text:
[Page 59]
Trades and Crafts General Introduction
Until the beginning of the 18th century the city's official name was Pultuska and it was situated near the main roads to Prussia, Warsaw, and St. Petersburg. The entire area from the crossroads of Warszawska Street, Stare Miasto (Old Place Street), and Petersburg Street to the Narev River, all belonged to the church and was isolated by a river tributary that ran down the middle of the city. A raft or a boat was required in order to row to the other side. Located here in addition to the church buildings was the medieval castle, the residence of the bishop, and the priests' seminary.
Until the beginning of the 19th century, according to ecclesiastical edict of the Pultusk priesthood (the owners of Pultusk), Jews were not allowed to be live in town. Lack of any other options forced Jews to live in the surrounding villages. In Poppa, 18 klm from Pultusk, there were quite a few Jews, and the same held true for the village of Popławy, where large tracts of land belonged to Nuta Nutkowitz. He inherited the rights from the Officer Tsvi (Herman) Nutkowitz, a veteran from the ranks of Dombrovski's Corps [10] who excelled in the Napoleonic Wars and received the French Medal of Honor.
After the suppression of the Polish rebellion in 1831, Pultusk was burned all the way to the church (map #39) which was separated from the rest of town by the river drainage. By that time a number of Jewish families had established themselves in the town; mostly, they were craftsmen. In order to speed up the city's restoration, rebuilding after the fire and improving the economic situation, prominent Jewish merchants like Pesach Grynberg and Gedalij Zylbersztejn (son in law of Nuta Nutkowicz) received permission to settle, purchase tracts of land, and build houses (only out of bricks). In time the number of Jews increased and they did quite well economically. For burial the departed were taken to Nasielsk, since it would be sometime before a tract of land was purchased for a cemetery.
In the rich forested environment, Jews developed trade in wood and grain, with the Narev River and its surrounding canals serving as an excellent and convenient means of transportation, all the way to Danzig (German for Gdansk) and on to Germany. The large influx of Jews began in the second half of the 19th century and turned Pultusk into a center for the export of grain. The Polish Rebellion of 1863 stopped this development, and a fire that broke out a few years later destroyed the town and stopped the city's development altogether. Due to Jewish initiative, the town was rapidly rebuilt employing sound architectural principles. The buildings were constructed of stone, giving the city a more modernistic look. The Jews became the owners of 60 percent of the town's property and rebuilt the central shul (synagogue, #2 on map) in a wide spacious area.
As the Russians expanded their newly built rail network, they constructed a train line far from Pultusk. Their reasons were strategic, but the closest station was 22 km away. That was a great blow to the trades and crafts in Pultusk, since only cities the rail line passed through were able to play a major role in the agricultural trade. However, there was a twist. After the 1863 Rebellion the Russian Czarist regime stepped up its military presence in Poland, and Pultusk received two Russian battalions, the command post, and the Chief of the Division Staff; in addition, a regional hospital was established. This greatly improved the Jewish economic situation, since many Jewish families' livelihood came from supplying food and butter to the Russian army, and from other work performed by Jews for the Russians. The Jewish population grew steadily and in 1914 numbered 8,000 individuals. As proof of the improved economic situation, there is no record of Jews leaving Pultusk between those years.
Before we begin a detailed description of the Jewish economic situation in those years, I want to mention the names of various Jewish contractors who, due to their diligence and persistence, were able to achieve wealth and honor, in addition to providing a livelihood for their employees; they also gave generously to Jewish causes and charities.
[Page 60]
Until the First World War, almost all trade in the town was in Jewish hands. As opposed to 150 Jewish-owned stores of all types, only four small groceries belonged to Christians. In the marketplace there were 100 stalls and workshops. There were fish, vegetables, flour, baked goods, haberdashery, cloth, leather, shoes, carpentry, weaving, and gold. The last four trades plus fur, millinery, pottery, book binding, knife sharpening, bicycle repair, and watch making were exclusively in the hands of Jews. About 60 percent of the cobblers, painters, locksmiths, blacksmiths, wheels repairers, oven builders, and stonecutters were Jews. Among the bakers and barbers, the percentage was even higher, 75 percent. There was even an expert building contractor, Shalom Lebowicz.
Among the many vegetable stands, special recognition goes to Khyene/Chiena Zilinska, the mouskalka (Moskovite); she was called that because her husband was captured and forced to serve 25 years in the army of Czar Nikolai the First.
Fruit merchant and renter of stands was Wolf Ogrodnick.
Flour, lentils, and grits were sold by Yerakhmieyl the seminole maker with his wife, black Sarah. She was the salesperson and he was in charge of production. He was an Ashminova Chassid [13], devoutly orthodox.
His neighbor in the adjacent stand was Shmuel Kiejzmacher, a Kotzker Chassid, very sharp-witted.
Among the fish stands, our attention is drawn to the delicate, humble, and short Moshe Safian. His treatment of customers evoked feelings of trust and civility.
Zaindel Berliner was much the same. He was short, with gazing black eyes and a dark beard; his son Leibel was the Torah reader in the shul.
There was another fish salesman, Shlomo Ben Nissan Zinamoy, but the real business person was his wife, the real woman of valor, Sarah, since he was too busy learning Talmud. He was also Gur Chassid and a Torah reader in the Gur Shtibl.
A fish wholesaler was Moshe Zemel (died in Israel). He brought fish to Warsaw and in the winter would import from out of the country.
Description of Specific Trades
Aside from the Christian carpenters who specialized in the construction of coffins, the bulk of the furniture and building trades were in Jewish hands. The first in the city were Dovid Jarzyna and Abraham Kierszenbaum. Later on dozens more joined them, of note was the fine craftsman Alter Jarzyna. The construction of furniture was highly developed, and the finished products were generally designated for delivery in Warsaw. One hundred and fifty families were supported by this trade.
The first tailors in the city were Zalman Włosko and Abraham Brzezinski, and later the brothers Yecheskel and Gershon Włosko (they died in Russia in 1942).
During this period, clothing manufactured according to set sizes became very popular.
I remember a craftsman, Moshe Chojnower, the owner of a women's dress shop who dealt with this type of clothing.
Even though Pultusk had two Christian shoemakers, the Jewish stores owned by Feivel Jablonka, Abraham Ruza, Zelig Goldberg, Abraham Milawski, and Yokhanen Gut were always filled with Christian shoppers. About 75 families made their living in this trade.
The town had 25 families of butchers. Worth noting in particular is Racha the butcher lady, an energetic, honest woman who was always ready to help anyone in their time of need. She chose as son-in-laws for her daughters, very sharp lamdanim (moderately educated), one of them happened to be Yosef Grosbard, my Hebrew teacher.
Wagoneers (Transporters)
About 30 families controlled all the intercity transportation. They also controlled the post. I remember Dovid Bybersztejn, the tall guy Niestempower/Nestempower and his wife Khave. Their son Meir-Velvel was an ordained Rabbi.
The first watchmaker in the city was Leibel Szach, his family one of the pioneers who originally settled in Pultusk. His craft was carried on by his son Yitzhak Shammai (author's grandfather). He serviced the clock of the municipality. My father Abraham Sach, who had a watch making factory, worked together with five men, among them Zalman Szperling and son Moshe; they were on duty to maintain the city clock. From my father's factory there were excellent craftsmen, like Yankel Lindberg who was a goldsmith and maintained the clock until the Nazi expulsion. There was also Haim Shlmo Safian (active in Poalei Zion [14]), Fishel Burstyn (died in Israel), Berel Karaś, Weisberg (no given name in original text), Yosef Epstein, Zaindel Rojzenberg, and Alter Kłos.
[Page 61]
Ninety percent of the town's painters were Jewish; of particular note is the exceedingly talented Akiva Bybersztejn. His son Mendel, who inherited the craft from his father, was killed just before the expulsion. The Nazis accused him of burning down a German military vehicle.
Various industrial factories in the town, some large, some small, were founded by Jews and until the outbreak of the Second World War were in Jewish hands.
