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This article is about diagnosing USB devices.
The above symptom may occur on the following systems:
All Idea Laptops
Some USB devices are not APM/ACPI friendly and may not operate properly after resuming from Standby or Hibernation. Some of these steps may not apply to your computer. Test the attached USB device after performing each step.
2. Verify that the latest BIOS and embedded controller for the notebook has been installed.
Go toLenovo official driver download site to view the latest BIOS files for your notebooks.
3. Verify that USB is enabled in BIOS.
4. Verify that the USB device and any required drivers were installed in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
This may require removing the USB device and the drivers, and then reinstalling the USB device and the latest drivers.
5. Verify the USB device works on another machine, if available.
6. Verify another USB device, if available, works on this machine.
7. Verify that the latest Microsoft Windows Service Pack has been installed for the operating system installed on the computer.
Lenovo, Lenovo 3000, IdeaCentre and IdeaPad are trademarks of the Lenovo Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both.
Other company, product, or service names may be trademarks or service marks of others.


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THE EVERYDAY HUNTER: Growing Up With Guns
It was a cold December 2, 1963. The snow was thigh-deep and heavy on the trees. Although I was only 11, my fledgling scouting skills throughout the summer and fall indicated lots of deer were living on our 22 acres in Scandia, so I pestered Dad until he agreed to include me in the opening day of buck season.
I remember Dad letting me hold the rifle while on stand. If that was a violation, it was an innocent one and we didn't see a single deer to tempt me.
Looking back 50 years, it seems strange that an 11-year-old would be handed a bolt action rifle just 10 days after a bolt action rifle had been used to shoot President Kennedy in Dallas. I remember Mrs. Wall bracing herself and choking back tears as she told our combined fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classroom that the President was dead.
Ten days later, Dad and I weren't thinking about the Kennedy assassination. We were thinking about deer hunting.
For so, so many – and for me – guns were a normal part of growing up. Often I'd step off the school bus and scan the back fields for woodchucks before going into the house. Once in a while, I'd grab a rifle and pop off a shot.
Come October, I'd rub a foot from a dead rabbit on Mitzy's nose to get her all wound up before turning her loose to chase cottontails. Mitzy was my beagle. But I wasn't a bloodthirsty killer, nor did the rabbit's foot bring me good luck – I never killed a bunny until I was 15.
To excuse my pathetic shooting skill, I lay blame on the second-rate guns I carried. My .22 rimfire was an ancient single-shot of some unknown brand, in pretty rough shape, with half of a Lincoln head penny fixed to the muzzle for a front sight. Despite its faults, I shot my first woodchuck with that old gun.
My first shotgun was a Model 258A bolt action 20 gauge made by J. Stevens. It had a removable box magazine that wanted to fly to pieces whenever I unloaded it. Miraculously, I once knocked a grouse out of the air with that decrepit shotgun. My buddy, Tom Huber, was amazed at the shot I made. I hid my own astonishment by faking a nonchalant attitude.
As kids, we were gun owners, and we grew up on television shows that were nothing like what kids watch today. We watched Matt Dillon bring law and order to Dodge City, Kansas. We saw a single dad named Ben Cartwright raise Adam, Hoss and Little Joe with consummate parenting skill. We rooted for the Lone Ranger as he fought for justice with Tonto at his side and left grateful people wondering "who was that masked man anyway?"
Those heroes, and many more, were the good guys, and we loved them. We admired the fact that they never pulled the trigger unless the bad guys shot first. We understood they used guns for self-defense and self-defense was part of law and order.
In my teenage years we moved to town and I traded for a Model 37 Ithaca 12 gauge pump at Ted Thelin's little store on Cobham Park Road. After spending fall days in classrooms at Warren Area High School, I'd drop down over the hill to our house, change my clothes, grab Mitzy and my pumpgun and head back up the hill to hunt rabbits on school property.
I must have carried that shotgun across the football team's practice field dozens of times – always waving to Coach Shea – but never once was stopped for questioning. Accountability came the next day when Mr. Shea would ask, "Did you get any rabbits?"
Those were the days when people didn't assume guns were for killing people. Shouldering a shotgun as I walked across school grounds never needed a second look. In fact, despite often being armed on school grounds, at graduation I received an award for character.
I doubt everyone agreed about my character, but today a kid can't get away with carrying a gun on school grounds even once, for any reason. And be recognized for character? Not a chance.
Those were the days when kids were always on the side of the good guys, and we aspired to be one of them. Those were the days when the bad guys sometimes learned their lesson and showed they were redeemable.
Those were the days when Tonto called the Lone Ranger "Ke-mo Sah-bee," or "trusted friend." Those two men, from different races, were bound by a moral code. And we were bound to our heroes by that same code – a code that was important to growing up with guns.

subset: commoncrawl


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Faith, Hope, Love....
7" sport bracelet, rubber clasp and trim; Scripture is woven into the band. Bracelet contains a mixture of titanium and germanium micro-orbs in the rubber core, for added strength. Must-have bracelet for today's guy or girl; in black window gift box.
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|Publication Date: 2012


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August check in – how is your Crohn's today?
I missed our July edition of "How is your Crohn's Today?" The month of July just seemed to fly by so fast and now it is already August. I just don't know where the time went. Before I know it, 2009 will be here and I will have to learn to write a new date on my checks (it took me months to write 2008 instead of 2007).
So…how is your Crohn's today? I hope well, or at least better than yesterday.
As for me, I am doing better than last week. I think I have made it through the lowering of the prednisone and will stay at this level for another two weeks. Mostly because I have a class in Washington D.C. on the 18th and I don't want to rock the boat until after that. I really don't want to get up to go to the bathroom 100 times during the class (okay, exaggeration but sometimes it feels like 100 times). Or be distracted from the pain and worry that I won't get to learn as much. Also, I am sure that we will have to do some group exercises which usually involve moving around. Moving around is not what I want to do when my insides are a mess.
That reminds me, I need to look up some restaurants that will serve plain food in the D.C. area. Does anyone know of any good places?
I am looking forward to reading how you are!
Wishing you good health,


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Southern Oregon Unemployment On The Rise
Southern Oregon unemployment is up for the month of July. Jackson County's seasonally-adjusted figure is up to 10.7 percent, compared to 10.5 for June. It's a similar story for Josephine County, where unemployment is 12.0 percent, compared to 11.7 in June.
Over the year, Jackson County shows a gain of 500 jobs. Private sector employment is up by 1,200 jobs, and government jobs have declined by 700.
In July, the educational and health services sector lost 80 jobs in Jackson County. Wholesale trade employment showed a gain of 60 jobs, while retail trade picked up 440 jobs. Construction gained 110 jobs, accommodation and food services 130.


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Closely Cropped Pixie with Long Curly Fringe
For this hairstyle, the hair is short at the back and sides with the hair on top longer and styled forward. The hair has been layered into this short style and falls into a long fringe on the forehead.For this haircut, the hair is very short.This hair colouring is baby breath blonde.
Moods Hair Salon Hair: Moods Hair Salon Make-up: Karin Shoji Photography: Justin Brimacombe


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The latest climate modeling runs are trying to deal with a range of factors not dealt with in the past.exaggerations in IPCC reports, many of which involved not correctly representing uncertainty about specific predictions.
Despite much handwringing, the IPCC has never worked out how to make sense of uncertainty.the Langley Research Center and co-investigator in a NASA project known as Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES). "We don't know how much is out there. We just can't estimate their influence with calculations alone."
Trenberth questioned if the IPCC wouldn't be better off getting out of the prediction business.scientists could not explain cool years like 2008. His point, made earlier in the journal Current Opinion in Environmental Stability, was that "it is not a sufficient explanation to say that a cool year is due to natural variability." Such explanations, he said, "do not provide the physical mechanisms involved." He wanted scientists to do better.
We need to get used to greater uncertainty in imagining exactly how climate change will play out.always correctly portray the uncertainty surrounding the predictions or present alternative scenarios.
Clouds and Climate:
A Key Mystery for Researchers


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LOS ANGELES — Days after the NFL said it was ready to welcome its first openly gay player, a report indicates that an intolerant locker room culture harassed a player to the brink of suicide.
Three Miami Dolphins players used "racial slurs and other racially derogatory language" as well as "homophobic name-calling and improper physical touching" to bully teammate Jonathan Martin as well as another player and an assistant trainer, both unnamed, according to independent investigator Ted Wells, who filed his report to the league yesterday.
The revelations come after prospect Michael Sam, a 2013 All-America linebacker from Missouri, announced on Sunday that he is gay.
Wells' report provides an unflattering snapshot of a locker-room culture where off-color remarks about sexual orientation and race are commonplace. Even so, the harassment Martin and the others received startled even veteran NFL players.
"I've been in some bad locker rooms, but they weren't dysfunctional in that they were demeaning to people," said former NFL lineman Ed Cunningham, who played for Arizona and Seattle in the 1990s. "We had fights, but they were based on something that was done dirty on the playing field, or because someone thought they were going to get cut and were jealous. … To hear about that type of (Dolphins) locker room was shocking."
It is unclear what the NFL will do next, but sensitivity training is likely to be a point of emphasis at the league's rookie symposium, which is mandatory for every incoming draft class and covers an array of topical issues and concerns.
