfur also has a very important use as a fertilizer. The U.S. Department of Energy Jefferson Lab reports that sulfur is a component of lead-acid batteries and has various other industrial uses as well. Sulfur is an ingredient in gunpowder and certain insecticides. Sulfuric acid, a compound of sulfur, is the main form of sulfur used by industries.
The Encyclopedia Britannica defines pure sulfur as a yellow solid that is not soluble in water. Sulfur is not typically found in its pure form. It is found in nature in a variety of minerals such as barite and gypsum. These minerals are no longer an important source of sulfur for commercial purposes. Modern primary sources of sulfur for industry include petroleum and natural gas. Sulfur is a by-product of the processing of these two energy sources.


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Q: Do you take commissions outside the DC geographical area?
A: Absolutely! Anywhere in the solar system, we're ready.
Q: Do you have a GSA schedule?
A: While we continue to do work for government clients, we do not maintain a GSA rate card. This enables us to move much more adroitly than production companies encumbered with the substantial oversight requirements, and our clients have always been pleased with the workflow. If you're a government office looking to hire us, get in touch and we'd be pleased to discuss a variety of easy options.
Q: Are you looking for talent?
A: We're always looking for talent, but being good with a computer (ahem) ain't gonna cut it. If you think you have a special X-factor that makes you right for our team, get in touch!
Q: Do you consult as well as produce original content?


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Notice to Lobster Fishermen August 6, 2013
Notice to Lobster Fishermen
August 6, 2013
This notice serves as a reminder of the upcoming fall season closure required under Addendum XVII to the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commissions (Commission) American Lobster Fishery Management Plan which was approved in November 2011. The season closure applies to all Long Island Sound waters (LMA 6), extends from September 8 through November 28, inclusive, and applies to both recreational and commercial fisheries and all gears. Between those dates possession of lobsters taken from LMA 6 or from traps with LMA 6 trap tags is prohibited.
All lobster gear must be removed from the water during the closure, except that the plan allows fishermen two weeks at the beginning of the closure period (September 8 through September 21) to remove gear and two weeks prior to the late fall reopening (November 15 through November 28) to redeploy the gear. Traps cannot be baited until one week prior to reopening (November 22). An exception to the gear removal requirement is provided for fishermen who hold a conch (whelk) license for those lobster pots being actively fished for whelk. The take and landing of lobsters during these exception periods is prohibited.
The objective of Addendum XVIIs season closure is to reduce exploitation (the percentage of animals fishing takes from the population annually) by 10% starting January 1, 2013 to help rebuild the broad Southern New England lobster stock, including the local Long Island Sound component. The Commission took this action in response to the low level of abundance and persistent low production of young lobsters seen over the past decade across the entire New England stock complex (southern Massachusetts to Virginia, including offshore waters).
For further information, contact the DEEP Marine Fisheries Division by email at firstname.lastname@example.com, by mail at P.O. Box 719, Old Lyme, CT 06371 or by telephone at 860.434.6043 between the hours of 8:30 AM and 4:30 PM, Monday through Friday.
The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer that is committed to complying with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Please contact us at (860) 418-5910 or email@example.com if you: have a disability and need a communication aid or service; have limited proficiency in English and may need information in another language; or if you wish to file an ADA or Title VI discrimination complaint.
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If you owe more on your home than it is worth there are alternatives to foreclosure that allow you to avoid foreclosure. But you need to take action rather than just waiting for the bank or banks to decide what they want to do.
What do you want? What are your dreams going forward once this situation is resolved? It is not just a matter of giving up, there is hope and many others have rebuilt their lives. It will not be easy, but if you take steps for yourself, you can control some of your own destiny as you move forward. Some of this will be dictated by your own local market and personal situation but these steps listed from best to worst are open to you.
- Credit Counselling
- Get Current
- Forbearance
- Loan Assumption
- Short Sale or Pre-foreclosure Sale
- Foreclosure
You can do a combination of these movinf through your situation, the earlier you act the more is open to you. If you decide to sell your current home and ask for a pre-foreclsoure sale or short sale, the terms mean the same but are are used in different parts of the country you will need to find a real estate agent who knows what they are doing to represent you. You do not need to be behind on your payments to ask your lender for a short sale, but you will need to qualify for some of the governmanet programs by meeting certain requirements.
You will need to be honest with this real estate agent, and you are going to have to get over the fear and embarrassment you may be feeeling to move forward. If this agent knows what they are doing they know what you are going through and will try to make you feel comfortable whilst at the same time explaining the process as you move ahead. This agent is going to become your best friend, and like any professional expert will at times have to tell you stuff you don't want to hear.
- To initiate a short sale you are going to have to make the first calls to your bank or banks. you will need to give permission to these banks to speak with your agent in writing, again your agent should have this form ready for you to sign.
- You will also need to write a hardship letter, hardship is not just financial, emotional reasons are just as valid, divorce, medical, loss of job etc..
- You will need to gather at least three past months of pay stubs to verify your income
- You will need to provide the past threemonths of bank statements
- Complete a financial information form
- Last two years of tax returns
- Provide any home owner or condo association information. Who is it? Telephone and address? When you made last payment?
Your agent will provide the following:
- All contact information
- Listing agreement
- Comparative Market Assesment
- and once you have an offer: Purchase Agreement/Offer
- A preliminary HUD1, the closing sheet
Your agent will contact the banks involved and provide all this information above to them with a cover letter. There is no guarantee that that the bank will accept the offer. Whilst many of the baks are trying to speed up the process, a short sale is anything but, so be patient, both as a seller and if you are a buyer, the whole process varies from bank to bank, and negotiations can vary in length. this is another reason for using the services of an agent who has handled short sales before as they know the process and can guide you through it without giving you undue expectations. Good luck and remember, there is light ahead, and it is not a train but the end of the tunnel. Once this is behind you, you will be able to rebuild your life and start again.
If you are buying or selling on or around Tredyffrin Easttown or along the Main Line we can help you, contact us or connect
Feel free to subscribe to our blog to stay up to date with our latest posts and information on the Tredyffrin Easttown and Main Line Real Estate Market.


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EVERY OTHER WEEKED - Graphic Novel
This collaborative project is years in the making. I have been working with my brother to plan, write, and illustrate a creative non-fiction piece about my father's struggle with heroin addiction, which claimed his life suddenly in 2015. Due to the intensely emotional nature of working on this project, it is a slow progressing labor of love. Below are some sample pages from the piece.
Graphite, ink wash, and white gel pen.