The factory for agricultural machinery and wood planing were founded in the late 19th century by Mendel Mintz and 150 people worked there, some of them particularly skilled artisans.
The brick factory was started by Akiva Bornstein and afterward taken over by Shleyme Zelnik.
A factory manufacturing tiles for ovens and kitchens was founded by Chaim-Yisrael Lejbman and Shimon Frydland.
The saw mill and the steam mill belonged to I.L. Nowominski.
A steam mill was founded by the brothers Israel and Zelig Rozenberg and Feivel Moncarz.
A steam mill was founded by Shmuel Ring, Yitzhak Frydland, and Abraham Shafran.
A steam mill was built by Yosef Mandel Swagman and Nuta Kaminski.
A wind mill was built by Jankel Staroswetski.
An olive oil press was owned by Chaim Wajnsztejn.
An olive oil press was owned by Berel Obarzanek.
An olive oil press was owned by (given name not in original text) Roza/Ruźza.
In addition to the above, there were ten mills that ground grits and legumes, all owned by Jews.
The drinking soda factory that was established by Mordechai Waseca, and later taken over by his son in law Shmuel Sztucki, was known across the entire region as the manufacturer of a quality product.
A drinking soda factory belonged to Feivel Sochaczewski.
A drinking soda factory belonged to Yaacov Gurman.
A drinking soda factory belonged to Eliezer Kogen.
A drinking soda factory belonged to Menashe and Eliezer Margolit, the sons of Hersh Nuta, Ha Kohen. Margulis/Margolis was the first official Rabbi in Pultusk.
The factory for the production of cotton goods was owned by Markiel Majersdorf.
The factory for the production of vinegar belonged to Yisroel Frenkiel.
The factory for the production of buttons was founded by Eliezer Charka.
Five soap factories, run quite primitively, were managed amongst others by Eliahu Tashimovich, Hersh Golcman, and the brothers Grynberg.
Two candy factories were run by Yitzhag Wygoda and his son Abraham Gershon.
One of the first merchants in Pultusk was Gedalyahu Zylbersztejn. He owned a large store on Świetojańska Street that specialized in steel products, and he retained a special permit to sell fire arms something very rare for Jews of those times. He also had his own house in the market center, the House of Steel as Pultuskers called it. Later on the store transferred ownership to his son Note and his son in law Yechzketl Taub. Taub's grandson, Dr. Zeev Taub, is a noted Israeli surgeon.
At the end of the 19th century, four additional Jewish steel stores were opened in town; one was owned by Mendel Rozshoner Lejbman. It was run by his wife Tserte, the daughter of Yehoshua Majersdorf.
Grain and Export
Among the well known grain exporters from Pultusk were Moshe Lent, who set up a huge grain barn (the roof bore a flag with his initials), Moshe Wassercug (the first Jew in Pultusk who wore a short jacket), Baruch Kronberg, Zekharye Koplovitz, Zekharye Koplovitz, Nachman Wolf Rozenberg, and others who handled trade for internal purposes.
[Page 62]
Food and Food Services
One of the most prosperous wholesale stores belonged to Nachman Ozarow, and afterwards to Betzalel Majersdorf, who demonstrated great ingenuity in the business. He
built a large residence on Kotlarska Street and was the first to introduce running water and sewage pipes into his home. During the Russian period, his house was occupied by the Russian Division. Later on it was the center for the Hadarim, then the Jewish gymnasium, and finally, the Jewish elementary school Betzalel. Majersdorf was an ultra-orthodox Gur Chassid. He was, one could say, fanatically orthodox. He donated large amounts of money for Chassidut Gur (practices and ostensibly organizations connected with the group). There were two smaller wholesale stores belonging to Chanoch and Devora Goldstein. They passed on the stores to their son Leibel, and to one of the founders of the Jewish gymnasium, Mendel Goldstein. Aside from these the town had a number of retail groceries.
There was one Jewish liquor and wine store that was founded at the end of the 18th century by Hersch Zylberman. There also were wines homemade by Motel Farbarowicz (who concocted a honey drink), Moshe Yosef Epshtein (son of Reb Simchala), and Baruch Mendl Prager.
In contrast to those alcohol merchants, I want to mention the distributors who used to sell milk in Jewish homes, among them the famous Moshe Yankel Lipniack, who was absurdly ultra-orthodox, and his milk and butter, scrupulously kosher.
Flour merchants
Wholesale flour merchants were Hersh Nutkowicz and Aron Ryng. The latter used to export to Germany and Russia and had a complete command of both the Russian and Polish languages. He was widely accepted in the town as a knowledgeable person to whom even the Christians would turn for advice.
Of all the food purveyors it is worth noting the wholesale store selling yeast that was run by Motel Wolersztejn and the sugar warehouse of Haim Engelman, the son in law of Moshe Szafran.
Moshe Shafran had a large fabrics store in his large residence. The house held 36 establishments of various types. He built a beit midrash (study hall), that later contained the shtibble (small, storefront synagogue) of Radziman Chassidim; aside from all of that, he owned a villa in partnership with his father-in-law the writer Nachum Sokolov. He donated large amounts of money to religious and charitable institutions.
Abraham Kaminski was the owner of a large fabric and haberdashery store that operated out of his home. The house was so large it spanned three streets and contained another twenty-three stores. The fabric store was managed by his wife, the daughter of Yehoshua Majersdorf, and she let her husband, a Varki Chassid cousin, study Talmud and deal with communal matters. Their son Note maintained a wholesale fabric store and was a partner with Mendel Wagman in the ownership of a flour mill.
In the house of Sztucki there was a store selling finished goods that belonged to Yitzchok Włosko. He ran a very religious household; his son was extremely competent at Talmud study and passed the exams for dental school in Warsaw. After he finished his studies, he worked as a dentist there. The store was later run by his son in law Ben-Zion Blum, after turning it over to the Shafran household.
Mendel Osterman, the man from Lodz, ran a high quality fabric store with the goods coming from Lodz and Tomashov. He ran the store together with his wife Malka who took over for him during his frequent travels to these cities to get merchandise.
In addition there were the textile merchants Moshe Kronenberg (a Nietzsche Chassid), Zecharia Kuchman (son-in-law of Yehoshua Majersdorf) and his wife Nacha, and Meir England, son-in-law of the real estate tycoon Shimon Rozenovski, a Gur Chassid and great Talmud scholar originally from Sosnowicz (town in Poland). His daughter was one of the first girls who made aliyah (permanent relocation) to Israel.
From the various haberdashery stores I remember Moshe Goldstein, a fine Talmud learner, who was chazzan (cantor) for shacharit [15] in the Gur Shtibbel [16]. Another was Moshe Yermiyahu Levin, the son in law of Yankel Nutkowicz. He was constantly involved in charity work and his store was essentially run by his daughter Hinda and her husband Abraham Nutkowicz. Later on they moved to Warsaw and opened their own wholesale haberdashery. There was also Itzhack Meir Goldstein and his wife Feiga. Later they transferred the store to their daughter Sarah and her husband Shalom Hersh Szmojlowicz. There was another establishment owned by Shmuel Simcha Lichtensztejn and his wife Rachel, an energetic woman who went herself to Warsaw to buy goods. Later, they ran a large textile store.
The leather stores were owned by Moshe Chaim Bornstein and Moshe Leib Elkes.
The glass factories and finished glass products outlet was owned by Abraham Yitzhak Rojzenberg (son-in-law of Gedalyahu Zylberszteyn). The store was in time inherited by his son Alter. The other establishments were owned by Boruch/Butche Wrona,
M. Hazenszpring, and Mendel Manner.
[Page 63]
The Wood Trade
This branch was very well developed in Pultusk with many merchants, the most famous of whom was Reb Shmuel Don, known throughout all of Poland as a great wood exporter. His extensive business dealings were handled right out of his office, located in his luxurious home on May 3rd Street, number 7. Later on his son Motel Don ran the business.