The league has a history with Roger Goodell as commissioner of moving to stamp out bad behavior. The New England Patriots were fined $750,000 and lost a first-round draft choice when caught videotaping an opposing team's signals. And the New Orleans Saints were hit with several suspensions — losing coach Sean Payton for an entire season — when an alleged pay-to-injure bonus system was revealed.
Earlier this week, the league reacted with plaudits to the news about Sam. "We admire Michael Sam's honesty and courage," the NFL said in a statement. "Michael is a football player. Any player with ability and determination can succeed in the NFL. We look forward to welcoming and supporting Michael Sam in 2014."
Details in Wells' 144-page report about Martin's experience in his two seasons as an NFL player show a different side. The report says Martin was so distraught by the treatment of his Dolphins teammates — specifically fellow offensive linemen Richie Incognito, John Jerry and Mike Pouncey — that he twice contemplated suicide in 2013. He finally quit the team last fall, in the middle of the season.
One labor expert said the NFL is facing an image crisis over its handling of concussions and health issues of retired players, the controversy surrounding the Redskins nickname, and the coarse culture of locker rooms.
"All of these things suggest that the game is insufficiently sensitive to both civility, good manners and fair treatment," said Stanford law professor William B. Gould, former chairman of the National Labor Relations Board. "This is something that's going to become increasingly important."& amp; amp; amp; amp; amp; amp; amp; amp; lt; /p>
Martin hopes to return to the NFL next season, said his agent, Kenny Zuckerman, who added that Martin "is glad that this is behind him."
Incognito's lawyer, Mark Schamel, called the Wells report "replete with errors."
"It is disappointing that Mr. Wells would have gotten it so wrong, but not surprising," Schamel said in a written statement. "The truth, as reported by the Dolphins players and as shown by the evidence, is that Jonathan Martin was never bullied by Richie Incognito or any member of the Dolphins offensive line. We are analyzing the entire report and will release a thorough analysis as soon as it is ready."


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Absolutely amazing art work and designs that comes from the heart. What Rhys designed at Charlie Phi in Petersham was a challenge but he did it. Great work and a big thumbs up
Dil from Bella Prints is an amazing fellow! Not only is he punctual, but he has original and pertinent ideas and observations. He does everything he says he will do, and does it well. Obviously cares and wants to succeed, a real find. If you want punctuality, affordability, g..
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By John Pohly, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension agent, Horticulture
Whatever Mother Nature's gifts to Colorado -- and there are many -- rich soil is not among them. We must make our own.
Rainfall, or in Colorado's case, lack of it, plays a major role in creating deep, rich layers of top soil. Eastern states, such as Iowa and Indiana, get more rainfall, resulting in more vegetation for organic matter. This leads to deep, dark, rich topsoil.
A thicker layer of vegetation also means less erosion, but with less vegetation in Colorado, wind erosion takes its toll on much of the top soil that does form here.
Front Range soils are largely heavy clay. To improve this type of soil and create better drainage, some people add sand. Research has shown, however, that you'll need to add anywhere from 50 percent to 80 percent, by volume, of sand to improve clay soil. Anything less will result in the formation of adobe.
A better way to improve a clay or sandy soil is to add organic matter. Organic material helps break up the soil for better air and water penetration; organics also will improve the water-holding capacity of sandy soil. Organic materials include peat moss, grass clippings, old leaves, compost, chopped straw or well-rotted manure.
To improve heavy clay soils, add l0 bushels, or one-half cubic yard, of organic matter per 1,000 square feet of ground. When adding organic matter, work it in as deep as the root system will extend. On lawn, this would be at least 6 inches.
Alkali or soluble salts are another problem. This situation occurs where the water table is near the soil surface. As water evaporates from the surface, capillary action brings mineral-laden ground water up to replace it. As this mineral-laden water evaporates, the mineral salts, which it contained, remain on the surface. Over time, white powdery mineral deposits will form on the soil surface. The best way to deal with this is to install drain tile to lower the water table. Then leach the soil with large amounts of water.
High pH or basic soils are found throughout Colorado with some acid soils found mainly in mountain areas. It is difficult to decrease the pH or make the soil more acid. You can add acid peat moss to try, or use acid-forming fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate or aluminum sulfate. Some advocate the use of sulfur for decreasing the pH value. Sulphur combines with the hydrogen ions in the soil to create a highly dilute sulfuric acid. This process, however, has not proven effective in practice.
Colorado gardeners have tried growing a variety of acid-soil loving plants, such as rhododendrons, heathers and cranberries, with little success. They usually blame the low success rates on the soil, but the problem usually is Colorado's low humidity and intense sun.
Whatever you decide to plant -- trees, shrubs or lawns -- improve the soil before the plants go into the ground. Afterwards is too late.
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Weleda, Ratanhia Mouthwash Concentrate, 1.7 fl oz (50 ml) (Discontinued Item)
Shipping Weight:?0.61 lbs (0.28 kg)Shipping WeightThe Shipping Weight includes the product, protective packaging material and the actual shipping box. In addition, the Shipping Weight may be adjusted for the Dimensional Weight (e.g. length, width & height) of a package. It is important to note that certain types of products (e.g. glass containers, liquids, fragile, refrigerated or ice packed) will often require protective packaging material. As such, these products will reflect a higher Shipping Weight compared to the unprotected product.
- Product Code: WED-09806
- UPC Code: 4001638098069
- Package Quantity: 1.7 fl oz (50 ml)
- Dimensions: 2.6 x 5.2 x 3.2 in, 0.3 lbs (0.14 kg)
- Refreshes the Mouth and Breath
- Certified Natural Cosmetic - BDIH
Weleda Ratanhia Mouthwash Concentrate refreshes the mouth and breath using pure essential oils of Sage, Clove, Eucalyptus and Peppermint. Extract of organic Ratanhia and Myrrh have also been added to our unique, concentrated formula. For centuries, these plants have been known for their toning, astringent and soothing properties Use daily to reduce bad breath.
Weleda in harmony with nature and the human being.
Suggested Use
Shake a few drops (5 to 10 drops) into half a glass of lukewarm water. Use to rinse the mouth well and/or use as a gargle. Highly concentrated, one bottle makes up to more than one gallon/six liters of mouthwash.
Product and ingredients not tested on animals.
Alcohol, water (aqua), commiphora myrrha extract, krameria triandra (ratanhia) root extract, flavor (aroma)*, limonene*, linalool*, citronellol*, geraniol*, eugenol*, aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut) bark extract**, silver**, magnesium sulfate**
* natural constituents of the essential oils
** In highly diluted form
Free of synthetic fragrances, colors and preservatives.
I love this mouthwash
Verified Purchase
I love this mouthwash
Trying to stay away from chemicals with names that I, even I, cannot pronounce. I switched over to both the Weleda Ratanhia toothpaste and mouthwash several years ago. They work well, as far as I am concerned. And, as always, iHerb is the place to shop.
It contains calcium fluroide!!!!
Verified Purchase
It contains calcium fluroide!!!!
I received it and noticed that in ingredients is calcium fluroide an d iHerb just don't wright it!!!!
Good product excellent price!
Posted by 4696530911530684679 on May 21, 2014
It is very recommended if you have gum sensitivity, excellent product
Great Mouthwash
Posted by Reviewer2718035 on Feb 03, 2014
Were using this mouthwash regularly, it is pleasant yet powerful.
I like it but has calcium fluoride, isn't that bad?
Posted by 5602475129292382614 on Sep 17, 2013
I like
Didnt like the taste
Posted by Reviewer1177595 on Aug 01, 2013
The product is ok I think. But I didnt like the taste. And had to mix much stronger than recommended to notice an effect. Wont buy again.
Posted by Reviewer2697166 on Jul 20, 2013
I am so bummed that I did not pay better attention to the ingredient list. I spent a long time searching for a toothpaste without glycerin - and found earthpaste (love it) While researching that, I came across information about the toxicity of flouride. Unfortunately, this mouthwash contains calcium flouride -and even though it is found in nature, this ingredient, according to some researchers can be harmful. I gave it three stars because Weleda is a good brand, and all the other ingredients sound quite promising. However, I will not use this product until I see reports that would convince me otherwise about the effects of flouride. Toms Of Maine website writes that it is ok - you are spitting out - but the under tongue area absorbs into the body.


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Satisfaction Guaranteed
It's important to us that you are 100% satisfied with
your purchase from Learning Resources. If you are not satisfied with your recent purchase, simply return it to
us within 90 days of purchase in unopened or original condition (excludes clearance items) and we will gladly
replace it or issue a full refund. The choice is yours. Read more
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By Bluebirds0412
from Orlando, FL
About Me Parent
Best Uses
Comments about Learning Resources Snap-n-Learn™ Shape Butterflies, Set of 5:
My son has had these since he was 8 months old. Over the year and a half that we have had these we have played with them in a variety of ways. When he was younger it was simply to take the wings on and off. As he got older it was to develop language and match shapes, then eventually colors, and now imaginative play.The pieces are very durable and smooth to the touch. Yes, as some others have reviewed some pieces do not snap tight in place but it is not that bad. I would have given this 5 stars if all of the pieces were snap tight.
