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Top 10 biggest universities 2017: When we heard of the word 'university', most of us think about major institutions which is either in the United States or in Europe. Harvard, Oxford, Yale, Princeton, and Cambridge are the renowned example of university establishment which we ever heard. But the report shows that in term of enrollment, most of the best universities are located out side of Europe and America.
Presenting the list of the largest Universities of World in 2017
Education plays a king size role in developing the economy of any nation on this world. And so we made an attempt to know which are those Universities and Colleges of the world which made their place in biggest Universities in year 2017.
The following list of ten largest universities in the world according to enrollment numbers
1. Indira Gandhi National Open University, India : Indira Gandhi National Open University, India which is renowned as IGNOU, established in 1985. This is on-campus and distance learning university,. Not only the on-campus and distance learning university, IGNOU is also well known open university in India. The university serves students thirty-five countries and it has 21 schools and 2300 study centers. According to survey it takes the 1st position among the top 10 largest universities 2017.
2. Anadolu University: Taking the 2nd position, this Turkish university has a vast network in all over the world. There are the three distance learning programs, four vocational schools, nine institutes, seven schools, and twenty-eight research centers and also two campuses under this university. Apart from this, this university has more than 1,800 faculty members.
3. Islamic Azad University, Iran: This is the other Iranian university on this list is situated in Tehran and founded in 1982. This university has several branches in all over the Tehran, including the south, north and central Tehran with more than 1,900,000s from all over the globe. The highest body of the university is the Supreme Council for Cultural Revolution, which is also the main responsible for higher education in Iran. There various types of faculty are found including science, art, agriculture, medicine, technology etc. Due to this reason, student from all over the world is attracted by the university.
4. Allama Iqbal Open University: Being the first open university in Asia, Allama Iqbal Open University, which is also known as AIOU, made its most important campus in Islamabad and it has the biggest network of study center in all over the nation. The Allama Iqbal Open University also has distance education facilities and has also more than 900 faculty members. Now this is in 4th position.
5. Bangladesh National University, Bangladesh: This university provides both graduate and post-graduate level of education in over 1,600 colleges in all over the country which are affiliated by National University. The university is operated by the Bangladesh Government. According to the survey More than one million students are enrolled in this university.
6. Payame Noor University, Iran — 818, 150 students : Due to the large population of student, Payme Noor University takes the 6th position among the top 10 biggest/largest universities 2017. This university is situated in Teheran, Iran. Home of around 818, 150 students, Payame Noor University was founded in 1988 and this is run by Islamic republic of Iran. There are lots of departments in this University, such as Social science and economy, Human Science, Art & Media and Theology, Agriculture and Islamic Studies.
7. Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia: The Universitas Terbuka is in seventh position, situated in Indonesia. The university was founded in 1984, now the home of six-hundred and fifty thousand students. This educational center has a unique aim that within 2021 it wants to become a world-top Distance Learning University. That's why, there is also a strong importance put within the university on independent learning within the university.
8. Ramkhamhaeng University: Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok, Thailand is the 7th largest university of the world. It has two big campuses and also has two open universities in Thailand. It focuses on the developing a unique program by which they can reach urban and rural students in Thailand. Not only that, this university also develops other unique program by which they can exchange the information or detail with all other universities.
9. Tribhuvan University, Nepal — 500, 000 students : Taking the 9th position, the main campus of Tribhuvan University located in Kitipur a small town in Nepal. This is first higher education institution in Nepal, founded in 1959. According to the recent survey, presently this university has more than five hundred thousand students. It has thirty-eight central departments and also four researches centers. This university offer both graduate and post graduate degree to the student
10. University of Pune, India — 493, 531 students : In term of enrollment of the student, The University of Pune takes the tenth position among the world university. This university has more than five hundred thousand students and it was founded in 1949. Presently, this university offers more than four hundred course in diverse disciplines at both Undergraduate and Postgraduate levels. The two main faculties are Anthropology and Electronic Science, with many subcategories.
Interestingly, the top ten largest colleges in the world by enrollment are largely based outside of the U.S. and Europe, meaning that there is a wide range of top-class universities frequently ignored by the Western world. This list compiles ten such colleges.


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The Cloud is Driving Tech Hiring
The Cloud is Driving Tech Hiring
There's A Boom In The Cloud
The market for public cloud services is primed to explode over the next several years, according to a recent report from research firm IDC and Indeed. That has major implications for how tech firms recruit, hire, and retain tech pros with significant cloud expertise.
Worldwide spending on public cloud services such as Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) will hit $122.5 billion this year, an increase of 24.4 percent from 2016, the firm estimates. By 2020, spending could hit $203.4 billion worldwide.
"In 2017, discrete manufacturing, professional services, and banking will lead the pack in global spending on public cloud services as they look for greater scalability, higher performance, and faster access to new technologies," Eileen Smith, program director for IDC's Customer Insights and Analysis, wrote in a statement accompanying the data. "Combined, these three industries will account for one-third of worldwide public cloud services spending, or $41.2 billion."
If the firm's estimates hold, professional services will experience a 23.9 percent CAGR (compound annual growth rate) over the next five years, followed by retail (22.8 percent CAGR), media (22.5 percent CAGR), and telecommunications (22.1 percent CAGR). The United States will represent the biggest market for public cloud services.
"The cloud will become more distributed (through Internet of Things edge services and multicloud services), more trusted, more intelligent, more industry and workload-specialized, and more channel-mediated," Frank Gens, Senior Vice President and Chief Analyst at IDC, wrote in a second statement.
Beating the Competition to Great Talent
For companies that plan on adopting cloud services, that means the competition to hire tech pros with cloud expertise may heat up and stay hot over the long term. And that, in turn, means that high salaries and generous perks won't necessarily be enough to keep pros in place; a great corporate culture, paired with plenty of career opportunities, is what companies need to retain their best employees for the long term.
While having the above in place is no guarantee that high-performing employees will stick around for the long term, a positive corporate culture is a good way to ensure that a workforce stays motivated in a highly competitive environment. A good culture also makes it easier to recruit and hire for key roles.
What's in the "DNA" of an ideal corporate culture? According to Sarah Everett, People & Culture Manager at Relus Technologies, it includes the following elements:
- Opportunities for employees to learn new skills.
- Camaraderie among employees (yes, team-building activities work).
- Amenities and perks that keep employees happy and engaged.
- Stated ideals that motivate everyone to do their best.
- A sense of "big picture" goals for the company.
Everett adds, "The main relationships between culture and recruiting are associated with employee attraction, selection, and retention. From an attraction standpoint, culture is primarily about the image a company projects. Companies that take culture seriously know that their culture will attract candidates, no matter how competitive the job market."
Always be in the Know, Subscribe to the Relus Cloud Blog!

subset: commoncrawl


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It works well, the app subscribes to the RingCentral notification events and uses "Call Started" and "Call Completed" telephony status.
However sometimes when user call drops or otherwise ends obruptly, the "Call Completed" notification is not received which causes the user to stay on "Do Not Disrturb" after the call ended.
How can we ensure that we are always notified when calls end?


text: Shop for the Forester Carbide-Tipped Replacment 3/8" (68 Drive Link) Chain Loop Kit (Fits Husqvarna Model 455 Rancher) at Chain Saws Direct. Research chain saw accessories online. Find chain saw accessories & 3/8" Carbide Chanin 68E Ranche features and specifications. Get the best deal; compare prices now. Buy the direct and save.


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KARACHI: Overseas Pakistanis sent home remittances amounting to $11.2 billion in July-January 2015-16, which translates into a year-on-year increase of 5.98%, according to data released by the State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) on Wednesday.
Remittances amounted to $10.5 billion in the same seven months of the preceding fiscal year. They were almost $1.46 billion in December alone, which is 10.6% less than the remittances received in the preceding month, SBP data shows.
Pakistan receives remittances amounting to $9.7b in Jul-Dec
Pakistanis based in foreign countries sent home $18.4 billion in 2014-15, which translated into a year-on-year increase of 16.5%.
Inflows from Saudi Arabia were the largest source of remittances in the Jul-Jan period. These stood at $3.35 billion in the seven months, up 8.23% from the corresponding period of previous year.
Remittances from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) increased 9.24% to $2.48 billion on a year-on-year basis. Inflows from the UAE had registered the largest increase of 26.1% from any major remittance-sending country in 2014-15, SBP data shows.
In the first seven months of the current fiscal year, remittances from Dubai surged 39.71% year-on-year. But the figure for overall inflows from the UAE so far has remained subdued because of a 25.52% annual decline in remittances from Abu Dhabi over the same period.
Remittances from the United States and the United Kingdom were $1.52 billion and $1.42 billion, respectively, from July to January. The year-on-year change in remittances from the US and the UK was -4.97% and 2.42%, respectively.
Remittances from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, excluding Saudi Arabia and the UAE, stood at $1.36 billion in Jul-Jan, which is 12.47% higher than the remittances received from these countries in the same months of the preceding fiscal year.
Pakistan's trade gap broadens to $13.7b
Remittances from Oman in Jul-Jan equalled $458.7 million while those from Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar amounted to $426.24 million, $268.43 million and $210.77 million, respectively.
This means the overall share of the oil-rich GCC countries in Pakistan's remittances is over 64.37%. Many analysts fear remittances from these countries may dwindle going forward, as their governments begin to scale back infrastructure spending in the wake of a sharp fall in global oil prices.
Published in The Express Tribune, February 11th, 2016.
Like Business on Facebook, follow @TribuneBiz on Twitter to stay informed and join in the conversation.


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Joss Whedon was one of Veronica Mars' biggest fans back when the show aired between 2004 and 2007 - he even guest-starred in one season two episode - so there's no question that he's happy about the success of series creator Rob Thomas and star Kristen Bell's recent Kickstarter campaign to finance a movie based on the show. In fact, in a new interview with Buzzfeed, he described his reaction as "unfettered joy."