Abraham Moshe Grynbaum was a large-scale merchant. His wood storehouse was in the puszcza (Polish for forest) at the end of Old Town Street. He was a very old man when he perished in the Warsaw ghetto in 1942.
Another wood exporter was Dovid Rubinsztejn, one of the more advanced Jews in town. His daughter was the only Jew from Pultusk who studied in a Christian dormitory in Warsaw. She was the wife of Libishe Don, the owner of the wood and construction materials enterprise and head of the merchants' association.
I have given as detailed a description as I could of the Jewish economic composition of Pultusk, in order to memorialize for generations the Jewish activity, energy, initiative, and drive of our brothers and sisters, whose lives were ended in such a cruel manner.
[Page 69]
Pultusk Economy and Culture
From the Beginning of the 20th Century until 1927
Rafael Moshe Sach
At the outset of the 20th century the National Democratic Party, led by Dembowski, ruled on the Polish streets. The goal was to push Jews out of all Polish economic life, with the slogan: Don't buy by Jews, just buy from Poles. Various economic and business cooperatives were formed, and the Polish population fulfilled its obligation and stopped patronizing Jews. Anti-Semitism increased from the beginning of 1912. Bolstered by the Jewish vote in Warsaw, the Socialist candidate Yagealo was elected to the Russian Duma.
Polish farming interests at the time formed an agricultural syndicate that supplied steel, agricultural machinery, and exported grain. The Pultusk branch set up two large textile and haberdashery stores and a few groceries. This caused great hardship for local Jews, but it spurred them to organize their own cooperatives of merchants and craftsmen. A semi-charitable savings and loan was established, rapidly gaining the trust of all Jewish social strata in Pultusk. Likewise, a mutual credit bank was set up for the town's businesses. These two institutions emerged at the very time the economic situation was at its worst, as the Polish Industrial Bank stopped lending to Jews. That is why they played such a vital role by supporting Jewish trades and crafts, and granting loans and credit to individuals.
The Beilis (blood libel) trials [17] that went on for two years, from 1911 to 1913, increased anti-Semitic agitation and calls for boycotting the Jews. In Pultusk the Catholic Priest Studziński excelled at divisiveness, and regularly used the Church's podium to spread it. However, thanks to the preaching of the elderly Liberal priest Ganski, who encouraged economic relations between Jews and Poles, the negative propaganda was stopped and friendship encouraged.
Despite the economic boycott, Jewish trade and craftsmanship flourished in the city. Many Jewish businesses were opened and many houses built. In 1913 Yankel Brim and Abraham Joseph Esman constructed a few homes on Traugutta, Telfaraptzna, Gorki, and Ksarkatin Streets, all for the Cossacks. B. Lipiński opened a photographic studio, and the Jewish dentists, Shmuel Brzozowicz and Eizyk Brzeziński, founded two clinics.
When World War I broke out on August 1, 1914, dozens of Jews from Pultusk were forced into the Russian army, as the czar declared a draft over the entire empire. Those who refused to be inducted were court marshaled by military tribunal and sent to remote outposts. Pultusk was situated 70 km from the front line, Chorzele-Mława
As a state of emergency was declared in the city by order from St. Petersburg, a national guard formed under the command of the Pole Stanisław Sniadeski. Jews who volunteered for this militia (an action encouraged by Rabbi Isser Unterman) were divided into two watches per street. A Gentile guard appointed by the Civil Authority was stationed on every third street. The watchmen were just armed with sticks, and on their coat sleeve was a white ribbon that read volunteer civilian militia" in Russian and Polish. Behind this initiative were David Hirsh Taub, Beryl Dov Zylberman (who was 20 years old), Hirsh Nutkowicz, Isaiah Kuperminc, and Isaiah Brzezinski, the dentist. The patrols ran from 9:00 p.m. until 5:00 a.m., and all civilian traffic in the town was forbidden.
At the outset of the war, the town's economic situation was reasonable; the city was filled with army personnel, and as units were constantly moving back and forth to the front, Jews made a living off the soldiers. But a few weeks later, the situation took a turn for the worse; Jewish refugees came pouring in from the front lines: Mława, Chorzele, and Proshnitz, Krasnoshiltz, Róźan, Ostrołeka, Goworowo, Myszyniec, and other places.
[Page 70]
The local Jewish population warmly accepted the refugees. They were housed in private homes, in the synagogues, and Beit Midrash (Torah study halls or libraries). A special committee tried to attend to their need for food and medicine. Members of the committee were Abraham Josek Hechtman, Motel Don, Joseph Mendel Wegman, Abraham Sach, Isaac Frydland, Szlama Celnik, Hersh Zylberman, Shlomo Bornstein, the rabbi's sons Chanoch and Shaynman Unterman, Velvele Bornsztejn, Meir Lipskier, Isaiah Rojzenberg, Dov Hirsh Taub, Mendel Mintz, and others. Mordeci Hechtman worked as volunteer bookkeeper. Generally, the resident Jews gave of themselves to the refugees.
They also cared for the Jewish soldiers who camped in town. Jewish women headed by Roza Don sewed warm undergarments for those in the Russian army, and sent fruit and sweets to the wounded soldiers in the hospitals. For this charitable work, Rabbi Chaim Meshulam Kaufman, and the senior tailor, Abraham Bie¿ański, received a certificate of honor from the Czar's authority.
The Germans conquered Pultusk practically without a battle and were warmly greeted by the Jewish population. Many Jews understood German and served as intermediaries between the conquerors and the local Polish population. In the new civil administration, the following Jews were admitted to the city council: Itsekl Taub, Abraham Kaminsky, Hirsh Nutkowicz, and Motel Joseph Judaszke and, as secretary, Joseph Chanowicz. Into the civil guard entered Mordeci Winograd, Ezekiel Zacharzewski, Isaac Pianko and (no given name in original text) Jaskuła
But the economic situation grew to be increasingly dire day by day. Trade and crafts stopped entirely. The great steel mill established by Mendel Mintz, that at one point employed 150 people, had totally stopped working. It was burned down during a military action. Likewise, the flourmill owned by the partners Joseph Mendel Wegman and Nuta Kaminsky was burned down, with the farmsteads also destroyed. Coupons had to be disbursed among the population to provide food and basic necessities. Their circulation was in Jewish hands. Motel Don, Dovid Hersh Taub, Shimon Frydland, Frimet Ajzenberg, and Neta Kaminsky established warehouses and a large canteen, and distributed necessities all across Pultusk and Makov. They utilized their concessions for the good of the Jewish population and supported various organizations and private individuals at the worst times of hunger and deprivation, when masses went to find employment in the public works sector for minimum wage.
By contrast to the catastrophic economic situation during the German occupation, Jewish cultural and social life flourished. The public library was established and political organizations Zionist, Young Zionist, Poalei Zion, Mizrachi, and the workers' party, the Bund [18] established. The drama society produced plays from the modern Jewish repertoire. There were cultural evenings to which lecturers from the capital city were invited to speak and discuss various issues of the day. Some of the visitors were Jacob Zerubavel, H.D.Numberg, Y.M.Ajzenberg, Joel Meisterbaum, Hillel Cejtlin, Dr. Michałowski, Beinish Michalewicz, and Victor Alter.
At that time the entire town was shocked by the arrest of Beryl Zylberman, accused of treason, spying for the Russians. He was sent off to Germany. After a period of about half a year, another Jewish Pultusker was arrested; Isaiah Rojzenberg, a former contractor and wood merchant. No plea was accepted even from the German Governor Von Basler. The arrested remained imprisoned.
Some relief was obtained when, after great effort, the energetic Mendel Mintz secured a travel permit to Germany. He brought back two trucks carrying new machinery and material, and managed to rebuild his burned factory. He was able to give work to many unemployed Jews.
At the end of 1916 most of the Jewish refugees left Pultusk and returned to their homes. Those who stayed in town were faced with great hardships. It was very difficult to eke out a living, and these refugees accepted all kinds of inappropriate and difficult work. Respectable Jews who in their former lives were established merchants, in their new residence became tailors, shoemakers, and even woodchoppers.