Bottom Line Yes, I would recommend this to a friend
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do not buy
By grandma knows developmental psychology
from minneapolis minnesota
About Me Grandparent
My grandaughter was learning colors and shapes when she received this as a gift for her 2nd birthday. I thought it would be a great teaching tool, but she became very upset when the cutout on the purple wings did not match either the purple body or the contrasting color on the purple head (orange) she kept saying "No! No! Grandma that's wrong, it doesnt match!" she got so mad she cried and refused to play with it any more. when children learn colors and shapes they are typically learning matching as well. it does not make sense (to anyone with a logical brain) to have purple wings go with a red body and not have a red head with purple antennae or vice versa. I dont know why they didnt use complimentary colors together (purple and yellow, blue and orange, red and green) it makes a good decoy toy for the puppy to take and chew on so she leaves the toys we care about alone.
Bottom Line No, I would not recommend this to a friend
(2 of 4 customers found this review helpful)
for older preschoolers
By cindy
from phoenix
I bought this for my 2 year old niece, and found that it is difficult to put together for her. I think this would probably be better for older preschoolers.


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The English Realist Novel
The English Realist Novel, 1740-1771
The turning point in the development of the English novel is generally said to be 1740, the year Samuel Richardson published Pamela. Richardson claimed that this work represented a new fictional form, differing significantly from the novelistic works that had come before. Henry Fielding made a similar claim when he published Joseph Andrews in 1742. Subsequent critical opinion has concurred that these two works mark a departure in English fiction. Prose fiction in the early decades of the eighteenth century was a heterogeneous and experimental mix, containing many of the elements that would come to mark the realist novel and others that would eventually be discarded. The most significant development was a turn toward realism and away from the conventions and structures of the heroic romance. Fiction writers began to adopt a view of the relationship between reality and literature in which truth and art were found in ordinary experience and the development and assertion of the individual personality were paramount. As early as 1705, Delarivier Manley had called for more realism, psychological detail, and natural dialogue in novelistic fiction. She and others, such as Aphra Behn, Mary Davys, Daniel Defoe, and Eliza Haywood, experimented with the techniques and forms that moved the novel closer to maturity, including the epistolary novel, characters drawn from all social levels, and depictions of contemporary life.
Richardson's Pamela was an unqualified and unprecedented success. Widely praised and enormously popular, it spawned a succession of imitations, parodies, and secondary scholarship. Richardson's aim in writing the novel had been didactic, and his effective blending of entertainment and ethical instruction was significant for the novel's success in an era when the genre itself was still considered morally suspect. Another striking achievement of that work was the detailed and nuanced portrait of the heroine and the rich attention to emotional life. With this attention to psychic depth, Richardson ushered in the novel of sensibility, wherein every act, gesture, and feeling is examined. Pamela marks a watershed in the development of the subjective point of view that is central to the modern novel. Fielding'scontribution to the novel form was different, but equally important. Joseph Andrews is noted for its emphasis on naturalistic details of rural and domestic life, brilliantly evoking the particulars of setting and situation. Both of these works demonstrated a coherence of characterization, plot, and theme that had been missing in earlier novels. Richardson's and Fielding's later works continued to exemplify the mature novel, along with the works of Tobias Smollett, Laurence Sterne, and others. The striking success of Richardson's work led to increased production of popular novels, along with frequent plagiarism and the distribution of novels to a widening middle-class audience. The expansion of the audience moved the novel away from the category of great art and closer to that of a mass market entertainment. Popular fictions increasingly became commodities, disposable, serial pleasures, rather than timeless achievements.
Early novels had long been unesteemed and viewed as morally problematic. With the growing popularity of the genre, many worried that novels were dangerous and unwholesome, especially for younger readers and women. The increasing interest in realistic fiction heightened this anxiety, as the representations of immoral, unethical, or sexual behavior that had such a prominent place in the plots of many popular fictions were seen to be negative influences on impressionable readers. This issue, along with newly articulated questions of structure and genre definition, spurred critical debate. By the end of the eighteenth century, critical consensus held that the quality of novels had dropped off. The major genre at the end of the century, the Gothic romance, was considered inferior to the great works of the middle decades of the century. Novel-reading was regarded as a middle-brow activity, not suitable for the refined and highly educated. Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey, written at the end of the eighteenth century but not published until 1818, wittily satirizes its own genre by portraying a naive heroine who has formed her ideas of the world based on the sentimental and Gothic novels that she avidly reads.
Representative Works
Thomas Amory
The Life and Opinions of John Buncle Esq.: Containing Various Observations and Reflections Made in Several Parts of the World and many Extraordinary Relations (novel) 1756-70
John Cleland
Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure. 2 vols. (novel) 1748-49
Francis Coventry
Pompey the Little (novel) 1751
Mary Davy
The Reform 'd Coquet; or the Memoirs of Amoranda (novel) 1724
The Accomplish 'd Rake; or Modern Fine Gentleman. Being an Exact Description of a person of Distinction (novel) 1727
Henry Fielding
Joseph Andrews (novel) 1742
Tom Jones (novel) 1749
Oliver Goldsmith
The Vicar of Wakefield (novel) 1766
Samuel Richardson
Pamela; or Virtue Rewarded (novel) 1740
Clarissa (novel) 1748
Sir Charles Grandison (novel) 1753-54
Tobias George Smollett
The Adventures of Roderick Random (novel) 1748
The Adventures of a Peregrine Pickle (novel) 1751
The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker (novel) 1771
Laurence Sterne
Tristram Shandy. 9 vols. (novel) 1760-67
Sentimental Journey (novel) 1768
Michael McKeon (essay date 1985)
SOURCE: "Generic Transformation and Social Change: Rethinking the Rise of the Novel" in Cultural Critique, Vol. 1, Fall, 1985, pp. 159-81.
[In the following essay, McKeon analyzes the relationship between the instability of the novel as a genre and the growing instability of social categories during the eighteenth century.]
Twenty-five years after its first appearance, Ian Watt's The Rise of the Novel continues to be the most attractive model we have of how to conduct the study of this crucial literary phenomenon.1 The phenomenon is crucial because it is modern. If the novel originated in early modern Europe, it should be possible to observe and describe its emergence within a historical context whose richness of detail has no parallel in earlier periods. But of course this is no coincidence: it is the rise of an unprecedented historical consciousness, and of its institutional affiliates, that has both encouraged the preservation of historical detail, and legitimated contextual methods of study which use that detail as a mode of understanding. Watt's book is attractive because it is fully responsive to the call for a historical and contextual method of study that seems somehow implicit in his subject. Thus his concern with the rise of a distinctive set of narrative procedures—"formal realism"—is informed by a concern with a parallel innovation in philosophical discourse, and these he connects, in turn, with a set of socioeconomic developments at whose center are the rise of the middle class, the growth of commercial capitalism, and the concomitant eclipse of feudal and aristocratic modes of intercourse. The analogy between these historical strands is most succinctly accounted for in their shared "individualism"—that is, in their common validation of individual experience—a term that allows Watt at various points to argue the importance to his subject of a fourth major strand of historical experience, the Protestant Reformation.
Watt's account of the unity of the historical context in which the novel arose is far more subtle, as all readers know, than this bald outline can suggest. And its general persuasiveness is evident in the fact that the sort of criticism to which it has seemed most vulnerable has aimed not to refute the relevance of historical context, but to complicate Watt's version of it. The problem is perhaps most notorious in the social strand of his context. Where is the evidence, critics have asked, for the dominance of the middle class in the early eighteenth century? How is it distinguished from the traditional social categories of the nobility and gentry, which clearly survive the rapid social mobility of the seventeenth century and persist into the eighteenth with considerable power and prestige? Don't the novels of Henry Fielding, an indispensable figure in the rise of the novel, evince a social attitude much closer to that of a middling gentry than to that of a putatively flourishing commercial middle class? But even in the literary realm, critics have also been preoccupied with a problem of persistence. The narrative procedures of Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Fielding may explicitly subvert the idea and ethos of romance, but they also draw, without apparent irony, on many of its stock situations and conventions. Although Watt pays little attention to it, and then only as a superseded genre, romance can be seen to inhabit both the form and the content of these early eighteenth-century narratives. And once again it is Fielding who points the problem most acutely, since he has little use for several of those narrative procedures that have been advanced as the sine qua non of the new form.
From this brief summary it is clear that the two central problems with Watt's account of the rise of the novel are versions of each other. His treatment of the early modern historical context, because of its very richness, has sensitized us to what has been left out: the romance and the aristocracy. By the end of the eighteenth century, the conceptual categories of "the novel" and "the middle class" will be sufficiently stable to enjoy the stability of that nomenclature. But it is of course precisely in the period that we wish most definitively to understand—the period of crucial transformation—that such categories are most unstable and most resistant to being strictly identified either as what they are going to be, or as what they once were. What is required, then, is an understanding of how conceptual categories, whether "literary" or "social," exist at moments of historical change: how new forms first coalesce as tenable categories by being known in terms of, and against, more traditional forms that have thus far been taken to define the field of possibility. We must begin, in other words, with the very fact of categorial instability in the later seventeenth century.
Let me pause for a moment before entering my argument, in order to summarize it. What I have to say is based on a set of terms and relations that will recur from time to time throughout the essay. They are not particularly complicated, but I think it will be helpful to lay them out as quickly and clearly as possible. I plan to describe the two great instances of categorial instability that are central to the rise of the novel. The first sort of instability has to do with generic categories; the second, with social categories. The instability of generic categories registers an epistemological crisis, a major cultural transition in attitudes toward how to tell the truth in narrative. For convenience, I will call the set of problems associated with this epistemological crisis, "questions of truth." The instability of social categories registers a cultural crisis in attitudes toward how the external social order is related to the internal, moral state of its members. For convenience, I will call the set of problems associated with this social and moral crisis, "questions of virtue." Questions of truth and questions of virtue concern different realms of human experience, and they are likely to be raised in very different contexts. Yet in one central respect they are closely analogous. Questions of truth and virtue both pose problems of signification: What kind of authority or evidence is required of narrative to permit it to signify truth to its readers? What kind of social existence or behavior signifies an individual's virtue to others?