But does that mean he's thinking about utilizing the same method to revive cult favorite Firefly, much like Terriers series creator Shawn Ryan and Pushing Daisies creator Bryan Fuller seem to be doing? Not so much. Whedon explained:
"My fourth feeling when I read about [the Veronica Mars Kickstarter campaign] was a kind of dread. Because I realized the only thing that would be on everybody's mind right now. I've said repeatedly that I would love to make another movie with these guys, and that remains the case. It also remains the case that I'm booked up by Marvel for the next three years, and that I haven't even been able to get Dr. Horrible 2 off the ground because of that. So I don't even entertain the notion of entertaining the notion of doing this, and won't. Couple years from now, when Nathan [Fillion]'s no longer [on] Castle and I'm no longer the Tom Hagen of the Marvel Universe and making a giant movie, we might look and see where the market is then. But right now, it's a complete non-Kickstarter for me."
He also added that the budget necessities for another Firefly film - a follow-up to 2005's Serenity - greatly differ from that of the Veronica Mars film project. As in, he'd need a lot more.
"We come to Veronica Mars to hear her talk and hear her father talk. But Firefly/Serenity, it's kind of a different animal — and then there's also the question of what kind of animal it is. Because some people are talking about Firefly episodes. Some people are talking about [a new] Serenity. I think anything we could get off the ground would be appreciated by the fans. But what form it would take is I think under some debate.
For me, [Kickstarter] doesn't just open the floodgates. God knows, things are cheaper now than when we made even Serenity. Good effects can be done in a different manner. Nor is that universe all about spectacle either. But it is a tad more expensive — and a little all-consuming! And of course, there's the other fear: What if it's not that good? I can do something that's not that good — that's fine. But if I do that and it's not that good, I'm going to feel really stupid.
Because I'm too busy to deal with it, I did have a moment of just, "Oh my god! I'm in trouble now." I've always said, "Yes, I'd love to do another one," and it's still true. But I sort of got slapped in the face with it. Or probably will."
So, bottom line, it probably won't happen - at least not for a long time. Sadface.
RELATED: The 100 Best TV Shows of the 2000s
[via Buzzfeed]


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What do the following have in common…?
Customer experience, voice of the customer, market selection, client selection, client benefits, ROI measurement, no price erosion, not discounting, reducing risk of purchase, case studies, substitutes, alternatives, Total Cost of Ownership, benefits realisation, product or service management, solution development…
Answer: They all link and work together to create your value proposition.
The chances are that you have probably looked at each one of these things in isolation, but again, let's apply some strategy here (see posting titled: Strategy and the Fat Smoker). Let's plan a bit further forward, outside the immediate horizon of, "s**t, I've got to do something". If you pull all of these areas together and use a framework and process such as Futurecurve's Value Proposition Builder™, you can create a value proposition that stops price erosion and aligns your value with what your client needs and will pay for.
To stay in business and not only survive but thrive during this recession, you only have one sensible option: focus and hone your value. If clients complain that you are too expensive, then you are simply not demonstrating your superior value to them. You can, of course, keep offering the same product or service and cut your prices, if you want to go down the discounting route. But doing this means you are losing value during the sale – value that you won't be able to regain in the future. So don't do it! Building and developing your value proposition means proving to clients your superior value in bottom line terms, not making unsupported marketing claims about your value.
Our new book "Creating and Delivering your Value Proposition: Managing Customer Experience for Profit" (published by Kogan Page and available from September 2009), answers many of the 'so what' questions. "OK, I've done my customer satisfaction surveys, I've got my benefits worked out, I've even got my ROI or TCO calculated, but how do I pull all of that together to demonstrate superior value and make money?" Our new book shows you how.
Immediate Action
To get a flavour: download our Value Propositions white paper.
Written by Cindy Barnes


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During a presentation around the boardroom table at a Rugby SA business series lunch, Mark Reidy shared his story of how The Road Home wellbeing program had suffered a major setback when the state RSL went into administration.
After donated road bikes & kayaks were re-possessed, The Road Home was looking for ways to get the equipment back. Moved by this cause, Rigoni's Bistro decided something needed to be done; so we put our heads together & decided to hold a fundraising lunch, where we are hoping to raise around $12,000.
During the 3 course lunch, there will be silent auctions & a couple of live auctions as well with prizes ranging from back vintage magnums to experience packages.
If you can't make the lunch we are also taking any monetary or in-kind donations. Simply come in and see us or give us a call/email on the details below.
Bookings can be made via Dimmi, our online booking platform who have kindly waived all fees for this event. Full payment is required on booking.
They do this by raising awareness and funds to support both research and projects that deliver optimal care and health outcomes to those veterans, emergency personnel and their families throughout Australia.
Rigoni's will be holding a fundraising dinner for The Repat Foundation, during the school holiday. Tickets are just $100 for a 3-course meal with wine, with the full $100 going to The Repat Foundation, as Rigoni's sponsors the food and WineWise Consulting sponsoring the wine.
Book now to secure your place – both at the fundraising dinner and in helping to improve the health and wellbeing of Australia's veterans, emergency personnel, and their families.
15th July | $100 per person | 12– 3 pm
Rsvp 12th July | www.rigonis.com.au | 8231 5160 | email@example.com


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Monday, March 30, 2009
How to Magnetize your Land Raider Redeemer/Crusader
As soon as I saw this model I knew I wanted to get one! I saw the rules for the flamestorm cannon and knew it would be great to roast all the local marine armies at the local game store. But then I started reading posts about how well the hurricane bolters were doing for people in their games so I couldn't decide on which variant to use. I found some guides on how to magnetize but I found some of them hard to follow. I'm no engineer and I would have liked more info/pictures to help me along. So I thought I'd try to do one, with more pictures and hopefully easier to follow insturctions. So here we go!
The first thing I did was take an inventory of all my peices to see how they fit together. I did a lot of dry fitting to see how the pieces interacted and how they could be put together best. I had magnetized a Baal Predator already (will post some pics of that soon) and thought about doing it the same way. I had put magnets just under the optical device at the top of the strut so I could switch the flamers out for the heavy bolters, and that worked well, but the LR was built just a bit differently. The bottom support threw me for a loop. That's when I decided to glue down the optical device on the LR and just change out the weapons right off the strut. So I went right for it.
Here's some of the dry fitting I did, it may have been one of the more important steps in the whole process.
I first started by priming all the gun bits. Some people like to prime on the sprue, but I hate having the marks left over after you cut off the pieces. Here's all the pieces laid out in my priming box. Do one side, let dry, then flip them over for the other side. Really easy.
After the priming was done, it was time to start all the drilling on the bits. I started with the struts. I whittled down the cylindrical hubs that would normally hold the guns until they were flat.
(original shape) (after cutting)
I next drilled through the part that held the hubs. I used a 1/8th inch drill bit because I learned on my Baal Predator that GW likes the 1/8th measurement. I ordered the magnets in the 1/8th by 1/16th and they fit gorgeously into all the places I have needed to magnetize. I would suggest getting this size magnet for what you have to do, they are plenty strong to boot. They hold my all metal flamers quite well on the side of my Baal pred.
(drilling through) (call me cheap, but who needs a pin-vise?)
Finished product x2
At this point I glued the magnets into the struts. They are the most important magnets, because most of the direction of the other magnets will be determined by the polarity of these two guys. One note of caution is to let the superglue dry completely before you let these get near any other magnets. The magnets are so strong that they will fly together when close, and they can become glued together. That is bad. Also, when the glue is dry, you can then make sure your polarity of the other magnets is correct by testing them against the originals in the struts.
Next I took the drill bit to the gun pieces to widen the holes a bit so the magnets would slide in easier.
After the strut magnets had dried I tested the polarity and then glued the magnets into the 4 different guns.
Next it was time to figure out how to attach the outer armor panels. I had a hard time figuring this part out, and truth be told it turned out worse than I had really wanted. But, it did turn out acceptable. The armor plates stick out a bit too much, but I am ok with it.
I began by drilling into the inner tabs on the plates themselves. Because they are so thin it was kind of difficult. So I used my exacto to cut out the pieces that they drill refused to get.
That let perfect sized sockets to help hold the magnet in place. It gives the joint a bit more strenght than just gluing the magnet right onto the flat of the armor panel. The guns got the drill bit next, to allow for a magnet to sit on the outside and attach to the armor panel.
After that I just had to glue magnets into all those new areas and I was ready to move on.
I hope that was helpful and was easier to follow, with the pictures being somewhat helpful. I wish I had a more detailed version before I began, but the ones I did find did help me along the way.
Also, check out K&J Magnetics. These guys are awesome. Fast shipping and killer prices. Right now they have these same sized magnets for $3.00 for only 100 of them. Killer deal, you really can't beat it anywhere else. The link is on the side, just go to the surplus page and the 3 mm by 1.5 mm are the ones you want. Who knows how long they will be at that price?
As I get further along with this project I will post more pictures. There is always something else to do right? But I am anxious to get this tank done and painted, it is going to wow them at the local club!
Posted by Michael at 9:19 PM 2 comments Links to this post
Labels: conversion, crusader, how to, land raider, magnetize, redeemer
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
Boards have passed, but did I?
So my national boards exams are over, and now the waiting begins to see what how I did. It should be another month before I know, and the waiting is going to possibly kill me.
But on to happier things. I should now have some time to spend on some of my hobbies, but more importantly with my family.
I finally got back to do some painting. One work in progress is the dreadnought in the banner at the top. I converted him from the plastic dread from the AoBR box set. I wanted a death company dread, and I had no real way of finding a right-hand CCW, other than Forgeworld of course. I took the left hand from one and put it on the right hand side. It was some fairly simple cutting, and in the end and I was pleased with the results. I'm glad my first one went pretty well, it will keep me trying later when I have other good ideas.
Here's some other pictures of it. It is mostly done with painting, but it needs to be based and there are some more final touches it needs.