The general deprivation was widespread. On a Saturday night in the Gur shtibl, when the rich men gathered for seudah shlishit [19], a group of angry women burst into the room armed with rolling pins and demanding food for their starving children. A soup kitchen organized by Isaiah Kupermintz, Simcha Zelnik, and Shlomo Bornstein began to operate in town. In the home of Zelig Rosenberg, Feige Roza Rojzenberg also directed one.
There were charity boxes placed in all the Jewish homes, and a weekly donation was expected for the needy.
Despite all of this activity, the severe economic plight was only somewhat relieved and needy persons were added to the charity list every day. On Chol HaMoed Pesach 1916, at their own initiative, the Gur Chassidim of all the shtibblach gathered together in the large Beit Midrash. This assembly was called by Abraham Chaim Blum, Abraham Birenbaum, Shalom Hersh Lindberg, Israel Frenkiel, Fivel Rotblat, and others.
[Page 71]
They organized the Orthodox Association of the Faithful. After it was established, all the ultra-Orthodox of the city assembled at the large house of Betzalel Majersdorf. Yudl Pejaskowicz, the melamed (learned one), was particularly active in this endeavor. Due to his untiring work, the chedarim (religious schools) moved to more comfortable quarters and the students began to study in more modern hygienic conditions as the German authorities demanded. At the same time, a German primary school geared to Jewish students and run by Isaac Gutman opened. The teachers were Herman Stutsky, Isaac Yurkovitz, and Miss Buchman.
On the initiative of Isaiah Kupermintz, a committee established a Jewish gymnasium (high school) in Pultusk. The following members also served on the board: Isaac Zelnik, Shlomo Bornstein, Mendel Goldstein, Abraham Rosa, Isaac Frydland, Dov Hirsh Taub, Hersh Zylberman, Ezekiel Wołoszka, Samuel Yismach, and Isaiah Bezeziński. Due to their dedicated efforts, a Jewish high school with four classes opened in the city. Abraham Lipman, a refugee from Pinsk, was appointed principal. The opening of the school made a great impression on the Jews of Pultusk. Many mothers of Chassidic families sent their daughters to this gymnasium so they would get a broad secular education and not desecrate the Shabbat by attending Gentile schools.
In 1917 Joseph Mendel Wegman suggested to the Pultusk municipality that the town be connected to the electric power grid. The council approved, and the new system emerged from a generator at the flourmill on Old Town Street. Ninety percent of those who worked on the grid were Jews.
As the independent Polish government took hold in Lublin and the Polish currency came back into circulation, a great amount of confusion shook the economy. The black market flourished. The German military and civil administration tried to stem its use by creating a special office to confiscate goods and level heavy fines on the middlemen. Even honest merchants frequently were caught in the web of extortions and lies. This situation gave rise to unions of merchants and craftsmen. Their purpose was to protect members from needless harassment, deal with the German government's taxes, establish fair value prices for materials and products and, in general, represent labor and trade unionists in various issues.
In the spring of 1916 Pilsudski's [20] legionnaires the First Regiment and an artillery battery, came to Pultusk. Among them were Jews. The generals included Slavoj Składkowski, a doctor in the Pultusk epidemic hospital, who in time became the prime minister and minister of the interior of Poland. In addition, there was also Captain Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski, who later served as prime minister (October 1935-May 1936).
The Jews participated with the local Poles in the German conquest of the town. During October 1917 the POW (an underground Polish army) attacked a German guard and assassinated two German gendarmes, armed military police. A Polish patriot named Chaplinski was also killed. His funeral turned into a popular demonstration against the German conquest. There was Jewish representation in this opposition, led by Rabbi Unterman. Two of the local Jewish councilmen, Hersh Nutkowicz and Simcha Zelnik, and the secretary, Josef Hanovitz, were voting with the Polish delegation on matters concerning various local and national problems. Participation of Jewish gymnasium students even was found with regard to German disarmament.
Despite wavering loyalties to the new Polish government, the Jews did not surrender their ethnic/national pride. When, in December 1918, a blood libel took place in Lemberg, the Jews of Pultusk responded by a organizing a massive protest in their town's Beit Midrash, where they waved black flags and lit candles. The rabbi eulogized the dead and expressed the anguish of the assembled. The speakers, Yaakov Haspel and Samuel Yismach, urged the Jewish national council headed by Isaac Grynbaum to stand shoulder-to-shoulder with the new (temporary) Polish government.
At the end of 1918, as Poland gained independence, it called for its first mass draft. The names of conscripts were based on the 1898 census. The induction and swearing in ceremony took place in the synagogue, with the presence of the Rabbi, representatives of the army, and the civil administration. Six classes of recruits were conscripted into the Polish army and fought in the Russian-Polish skirmish. Among the Pultusk Jews who died were David Ushchega, Lejbowicz, and Szynberg [21]. At that time (April 1920), the Seventh Battalion also came to town. It was organized by General Haler in France, under the command of French officers, and well known for its anti-Semitism. The Halers used to throw Jews off trains, cut their beards, etc., however Pultusk was relatively quiet since the French commander assigned there was Jewish and did not permit this anti-Semitic abuse.
[Page 72]
After the Polish army was expelled from Kiev and as the Red army entered Poland and approached Pultusk the Polish soldiers in retreat began looting the city. They arrested a number of Jews, such as Dovid Zylbersztejn and Ben Zion Bloom, and sent them to detention camp in Yablona.
The Red army occupied Pultusk for eight days. Two Polish battalions, the Fifteenth and the Twenty-second, took it back. The Polish authority immediately began grabbing Jews young and old and even children to work and clean up the town. (I, R. Sach, was 13 at the time). They had to remove the rubble from the prison where, even after a number of days, dozens of Jews were interred on the accusation that they conspired with the Bolsheviks. Among them was the elderly Hirsh Nutkowitz, who died shortly after being freed as a result of the beatings he had received. Major Zakrzewski of the Polish army excelled in cruelty to Jewish inmates. The Thirteenth Battalion that was organized in town conscripted Jews into military service and conducted their training on the streets, with the Jews dressed in civilian clothing and wearing just army hats. All the while low-ranking officers were singing anti-Semitic songs.
After the Soviet-Polish treaty of 1920, the Jewish emigration from Pultusk overseas and to Israel began. Hechalutz [22] of Pultusk was founded in 1921 by Mordecai Zylberman, Gershke Bornsztejn, Judah Leib Piekarz, Moshe Ring, J.Rojzenberg, and others. Together, they signed an agreement with the landowners Pfefer and Sharshevski to lease an agricultural farmstead on their estate in Villoshvo for the purpose of hachshara aliyah [23]. The estate was located about 35 miles from Pultusk.
Polish political and social life began to settle along with the stability of the new Polish government. In Pultusk there were various Jewish political societies such as Poalei Zion, the pioneer youth movements, and the Bund. There was even an illegal communist party. Simcha Don, Aaron Domb, and Mordeci Zylberman established a popular university that brought in lecturers on the humanities and the sciences. Classes were held in the theatre built by Natan Nutkowicz. There was also a drama club. The various political parties and youth groups worked hard to publicize and explain their agendas to the public.
In 1926 Jozef Pilsudski dissolved the Polish Sejm (parliament) and created an unaffiliated Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Współpracy z Rządem, or BBWR, in Polish). He took over power and fought against the anti-Semitic party Narodowa Demokracja-Endecja, making life much easier for the Jews. But with Hitler's rise to power in Germany, Polish anti-Semitism also grew. The government quietly supported commerce and trades of the Christian sector alone. As the Polish-German non-aggression treaty was signed, sympathies leaned toward National Socialism, including the Final Solution. [24]
In Pultusk anti-Semitic aggression had begun earlier. During Purim eve 1927, the Pole Cheslik for no reason killed the gentle and delicate Jewish cobbler Cheslik, near his stand in the market. This murder made such a negative impression that masses of Jews participated in the funeral. To the amazement of all, the murderer received a light sentence of just three years' imprisonment.