As we will see, the instability of generic and social categories is symptomatic of a change in attitudes about how truth and virtue are most authentically signified. But for both questions, we can observe the process of change only if we break it down into its component parts. Let me summarize this break-down: first, for questions of truth. At the beginning of the period of our concern, the reigning narrative epistemology involves a dependence on received authorities and a priori traditions; I will call this posture "romance idealism." In the seventeenth century, it is challenged and refuted by an empiricist epistemology that derives from many sources, and this I will call "naive empiricism." But this negation of romance, having embarked on a journey for which it has no maps, at certain points loses its way. And it becomes vulnerable, in turn, to a counter-critique that has been generated by its own over-enthusiasm. I will call this counter-critique "extreme skepticism." As we will see, in refuting its empiricist progenitor, extreme skepticism inevitably recapitulates some features of the romance idealism which it is equally committed to opposing. For questions of virtue, the terms alter, but the two-part pattern of reversal is very much the same as for questions of truth. We begin with a relatively stratified social order, supported by a reigning world view which I will call "aristocratic ideology." Spurred by social change, this ideology is attacked and subverted by its prime antagonist, "progressive ideology." But at a certain point, progressive ideology gives birth to its own critique, which is both more radical than itself, and harks back to the common, aristocratic enemy. I will call this counter-critique "conservative ideology."
Needless to say, contemporaries did not articulate these several positions as consciously-formulated and coherent doctrines. I have abstracted these ideologies and epistemologies from a large body of early modern discourse, in order to isolate the principal stages in the process of historical change that we refer to when we speak of "the rise of the novel." By this means, I think, we may come closer to conceiving how change occurs: how the past can persist into the present, and help to mediate the establishment of difference through the perpetuation of similarity. Let me now proceed to fill in the spaces in my argument.
I will begin with questions of truth and the instability of the system of narrative genres in the seventeenth century. Evidence for the unstable usage of terminology lies everywhere, but it is most striking in explicit attempts to categorize the several genres of narrative. In 1672, the bookseller John Starkey advertised his list of publications in a catalogue divided into the following categories: Divinity; Physick; Law; History; Poetry and Plays; and Miscellanies. Under the heading of "history" he includes Suetonius, Rabelais, what he calls the "Novels" of Quevedo, biographies, travel narratives, and a contemporary work that we would be likely to see as a popular romance.2 By modern standards, the most pressing problem raised by such usage is the absence of any will to distinguish consistently between "history" and "literature," "fact" and "fiction." But on the other hand, the catalogue of William London, printed fifteen years earlier, obligingly separates "History" from "Romances, Poems and Playes."3
What is most significant about this sort of usage is that it is not entirely foreign to us. Unlike traditional generic taxonomies, it evinces a real, but markedly inconsistent, commitment to comprehend its categories within a basic discrimination between the "factual" and the "fictional." Indeed, it is the inconsistent imposition of this recognizably "modern" concern on a more traditional system that makes the usage of this period look so chaotic. What it represents, I think, is a movement between opposed conceptions of how to tell the truth in narrative. Another sign of this movement is the transformation which the term "romance" has undergone in the past hundred years. Despite the neutral usage that I have just quoted, by the end of the seventeenth century the ascendant meaning of "romance" is both far broader, and far more pejorative, than before. Increasingly the idea of romance dominates the thought of the Restoration and early eighteenth century as a means of describing, and most often of discrediting, a particular, idealist way of knowing. Romance comes to stand for a species of deceit that undiscriminatingly includes lying and fictionalizing; and the category to which it is most often opposed is not "the novel," but "true history."
Many cultural movements contributed to the naive empiricist championing of "true history." Three of the most important are also closely intertwined: the scientific revolution, the typographical revolution, and the Protestant Reformation. Moreover in all three of these movements we can see both the dominant influence of naive empiricism, and the stealthy emergence of a subversive, extreme skepticism. I will begin with the new science. In his history of the founding institution of the new science, Thomas Sprat compares unfavorably the ancient mode of natural history with that of his fellow moderns: it "is not the true following of Nature … It is like Romances, in respect of True History…"4 The new science was dedicated, of course, to objective observation, experiment, and related principles of empirical method. And it was deeply interested in trying to embody these principles in literary technique and form. According to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, "we have more need of severe, full and punctuall Truth, than of Romances or Panegyricks."5 To this end, the Society even undertook to instruct foreign travellers in the best literary techniques for ensuring what we might call the "historicity" of their journals. It enlisted the aid of Robert Boyle and the mathematician Lawrence Rooke to formulate directions not only for how to keep a travel journal, but also for how to turn it into a narrative without diluting its crucial historicity.6
It is not too much to say that these directions amount to one of the most important, explicit bodies of literary theory composed in conjunction with the origins of the English novel. They prescribe a preferred style and rhetoric that correspond to a new type of the man of letters, the ethically and socially humble recorder of reality who is enabled to master the new knowledge by his very innocence of the old. In Sprat's words, the new breed are "plain, diligent, and laborious observers: such, who, though they bring not much knowledg [sic], yet bring their hands, and their eyes uncorrupted: such as have not their Brains infected by false Images …"7 One such observer is described by the editors of the multi-volume collection of travel narratives in terms that might collectively be called the convention of the claim to historicity: "This Narrative has nothing of Art or Language, being left homely Stile, which it was not fit to alter, lest it might breed a Jealousy that something had been chang'd more than the bare Language."8 According to another, equally conventional, traveller, "it would be no difficult Matter to embellish a Narrative with many Romantick Incidents, to please the unthinking Part of Mankind, who swallow every thing an artful Writer thinks fit to impose upon their Credulity, without any Regard to Truth or Probability. The judicious are not taken with such Trifles; … and they easily distinguish between Reality and Fiction."9
At the heart of the claim to historicity is the assertion that what one is describing really happened. And it is not hard to hear in these sober claims the naive empiricism of Defoe and Richardson, both of whom pretend to be only the editors of authentic documents whose plain and artless truth is above question. But if we permit the sobriety of the voices slightly to extend into self-parody, we also can detect the extreme skepticism of Swift and Fielding, subverting the claim to historicity by carrying it to absurdity. This is one example of how naive empiricism generates its own, radically skeptical, critique. Let me turn now to another example, one related not to the new science but to the new typography.
To a certain extent, we owe the very notion of comparative and competing accounts of the same event to the opportunity for comparison uniquely provided by print. Printing produces documentary objects that can be collected, categorized, collated, and edited. Like science, it promotes the norm of "objective" research, and it favors criteria of judgment that are appropriate to discrete and empirically apprehensible "objects": singularity, formal coherence, and self-consistency. Finally, print encourages a test of veracity that accords with the process itself of typographical reproduction: namely, the exact replication of objects or events in their external and quantitative dimensions.10 Contemporaries were conscious of the epistemological powers of print. William Winstanley describes "some I have known (otherwise ingenious enough) apt to believe idle Romances, and Poetical Fictions, for Historical Varieties [i.e., verities], … and for this only reason, Because they are Printed."11 But only a slight extension of this awe brings us to the satiric stance of Cervantes, who has a great deal of fun at the expense of characters—including Sancho Panza—who naively believe everything they see in print. In fact much of the self-reflexive pleasure of Part II of Don Quixote lies in watching its characters compare the documentary objectivity of part I (which has already been printed) with the more fallible standard of truth upheld by private memory and experience.12 Cervantes himself naively claims that his book is a "true history" dedicated to the critique of chivalric romance. But we know to read this affiliation, as well as his playful attitude toward print, as at least in part a skeptical critique of naive empiricism.
My third and final example concerns the contribution of Reformation thought to naive empiricism and its subversion. Protestantism, like the standard of "true history," elevates individual and closely observed experience over the a priori pronouncements of iradition. But Protestantism is also the religion of the Book, of the documentary object, and as such it inevitably tends to elevate the truth of Scripture as the truth of "true history." This documentary and empiricist emphasis is clear in the great works of the Protestant tradition. The central aim of John Foxe's Acts and Monuments (1563, 1570) is the documentation of the Protestant martyrs, and the task is achieved in an aura of scrupulous historicity and with a battery of editorial procedures that are dedicated to the critical authentication of every historical detail.13 Such authenticating procedures may also be found in John Bunyan's Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), even though its protagonist is a palpable fiction. Bunyan claims that it is based on "True stories, that are neither Lye, nor Romance … All which are things either fully known by me, or being eye and ear-witness thereto, or that I have received from such hands, whose relation as to this, I am bound to believe."14 By the same token, Protestant spirituality encouraged individual saints to a scrupulous documentation of their own "true histories." When Ralph Thoresby first went up to London, his father sent him a typical directive: "I would have you, in a little book, which you may either buy or make of two or three sheets of paper, take a little journal of any thing remarkable every day, principally as to yourself …15
So from the beginning, Protestantism was deeply invested in the materialistically-oriented techniques of naive empiricism as a useful means to its spiritual and otherworldly ends. The potential contradiction between worldly means and otherworldly ends is most apparent in writings like the "apparition narratives" of the later seventeenth century; Defoe's A True Relation Of the Apparition of one Mrs. Veal (1706) is the best-known of them today. These narratives use the evidence of the senses in order to prove the extra-sensory world of spirit. They deploy an extraordinary arsenal of authenticating devices—names, places, dates, events, eye- and ear-witness testimony, etc.—in order to prove the reality of the invisible world. Richard Baxter explained his own important contribution to the form in terms that poignantly convey the dilemma of a culture divided between two competing standards of truth that still seem somehow reconcilable: "Apparitions, and other sensible Manifestations of the certain existence of Spirits of themselves Invisible, was a means that might do much with such as are prone to judge by Sense."16 But it is a very short distance from Baxter's earnest and spiritualizing dependence on the evidence of the senses to the realm of conscious satire. Consider those moderns in Swift's early satires who mistake their own bodily wind for the spirit of intellect and divinity.17 Once again, that is, the counter-critique of extreme skepticism is involuntarily extruded by naive empiricism itself as a form of subversive self-parody.