Posted by Michael at 10:28 PM 0 comments Links to this post
Labels: blood angels, conversion, death company, dreadnaught, dreadnought
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First part of an interesting attempt at a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of Wahhabism in B-H, written in 2007 by a very unusual international functionary
Intended Outcome
Wahhabism in B-H is an alien, small, but according to some sources growing tendency within B-H. It is relatively successful in recruiting young 'converts' from within the B-H moderate Muslim tradition circles. Wahhabism identifies mainstream Bosnian Muslims as false Muslims and even as enemies. It has some potential to result in growing, and even violent confrontation with moderate Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This could have serious ramifications for B-H in its efforts to maintain a pluralistic society, as well as complicate the International War on terrorism, by providing an ever safer environment for transient terrorists. If the Wahhabi reportedly growth tendency is not effectively stopped and reversed by the indigenous Muslim structures, the challenge of Wahhabism in B-H will have serious implications for the rest of Europe.
For most International Community (IC) personnel, this is the first time in their careers that they have had to deal with any kind of Islamic issue. Part of the local media, often biased by nationalistic or/and political interests, have tried to present the problem of Wahhabism in B-H as a growing tendency that is a threat to safety and security not only in the country but also in the rest of Europe. These media have used a discourse very similar to that used at the beginning of the 90's, changing the term 'Islamic fundamentalism' by 'Wahhabism'. On the other hand, media close to the Bosniak establishment have tried to 'hide' any evidence of the Wahhabi presence in B-H, or at least to play down the importance of the phenomenon.
Most of the information gathered until now is based on the regurgitation of media or biased spread of rumours without further confirmation. A serious analysis must try to define who is a real follower of Wahhabism, in order to avoid misinterpretations. Only then can proper proposals be developed for stopping the 'reported' growing tendency, and reversing it.
This is a paper on the situation of Wahhabism in B-H, intended to represent original thinking about the real picture of the Islamic community in the country and not a 'regurgitation of open-source wisdom'.
The purpose of this document is to disseminate it to any member of the International Community who has to deal with this issue. For most of them, it is the first time they have had to get in touch with Islam. It is very important to defeat prejudices and misunderstandings that present obstacles to their proper job performances.
This 'handbook' would contribute by increasing the level of the information obtained by the above-mentioned personnel, and also contribute to a better IC relationship with the local community. The book would also contribute to the ability of IC personnel to distinguish what is a real threat to safety and security in B-H.
1. Introduction
2. Islam in Bosnia-Herzegovina: short historical review
a) The Ottoman period
b) The Habsburg period
c) The Kingdom of Yugoslavia
d) The Second World War and the Tito period
3. Traditional Islam in B-H versus Wahabism / Salafism
4. Current Situation of Wahhabism / Salafism
a) 'Wahhabi' stream 'loyal' to the B-H Islamic community
b) 'Wahhabi' stream 'outside' the B-H Islamic community
i) Missionary Salafism / Wahhabism
ii) Jihadi Salafism / Wahhabism
5. Wahhabi links to international terrorism
6. Conclusions
During and just after the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina (B-H) the relationship between the Bosniak part of the new state of B-H and the Muslim world were elevated to an unprecedented level. The financial support coming from foreign Muslim countries undermined the power of the well-organized and structured Bosnian Islamic community . The Islamic revival that began in Yugoslavia in the 70's decade, which was developed in the framework of the local Muslim institutions and tradition, turned during and after the war to a more politicized revitalization influenced by foreign elements as the Arab fighters and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from the Middle East.
The Official Islamic community has been taking control of Islam in B-H since the end of the 1992-95 war. However, the Islamic Community has recognized the presence of religious organizations outside its control, and that one of these organizations is an obstacle for the legitimate activities of the wider Islamic Community.
Besides efforts on behalf of the Islamic Community to counter Wahhabi influence, ordinary believers are very often staunch opponents of Wahhabism and that might be the really insurmountable obstacle in front of Wahhabism in B-H. Since the end of the war the largely secular and European attitude among the Bosniaks has caused friction with foreign Islamic extremists. Different reports on incidents involving moderate and radical Muslims have shown that Wahhabi communities are willing to use coercive methods to spread their radical ideas. Traditional Muslims have also demonstrated that they can use radical methods to counter the spread of the Wahhabi movement in B-H.
Assessments show that, despite their efforts, the Wahhabi movement does not have many supporters in B-H. The general population is afraid of their fundamentalist approach towards religion. B-H Muslims want to maintain the local traditional and moderate version of Islam.
While the predominance of traditional 'Bosniak' Islam is widespread, the Wahhabi movement has established itself in some areas of B-H. Some radical groups have been determined in their efforts to publicly confront the role of the B-H official Islamic Community and its control over Islamic religion in B-H, using their radical Wahhabi interpretation of the Koran. Their actions have drawn the attention of both local and international media and security services.
An element of the local media, that often shows nationalist or political bias, has tried to show the problem of Wahhabism in B-H as a growing threat against the safety and security within B-H and perhaps within the rest of Europe. This media element has used a theme that is similar to that used at the beginning of the 1990's, in changing the term 'Islamic fundamentalism' to 'Wahhabism'. To counter this, media close to the Bosniak establishment, have tried to 'hide' any evidence of the Wahhabi presence in B-H or, at least, to downplay the significant of their influence.
2. Islam in B-H: short historical review
Islam in B-H was introduced by the Ottoman Empire. From 1463 to 1878 this empire ruled the area. So, the history of Islam in Bosnia is intimately connected to the history of Islam in the Ottoman Empire. The State within the Ottoman Empire, like other Muslim empires before, was organized according to the principle of organic unity of religious and political authority. They did however introduce an unprecedented hierarchy of Muslims scholars or Ulama. Muftis, Mudarris and Imams, together with judges, Qadis, and Friday prayer preachers, or Khatibs, were under state jurisdiction and they were very often state officials. Because this rigid organisation, there was little autonomy in interpretation and practice of Islam in Bosnia.
The Ottoman troops also brought the Sunni Islam and the official legal school to the Ottoman Empire: the Hanafi School of Jurisprudence1. The Hanafi is one of the four Sunni legal schools. It is the largest one and it is followed by approximately 30 percent of Muslims worldwide. This school is predominant in Turkey, northern Egypt, Levant, and amongst the Muslim communities of the Balkans, Central and South Asia, China, Russia and Ukraine. Hanafi School has been considered by many authors as the most open-minded School. Early Hanafism was associated with the partisans of Ra'y (translation: Opinion). Other schools, however, especially Hanbalism, that wanted to base everything on formal reports about the prophetic Sunna, grew out of the party of Hadith. This has been cast as 'rationalism vs. traditionalism'. According to the Hanafi School, the Iytihad, or individual reasoning, is often a used source of the Sharia, or Islamic Law, together with customs or 'Urf, hence a degree of flexibility in interpretation.(1)
In July 1878 the Congress of European powers held in Berlin, gave Habsburg monarchy the right to occupy and administer Bosnia. The Bosniak resisted the occupying Habsburg forces but their three-month resistance was eventually crushed in October 1878.
The relations between religion and state in the Habsburg monarchy were based upon the concept of 'recognized religious communities' which was adopted in 1874. According to this concept, the state guarantees freedom of conscience, belief and private manifestations of religious beliefs and practice.
The Habsburg government introduced this concept in Bosnia. Six religious communities were given the status of 'recognized religions': Islamic, Serbian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Evangelic and Judaic. The status of Islam dramatically changed. Instead of being the basic principle of social cohesion as it was in the Ottoman times, it now became one of several 'recognized religions' within a non-Muslim state. The Bosniaks became a religious minority instead of being a part of the ruling elite.
This change brought about a new challenge to the Bosniaks: to build up a system of the administration of Islamic affairs that would not be identical with the organization of the state. Christians and Jews in Bosnia were in comparative advantage. Under the Ottomans they already had a separate communal organization, which enabled them to easily adapt to the Habsburg regime. Relying upon Ottoman heritage and responding to new challenges during the first two decades of Habsburg rule, the Bosniaks built a new administration of Islamic affairs. This system included religious hierarchy or 'ilmyya, religious education or maarif, endowments or waqf and sharia courts for religious issues.
The system was gradually built through the struggle over the prerogatives for the appointment of key officials, allocation of funding and the running of institutions. The struggle ended on 15 April 1909 when the Habsburg monarch approved the Statute for autonomous administration of Islamic endowments and educational affairs.
The basic features of the administration of Islamic affairs envisaged in the Statute of 1909 were the creation of a council of ulama headed by the Rais Ul Ulama and the introduction of autonomy and elections into the administration of endowments and religious schools.
In 1918 the Habsburg monarchy disintegrated and Bosnia was incorporated in a new South Slav state, initially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and later renamed as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The administration of Islamic affairs in Bosnia, as developed in the Habsburg times, continued to function. The Muslims in other parts of Yugoslavia had a separate religious administration.
This state of affairs lasted until 1930, when the new regime of the Yugoslav King Aleksandar Karađorđević decided to introduce a unified administration of religious affairs for all Muslims in the country and virtually took over the control of that administration, according to his ideology of 'Yugoslav Unitarism', which viewed different South Slav ethnic groups as one nation and attended to eliminate any organization alongside ethnic criteria.
The state control over the Yugoslav Islamic Community was, to some extent, relaxed in 1936, when a Bosniak-based political party, the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, joined a coalition government in Belgrade. The relaxation of state control over the community did not mean the return of autonomy from 1909. Rather, a new type of influence was introduced, that of a Muslim political party.
According to the 1936 Yugoslav Islamic Community Constitution, the seat of Rais Ul Ulema, which had been moved during the previous period to Belgrade, returned to Sarajevo.
The World War Two broke out in 1939 and the Nazis and their collaborationists occupied Bosnia, together with other parts of Yugoslavia. The leadership of the Yugoslav Islamic Community stuck to the policy of keeping the existing administration of Islamic affairs intact until the war ended.
The end of the war in 1945 was accompanied by the change of state organization and political regime in the country. The Unitarian concept of Yugoslavia was replaced by that of federation, kingdom by republic and parliamentarian democracy by socialist 'people's democracy'. These changes greatly affected the position of Islam, as well as other religions, and the organization of the Islamic community .