The shocking murder and rabid anti-Semitism of the local population that got worse day by day was just child's play for what was to come later, with the bloody tragedy of Jewish Pultusk and all of Jewish Poland.
To our readers and genealogical researchers: Throughout the original text, we discovered that any given proper name could be spelled variously. There was no totally accurate way to negotiate these differences. Instead, we chose consistency, utilizing accepted research sources for Jewish given and surnames; Dr. Alexander Beider's A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia, The Given Names Databases by Professor G.L. Esterson, Jewish Records Indexing-Poland, and the 1929 Polish Business Directory for the City of Pultusk. Also, note that except for universally-understood terms (Torah, Talmud, etc.), Yiddish or Hebrew words are italicized; those of Polish origin appear in standard font, with parenthetical statements identifying them.
[Page 73]
Eliezer Tzvi Śniadowski
In order to conceive the cultural status and communal lifestyle in Pultusk, in my opinion you need to describe the period up to 1914. I nevertheless want to emphasize that the phrase communal lifestyle was at the time merely theoretical, because no such thing actually existed. There was no communal system, nor a community secretary. The office and all the material were located at the house of one of the synagogue managers. The community's leadership was not elected democratically. Three dudzars (managers) were chosen by certain distinguished men in the city who alone had that right. I do not recall the qualifications and responsibilities of the men allowed to vote. I just remember that, as a boy, I was once present at such an election ceremony.
It took place at the synagogue in Belmar, in the presence of a Russian policeman who called certain men's names and invited them to vote. But as I mentioned, only select people had that right and, as usual, only good Jews and wealthy men were elected. I remember merely three dudzars: Shlomo Koplowicz, Shimon Ryzynowski, and Ephraim Celnick. The tasks of these managers were very restricted. They weren't involved in cultural or social issues, solely overseeing the community's assets. (The term dudzar is derived from the Russian publican dudzar, manager in a house of prayer, as the authorities called the religious Jewish representatives). Accordingly, they would approve of and provide for the municipal rabbi.
Cultural life was conducted in a similar fashion. Until the year 1914 there was almost no concept of Jewish culture. The Jewish population was intensely religious and composed of three classes: the followers of a Chassidic sect, Torah scholars, and the common masses, that is to say working class Jews (trades people, etc). The last group felt inferior to the good Jews, like the community leaders who sat on the eastern wall of the synagogue facing the congregation. Success for the simple Jew meant getting a lamdan (educated person) to marry his daughter. This was a huge honor and was the ultimate aspiration of every Jew in the city. Every father also aspired that his son would be among the Torah scholars and belong to the class of good Jews.
During that time all the young men from the study hall and the mechuzakim (youth particularly elevated by Torah study) belonged to their own social class. They were far from the universal literary world and felt no need for it. On the contrary, when a young man began to engage in a bit of secular learning or read newspapers, he was considered an apikores.
Educating a son meant the following: Sending the four-year-old boy to Cheder (religious school), where he would embark on Chumash, Rashi, and Talmud until the age 13 or 14 when he would continue his learning in the study hall or in the Gur shtibbel. There were parents who sent their sons to yeshiva until they married.
The public/government-run educational system was almost nonexistent. For political reasons the authorities preferred general analphabetism (illiteracy). Though there were primary schools and even Russian gymnasiums, they were designated only for Christian students and, even then, it was not required that all children finish. A very small percentage of the Jewish population sent their children to public schools. These were the progressive parents who had nothing to do with Judaism; however, they mainly sent their girls there. At that time it was very difficult to sever a boy from his Judaic studies. The gymnasium was only opened to the privileged: like the children of officers, senior clerks, and those in powerful positions. It was very difficult to get accepted there, and almost entirely denied not only to Jews, but to ordinary Christians.
[Page 74]
After the revolution of 1905, the authorities introduced changes and began to require that Jewish children attend school. The Jews accepted this as a harsh decree. They called an assembly of the Chassidic elders and Torah scholars and decided to lobby. And that is why the law directed at providing Jewish children with a secular education remained only a law in theory.
I remember when I went to cheder, our teacher sent us to school for only one hour, just to fulfill the requirements. The studies were worthless. The most we learned was to write Russian letters. There was only one class for all the children of the cheder, with no distinction of age, yearly exams, or certificates.
The education of a daughter proceeded in similar fashion. When young, she attended a girls' Cheder or a woman was hired at home to teach her to pray (the latter occurred mainly in distinguished homes; most parents most would concede this private tutorial option). Afterward, when she knew her way around the prayer book, she stayed home to help her mother mothers with ritual activities and household chores. By the time she was ready for marriage, she had learned to write a bit of Yiddish. A few friends would get together and hire a teacher by the hour. It is worthwhile mentioning here the teacher Veilkebroda (Long Beard), who would give lessons to groups of girls in his home, particularly instructing them to write letters in Yiddish. They called him Moshe the Blind because he saw with only one eye. The nickname Veilkebroda suited him because he had a long beautiful beard; he belonged to the Gur Chassidic sect, was a community go-getter, and stood at the head of the lodging charity company.
Sometimes, the girls would hire a teacher for Russian, Polish, and mathematics but only in wealthy families. The parents nevertheless were displeased. Many times these lessons caused severe family incidents, sometimes ending with a romance or actual wedding (as happened in a Chassidic family from Pultusk, leaving a strong impression on the city and even receiving coverage in the newspapers).
Newspapers still were considered impure. When the First World War broke out and any information from the front was coveted, Jews would grab the paper from each other. Despite the fact that these journals had no connection to anything cultural, we, the young men, didn't dare open it in the small shtibbel. When the awaited newspaper arrived, we read it in the attic of the Gur Chassidic shtibbel.
I remember how the first signs of cultural life in the city sprouted, and who were among the first (or actually the first) pacesetters to nurture modern youth culture. Yeshayahu Kuperminc's bookshop was a hub. The proprietor hailed from Ostrołeka, opened a bookstore and, next to it, a Hebrew and Yiddish library. In return for a small monthly fee, he lent reading books. He was a newspaper agent at the same time. As a result, his shop contained newspapers and assorted journals. He thus became one of the first to spread the light in Pultusk. His business also served as a meeting place for young people who held discussions on cultural topics that were at the top of the world.
In 1914 when the war broke out, communal and cultural life was disrupted until the German occupation. A new era then began. The German authorities started ingratiating themselves to the Polish people and gave them certain autonomous rights, including civil order and municipal elections. The Jews also received communal standing, based on democratic foundations. The community was established with Avraham Chaim Bloom (later, Yitzhak Meir Baumgarten) acting as chair, Yaacov Jabłonka as secretary, and Mendel Rojzner as treasurer.
Different organizations were founded, like the Zionist movement and all its branches, and a library. Likewise, the Jewish gymnasium. With the invasion of Poland by the German army, came two military rabbis, Dr. Pinchas Kohen and Dr. Joseph Tzvi Carlebach, who laid the foundations of the Agudat Yisrael party and with the support of the German authorities, successfully spread the idea among Orthodox groups.
I remember: As a frequent visitor in the rabbi's home, I was present when he received a letter from the German regional ruler requesting that he establish to a branch of the Aguda in Pultusk. The preliminary meeting was then held in the Beit Midrash, and Zindl Rojzenberg was the key speaker.
In Warsaw the daily newspaper Der Yud (The Jew) began to appear with rich literary works, and advocating for Agudat Yisrael. German Orthodox journalists worked there and the German authorities financed the paper. Agudat Yisrael Youth also was founded, and it yielded a library of Orthodox literature and different journals of the same type. Night classes were opened; the instructor would teach a page of Talmud every night.
This is a short summary of the cultural status and communal lifestyle during that time, in Jewish Pultusk which no longer exists. Community relations were conducted by German authorities, within a Polish framework.