But over time, extreme skepticism emerges as a self-conscious and autonomous stance in its own right. Its premises are the same as those of the naive empiricism which it undertakes to negate. It is equally critical, that is, of "romance," but it is so thoroughly skeptical as to discredit empiricist skepticism itself as nothing more than a new, and artfully modernized, species of the old romance. It is this counter-critique that will issue eventually in Fielding's narrative form. Along the way we may observe certain milestones, narratives—like William Congreve's Incognita (1691)—which elegantly achieve the double negation that is characteristic of the form: first, of the fictions of romance, and then of naive empiricism itself. But like its antagonist, the counter-critique of extreme skepticism undergoes a considerable development; I have space only to offer several exemplary quotations.
Richard Steele is an important figure in the attack on naive empiricism. Echoing pamphleteers of the mid-seventeenth century, for example, he argued in one of his periodical letters that newspapers were to England what books of chivalry had been to Spain.18 Steele was also critical of the claim to historicity in the genre of the secret memoir, which was especially popular among what he called "some merry gentlemen of the French nation." The secret memoir claimed, as Steele observed, to give the true history of military campaigns or court intrigues even though their mendacious authors had really been cowering behind the lines or scribbling in a drafty garret.19 Writing of the same phenomenon, Pierre Bayle observed that thus "the new romances [that is, these supposedly historical memoirs] keep as far off as possible from the romantic way: but by this means true history is made extremely obscure; and I believe the civil powers will at last be forced to give these new romancers their option; either to write pure history, or pure romance…"20 Henry Stubbe compared the natural histories of the Royal Society to "the story of. Tom Thumb, and all the Legends or falsifications of History, which the Papists obtrude upon us."21 The language is striking: whether implicitly or explicitly, over and over true history is discredited as the new romance. The skeptical critique of travel historicity was similarly acerbic. The dubious reader of a typically authenticated travel narrative of 1675 confuted the pamphlet's overheated claims by coolly writing on its title page: "By a new fashion'd Romancer."22 The most thorough and trenchant critique of travel historicity was made by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury, who began, as Steele did, with the remark that "these are in our present Days, what Books of Chivalry were, in those of our Forefathers."23 As the critique of naive empiricism gained momentum toward the end of the century, parodic impersonation seemed to offer itself as the most likely means of subversion. Another dubious reader of travel narratives wrote the following parody of a rival's fashionably plain style of objective narration: "We cast Anchor: We made ready to Sail. The Wind took Courage. Robin is dead. We said Mass. We Vomited. [Then he continues in his own, sarcastic voice.] Tho' they are poor Words any where else, yet in his Book, which is half compos'd of them, they are Sentences, and the worth of them is not to be told."24
But if this kind of extreme skepticism was to become more than an (admittedly liberating) act of subversion, it was obliged, like the subversive stance of naive empiricism before it, to elaborate an alternative, positive, and coherent conception of how to tell the truth in narrative. And here its position was quite as unstable as that of its opponent. For if the claim to historicity is naively posited as the negation of the negation of romance idealism, how tenuous must be that secret sanctuary of truth, distinct both from romance and from too confident a historicity, which is defined by the meta-critical act of double negation? With hindsight we might want to say that the counter-critique of extreme skepticism was groping toward a mode of narrative truthtelling which, through the very self-consciousness of its own fictionality, somehow detoxifies fiction of its error. But the ingenuity of this maneuver could itself look more like a mask for the stealthy recapitulation of romance lies. Consider Fielding's ostentatious indulgence in romance conventions, or Swift's obviously parabolic narratives. Indeed the sheer defensiveness of this counter-stance makes it parasitic upon, and reproductive of, the errors of the enemy. If naive empiricism is too sanguine regarding its own powers of negating romance fiction, its critique is too skeptical about that possibility, and it risks, through its reactive method of parodic impersonation, the effectual affirmation of what it is equally committed to replacing.
Both epistemologies, in other words, are unstable. I would argue that they attain stability not in themselves but in each other, in their dialectical relationship, as two competing versions of how to tell the truth in narrative, which, in their competition, constitute one part of the origins of the novel. The paradigmatic case is Pamela (1740) vs. Shamela (1741), since it is then that the conflict emerges into public consciousness and is institutionalized as a battle over whether it is Richardson or Fielding that is creating the "new species of writing." My argument is that it is, rather, the conjunction of the two. But I would also point out that the logic of our progress through the seventeenth century into the middle of the eighteenth argues against trying to pinpoint "the first novel," or even its first dialectical engagement. Before Pamela and Shamela, for example, there is the tacit but crucial confrontation between Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Gulliver's Travels (1726), a confrontation to which I will return. The novel rises not in the isolated emergence of a great text or two, but as an experimental process consisting of many different stages.
So far our attention has been focussed on epistemological instability, and the series of critiques by which questions of truth are propounded. We must now turn to the analogous questions of virtue, to the instability of socioeconomic categories, and to the interaction between what I have called the aristocratic, progressive, and conservative ideologies. In the seventeenth century, the traditional imprecision in the use of status categories is complicated by an unprecedented rate of social mobility. The effects of this mobility are suggested by the fact that it is at this time that attempts begin to be made to assess the population not according to a traditional, status stratification, but by annual income and expenditures. This amounts to the first, systematic emergence of the modern impulse to classify society according to the fundamentally economic criteria of class.
The form taken by these population tables is quite relevant to our purposes, because they provide the sort of evidence of instability, on the subject of social categories, that we found in publishers' book lists on the subject of generic categories. Gregory King's celebrated table of the 1690's ostensibly aims to give a continuous financial, and therefore quantitative; progression from the top to the bottom of English society. But he is obliged to work with both honorific and occupational categories, and around the middle of his table the two sorts of category become intermixed in a way that undermines the purpose of the project. For in several cases, King lists status categories above occupational ones, even though the crucial standard of average yearly income should reverse the orders. In other words, King's abiding respect for the traditional status hierarchy momentarily overrules his modernizing aim to create a hierarchy of incomes. The qualitative criteria of status infiltrate and disrupt the effort at a quantitative categorization.25 Half a century later, in 1760, Joseph Massie carried over King's six traditional categories of elevated status to the top of his own table. But they repose there aloof and untouched, a kind of honorific gesture that has nothing to do with the real work of economic discrimination, for which Massie uses completely different categories in the rest of his table. In other words, status categories persist here as a vestigial remnant of a mode of thought which, however useless in the definitive description of contemporary English people by class, still appears indispensable.26
In both men, the instability of social categories owes to a discrepancy between two standards of classification, that of "status" and that of "class." It reflects what we might call a crisis of "status inconsistency," a divergence of power, wealth, and status widespread and persistent enough to resist the methods by which stable societies traditionally have accommodated the instances of non-correspondence that occasionally must arise. One such method is the traditional granting or selling of honors to newly enriched but ignoble families. To speak of "traditional" societies is also to speak of societies dominated by what I have called an "aristocratic" ideology. In aristocratic culture, it is not only that power, wealth, and honorific status most often accompany each other; honor also is understood to imply personal merit or virtue. Thus the social hierarchy is a great system of signification: the outward forms of genealogy and social rank are taken to signify an analogous, intrinsic moral order. The seventeenth-century crisis of status inconsistency therefore strikes at the moral foundations of aristocratic ideology. The sale of honors became, in Lawrence Stone's phrase, an "inflation," and the latent tension between honorific and monetary criteria became a glaring contradiction for contemporaries.27 The word "honor" itself acquired a more complicated import. As a neutral term of description, its meaning was, in effect, internalized, changing from "title of rank" to "goodness of character."28 But "honor" in the more traditional sense of the term like "romance," had fallen on very hard times.
We can hear this in the genial contempt expressed by Bernard Mandeville. For Mandeville, honor "is only to be met with in People of the better sort, as some Oranges have kernels, and others not, tho' the outside be the same. In great Families it is like the Gout, generally counted Hereditary, and all Lords Children are born with it.… But there is nothing that encourages the Growth of it more than a Sword, and upon the first wearing of one, some People have felt considerable Shutes of it, in Four and twenty Hours."29 The aristocratic system of signification held no illusions for Stephen Penton, either. For "if Merit were to be the Standard of Worldly Happiness, what great desert is there in being born Eldest Son and Heir to several Thousands a Year, when sometimes it falls out, that the Person is hardly able to Answer Two or Three the easiest Questions in the World wisely enough to save himself from being Begg'd?"30 William Sprigge plausibly argued that "the younger Son is apt to think himself sprung from as Noble a stock, from the loyns of as good a Gentleman as his elder Brother, and therefore cannot but wonder, why fortune and the Law should make so great a difference between them that lay in the same wombe, that are formed of the same lumpe; why Law or Custome should deny them an estate, whom nature hath given discretion to know how to manage it."31 And Defoe draws the versified conclusion:
What is't to us, what Ancestors we had?