The socialist regime proclaimed 'the separation of church from state' and the principle that 'religion is a private affair of the citizens'. These principles of secular state were interpreted in socialist practice as subjugation of religious communities to state as 'allies of the capitalists' and the persecution of those known to be believers.
The change affected in the social, political and legal positions of religion in Bosnia affected all segments of the administration of Islamic affairs. First, Sharia courts were abolished (5 March 1946) and the Islamic law lost its binding legal force for the Muslims.
Second, in 1952 the government closed all elementary religious maktabs and left only one secondary school, the 'Gazi Husrevbeg' Madrasa in Sarajevo, to prepare future imams and khatibs. Religious instruction to the ordinary believers could be given only during weekends in mosques and even that legal possibility was restricted by the policy of the local authorities.
Third, waqf property was largely expropriated and nationalized between 1945 and 1958. During the late 1960s, the socialist regime in Yugoslavia became more liberal. Consequently, more space for activities was given to religious communities. At the same time, the Federal Constitution of Yugoslavia of 1968 gave more power to federal units. These developments found their reflection in the Constitution of the Islamic Community of 5 November 1968.
e) The Islamic revival
During the 1970s and 1980s, Bosnia and other parts of Yugoslavia witnessed Islamic revival.
The Islamic revival in B-H started in the 1970s due to several factors:
- a certain aperture of the then Yugoslav regime.
- an improved economic situation.
- the graduation of a new generation of young Muslims intellectuals from Yugoslav and Middle Eastern universities.
- global trends in the Muslim world that began in the Petroleum Crisis in 1973 and culminated in the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
- the main manifestations of revival until 1992 were:
- rebuilding or construction of mosques financed by local money except in a few cases.
- opening or reopening of education institutions.
- publishing of Islamic texts and periodicals.
- intensified personal religiosity and use of Islamic social symbols.
- establishment of Muslim political organizations.
- emergence of Muslim solidarity institutions.
During this period, the Islamic revival in B-H happened into the institutional framework of the Islamic Community. Alternative organizations were practically ignored. This would be dramatically changed after April 1992.
For all these activities the existing Constitution of the Islamic Community was too narrow. Also in 1974 Yugoslavia adopted a new constitution, which moved the state organization toward confederacy. As in the past, changes in the political system found reflection in the organization of the Islamic Community.
On 12 April 1990 the Supreme Islamic Assembly in Sarajevo passed a new Constitution of the Islamic Community. This constitution divided the institutional structure of the Islamic Community into organs, institutions, and officials. The organs of the Community were local yamaas boards, formed mostly formed in the level of boroughs, Mufti offices which were almost at the level of district, the Islamic Communities assemblies and their executive organs, mashiats, the jurisdiction of which coincided with the borders of the Yugoslav states, and finally, the Supreme Assembly of the Islamic Community as the highest representative body of the Muslims in Yugoslavia. The executive body of this assembly was the Riaset, at the head of which stands Rais Ul Ulema as a religious leader of the Muslims in Yugoslavia. The seat of Riaset is in Sarajevo. Members of all these bodies were to be elected and their term of office was limited. There was also the Islamic Council, a body of scholars in charge of keeping constitution within the Islamic Community and providing interpretation of Islamic teachings.
The institutions of the Islamic Community were madrasas, faculties, institutes, libraries and a museum. The Constitution also provided for the establishment of charitable, humanitarian and other institution, something that was unimaginable in Bosnia during previous decades.
In 1992 the Yugoslav Federation broke down and its 'domino effect' brought an end to all organizations, associations and institutions built on the same principle.
In 1993 the representatives of different bodies of the Islamic Community, Muslim organizations and institutions, met in Sarajevo and proclaimed themselves as the Constituent Assembly of the Islamic Community. This Assembly called for the reconstruction of the autonomous Islamic Community in Bosnia and proclaimed itself as the highest authority in the Community and passed on the same day an interim Basic Regulation that will serve as a legal basis for the organization and function of the Islamic Community until the end of the war.
However, the interim Basic Regulation for all practical purposes relied mainly on the Constitution of the Islamic Community of 1990, which had been adjusted in certain aspects to meet demands of the new situation. The new organization structure again was composed of organs, institutions and officials. Basic organs were the same: yamaa, boards, Mufti offices. Others were adjusted: Naibu Ar Rais, Deputy Rais, replaced the President of the Mashiat, the Riaset replaced Mashiat and Constituent Assembly replaced the Assembly of the Islamic Community. Institutions and officials remained the same.
The organization of the Islamic Community from the time of the Yugoslav Federation was slightly modified to fit the circumstances of independent Republic of B-H. The basic regulation of 1993 provides that the Constituent Assembly will call for elections after the war and thus replace the emergency administration with a permanent one. The elections were conducted in the spring of 1995 and permanent Assembly of the Islamic Community was constituted on 28 April 1995. On 26 November 1997 this Assembly adopted a new Constitution, which is a legal basis for the present administration of Islamic Affairs in Bosnia.
For more than 500 years Bosnian Muslims have maintained the Hanafi tradition, following a moderate and open-minded version of Islam: rich on tradition, tolerant of other communities and compatible with western values. The Islamic revival in B-H, which began after the secularist Tito period, underwent radical changes from the beginning of the war in April 1992. In those parts of B-H under Serbian and Croatian forces, 75 per cent of Bosnian territory was 'cleansed' of Muslims, while mosques and other Islamic buildings were in almost all cases destroyed.(2) However, freedom for Islamic activities became almost unlimited in some territories under the control of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is reported that several hundred Afghan-Arab Mujahidin, or Holy Warriors, joined with, fought alongside Bosniaks during the 1992-5 war in B-H. Highly religious and motivated, they brought a specific understanding of Islam with them and they tried to indoctrinate those ideas into Bosniak minds, having the opportunity to preach and spread propaganda freely. Thus the Wahhabi ideas surfaced for the first time on a wider scale. This foreign creed was different from the moderate and traditional version of Islam in B-H. During this time the relations between B-H and the Muslim world were elevated to an unprecedented level. The number of graduates of Islamic Studies outside the country increased and Islamic literature arrived in significant quantities. Additionally, the economic power of local populations was practically reduced to nothing and the foreign agencies became the prime founders of the Islamic revival. This financial support, coming from foreign Muslim countries, undermined the power of the well-organized and structured Bosnian Islamic community . Saudi Arabian funding of mosques and economic help aimed to confirm Saudi global Muslim leadership (vs. Iran) and to bring Bosnian Muslims closer to beliefs and practices acceptable to Wahhabism.
The activities of the Islamic Community in B-H have always included charity, income-generating projects and Waqf (religious endowment). The Islamic Community of B-H has been the exclusive administrator of these endowments for decades. However, several multi million dollar foreign Waqfs were established after 1995, which, according to the contract with the Islamic Community, were granted full autonomy for various periods of time, usually two decades. The Cultural Centre King Fahd (CCKF) in Sarajevo is an example of this process, together with the Saudi cultural centre in Bugojno and the Cultural Centre in Hadžići.
The financing of the reconstruction of a mosque by a Saudi based organization was a part of a strategy aimed at acquiring the spiritual leadership of the community. The result of this process is the replacement of the Hanafi, the moderate traditional local version of Islam, with Wahhabism, (3) a more radical and intolerant Saudi version that in some cases might be a shift toward more radical and, possibly, terrorist activities. The elder and established Imams in some areas, who stand for a more moderate Islam, were more controlled and restricted in their activities.
In the past, the High Saudi Commission for the Relief of Bosnian Muslims (HSC) has administered the Cultural Centre King Fahd without consulting the Islamic Community of B-H. The HSC gave full support to different Wahhabi organisations, including Active Islamic Youth (AIO) and different Islamic NGO's. After the terrorist attacks in the US on 11 Sep 01, the situation changed because the media identified the HSC and related organisations as potential sources of extremism. Some of their members were arrested or questioned by local police or international forces about their links to terrorism. At the end of 2002, the Cultural Centre King Fahd, tried to change its public image and attempted to distance itself from these extremist circles, and established closer relations with the official Islamic Community of B-H. When the government of Saudi Arabia decided to close the HSC all the mosques whose construction was financed by the HSC were handed over to the B-H Islamic Community, and the King Fahd Cultural Centres in Sarajevo and Mostar to the Embassy of Saudi Arabia for management. According to Abdul Aziz Al Akili, Cultural Attaché with the Saudi Arabia Embassy in B-H, the King Fahd Cultural Centre is a cultural institution that remains under the supervision and care of the Saudi Arabian Embassy. Despite of this fact, the facilities of the Cultural Centre King Fahd and the King Fahd Mosque in Dobrinje, Sarajevo, are still the epicentre of the spreading of radical ideas
in B-H.
The spreading of radical ideas in B-H has been linked to the return process of the people who were displaced during the war and to the social, economic and education situation within the country. The return of Muslims to some areas of B-H controlled by Bosnian Serbs or B-Croats is creating an unstable local climate, potentially leading to increased ethnic tensions and inter-ethnic incidents. Some of these Muslim returnees are members of the Wahhabi sect. The perceived harassment of Bosniaks may stimulate an increased involvement of organizations tied to Islamic extremism in local communities. Reportedly, Wahhabism was already attempting to take advantage of Bosniak feelings of frustration by trying to radicalize the youth of these areas. These radical movements are taking advantage of the poor condition of education and social services, in some areas, and offering young people a variety of possibilities, as means to subsequently recruit them. The same policy has been used by different radical Islamic movements all over the world.
Extremist recruiters, who are likely to be a few years older, take the young people under their care, organizing bonding activities like camping trips and sporting events. The recruiter gradually isolates the recruits from their families and steps into the role of mentor. In this newfound clique, young recruits find the social integration and spiritual space they have yearned for, as radical indoctrination intensifies, and bonds tighten around a shared worldview.