[Page 75]
Excerpted from T. Makower in the Ostrów Mazowiecka Memorial (Yizkor) Book, p. 194.
Up until the year 1914, the Jewish community had no independence. The board members or managers, dudzars, were rather like beadles in the Russian towns. Only they had the right to vote, and the elections were not democratic. They also were responsible for choosing a rabbi. This task involved putting together a list of candidates and estimating how much each person must pay, however, the payment was collected by the municipality. The dudzars also decided who blessed in the study hall during a galobka (royal family birthday).
During this ceremony, the rabbis and dudzars had to be present. The rabbi read a chapter of Psalms and the cantor, together with the choir, sang He Who Gives Salvation to Kings and the Russian national anthem, God Save the Czar. An official representative (the local or regional governor) also was present. Sometimes the district governor, himself, arrived.
The municipality, not the dudzars, leased the bathhouse with the mikvah (ritual bath). The community would pay the rent directly to the municipality, which would use this income to subsidize part of the rabbi's salary. The rest of it came from the butchers, in connection with ritual slaughter. The dudzars had the right to select a rabbi, but were forbidden from using the money for charity. The aid institutions had difficulty surviving independently (that is to say, collecting donations from individuals). Of course, under these impoverished circumstances everything was neglected.
Only in the year 1924 did Pilsudski's order appear about Jewish communal elections and the selection of rabbis. In the larger communities, an administrative body as well as a 12-person council was chosen, and the council then picked eight board members. A council member was not allowed to be a board member. The community's administration had completely different functions. One of its tasks was to put together a budget for all religious needs; to sustain the rabbis, kosher butchers, rabbinical judges, trustees, ritual baths, places of Torah study, guarantees, religious schools, etc.; and, likewise, support the charity and aid institutions.
JewishGen, Inc. makes no representations regarding the accuracy of
the translation. The reader may wish to refer to the original material
for verification.
JewishGen is not responsible for inaccuracies or omissions in the original work and cannot rewrite or edit the text to correct inaccuracies and/or omissions.
Our mission is to produce a translation of the original work and we cannot verify the accuracy of statements or alter facts cited.
Pultusk, Poland Yizkor Book Project JewishGen Home Page
Copyright © 1999-2017 by JewishGen, Inc.
Updated 29 Nov 2010 by LA


text:
Bettmann/Getty Images
During the '70s, the Beatles broke up, Elvis was found dead and Time magazine awarded its "Man of the Year" in 1975 to American women. See how much you know about the decade the U.S. celebrated its bicentennial as a nation.
Start Quiz »
You scored
0 out of 30
Question 1 of 30
How much was the price of admission (for one) when Disney World opened in Orlando in 1971?
The price of admission was $3.50 when Walt Disney World opened its doors on Oct. 19, 1971.
Question 2 of 30
Who was NOT a U.S. president between 1970 and 1979?
Gerald Ford
Richard Nixon
Ronald Reagan
Richard Nixon, America's 37th president, held office from 1969 until 1974. Gerald Ford became 38th president and served from 1974 through 1977, when Jimmy Carter was elected. Carter was in office until 1981, before Ronald Reagan held the position until 1989.
Question 3 of 30
In 1975, we met the first Pet Rocks. Where did they come from?
Ensenada, Mexico
Rosarito Beach, Mexico
Pet Rocks were smooth stones from Rosarito Beach in Baja California, Mexico.
San Quintin, Mexico
Question 4 of 30
Which popular '70s movie WASN'T directed by "new director" Steven Spielberg?
"Close Encounters of the Third Kind "
"Animal House"
Steven Spielberg directed "Jaws" (1975) and "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" (1977), but "Animal House" released in 1978, was directed by John Landis.
Question 5 of 30
True or false: Burt Reynolds turned down the role of Han Solo in "Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope."
Can you believe it's true? Burt Reynolds turned down the role of Han Solo, which went to Harrison Ford.
Question 6 of 30
Who did American Bobby Fischer defeat to become the new world chess champion in 1972?
Mikhail Tal
Garry Kasparov
Boris Spassky
In Reykjavik, Iceland, on Aug. 31, 1972, American Bobby Fischer defeated Russian competitor Boris Spassky — ending Russia's nearly 25-year chess domination and launching chess into American mainstream culture.
Question 7 of 30
Where was the most serious nuclear accident to happen in the U.S.?
Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania
At 4 a.m. on March 28, 1979, the most serious nuclear emergency in the U.S. happened when a cooling malfunction caused part of the core to melt in reactor No. 2 of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania.
Davis–Besse Nuclear Power Station in Ohio
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant in Alabama
Question 8 of 30
True or false: Mobile phones have only been around since 1973.
Although the first commercially sold mobile phone (the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X, which sold for about $4,000) didn't hit the market until 1983, the first call on a mobile device was made by Martin Cooper, on April 3, 1973. Who was on the receiving end? A senior engineer at Motorola at the time, Cooper called a competing telecommunications company to tell them he was speaking to them on a mobile phone.
Question 9 of 30
Which first lady went by the citizens band radio handle "First Mama"?
Betty Ford
First lady Betty Ford was totally hot for the decade's CB phase and was an active chatter under the handle "First Mama."
Pat Nixon
Rosalynn Carter
Question 10 of 30
Is it true that Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin and Jim Morrison all died in 1970 at age 27?
While it's true that all three died at age 27, not all three died in 1970. Jim Morrison died in Paris in 1971.
Question 11 of 30
Who gave the Boston Bruins their first Stanley Cup championship in 1970 after a 29-year dry spell?
Bobby Orr
On May 10, 1970, Bobby Orr scored an overtime goal against the St. Louis Blues in game 4 of the Stanley Cup Final, giving the Boston Bruins their first championship since 1941. In 1971, Orr signed the first million-dollar contract with the NHL. And in 1979, at age 31, the hockey legend became the youngest NHL Hall of Fame inductee.
Ken Dryden
Gerry Cheevers
Question 12 of 30
Which soda had the slogan "the thirst crusher"?
Rondo, "the thirst crusher," was a citrus-flavored soda in the late '70s.
Question 13 of 30
Who was awarded a perfect score of 10 in gymnastics in the 1976 Olympics in Montreal?
Carola Dombeck (East Germany)
Nadia Comaneci (Romania)
At the Montreal Olympics in 1976, Romanian Nadia Comaneci was the first in Olympic history to be awarded a perfect score in a gymnastics event (for her performance on the uneven bars). And it wasn't just that one time: This amazing athlete scored a perfect 10 six more times.
Nellie Kim (Soviet Union)
Question 14 of 30
In which year was the world's first "test-tube baby" born?
Conceived via in vitro fertilization (IVF) in Manchester, England, Louise Brown, the world's first "test-tube baby," was born on July 25, 1978.
Question 15 of 30
Which mainstream X-rated film shares its title with the pseudonym of Watergate's anonymous informant?
"Deep Throat"
The X-rated pornographic movie "Deep Throat" made $3 million during its first six months in mainstream theaters in 1972. William Mark Felt, whom we now know was the anonymous "Deep Throat" source who provided information to Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post and cracked open the Watergate scandal.
"Dirty Harry"
Question 16 of 30
Who was the first African-American woman to appear on the cover of American Vogue?
Donyale Luna
Grace Jones
Beverly Johnson
When American model Beverly Johnson appeared on the cover of American Vogue in August 1974, she was the first woman of color to appear on the cover of any major fashion magazine in America. Donyale Luna was Vogue's first black cover model for the British edition of the magazine, appearing in 1966.
Question 17 of 30
True or false: Margaret Thatcher became the first female prime minister of Britain; Saddam Hussein took power as president of Iraq; and Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran, where he founded the Islamic republic after 15 years of exile, in the same year.
It's true — all this happened in 1979.