If Good, what better? or what worse, if Bad?
For Fame of Families is all a Cheat,
'Tis Personal Virtue only makes us great.32
In the realm of social change, the idea of "personal virtue" occupies the place that "true history" does in epistemology. For progressive ideology, elevated birth is an arbitrary accident which should not be taken to signify worth. If it is, it becomes a fiction, an imaginary value, like "honor" a mere "romance." Thus Defoe observes that when gentlemen "value themselves as exalted in birth above the rest of the world …" it is upon the basis of a strictly "imaginary honour."33Real honor, honor of character, attaches to personal virtue. And Defoe heartily approved of the assimilationist practice whereby the meritorious and newly-risen crowned their merit through the purchase of titles of rank.
But what were Swift's views on questions of virtue? Swift was as caustic as Defoe on the subject of aristocratic pretension. But he was far more inclined to see the ideas of inherited honor and gentle birth as useful fictions that had an instrumental social value. "Suppose there be nothing but Opinibn in the Difference of Blood," he wrote. "Surely, that Difference is not wholly imaginary.… It should seem that the Advantage lies on the Side of Children, born from noble and wealthy Parents … [And] Ancient and honorable Birth[, … whether it be of real or imaginary Value, hath been held in Veneration by all wise, polite States, both Ancient and Modern."34 It may seem puzzling that men like Swift should return to half-embrace the very fiction they have rejected. But we already have seen this sort of movement in the return of extreme skepticism to a form of self-conscious romancing. For progressives like Defoe, aristocratic ideology was subverted and replaced by a brave new view of social signification. Virtue is signified not by the a priori condition of having been born with status and honor, but by the ongoing experience of demonstrated achievement and just reward. Thus the status inconsistency endemic to aristocratic culture is rectified, in this progressive view, by upward mobility through state service, private employment, or any other method of industrious self-application. To conservatives like Swift, this progressive model of the career open to talents was deeply repellant, as we will see. But the negation of both aristocratic and progressive ideology left conservative ideology without a positive and stable view of how the social injustice of status inconsistency ever might be overcome.
From the conservative point of view, progressive ideology only replaced the old social injustice by a new and more brutal version of it, unsoftened now by any useful fictions of inherited authority. At the heart of this new system was the naked cash nexus. For the conservative, the archetypal progressive upstart rose by exploiting the capitalist market, and especially the new mechanisms of financial investment and public credit which were established at the end of the seventeenth century. For men like Swift, only landed property had real value. All other property was, as he put it, "transient and imaginary," but most of all that of exchange value.35 Defoe also recognized that the modern world of exchange value was ruled by, in his phrase, "the Power of Imagination."36 And he perceived that in some mysterious sense, capitalist credit was only a secularization of aristocratic honor. But Defoe was convinced that the circulation of money and the opportunity for capital accumulation were essential if individual merit were to be dependably signified and rewarded. For Swift, the market exchange of commodities only established a new elite of the undeserving on the grounds of a new, and far more dangerous, species of corruption. That is, it only institutionalized a new form of status inconsistency: namely, wealth and power without virtue. As for honorific status, the situation had become hopelessly confused. To the conservative mentality, there was an obvious corruption in those progressive upstarts who sought to legitimate their rise by the purchase of a title. But the system of honors was itself corrupted, and many ancient landed families were as thoroughly indebted to the capitalist market for the improvement of their estates as anyone.
Here, as on questions of truth, the doubly-critical posture of men like Swift left very little ground for the affirmation of any positive social signifier of merit and virtue. With the triumph of Whig oligarchy in the eighteenth century, the aristocratic order seems to regain its stability after the rapid social mobility of the previous century. But the status category of "aristocracy" has altered considerably, even if the terminology has remained the same. The status orientation itself has been complicated by a class orientation—by individualistic and monetary criteria and by capitalist practices. The rise of the middle class, in other words, was not the rise of a discrete and determinate social entity, but a historical process in which traditional status groups were altered as much from within as from without. And the rise of the middle class is inseparable from the rise of a class orientation toward social relations. Men like Swift knew this; they knew that the enemy was not so easily distinguished as an ungentle, upstart invader from without. Nevertheless, for lack of a more dependable signifier, they retained in their minds the possession of land and gentle status as a self-consciously conventional signification of what seemed an increasingly embattled virtue.
Why should narrative, in particular, be suitable for the representation of progressive and conservative ideologies? The term "ideology" often is used to suggest a simplistic reduction of human complexity. But as I intend the term, "ideology" is discourse whose purpose is to mediate and explain apparently intractable social problems—in this case, the problematic questions of virtue. To explain the condition of status inconsistency is not to explain it away, but to render it intelligible. In fact, the very plausibility of ideological explanation depends on the degree to which it appears to do justice to the contradictory social reality that it seeks to explain. In the present context, ideological explanation works by telling stories. The question of how virtue is signified has an inherently narrative focus because it is concerned with genealogical succession and individual progress, with how human capacity is manifested in and through time. This concern can be seen in the "macro-narrative" of seventeenth-century history itself, which provided writers with an important model for their novelistic micronarratives. Seventeenth-century England was vitally concerned with the problem of political sovereignty and its sources. At the beginning of the century, sovereignty seemed to rest with the king and to be validated by, among other things, his genealogical inheritance of royalty. In 1642, Charles I warned that parliament's challenge to royal sovereignty threatened the very continuity of the historical succession. The great danger, he said, was that at last the common people would "destroy all rights and proprieties, all distinctions of families and merit, and by this means this splendid and excellently distinguished form of government end in a dark, equal chaos of confusion, and the long line of our many noble ancestors in a Jack Cade or a Wat Tyler."37 Charles was not entirely wrong in this apocalyptic prophecy: seven years after it he was decapitated. And before the end of the century, the nation had joined together to depose another rightful monarch and to exclude the next fifty-seven prospective heirs to the throne. In their place was crowned a foreigner, and in the place of sovereignty by genealogical inheritance was affirmed sovereignty by achievement: the simple and pragmatic fact that a peaceful and stable settlement had been achieved.38
In the language of questions of virtue, the fall of Charles I is the most infamous instance of status inconsistency in the century. And after the Battle of Worcester in 1651, prince Charles wandered the land in disguise like nothing so much as a romance hero destined, after much travail, to be discovered and restored to his aristocratic patrimony.39 But to readers of a progressive persuasion, the triumphs of Oliver Cromwell and William of Orange showed, in different ways, the superiority of industrious valor to mere lineage. Progressive ideology even entered into the making of Cromwell's New Model Army. In 1643 he declared: "I had rather have a plain russett-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else … Better plain men than none, but best to have men patient of wants, faithful and conscientious in the employment…"40
Cromwell's language here reminds us that Calvinist Protestantism has an important relevance to progressive ideology, for God's mark of inner nobility was superior to any external social elevation. Speaking of divine election, Cromwell asked: "May not this stamp [of God] bear equal poise with any hereditary interest … ?"41 And, as a coreligionist affirmed, "It is not the birth, but the new birth, that makes men truly noble."42 If Calvinist election argued a new aristocracy alternative to that of birth, Calvinist discipline dictated a spirit of service and reform that worked both to glorify the works of God and to signify one's possession of grace. But what are the narrative implications of this dovetailing of Protestant belief and progressive ideology? As early as Foxe's Acts and Monuments, the apocalyptic battle between the Roman Catholic hierarchy and God's saints is colored by the progressive contest between corrupt noblemen and industrious commoners. Foxe's "Story of Roger Holland, Martyr," for example, is the tale of an apprentice who is idle and licentious until the moment of his Protestant conversion. Thereafter he prospers wonderfully as a merchant tailor. So when the reformed apprentice is finally called up before his papist inquisitor, he is able to manifest, through a spirited resistance and a serene martyrdom, that spiritual grace which already has been apparent in his labor discipline and his material prosperity.43
Calvinist doctrine encouraged in progressive narrative the self-serving conviction that divine grace could be internalized as virtue, and externalized once again as worldly achievement. But Calvinism also counselled against the proud sufficiency of human desire, and it sharpened the conservative critique of enthusiasm and the Protestant ethic. The adventures of Robinson Crusoe exemplify both the ethical obstacles to progressive ideology, and the power of that ideology to drive all before it. Robinson Crusoe is an industrious younger son whose worldly success at first signifies nothing more than acquisitiveness and ambition. But once he is shipwrecked, his island turns out to be a progressive utopia. Because it excludes all human society, it provides an arena in which the anti-social passions of avarice and domination can be indulged without suffering the consequences. Thus Robinson can accumulate goods without creating exchange value. He can exercise absolute sovereignty without incurring the wrath of a greater authority. And when human society finds him, and it comes time to leave the island, he is able to naturalize the artificial, laboratory conditions of his utopia because he has learned to internalize divinity, to identify his own passions with the will of God. A slighter version of this progressive, utopian plot is given by Henry Neville, whose George Pine is an industrious city apprentice who happens to stumble into a travel narrative." Stranded with four women on an Edenic desert island where productive labor is unneeded, Pine resourcefully proceeds to manifest his merit through reproductive labor, populating the island with offspring who then constitute a new genealogy and...