Radical religious groups are also offering health and social services to former drug users and petty criminals. The weak mental and physical condition of the addicts makes them easy targets for indoctrination and recruiting. In addition, former drug users are familiar with illegal activities and once recruited these individuals may be used to support the organization, through criminal activity. For these reasons petty criminals inside jails all around Europe are also recruited.
4. Current situation of Wahhabism in B-H
B-H in the 1990s was in a unique situation: it had the political and mobilizing structures in place for the creation of an Islamic state. Nevertheless, it lacked the cultural framework around which to mobilize social support, nor did it have a context in which to develop a strong Islamic social movement. Islam was used more in a nationalist context rather than as a pervasive issue that could transform the society. At the moment, despite its efforts, the Wahhabi movement does not have many supporters in B-H. The general population appears to be afraid of their fundamentalist approach towards religion. The Bosnian Muslims have been among the most secularised Muslim populations in the world. The largely secular and European attitude among the Bosniaks has caused friction with foreign Islamic extremists. In the past, Islamic radical groups have been financed through the donations of Arabic countries and by non-governmental organizations that were headquartered in B-H. These NGOs have been present in the Balkans since the 1990s, many evolving from the conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo. Since then, these organizations have developed support structures that have proven to be easily exploited by terrorist and extremist groups. As a consequence of a number of worldwide terrorist attacks, the situation dramatically changed with police starting to raid a number of Arab charities. The arrests of suspected terrorists alerted local and international attention to the birth of a different interpretation of Islam in B-H. Also the situation in Saudi Arabia has undergone serious changes. Currently, the Saudi Kingdom, including the royal family, is a significant target for international terrorist groups linked to Salafi ideas.(4) The Saudi authorities are now more careful about the final use of the money that they send abroad. It is however necessary to be aware of the fact that the radical networks have been looking for other financial sources to support their activities and are careful to avoid police and intelligence agencies. An important consideration that guides the groups is time. They do not attach the same imperative to their objectives that Western nations might. The spreading of their radical ideas transcends a time-linked end state. If they perceive that the situation is not good to achieve their goals, they may move to isolated areas where they can practice their version of Islam, waiting for the right moment to proceed with their 'mission': that is to establish B-H as a homogenous Islamic country, based exclusively on the principles of the Sharia. This is the concept of Hijra or emigration that radical groups associate with a kind of spiritual retirement outside a 'corrupted society' or Yahilia, the 'dark' period before Islam. Some Bosnian Muslim radicals have lost their respect for the leaders of the official Islamic Community. These Salafis consider the local Islamic Community as ignorant, lacking initiative, indifferent and transgressing Islamic norms. This is the likely attitude of some radical groups in B-H currently.
B-H local authorities and the Official Islamic Community attempt to counter Salafi influence. Additionally ordinary believers are very often staunch opponents of Salafis, and this might be the insurmountable obstacle for Salafism in B-H. It is possible that the Wahhabi movement does not have many supporters in B-H because the general population is afraid of their fundamentalist approach towards religion. They want to maintain the traditional local and moderate version of Islam.
The measures that have been taken by the local and international authorities to raid a number of Arab charities, to block their bank accounts, to search for suspicious financial operations and to close some of these organizations, have been successful and, consequently, these organizations have to find alternative financial sources to support their activities. These measures, together with the secular attitude of the Bosniaks and the well-organised Islamic Community, have hampered the spreading of radical ideas in B-H.
The official Islamic community has been taking control for Islam in B-H since the end of the 1992-95 war. (5)
At the end of 2006, the strategy of some Wahhabi leaders of openly challenging the B-H Islamic Community and their public statements, labelling Bosnian traditional Islam as 'communist Islam', have increased the traditional Muslims' animosity towards him and the rest of the Wahhabi community. Despite the fact that the stance of the B-H Islamic Community has repeatedly been considered as unclear and ambiguous, and intellectuals, scholars and journalists have continually asked for an active position to tackle Wahhabism, the 'tardy and shy' measures taken by the B-H Islamic Community since the end of 2006, can be considered as positive. The response of the B-H Islamic Community has increased the 'schism' that had been observed in the Salafi community in B-H for the last month. Mustafa Ćerić, the leader of the B-H official Islamic Community has gathered around him, not only the traditional Bosnian Muslim believers but also a part of the Salafi reformists that want to distance themselves of the more radical wing of the movement. The more radical elements of the Salafi community are almost isolated by the rest of the Muslim society.
B-H Wahhabi movement is currently comprised of two main streams:
- a Salafi / Wahhabi stream loyal to the B-H Islamic Community;
- a Salafi / Wahhabi stream outside the control of the B-H Islamic Community. This stream can also be divided into two main groups: Missionary and Jihadi.
Nezim Halilović, high-ranking official of the B-H Islamic Community, has been considered to be the main Salafi / Wahhabi leader in B-H.(6) Despite this, he is totally opposed to those Salafis / Wahhabis that want to split from the Islamic Community. According to Halilović, they are undermining the unity of Muslims.(7) Halilović is likely the leader of those Salafis who want to distance themselves from the more radical elements and gather around the official Islamic Community. Some local scholar refuses that Halilović is a Salafi or a Wahhabi follower and labelled him only as an ultra conservative and nationalistic traditional Bosnian believer.
Former AIO members, close to SAFF magazine, as Semir Imamović, defend that is possible to cooperate with the Islamic community if it will benefit Islam and Muslims.(8) This circle has also defended the need for dialogue between islamic scholars and religious leaders of other faiths and confessions, and confessions, and for religious tolerance since both are firmly rooted in the Koran and the Sunnah of Allah́s Prophet. Samir Avdić, member of SAFF circle, has stated that he would cooperate with SIPA (State Investigation and Protection Agency) in denouncing terrorist. Semir Imamović, (9) has recommended that Bosnian Salafists should be advised on how to be civil to other people, and how to show respect for the opinions of others. SAFF has published the fatwas issued by important scholars, the European Council for Fatwas and Research (ECFR), as well as a part of the study by Abdul Karim Zaidan which he presented at the session of the Rabita (Muslim World League) Fiqh (Jurisprudence) Council in which he sets forth the arguments about when permission can be granted to engage politically, to vote, and take part in elections.
The Salafi / Wahhabi community outside the control of the B-H Islamic Community can also be divided in two main groups: Missionary and Jihadi.(10)
i) Missionary 'Wahhabism'
Muhamed Porča, the Imam of the 'Al-Tawhid' Mosque in Vienna, who has repeatedly stated his opposition towards the B-H Islamic Community, is considered to be the spiritual leader of the Bosnian Salafi / Wahhabi movement in Austria, and a middle-man between some Middle Eastern NGO's and Salafis / Wahhabis in B-H. Members of the official B-H Islamic Community have condemned Porča's and other radical leaders' idea to set up a parallel Islamic Community in B-H. Porča can be considered as the leader of Bosnian Missionary Salafism / Wahhabism without any relationship with the B-H Islamic Community . After his studies in Saudi Arabia, Porča arrived in Austria in 1993 to serve as an imam. From the moment he was denied a job at Sarajevo's Faculty of Islamic Studies on his return to B-H, Porča started implementing the idea of creating an Islamic community parallel to the official one lead by Reis Mustafa Efendi Ćerić. Porča has not succeeded in this but he has managed to strengthen the Wahhabi movement specially among the Bosnian Diaspora to an unprecedented extent. This outcome took time to achieve, but, owing above all to the inertness of the B-H Islamic Community, Porča and the like-minded Adnan Buzar (11) and Senad Podojak had ample time.(12) The Islamic Community of Bosniaks in Austria, as well as the Islamic Community of Muslims in Austria, have unequivocally disassociated themselves from the Wahhabi movement, whose members - they believe - are doing unprecedented damage to all Muslims in Austria.
'The Diaspora has been neglected and ... there was no reaction to developments among their members. Most of the divergence among Bosnian Muslims was originated in the EU. Many individuals and in some cases 'džemats' refer to Vienna and at the same time their links with Bosnian scholars are becoming increasingly tenous. As a result relations with the Muslim community have become so strained that Muslim have drawm arms against Muslims, and some have even come to an untimely end. There is no answer as to how all this will end because it is not yet clear if the current state of affairs will have any impact on B-H. Many young men who started practicing Islam only recently feel lost and are at the mercy of those who sow confusion. They often complain that Bosnian Salafis have become relaxed about their work because they have not issued tekfir against the Reis and other scholars'.(13)
After the reported closure of the AIO, Muhamed Porča, has appointed himself as the leader of the emergent Islamic Youth in Europe, an organization or movement that has apeared as a parallel of the AIO that insists on being point of reference for all the Bosniaks which no one should digress. In B-H Porča is using Selam organization to take the control over those Salafis that are not maintaining contacts with the B-H Islamic Community. These Salafi communities, such as those in the area of Bihać, Maoca and Bocinja, have decided to isolate themselves from official mesdžids and tears apart of the B-H Islamic community , embracing the concept of hijra, or emigration, to be apart of the jahilia, the corruption, the dark period before Muhammad spread their message.
Safet Kuduzović is considered to be one of the Missionary Salafi / Wahhabi leaders in B-H. Kuduzović is a graduate of the Islamic University in Jordan, with a Masters degree, and a former Imam of the Bosnian Salafi Kewser Džemat (Muslim religious congregation) in Linz, Austria. Kuduzović is a well-known and active figure in Bosnian Salafi circles. It is possible he currently resides in B-H. Kuduzović actively cooperates with the Studio-din portal (www.studio-din.com), Salafi / Wahhabi missionary portal, and advices it on its political and religious direction.
In its 1 June 2007 edition, 'SAFF' magazine (14) reported that after the death of Jusuf Barčić, a majority of members of his group had chosen Nusret Imamović to be their new leader. 'Saff' reported that Imamović was well known as a religious leader and primary school teacher in the village of Gornja Maoca.
Nusret Imamović is a prominent Salafi / Wahhabi cleric originating from Kalesija. Imamović's reporting started in 2002, when Barčić was imprisoned, Imamović had taken over the leadership over his network.