Question 18 of 30
In what year did U.S. drivers face long lines at gas stations?
all of these
The U.S. faced two energy crises in the '70s. American drivers first saw the average price of a gallon of gas rise by 37 percent during an OPEC embargo on the U.S. and other Western countries in 1973-74 as a result of Western support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War. In 1979, OPEC again raised oil prices, driving the cost of petroleum-based products higher.
none of these
Question 19 of 30
Who won the nationally televised tennis match — the "Battle of the Sexes" — between Bobby Riggs and Billie Jean King in 1973?
Billie Jean King
Former No. 1 tennis player Bobby Riggs challenged all female tennis players, claiming no woman could beat him. On Sept. 20, 1973, Billie Jean King, one of the top female tennis players took that challenge, and beat Riggs 6-4, 6-3, 6-3.
Bobby Riggs
Question 20 of 30
In 1973 the Supreme Court ruled abortion is a constitutional right in which landmark case?
Roe v. Wade
The Supreme Court declared abortion a constitutional right in the Roe v. Wade case of 1973.
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
Griswold v. Connecticut
Question 21 of 30
In 1971 the U.S. voting age was lowered from age 21 to 18 with the passing of which amendment?
26th amendment
In March 1971 Congress passed the 26th amendment, and by July, Nixon signed into law a new, lower U.S. voting age. Known as "old enough to fight, old enough to vote," the amendment matched the voting age with the age of conscription.
15th amendment
4th amendment
Question 22 of 30
Which Boeing aircraft was the first jumbo jet?
Boeing 707
Boeing 727
Boeing 747
While the Boeing 707 was the game-changer in the 1960s, both it and the 727 were both just midsize, narrow-body jets. The Boeing 747, the first jumbo-jet, took its first commercial flight in 1970 from New York to London.
Question 23 of 30
Which cable subscription service, the first in the U.S., was introduced in 1972?
In 1972 Charles Dolan and Gerald Levin of Sterling Manhattan Cable launched America's first ad-free subscription cable service: Home Box Office (HBO). In 1975 HBO was the first cable network to be delivered via satellite. Showtime debuted in 1976, and Cinemax in 1980.
Question 24 of 30
What's the name of the "M.A.S.H" theme?
"Paint It Black"
"Ride of The Valkyries"
"Suicide Is Painless"
"Suicide Is Painless," written by Johnny Mandel and Mike Altman, was the theme song for the original movie and TV series.
This is a trick question — the movie or TV show?
Question 25 of 30
Intel gave us the first microprocessor (the 4004) in 1971. It's also the same year Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak created Apple. Is it also the same year Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft?
Bill Gates and Paul Allen didn't found the Microsoft Corp. until 1975.
Question 26 of 30
True or false: "Space Invaders" is older than the Microsoft Corp. by just a few months.
"Space Invaders," one of the earliest first-person shooter games (it's a two-dimensional fixed shooter), came out in Japan in 1978. However, the first video game with commercial success, Pong, was released in 1972, just a few years before Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft.
Question 27 of 30
Around 4 a.m. on June 17, 1972, five men, in connection with President Nixon's re-election campaign, were caught breaking into the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters in the Watergate building in Washington. When, after his attempted cover-up, did Nixon resign?
Aug. 8, 1972
Aug. 8, 1973
Aug. 8, 1974
It was two years and almost two months between the day the Watergate scandal broke, June 17, 1972, and the day Richard Nixon resigned from the presidency, Aug. 8, 1974.
Question 28 of 30
In September 1974, who attempted to jump the Snake River Canyon in Twin Falls, Idaho, in a steam-powered rocket?
Eddie Kidd
Evel Knievel
Evel Knievel attempted to rocket his way over the Snake River Canyon in the X2 Skycycle.
Steve McQueen
Question 29 of 30
Which is NOT a spinoff of the groundbreaking TV series "All in the Family"?
"Good Times"
"The Jeffersons"
"Sanford and Son"
"Sanford and Son," like "All in the Family," was adapted from a BBC TV series by American producer Norman Lear — it wasn't a spinoff.
Question 30 of 30
When was the end of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War?
April 8, 1975
April 20, 1975
April 30, 1975
On April 23, President Gerald Ford announced U.S. involvement in Vietnam would end. And it did, on April 30, 1975.

subset: commoncrawl


text: OverviewBack to top Paradise Herbs - Orac-Energy Protein & Greens - 16 oz. Item# :120018UPC# :601944777906 Brand:Paradise Herbs Size/Form:16 oz. Ship Weight:1.25 Servings:15 Dosage:2 Scoop(s) Paradise Herbs ORAC-Energy Protein & Greens - 16 oz. (454g) (15 Servings) ORAC (Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity) Energy Protein Greens is the next generation is Superfood technology. Just one super concentrated serving of Paradise Herbs ORAC-Energy Protein & Greens contains 22 grams of protein and 12,000 ORAC, the equivalent of 24 servings of fruits and vegetables in antioxidant capacity. Paradise Herbs ORAC-Energy Protein & Greens contains 100% natural non-GMO Kosher and Halal certified pea protein isolated without the use of chemical solvents and over 42 certified organic and pesticide free ingredients. The essential amino acid profile of Paradise Herbs' pea protein is very close to that of the ideal protein. Other vegetarian sources such as rice or soy can lack in the percentage profile for certain essential amino acids. Paradise Herbs' pea protein digestibility of nitrogen has been measured at 97.6%, and has a sustained release transit time of approximately 8 hours, which means it has excellent digestibility and keeps working. Paradise Herbs has further enhanced this with the addition of the plant derived enzyme Aminogen. Research shows Aminogen to increase branched-chain amino acids by 250%, increase plasma amino acid levels over 100%, increase glutamine levels by 90%, increase arginine levels by 80%, increase nitrogen retention by 32%, promote lean body mass, aid in muscle recovery, and provide less gas, bloating and constipation. Paradise Herbs ORAC-Energy Protein & Greens: Kosher Non-GMO 100% Vegan Contains No Animal Products No Common Allergens No Added Sweeteners No Flavored Fillers No Soy No Dairy No Casein Frequently Asked Questions: Paradise Herbs' ORAC products now say 40,000 ORAC. Is their formula different? Label changes from 12,000 ORAC to 40,000 ORAC. Initially ORAC values were based on 1 oxide radical. But now with the new improved industry standard that can test total ORAC values (five oxide radicals), Paradise Herbs updated their label to reflect that versus their previous label. Their formula has not changed, but the testing protocol has been upgraded and Paradise Herbs' product demonstrated over 40,000 total ORAC which is what is now reflected in their updated label. Of course their product is still Lab Certified by Brunswick Labs whom are experts in ORAC testing. Which Paradise Herbs products contain gluten? Gluten concerns arise when wheat, barley and oat products are being used such as in Paradise Herbs' ORAC Energy Greens and Protein & Greens. The wheat and barley juice powders used in their product are harvested from young grasses before the gluten containing endosperms develop and are considered by the suppliers to be gluten free. However there is always a chance for some gluten with these ingredients and growers do not want to guarantee otherwise. Paradise Herbs has recently sent products out for gluten testing and they are still pending results. Previously they did this test and they came in with a result of 23ppm and in order to make a gluten free claim you have to be under 20ppm. It really also depends if a person is deathly allergic to gluten or just has a gluten sensitivity, in which the latter would not have any reaction to such a small level, but Paradise Herbs would not recommend the use of any wheat and barley grass for celiac as the risk factor is to great. What are Paradise Herbs' vegetarian capsules made from? The vcaps are made from vegetable cellulose. Are any of Paradise Herbs' products made in China? All Paradeise Herbs products are made in the USA, however they do source some herbs from pristine remote regions of China as these herbs are indigenous and provide the highest quality available. How should I store the ORAC Energy Greens? Because their product is hydroscopic (absorbs moisture from its surrounding environment), Paradise Herbs suggests storing it in a more dry area. The fridge has moisture and could possibly clump the product if not sealed tight enough. Clumping does not effect the potency but it does make it harder to mix. What is the base/source of the vegetable cellulose in this product? The vegetable cellulose is in regards to the capsules. The capsules are high-quality, high performance HPMC (hypromellose) capsules. Does Paradise Herbs use a cotton insert for their vitamins? Paradise Herbs uses a food grade cellophane (A thin, flexible, transparent cellulose material made from wood pulp used in food packaging and wrapping) with their liquid vcaps in place of cotton. Does Paradise Herbs use fillers