(The entire section is 17993 words.)
From Romanticism To Realism
Arnold Kettle (essay date 1951)
SOURCE: "Realism and Romance," in his An Introduction to the English Novel, 2d ed., Vol. 1, Hutchinson University Library, 1967, pp. 25-38.
[In the following chapter from his history of the English novel, Kettle locates the origins of the novel in the traditions of the literary romance.]
The moment we found ourselves, a few pages back, asking, by implication, the question, 'Why were the first novels written?' we had to begin thinking in terms of history, and it is essential that we should not run away from history. The rise and development of the English novel, like any other phenomenon in literature, can only be...
(The entire section is 32799 words.)
Women And The Novel
Katherine Sobba Green (essay date 1991)
SOURCE: "The Courtship Novel: Textual Liberation for Women," in her The Courtship Novel 1740-1820: A Feminized Genre, Lexington, University Press of Kentucky, 1991, pp. 11-24.
[In this essay, Green discusses early courtship novels written by women within their literary, cultural, and historical contexts.]
However enlightened our understanding of patriarchy, when we thumb back through eighteenth-century conduct books we expect to find a language of containment and circumscription that preempts female hopes and desires—the monitory gesture, uplifted forefinger, and glowering brow, usually belonging to...
(The entire section is 13958 words.)
The Novel And Other Literary Forms
Terry Castle (essay date 1986)
SOURCE: "Literary Transformations: The Masquerade in English Fiction," in Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction, Stanford University Press, 1986, pp. 110-29.
[In this excerpt from a study of the carnivalesque, Castle examines the relationship between the masquerade and English fiction in the eighteenth century.]
The literary history of the masquerade in England could be said to begin, not with a novelist at all, but with John Dryden. The following dialogue from Marriage a la Mode (1673) celebrates the birth of a topos:
(The entire section is 19252 words.)
Further Reading
Baker, Ernest A. The History of the English Novel, vols. III-V. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. 10 vols., 1950.
Selection from a comprehensive history of the novel. The volumes cited focus on the late seventeenth through the early nineteenth centuries, discussing the romance, the development of realism, the novel of sentiment, and the Gothic novel.
Butt, John. The Mid-Eighteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.
Survey of English literature after 1740, with chapters on major novelists and other prose fiction.
Cruse, Amy. The Shaping of English Literature and the Reader's Share in the...
(The entire section is 480 words.)


text:
A mericans still think we live on corned beef and cabbage over here," says Irish cookbook author and teacher Darina Allen.
In fact, the dish that's synonymous with St. Patrick's Day and all things Irish in the U.S. is so rarely eaten in Ireland—for the holiday or otherwise—that some people wonder if it's actually Irish. In Irish Country Cooking, Malachi McCormick says he likes corned beef, but then adds: "But our national dish? No, it's a New World dish!" Furthermore, thanks to the many awful versions served in bars in the U.S.—and washed down with plastic cups of green beer—this one-pot meal is often reviled by Irish Americans and Irish-for-a-Day Americans or, at the very least, relegated to a sloshy once-a-year tradition.
Darina Allen's Corned Beef and Cabbage Feast
So let's set a few things straight: First, corned beef and cabbage is most definitely Irish. Second, when properly made it's "delicious," says Allen—recent taste tests here at Epicurious confirm that the corned beef and cabbage recipe from Allen's cookbook Irish Traditional Cooking is indeed fantastic. Third, with the current multicontinent trend of chefs looking to the past for inspiration coupled with a craze among food-lovers for all things cured, this briny classic is poised for a comeback.
Although corned beef is "almost a forgotten flavor in Ireland," according to Allen it was once an extremely popular and important food for all classes. To "corn" something is simply to preserve it in a salty brine (the term corn refers to the coarse grains of salt used for curing). In the days before refrigeration, corning was essential for storing meat, especially from large animals like cows. Historically, beef that was slaughtered and corned before the winter was served with the first fresh spring cabbage to break the Lenten fast on Easter.
Corned beef has always been associated with Cork City, because, Allen explains, "that was the provisioning port for boats before they crossed the Atlantic." In fact, between the 1680s and 1825, corning beef was Cork City's most important industry. The meat was exported to Britain, continental Europe, and as far away as Newfoundland and the West Indies.
These days in Ireland, corned beef is still most associated with County Cork, where Allen's Ballymaloe Cookery School and the Ballymaloe House and restaurant started by Allen's mother-in-law, Myrtle Allen, are based. Corned beef is sold at the English Market, a huge covered market in Cork City, and is also available at the Farmgate Café within the market—Allen says Ballymaloe House also serves it occasionally for lunch. "So there are people who eat it all the time."
But even in Cork, Allen says, corned beef "seems to be a flavor that a lot of older people enjoy more than younger people." Why, then, has corned beef dwindled in popularity? "The Irish economy is very, very strong, and with that comes changes in people's diets," she says. Yet for Irish immigrants, many of whom fled their famine-stricken homeland during the heyday of corned beef, the dish remained important. "The immigrants brought it with them and it became sort of like a cult food," says Allen. "I think what happens sometimes when people immigrate is life stands still. Their memories of a country, and of the traditions, stay as it was when they left."
But with so many chefs looking to the past for inspiration, corned beef could be poised for a comeback in its country of origin. "[Irish] chefs are serving a lot of peasant foods and highlighting them again," says Allen. D.I.Y. fever could also play a role in corned beef's return to the Irish table. "Over here, just as over on your side [of the Atlantic], a lot of younger people are getting involved in curing their own bacons and hams and things again, making sausages and salamis," says Allen, who runs a series of "forgotten skills" courses at Ballymaloe Cookery School, teaching students how to keep chickens, make homemade sausages, build a smokehouse, and so forth.
The Epicurious edit team put Allen's corned beef and cabbage to the test: We purchased a four-pound piece of cured meat from Prime Cuts, an Irish butcher in the Woodlawn neighborhood of the Bronx in New York and slow-cooked it with cabbage, carrots, and onions. The scrumptious results convinced us that the dish is indeed ready for a revival. Allen says of the St. Patrick's Day corned beef and cabbage connection, "It's lovely to have one dish associated with a day." As we thoroughly enjoyed many days of leftovers from our St. Patrick's Day preview, we'll add that it's even lovelier for that dish to be so good you'd eat it any day.
Ready to try it yourself? Click on the menu links for Allen's recipes for Corned Beef with Cabbage, two authentic and tasty side dishes, and a perfect early spring dessert. Then see the Tips tab for buying and cooking advice.
Darina Allen is the author of several books, including Forgotten Skills of Cooking: The Time-Honored Ways are the Best, Irish Traditional Cooking: Over 300 Recipes from Ireland's Heritage, Darina Allen's Ballymaloe Cooking School Cookbook, and A Year at Ballymaloe Cookery School. Go to www.cookingisfun.ie to learn more about Allen and Ballymaloe Cookery School.


text:
Here's how RW members rated this race in the past (593 votes).
In short: Really good off road raceIn full: Having watched since doing the slog back in 2000 I was really looking forward to this race. I thought that this years event was more like a race than the challenge it was in 2000. Which for me was great. Very well organised and quick upload of results. I'll be back next year.Date of review: November 8, 2009
In short: A very good mud-festIn full: This year the course was different but still as pretty good. Didn't seem as contrived in this format - felt like a pretty good circular course. 7/10. No where near as good as Rough and Tumble or Dursley Dozen..... but pretty good for those doing their first major off-road run. Date of review: November 8, 2009
In short: very tough offroaderDate of review: November 8, 2009
In short: course very similar - much muddierIn full: was a little concerned with the route change but it was still very close to last years, just much of it the other was around... the river/stream was missed, but replaced with much more mud... not many races where i think they could do with a few more hosepipes at the end !!!!!!Date of review: November 8, 2009
In short: Fabulous race, great marshalls, great funIn full: Thanks to everyone who made this race possible. It is the most fun race race I have attended so far. The marshalls were friendly and encouraging (and I can't thank the lady who kindly helped solve my lost number crisis enough).It is muddy, has some hills and some road. I really enjoyed the varied terrain. The que to get through one stretch of water was the only downside to an otherwise fantastic race.Thanks everyone!Date of review: November 8, 2009
In short: Not all it's cracked up to be...In full: I was very much looking forward to this race, given it's very high ratings and having spectated it last year - but sadly this year something was missing. The atmosphere was fine, but lacked a spark. The organization was good, but having run over 50 other off-road races, it was nothing spectacular. The course was fine, but let's be clear, this is not the most challenging race ever, nor does it take you through the most spectacular countryside. As an introduction to off-road running this race is fine, but if it's all you do, you will be missing out on some real gems (especially in the south west / wales region). We are also trying to work out how to divide a £50 voucher for a pair of trainers, amongst the five members of the team prize!Date of review: November 8, 2009
In short: Mud and fun, with the cheeriest marshalls yetIn full: This is a cracking race - thoroughly enjoyed it. The marshalls and supporters were first class and the organisation was excellent.Definitely one to put in the diary for next year.I'm sure it was a tad more than 8.5 miles though...Date of review: November 8, 2009
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COLORADO SPRINGS, Colo. (Oct. 27, 2010) – The U.S. Women's National Volleyball Team continued its preparation for the 2010 FIVB World Championship by sweeping Toray in a five-set friendly exhibition match versus Japan's reigning V-League champions Toray on Oct. 26 in Japan.