Lately, major media attention has been drawn to an important inter-ethnic incident that occurred on 15 July 2006, in the Bukvik (CQ 1567) settlement near Brčko, when some 10 persons, known to belong to a Wahhabi group, clashed with three Bosnian Serbs. One Bosnian Serb, Mihajlo Kisić, was seriously injured and allegedly gunshots were fired too. The Brčko District (BD) Police started an investigation, and six Salafis / Wahhabis were detained by the Tuzla Police. BD Police increased the security around the detention centre as it was close to Gornja Maoca. A few days after the incident, the local police detained Imamović. He is known to have contacts with Nedžad Balkan, who was arrested together with Imamović, after the Bukvik incident. Imamović is close to Vienna-based Wahhabi cleric, Muhamed Porča. Imamović is one of the few Bosnian Salafis / Wahhabis who has publicly refused any kind of collaboration with the B-H Islamic Community. He is linked to the 'Selam' organization.
A mainstream Islamic biweekly 'Preporod' (15), published by the B-H Islamic Community (IZ) of B-H, in its 15 March 2007 issue featured an editorial by the Editor in Chief, Aziz Kadribegović, entitled 'Destruction of the Islamic Community as a Long Term Goal', in which the author claimed that Bosnian Salafists were contemplating a new strategy for their mid-term activity.(16) Kadribegović wrote that 'Preporod' had learned that one of the Salafi authorities in the Diaspora, a Jordanian student with a Masters degree mentioned as 'S.K' (probably Safet Kuduzović), having grasped the seriousness of the situation in which his companions could find themselves, and having realized that 'the sand that until yesterday appeared as mortar has started to crumbled', had held a meeting with a group of 'the most mature Salafi / Wahhabi Da'ias or missionaries'. At this meeting, he presented them with the basic elements of a new strategy for the Salafi / Wahhabi movement, which the editorial called 'the Organization'.
According to 'Preporod', the leader of the meeting, stressed that:
'the Organization's activity in the EU countries must remain a strategic interest, because the B-H Islamic Community was weaker abroad than in B-H, which created a manoeuvring space for the Organization'.(17)
He told the meeting participants that the strong 'Organization' outside B-H could:
'financially assist 'the brothers' in B-H, and act as a powerful platform for a more aggressive approach in B-H'.
The editorial also commented that the leader highlighted the importance of a new generation of missionaries graduating from Middle Eastern Islamic universities, who would be returning to B-H shortly. 'These missionaries are better educated than the B-H Islamic Community missionaries, more eloquent, and, most importantly, fully committed to their work and ideas. In time, they will overwhelm the B-H Islamic Community and take full control of the Muslims in B-H'.
At the meeting, the importance of avoiding future incidents was also highlighted. As 'Preporod' wrote, he advised that 'brothers' at all times 'give the impression that they are normal citizens in B-H and in the EU countries in which they reside'. 'With this goal in sight, we must bury immediately the hatchet with the Rijaset, B-H Islamic Community executive office, and the representatives in B-H and abroad'. Jusuf Barčić was not mentioned at the meeting, which led Kadribegović to conclude that Barčić was probably 'a lone shooter' and not a member of 'the Organization'. However, 'some brothers from Sandžak' were mentioned in this context at the meeting. According to the editorial, it was proposed that those 'who cannot be controlled' first be 'isolated' by 'the Organization' and, if this did not work out, then to 'denounce them' openly in Islamic papers such as 'Saff' (an Islamic youth magazine reflecting of Salafist, favouring some sort of cooperation with B-H Islamic Community) and 'Al Asr' (Islamic Salafi / Wahhabi bi-monthly, published by the Bosnian Salafi 'Hidžra' Džemat (Bosnian version of the Arabic word Jama'at) in Holland, more theological in nature).
As for the group's attitude towards Muslims sentenced on terrorism charges, the participants of the meeting have reportedly agreed that 'brothers' should be advised 'not to embark on similar undertakings' in the future, in view of the stiff sentences envisioned for these acts. However, the meeting decided against a public distancing from individuals charged with terrorism. Terrorism verdicts 'should be ignored' and 'there should be no public reaction to them'.
Assumptions taken in the previous chapters of this paper support the above information and give credibility to the 'Preporod' article. Salafi / Wahhabi future strategy may be summarized as:
- Recruitment of Bosniak Diaspora. This recruitment is especially easy and profitable for 'the Organization' because:
A. The B-H Islamic Community is weaker abroad.
B. The Bosnian 'converted' Muslims are a healthy financial source.
C. Converted Muslims abroad are able to spread Salafism / Wahhabism in their close circle when they come back B-H.
- Well trained Salafi / Wahhabi scholars will argue with those who are less prepared within the B-H Islamic Community. In 2003, there were about a hundred Bosnian students of Islam in different Middle East countries. Although many of them would easily find their place in the B-H Islamic Community upon return to the country, some of these students could adopt Salafi / Wahhabi ideas.
- Silent creation of a parallel Islamic religious structure, without publicly facing the official one but with the final goal of defeating it.
- Not to be directly linked to any kind of terrorist activity.
Although any missionary activity can not be seen as a threat per se, the risk of missionary Islam to B-H security has to be analyzed from three perspectives:
- To understand the meaning of this threat, it is necessary to pay attention to a concept very common amongst radical Islamic movements: The concept of 'Takfir' - the practice of declaring that an individual or a group, previously considered Muslims, are in fact Kafirs, or apostates. The sentence for apostasy under Sharia law, as traditionally interpreted, is execution. For this reason, orthodox Islamic law normally requires stringent evidence in support of such accusations. In many cases this requires an Islamic court of religious leaders to pronounce a Fatwa, or religious decree, of Taqfir on an individual or group. Also texts of scholars as Ibn Taymyyah and Abd Al Wahib recommended the 'utmost restraint' in Taqfir. However, certain extremist movements have been very ready to practice Taqfir, for which they have been condemned by mainstream Muslims. Modern groups, such as the Algerian GIA, take this practice to an extreme, and regard virtually all non-strictly orthodox Muslims as Kuffar, whose blood is legitimate to shed. Taqfir might have taken root in some 'groups of young Muslims in B-H'.(18) This position can be considered a threat, especially for the safety and security of Bosnian Muslims who do not agree with Salafi ideas and can be seen as 'impious' and be targeted by radical groups.
- Members of the Salafi / Wahhabi movement may change their approach to Islamism when its perceived that they are not going to attain their goal as a result of preaching and proselytizing, and so they may take a more radical and violent stance. The lack of a result by the Wahhabi mission and the religious attitude of the Bosnian Muslim mainstream, who wants to maintain the traditional local and moderate version of Islam, may hasten this process.
- Salafi / Wahhabi groups are used to spot talent by Jihadi groups that find highly motivated and religiously convinced youngster.
Jihadism defends an armed struggle that has three main variants:
- Internal: a Jihad against nominally Muslim regimes which the Jihadis hold to be 'sinful' and thus legitimate targets for insurrection.
- Irredentist: the fight to redeem land considered to be a part of Dar Al Islam or Muslim territory, from non-Muslim rule or occupation.
- Global: the Jihad against the West, particularly the US and their associates.
The three different strands of Jihadism can, and are, used in various combinations by the same Jihadist group simultaneously, according to their objectives.
No Jihadi leaders have been reported in B-H, although Nedžad Balkan, labeled as the leader of a Sandžak Jihadi group, maintains contacts with religious leaders in B-H. Nedžad Balkan, also known as Abu Muhammad, who was born in Vienna, is a B-H citizen of Sandžak origin. He studied at the Islamic University in Medina, Saudi Arabia, but he left without graduating, reportedly disappointed with the Saudi political regime. Upon his return, he stayed in Vienna, where he preached at the 'Al-Tawhid' Mosque. He left the mosque due to disagreement with Muhamed Porča and other members of the congregation. Nedžad Balkan led the 'Sahaba' Mosque in Vienna's 7th County. In 2005, Balkan was placed under observation of the Austrian Police, for condoning the London bombings and for making extremist statements for the Austrian press. According to 'SAFF' magazine, Balkan is considered to be the 'highest religious authority' of the Jihadi group Kelimetul-Haqq and of young extremists in Sandžak. www.kelimatulhaqq.co.nr, the website of the group Kelimetul-Haqq (Words of the Truth, Right Words) is the first openly Jihadi Bosniak website, actively promoting the concept of holy war and disseminating Jihadi videos and lectures. However, its radical message appears to have little support outside its base in the Sandžak region. www.islamskadravska.com, whose content is hard-core Salafi. There are indications of ties with the Sandžak-based Jihadi group Kelimetul-Haqq. The website is also linked to www.abuhamzabrigade.tk and www.bugojnocity.tk. Both are Bugojno-based minor Salafi / Wahhabi web pages.
The potential threat of terrorism in B-H is totally linked to the spread of extremist religious ideas in the country. Despite the fact that Wahhabism and Terrorism must not be merged, most people detained in B-H because of suspected terrorist activities have also been linked to Wahhabi groups. Wahhabi communities are used by terrorist networks to recruit new members, to provide logistic bases for transient terrorists and as a front to cover their activities.
Different articles appearing in local and international mass media have commented about the role of B-H in different issues related with international terrorist networks. Most of this information is unconfirmed. The substance of follow-on media coverage is variously both true and false. Terrorist cells are no less likely to be present in B-H than in any other state. Bosnian Serb and Serbian media outlets regularly misappropriate such reporting, and the information is generalized to the point of suggest that Bosnia-Herzegovina is a significant threat to ethno-national security because it allegedly harbours foreign Islamic terrorists. This is nationalist propaganda that deliberately obscures the facts in two areas: first, the symptoms of global security threats are confused with the causes of Bosnian state weakness; and second, deliberate state-level support to terrorism rather than the weak state's inability to police itself. The terrorist phenomenon in B-H is no more developed, and the risk of a terrorist attack is not higher than in other parts of the world. It is possible to assess that the international presence in B-H, the growing interest of local and foreign police agencies in this issue, especially after September 11th, and the special characteristics of the Muslim population have reduced the possibility of the establishment of a Jihadi base in B-H. But it is necessary to remark that the potential for instability exists in B-H, for example, the presence of some NGOs, some radical communities, the citizenship issue, the historical links between B-H and some suspicious countries and the problem of a weak border control, may provide an environment suitable for such establishment to occur, in a significant and widespread way.
Though Islamic terrorist acts cannot be excluded from B-H, it is assessed that they are very unlikely. Until now there has never been a direct threat against the International Community (IC) in B-H. Taking into account the reported long-term goal of the major 'Islamic players' to turn B-H into an Islamic society, it is considered that a terrorist attack in B-H could have a negative impact on achieving this goal. The predicted reaction of the IC might change the now favourable environment significantly.
According to different sources B-H is mainly used by international terrorist organizations mainly for the following purposes:
- Islamic bridgehead in to Europe,
- Logistic base,
- Recruiting base,
- Rest and recuperation area
- Transit country.
During the last six years there have been some terrorist activities in B-H linked with international terrorism but the terrorist phenomenon in B-H is not as significant as some nationalist and foreign mass media try to show:
- In October 2001, Bensayah Belkacem, Saber Lahmar, Ait Idir Mustafa, Boudallah Hadj, Boumedien Lakhdar and Necheld Mohammad were arrested on the suspicion that they had planned a terrorist attack against the U.S Embassy and the British Embassy in Sarajevo. No charges have been presented against them.
- On 6 May 2004, the US Treasury froze the assets of three B-H charities suspected of financing the Al-Qaeda terrorist network. The B-H authorities raided several Islamic charities operating in Bosnia and forced three of them to close.
- On 19 October 2005, the FMUP Anti Terrorist unit raided a house in Ilidza and arrested Mirsad Bektašević and Kadar Cecur on suspicion of terrorist activities. Mirsad Bektašević is a Bosnian citizen that is the holder of a Swedish passport. Cecur is a Turkish citizen and the holder of a Danish passport.
- On 12 December 2006, upon order of B-H Prosecutor's Office, SIPA searched several buildings in different locations in Sarajevo. One of the searched buildings is the address of a Kuwaiti humanitarian organization in Nedzarici neighbourhood. No one has been charged because of this operation.
- At the beginning of April 2007, the German newsweekly 'Spiegel' reported that Nihad Ćosić, B-H citizen born in Germany, was arrested in Pakistan on suspicion of links to the Al-Qaeda terrorist network. He was reportedly arrested by the Pakistani Secret Service in the city of Rawalpandi on 30 Jan 07, while crossing the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, where he was supposed to run the camp for training of the Al-Qaeda mercenaries. 'Spiegel' reported that Nihad Ćosić was known to the German Police for his earlier links to a Jihadi organization in southern Germany and terrorist organizations in B-H.
Recent reports in local and international media have alleged the presence of terrorist training camps in B-H.
Various analysts and commentators have offered wildly differing opinions on the implications of individual foreign terrorists being present in B-H, while local authorities have denied that there are any terrorist training facilities operating in B-H. Because extremely limited international and domestic collection assets and capabilities, there is insufficient information available to confirm or deny the presence of paramilitary training camps in B-H. The focus on 'training camps' however is, in part, a red herring. Although Bosnian terrain is extremely rugged and suitable to clandestine insurgent-style operations, known extremists have also conducted training in classrooms, prison cells, sporting clubs, and via the Internet. Such approaches to training do not require open-air facilities, cleared fields, firing ranges, tented camps, or sites otherwise identifiable in military terms. Summer youth camps are often reported as terrorist training camps. Although the potential for indoctrination exists at such locations, they are not the same as paramilitary facilities used for training in terrorist methods and equipment.
According to 2006 Country Reports on Terrorism, released by the Office of the US Coordinator for Counterterrorism:
'B-H's Law enforcements organizations cooperated with the United States on international counterterrorism. B-H remained a weak state, however, with multiple semi-autonomous centres of power, vulnerable to exploitation as a terrorist safe haven or a potential staging ground for terrorist operations in Europe. Nevertheless, there were notable signs of increased local operational capability to combat terrorism and terrorism finance'.
The reports also states that
- 'Bosnian authorities continued to strengthen existing counterterrorism mechanisms and develop new ones. The Inter-Ministerial Counterterrorism Task Force (IMCTF), formed in December 2004, and currently responsible for coordinating all State level institutions with counterterrorism responsibilities, directed two successful terrorism-related deportations in 2006. Despite these successes the Task Force's operational effectiveness was generally hampered by insufficient coordination, such as infrequent communication and a lack of clear divisions of labour among the agencies'.
- Is also reported the work of the Citizenship Review Commission (CRC).(19)
- The only reported terrorist activity in B-H during 2006 is 'the trial against the three individuals that were arrested in October 2005 and charged with terrorism, and two others charged with illegal possession of explosives. The charged people were supposedly preparing to attack unspecified European targets'.
- 'The Bosnian organization Aktivna Islamnka Omladina (Active Islamic Youth, or AIO) spread extremist and anti-American rhetoric through its weekly print and on line publication SAFF Magazine.(20) There were indications that AIO conducted youth outreach in B-H during the year and maintained a presence in Western Europe'.(21)
According to this report, it is possible to assess that:
- B-H's Law enforcements organizations cooperate on international counterterrorism. There are notable signs of increased local operational capability to combat terrorism.
- Bosnian authorities continue to strengthen existing counterterrorism mechanisms and develop new ones, although coordination among the different agencies has to be increased.
[The Conclusions and Footnotes will follow in Part Two]
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Pet Tips
Giving cats pills – How do I give my cat medication or a pill – Pet tip 98
It is a simple fact of owning a cat that one day you may need to give your cat some medication in pill form. Giving your cat medication is not likely to be a fun task but some simple preparation will make your life much easier. In fact the key to not turning this event into a nightmare is in the preparation. The very first thing that you want to do is go to the pharmacy and buy a small syringe or eyedropper that will hold 1-2 teaspoons of liquid. Most cats benefit from a little bit of water after the pill is given and there is almost no way on this green earth that you will get your cat to drink from a bowl or glass during this activity. So buy a small empty syringe (without an actual needle) or eyedropper and fill it with water so that it is ready and close by. The next CRUCIAL thing that you want to do is trim your cat's nails. Cutting your cat's nails is just a precaution. Normally when you follow the advice in the next few paragraphs all will go pretty smoothly. However cats are feisty creatures so better safe than sorry. If your cat easily tolerates nail cutting, you can give your cat the pill right away. If your cat doesn't tolerate nail cutting very well though, you would be well advised to wait an extra 15-20 minutes, while your cat settles down again and THEN give your cat the pill.
Once you have everything you need close by place your cat on the kitchen table or counter or on some surface that is slippery for a cat. This will help prevent the cat from digging its claws into the surface if it tries to escape. Alternatively you can try to just go to your cat and get down to its level while it's resting, but your cat may well have a better grip if it wants to escape. Pet your cat for a couple of minutes before you give the pill as this will help relax your cat. Your goal is to make this as painless as possible for your cat and not to use a lot of force because you may have to go through this a few times a day for the duration of the treatment. Once your cat is relaxed try to administer the pill as quickly as possible.
Gently place the palm of your hand on the top of the cat's head and slightly tilt the cat's head upward. Then using that hand, you'll take your thumb and index finger (the middle finger) and apply slight pressure by pulling the cats upper jaw open just a bit so that your thumb and index finger are resting behind the canine teeth (the longest teeth) of the upper jaw. With the other hand quickly insert the pill as far as you can toward the back of the cat's throat. Once the pill is inside deep enough, the cat should naturally swallow it. If it is not deep enough, a gentle blow (with your breath) onto your cat's nose, or rubbing its throat gently usually causes it to swallow. Don't force your cat's mouth shut as this won't allow it to swallow, but do make sure that the pill has been swallowed.
At this point it is a good idea to use the hand in the exact way above and give the cat a quick squirt of water (1 teaspoon should be fine) using a sterilized/clean eyedropper or a syringe filled with water (obviously no needle at the end). Insert the instrument in the side of the cat's mouth right near where you are holding its upper jaw behind its canine teeth. Squirt it in fairly quickly. This will aid the pill to travel into the stomach as well as ensure that your cat has swallowed the pill.
If you are having a really hard time with your cat, you can wrap your cat in a towel having only its head stick out. This should make it a lot easier to follow the steps above. A second person holding your cat while you give the pill can also help. Ask your veterinarian for a demonstration if you are having difficulty. Once the cat has received the pill, you should end the ordeal with some nice petting once the cat has calmed down. Good luck!
3 Responses to this Article, So Far
GIVING A PILL TO A CAT. I have to give my cat partial pills every night for his chronic condition. After trying liguids and trying to pop in multiple pill pieces I found that best solution was getting #5 gel caps (the smallest) and putting the pieces in that. Since he now gets rewards after each pop of a capsule he actually meows for his pills! I talk softly and get down at his level, pat his face and body, let him sniff the capsule then just pry his mouth open with one hand then pop the capsule way in the back of the middle of his mouth. He doesn't fight this since immediately after he gets about 3/4 tablespoon of Tuna Appetizer juice and 4 little dry food pieces from Purina's Whisker Lickin's Crunch Lovers cat treats. These are like Kitty crack! My cat is addicted and so is one of my niece's cats. He gets these after every pill so may not like my forcing his mouth open and sticking my finger in he's pretty cooperative. Like I said, he comes to me now – no more chasing him around. He doesn't taste anything bad and the tuna juice right after is more than a treat – it assures the capsule of pill pieces gets washed down.
Much blood letting(ours) trying to admin. antibiotics. Finally, I purchased a "pill-popper" its a syringe type thing. The bottom of it is rubber which will be dry so i painted it with EVOO (extra virgin olive oil). the pill was down her throat and she was lickin her lips within seconds. She didn't even jump up and run away she just layed back down.
I'll bet you could just dip the pill in EVOO and send it down. Cats have dry tongues as we know. Use a good tasting oil not vegetable or canola.