The Americans, who start the FIVB World Championship versus Thailand on Oct. 29 at Matsumoto, won the scrimmage 25-21, 25-17, 25-21, 25-16, 25-21 as 13 of the 14 available players played at least two sets.
Logan Tom (Salt Lake City, Utah) led Team USA with 17 points with 12 kills on 25 errorless attacks, three aces and two blocks. The middle blocking combination of Jennifer Tamas (Milpitas, Calif.) and Heather Bown (Yorba Linda, Calif.) contributed 13 and 12 points, respectively. Megan Hodge (Durham, N.C.) added 12 points while Destinee Hooker (San Antonio, Texas) chalked up nine points. Jordan Larson (Hooper, Neb.), Nancy Metcalf (Hull, Iowa) and Ogonna Nnamani (Bloomington, Ill.) all scored seven points apiece. Cynthia Barboza (Long Beach, Calif.) notched six points and Alisha Glass (Leland, Mich.) rounded out the scoring with a single point.
Glass, who started the first three sets and was used as part of a double sub in the final two sets, set the team to a .265 hitting efficiency in the sets she started. Lindsey Berg (Honolulu, Hawaii), suiting up for the Americans for the first time in 2010, started the final two sets and helped the team to a .361 hitting efficiency.
Stacy Sykora (Burleson, Texas), Glass and Tom had team-high 10 digs each, while Larson added seven digs. Nicole Davis (Stockton, Calif.) had a 90 percent positive serve reception as she served as the libero in the final two sets.
The U.S. out-blocked Toray 14-7 and held an 11-5 margin in aces. Despite its lineup changing throughout the match, Team USA converted 40 percent of its attacks with a .301 hitting efficiency. For the match, the U.S. had a 66 percent positive service reception. The American defense held Toray to a 30 percent conversion rate on attacks and .090 hitting efficiency. Toray managed a 66-51 dig advantage.
Toray captured the V-League championship playoff with a sweep of JT in the final match this past spring. Barboza was a member of the Toray team during the 2009-2010 season.
The FIVB World Championship first round has six teams in four pools playing a round-robin schedule with the top four teams in each pool advancing to the second round for crossover play. The U.S. is grouped in Pool C at Matsumoto with Cuba, Germany, Kazakhstan, Thailand and Croatia. In the second round, Pool C crosses over with Pool B (Brazil, Italy, Netherlands, Kenya, Puerto Rico and Czech Republic) to form Pool F in Nagoya. The semifinals and finals will be played in Tokyo on Nov. 13-14.
The Americans open the FIVB World Championship against Thailand on Oct. 29 at 4:15 p.m. Japan Time (12:15 a.m. Pacific Time). The U.S. challenges Croatia on Oct. 30 at 1 p.m. Japan Time (9 p.m. Pacific Time on Oct. 29) and Germany on Oct. 31 at 6 p.m. Japan Time (2 a.m. Pacific Time) before an off day. Pool C concludes with the U.S. facing Kazakhstan on Nov. 2 at 6:45 p.m. Japan Time (2:45 a.m. Pacific Time) and NORCECA rival Cuba on Nov. 3 at 6 p.m. Japan Time (2 a.m. Pacific Time).
Other first-round groups include host Japan, Serbia, Poland, Peru, Algeria and Costa Rica in Pool A and China, Russia, Korea, Dominican Republic, Turkey and Canada in Pool D.
U.S. Women's National Team Roster for FIVB World Championship
# - Name (Pos, Ht, Hometown, College)
1 - Ogonna Nnamani (OPP, 6-1, Bloomington, Ill., Stanford)
2 - Alisha Glass (S, 6-0, Leland, Mich., Penn State)
4 - Lindsey Berg (S, 5-8, Honolulu, Hawaii, Minnesota)
5 - Stacy Sykora (L, 5-10, Burleson, Texas, Texas A&M)
6 - Nicole Davis (L, 5-4, Stockton, Calif., Southern California)
7 - Heather Bown (MB, 6-3, Yorba Linda, Calif., Hawaii)
8 - Cynthia Barboza (OH, 6-0, Long Beach, Calif., Stanford)
9 - Jennifer Tamas (MB, 6-4, Milpitas, Calif., Pacific)
11 - Jordan Larson (OH, 6-2, Hooper, Neb., Nebraska)
12 - Nancy Metcalf (OPP, 6-1, Hull, Iowa, Nebraska)
15 - Logan Tom (OH, 6-1, Salt Lake City, Utah, Stanford)
16 - Foluke Akinradewo (MB, 6-3, Plantation, Fla., Stanford)
18 - Megan Hodge (OH, 6-3, Durham, N.C., Penn State)
19 - Destinee Hooker (OPP, 6-4, San Antonio, Texas, Texas)
Head Coach: Hugh McCutcheon (Christchurch, New Zealand)
Assistant Coach: Karch Kiraly (San Clemente, Calif.)
Assistant Coach: Paula Weishoff (Irvine, Calif.)
Technical Coordinator: Jamie Morrison (Dana Point, Calif.)
Athletic Trainer/Medical Support: Jill Wosmek (Silver Lake, Minn.)
Team Doctor: Dr. William Briner
Team Manager: Ken Sullivan
FIVB World Championship First Round Pools with FIVB World Ranking
(first three countries by seed, then next three based on drawing of lots)
Pool A (Tokyo): Japan (5), Serbia (9), Poland (8), Peru (17), Algeria (14), Costa Rica (31)
Pool B (Hamamatsu): Brazil (1), Italy (4), Netherlands (10), Kenya (35), Puerto Rico (13), Czech Republic (38)
Pool C (Matsumoto): USA (2), Cuba (6), Germany (15), Kazakhstan (16), Thailand (12), Croatia (45)
Pool D (Nagoya): China (3), Russia (7), Korea (21), Dominican Republic (11), Turkey (22), Canada (24)
First Round Schedule
Pool A:
Oct. 29: Peru vs. Algeria, 12:30; Serbia vs. Costa Rica, 15:00; Poland vs. Japan, 18:45
Oct. 30: Costa Rica vs. Algeria, 12:30; Serbia vs. Poland, 15:00; Japan vs. Peru, 18:00
Oct. 31: Peru vs. Serbia, 12:30; Poland vs. Costa Rica, 15:00; Algeria vs. Japan, 18:00
Nov. 2: Serbia vs. Algeria, 13:00; Poland vs. Peru, 15:30; Costa Rica vs. Japan, 18:45
Nov. 3: Peru vs. Costa Rica, 12:30; Algeria vs. Poland, 15:00; Japan vs. Serbia, 18:00
Pool B:
Oct. 29: Brazil vs. Kenya, 13:30; Czech Republic vs. Netherlands, 16:15; Puerto Rico vs. Italy, 18:45
Oct. 30: Czech Republic vs. Brazil, 13:00; Kenya vs. Puerto Rico, 15:30; Netherlands vs. Italy, 18:00
Oct. 31: Puerto Rico vs. Czech Republic, 13:00; Italy vs. Kenya, 15:30; Brazil vs. Netherlands, 18:00
Nov. 2: Brazil vs. Puerto Rico, 13:30; Netherlands vs. Kenya, 16:15; Czech Republic vs. Italy, 18:45
Nov. 3: Puerto Rico vs. Netherlands, 13:00; Kenya vs. Czech Republic, 15:30; Italy vs. Brazil, 18:00
Pool C:
Oct. 29: Germany vs. Kazakhstan, 13:30; USA vs. Thailand, 16:15; Croatia vs. Cuba, 18:45
Oct. 30: USA vs. Croatia, 13:00; Thailand vs. Kazakhstan, 15:30; Cuba vs. Germany, 18:00
Oct. 31: Kazakhstan vs. Cuba, 13:00; Croatia vs. Thailand, 15:30; USA vs. Germany, 18:00
Nov. 2: Croatia vs. Germany, 13:30; Thailand vs. Cuba, 16:15; USA vs. Kazakhstan, 18:45
Nov. 3: Kazahkstan vs. Croatia, 13:00; Germany vs. Thailand, 15:30; USA vs. Cuba, 18:00
Pool D:
Oct. 29: Russia vs. Dominican Republic, 13:30; Canada vs. Korea, 16:15; Turkey vs. China, 18:45
Oct. 30: Russia vs. Turkey, 13:00; Dominican Republic vs. Korea, 15:30; China vs. Canada, 18:00
Oct. 31: Turkey vs. Dominican Republic, 13:00; Canada vs. Russia, 15:30; Korea vs. China, 18:00
Nov. 2: Turkey vs. Canada, 13:30; Russia vs. Korea, 16:15; Dominican Republic vs. China, 18:45
Nov. 3: Canada vs. Dominican Republic, 13:00; Korea vs. Turkey, 15:30; China vs. Russia, 18:00
Second Round (Nov. 6-10) - teams play opposite pool in crossover
Pool E (Tokyo): 1A, 1D, 2A, 2D, 3A, 3D, 4A, 4D
Pool F (Nagoya): 1B, 1C, 2B, 2C, 3B, 3C, 4B, 4C
Semifinals and Finals (Nov. 13-14 in Tokyo)