Hope this helps, I'm ecstatic with the results!!! We have another week to go and I think we'll make it without her trying to kill us while we sleep.


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Tim Evans is Professor of Business and Political Economy at Middlesex University London and is an independent policy, corporate and public affairs specialist. He is also a Senior Fellow with the world-class economics think tank, the Adam Smith Institute and Chairman of the Economic Policy Centre.
He has a wealth of high-level domestic and international experience across the corporate and public affairs spectrum, including external communications, regulatory affairs, (Westminster, Whitehall, No.10, Brussels and Washington DC) strategic public affairs (proactive and reactive), public policy (formulation, development and implementation with government and think tanks), marketing, public speaking, media training, high level strategy (development and delivery) and managing complex stakeholder relations. Over the years, he has consulted with the global corporate affairs leaderships of many of the world's largest companies, including Pfizer, ExxonMobil, Microsoft and Merck Sharp and Dohme – to name but a few. In the UK, he has worked alongside General Healthcare Group PLC, BUPA, Tyler Capital and a wide range of SMEs and high net-worth individuals.
A former President and Director General of the Centre for the New Europe (2002-2005) in Brussels, between 1993 and 2002, he was the Executive Director of Public Affairs at the Independent Healthcare Association () in London where he oversaw the political affairs and public relations of the UK's independent health and social care sector, which at the time, employed 750,000 people and represented more than 3 percent of UK GDP. In this role he was widely credited as being the major driving force behind the '2000 NHS/Independent Sector Concordat' which was described by the Financial Times as the most "historic deal in 50 years of British healthcare". Personally negotiated with Prime Minister Tony Blair, the deal enabled NHS funded patients to receive for the first time ever, treatment and care in the country's independent hospitals. Now benefiting more than 400,000 patients a year, in 2014 alone, the work generated additional revenue of £1.2 billion.
In 1991, Tim was the Head of the Slovak Prime Minister's Policy Unit in Bratislava where he also served as the Chief Economic and Political adviser to Prime Minister Dr. Jan Carnogursky and his Cabinet. Prior to that, in the late 1980s, he had been the Assistant Director of the Foundation for Defence Studies where he worked alongside the organisation's chairman, the former Chief of the Defence Staff, Field Marshall the Lord Bramall.
Tim has an M.Sc and PhD from the London School of Economics and in 2011 was awarded an MBA from the Open University Business School. Holding a NATO sponsored Post-graduate Certificate in National Security from the Christian-Albrechts University in Kiel, Germany; in 2006, he was also awarded membership of the Mont Pelerin Society. He became Professor of Business and Political Economy at Middlesex University in 2014.
A regular commentator on television and radio, his articles have appeared in City AM, The Economist, Guardian, Wall Street Journal Europe and a host of other media platforms around the world. Today, he lives in central London with his wife Dr. Helen Evans and their daughter, Petica.
Introductory Selection of Publications
Tim Evans (2013) 'In Defence of a Free Market City: Time to Separate Banking and Money from the State?', In Defence of the City, Bretwalda Books.
Tim Evans, 'For-profit universities could deliver welcome change to higher education', City AM?, 15 August 2013.
Tim Evans and Helen Evans (2005) 'Health 2055' in Towards A Liberal Utopia?, London, Institute of Economic Affairs.
Tim Evans, Alberto Mingardi, Cecile Philippe and Stephen Pollard, (2004) Towards Greater Partnership in Healthcare Funding: The Rise of Health Consumerism in British and Other European Healthcare Systems, Brussels, Centre for the New Europe.
Tim Evans, 'Lesson in sidestepping politics', The Australian, 19 January 2004
Tim Evans and Sean Gabb, (2004) The Costs of European Environmental Regulations in the Accession Countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Brussels, Centre for the New Europe.
Tim Evans, Conservative Economics and Globalisation, The Political Quarterly, November 2004.
Tim Evans, Sean Gabb and Alberto Mingardi, (2004) From Antitrust to Disaster: An Overview of European Union Competition Policy, Brussels, Centre for the New Europe.
Tim Evans, 'Facing death by consensus, Germans lap up political sweeteners', The Australian, 29 September 2002.
Tim Evans (2002) 'Towards Greater Public Private Partnerships in Healthcare' in the Blue Book on Health: Radical Thinking on the Future of the NHS, edited by Edward Vaizey, London, Methuen/Politicos Publishing.
Tim Evans, 'Right man, right place', The Australian, 12 June 2002.
Tim Evans and Helen Evans, 'Back to the Future: Towards a Better State of Healthcare', Economic Affairs, April 2002.
Tim Evans, (1996) Conservative Radicalism: A Sociology of Conservative Youth Structures and Libertarianism 1970-1992, Oxford, Berghahn Books.
Tim Evans, 'Towards a Progressive Partnership with Independent Healthcare', Fabian Review Conference Edition, London, Fabian Society, Autumn 1996.
Tim Evans, In Praise of Post-Modernity: A Libertarian Perspective on the Contradictions of Conservative Euro-skepticism, Political Notes No.110., London, Libertarian Alliance, 1995.
Tim Evans, Socialism Without the State: the Re-emergence of Collective Self-Help, Political Notes No.99., London, Libertarian Alliance, 1994.
Tim Evans, 'The Selling of Cop Shop plc', The Guardian, 17 June 1993.
Tim Evans, (1993) Europe at Risk: Bureaucratic Betrayal of the European Ideal, London, Adam Smith Institute.
Tim Evans, (ed) (1991) An Arresting Idea: the Management of Police Services in Modern Britain, London, Adam Smith Institute.
Tim Evans, (1991) A Friend in Need: Based on the Ideas of Frank Field MP, London, Adam Smith Institute.
Tim Evans, Sociology, Crises, Contradictions and Capitalism: A Libertarian Critique, Sociological Notes No.7., London, Libertarian Alliance, 1990.
Tim Evans, Pop Music and Politics, Cultural Notes No.8., London, Libertarian Alliance, 1988.
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Six years in a solitary prison cell afforded Anwar Ibrahim, former deputy prime minister of Malaysia, plenty of time for reflection.
When not reliving his own downfall, he dwelled at length on the divide between the West and the Islamic world, and what could be done to repair the rift. As premier-in-waiting in the 1990s, he had moved easily across this fault line, a symbol of Malaysia's moderate brand of Islam harnessed to economic success.
Now, two months after being freed by an appeals court, Malaysia's most famous dissident is preparing for another turn on the international stage, this time as a broker of sorts between US neoconservatives and the Muslim world. He has accepted a fellowship next year at Oxford University and plans to spend much of his time rekindling old relationships. His admirers - among them former Vice President Al Gore and current Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz - cross party lines.
But after his long confinement, Anwar admits he's still playing catch-up on the seismic shifts in US policy and diplomacy in recent years.
"The political landscape has changed. I have listened a lot in the last few months to friends here and in the West, and to Muslim activists, and it's unfortunate it has developed to this stage in terms of enmity and rancor between Islam and the United States, in particular," he says. "But what is the option? We have to continue to engage, including with the Bush administration."
Behind his lofty goals of diplomatic engagement lies Anwar's buried dream of leading his country. Until his sacking and jailing in 1998 on sodomy and graft charges, he was the natural successor to Mahathir Mohamad, the former prime minister who stepped down last year after 22 years in power.
A former Muslim youth leader whose charisma and sharp wits guided him to the top ranks of political office, Anwar appeared equally at home with Saudi princes, rural preachers, and American bankers. But his disloyalty to Mahathir during an economic crisis eventually landed him in jail - a move widely seen as Mahathir's revenge on his deputy.
Although his sodomy conviction was overturned in September, Anwar is barred from running for public office until 2008 because of a related corruption conviction, a move seen in Malaysia as a political compromise.
For now, Anwar says he wants to work with the fragmented opposition parties that performed poorly in elections in March, and push reform.
"I'm still free to express my view, to meet political leaders. I'm still active in meeting the people and articulating the reform agenda, issues of corruption, democracy, and civil society that this country needs," he says.
Some observers, including those sympathetic to Anwar's cause, point out that Malaysia has changed since 1998 in ways that arguably take the sting out of Anwar's calls for reform.
Most crucially, Mahathir has gone, replaced by Abdullah Badawi, who won a huge electoral mandate with a mix of Islamic piety and antigraft promises. Since then, he has begun to whittle away at persistent cronyism, both in government and the United Malay National Organization, which has ruled in coalition since independence in 1957.
Analysts say Abdullah's humble approach appeals to ethnic Malay voters who deserted UMNO in 1999, partly because of the bad taste left by Anwar's downfall. Having won back these voters, they say, Abdullah may have little to fear from the man who once coveted his job.
"Anwar is a celebrity. Malays generally are sympathetic to Anwar, but to what extent that can be converted into real political support, I'm doubtful," says Abdul Razak Baginda, director of the Malaysian Strategic Resource Center, a private UMNO-backed think tank.
Given such obstacles, and the ban on holding office, supporters say the timing is ripe for Anwar to rebuild his international profile. Among the first to telephone him on his release was Mr. Wolfowitz, whom Anwar calls a close friend. After back surgery in Germany for an injury he blames on a beating in police custody in 1998, Anwar traveled last month to Saudi Arabia, which paid for a private jet for him.
Anwar says this range of contacts gives him the latitude to chide both the US for riding roughshod over Muslim sensitivities and leaders of Muslim countries for holding the US to standards they may not meet themselves. Choosing his words carefully, he argues that the US is right to advocate reform in Muslim countries run by unelected dictators, though it can't be imposed by force, as in Iraq.
"I think the [US] has a point here, in trying to drive and influence and do whatever we can to ensure that the people regain their freedom, not according to the dictates of America, but their own homegrown democracy," he says.
Anwar says he plans to use his time at Oxford to explore ways of promoting reforms in the Islamic world and more nuanced US policies in that direction. "I think I will be more successful by supporting existing initiatives by some credible groups. I think that would be more useful than starting an initiative on my own," he says.