or binders in their products? Paradise Herbs does not use any fillers or binders. Paradise Herbs prides themselves on the purity of their products and strive to deliver the greatest and purest products possible, just as nature intended. Does Paradise Herbs add flavors or sweetners to their products? Paradise Herbs' Orac Energy Greens contain 1 gram of sugar. It is very low and from the antioxidant fruit extracts and naturally occurring polysaccharides that are good for helping to build the immune system. Paradise Herbs does not add any flavors or sweetners. Is it safe to give Paradise Herbs products to a child? Paradise Herbs highly recommends you speak with a medical practitioner before giving their formula to children. On a side note, they are currently working on a children's formula. The capsules are colored instead of clear. Is this normal? Yes it is normal. The color added in the capsule is a vegetable chlorophyll that acts as a light barrier to better protect the ingredients. How long after opening a Paradeise Herbs product does the potency remain at 100%? That would depend on a number of environmental factors, but generally if kept in a stable dry place it should be fine for a lot longer than the daily serving period. Are Paradise Herbs products caffeine free? Their green tea leaves are picked very young when the caffeine levels are low. The finished extract only contains between 3-5% which is considered decaffeinated. So per capsule there is only about 7-12 mg. Consider this: the avg cup of coffee today contains 100 mg to 200 mg. I'm allergic to almonds, cashews, flax, soy, eggs & dairy. Can I still use Paradise Herbs products? Yes you can. Can I take Paradise Herbs products during pregnancy? Paradise Herbs would not recommend using any herbs during pregnancy without consulting a licensed medical practitioner. Does Paradise Herbs test their products for pesticides? Their products are tested to be free of pesticides. Does Paradise Herbs use any magnesium stearate in any of their products? Paradise Herbs does not use any flow agents or fillers such as magnesium stearate. They pride themselves on delivering filler free products. Are Paradise Herbs products free of solvents? Paradise Herbs never says without solvents, just harsh solvents. The only things they use are purified water and grain alcohol. No hexane, acetane, methane….etc. Can I still use Paradise Herbs products after the expiration date? Probabilities are that it is fine, but Paradise Herbs stability testing does not go beyond the expiration date. Paradise Herbs recommends purchasing another bottle. Are Paradise Herbs' herbalized concentrates standardized? Many of Paradise Herbs' extracts do have standardized marker compounds, but their philosophy is in keeping with an herbs constituents and not fractionizing out a "deemed" active compound. Therefore they concentrate the herb down as a whole, similar to reduction cooking, but without the temperature. In the end they are only looking to remove the indigestible fiber and concentrate all of the other compounds. I purchased a Paradise Herbs product a year ago, substance inside the caps now seem to be rock hard. Can I still take it? Once the seal of a bottle is opened air and water in that air will get in. The herbal extracts can get hydroscopic from this water content (very small particles of air and water, much less than you take in a breath). This will only effect the product in appearance and not effectiveness. Can I use hot water to mix Paradise Herbs' ORAC-Energy Greens? It really depends on the temperature you're using. Many of the ingredients used in Paradise Herbs' Greens are temperature controlled, so Paradise Herbs does not recommend using hot water to mix their powders. Does Paradise Herbs Protein & Greens product contain calcium, and if so, how much per serving? It only contains about 2% of the rda based on a 2000 calorie diet. That is approx. 20 mg of naturally occurring calcium. The ORAC-Greens container I purchased was only half full. Is this intentional? Paradise Herbs understands your concern; their ORAC-Energy Greens are made with a fluffy consistency and when the product settles through shipment and or settling on the shelf this is what happens. Although the container is half full you are still receiving the ORAC-Greens in weight. Which is what the guidelines are and Paradise Herbs follows strictly. Are any of Paradise Herbs' products enteric coated? None of their products are enteric coated. About Paradise Herbs & Essentials At Paradise Herbs, they have spent years developing and perfecting products that retain the true essence and natural balance of nature in a form that is safe and effective for even the most sensitive of individuals. Paradise Herbs' core philosophy is based on seven standards of excellence: Quality, Purity, Potency, Efficacy, Safety, Sustainability and Value. Their ongoing commitment and innovation for these standards is reflected in everything Paradise Herbs does. They are continually dedicated to sourcing and formulating premium, ultra pure products that meet the highest standards of excellence. Unlike tablets that contain binders, fillers, magnesium stearate or stearic acid (which may inhibit absorption), Paradise Herbs' vegetarian caps dissolve quickly in the digestive tract. In addition Paradise Herbs provides the active, readily usable forms of vitamins B2, B6 & B12 while using the most soluble and absorbable mineral chelates as (Krebs) bound to citrate, aspartate-malate. Paradise Herbs, Inc. was established in 1994 by founder and formulator Scott Bias. He has 27 years of training, experience and research in the natural foods industry. Scott has extensively researched and practiced Chinese, Ayurvedic and Euro-Native American herbalism. He received over ten years of apprentice hands-on training working directly under two Oriental medical doctors with a combined total experience of over sixty years in traditional Chinese medicine. At Paradise Herbs, they know that the end product is only as good as your starting material. Paradise Herbs obtains their herbs from special alliances they have built all over the world. Their herbs are grown where they are indigenous; either ethically and ecologically wild crafted or naturally cultivated without the use of any chemical fertilizers, pesticides or preservatives. For example: Paradise Herbs' Ayurvedic herbs Turmeric, Ashwagandha and Holy Basil are from an isolated and pristine environment at the base of the Himalayans, or they obtain their Ginger from the Ecuadorian rain forest where it is ethically wild crafted. It is this total combination of factors: climate, soil, pristine and natural growing environment that produce the outstanding quality of all Paradise Herbs' herbs. But Paradise Herbs doesn't stop there. Their end product after extraction is a True Full Spectrum extract, although Paradise Herbs measures standard marker compounds in most of their extracts, they never fractionate or isolate. Paradise Herbs believes in keeping all the synergistic components in the balanced ratios nature intended. They know that in many cases it is not evident which components are to be credited for the clinical effect, or if several components must act synergistically, therefore the whole root extract is always regarded as the active ingredient. It is a central philosophy of traditional herbalism to trust in the wisdom of nature to provide the most complete medicines for humans. Unlike the conventional Pharmaceutical Industry that has sought to isolate compounds to create new drugs, Paradise Herbs believes the whole herb is the medicine and is supplying all the benefits. For example, studies have shown that a True Full Spectrum herbal extract of Panax Ginseng consistently outperforms an extract comprising only isolated ginsenosides. This illustrates that polysaccharides and other active constituents in Ginseng play an integral role in its clinical efficacy. Also, research analysis reveals a component in Panax Ginseng called panaxydol to inhibit cell cycle progression of human malignant tumor cells. Paradise Herbs believes this is scientific proof for True Full Spectrum preparations as compared to fractionated isolates only containing the ginsenosides and possibly lacking some of the benefits. Paradise Herbs' production facility is designed and operated to pharmaceutical standards, with an OTC drug license and DEA/State Bureau of Narcotics registration. This is far beyond industry GMP standards. Advanced architectural and design features give the manufacturing environment the look and feel of a hospital operating room. All operations are carefully documented, including in-process quality assurance checks. Equipment use/cleaning logbooks, and standard operating procedures are followed scrupulously to avoid any form of contamination or non-compliance. HEPA filters not only condition the air by removing moisture, they function at 95% efficiency down to 5 microns, eliminating microbial and cross-contamination. This system introduces clean air into the room creating a positive pressure which ensures that only the cleanest air contacts ingredients and finished goods. Paradise Herbs never uses fillers or flow agents. Common fillers or flow agents like magnesium stearate, calcium stearate or stearic acid are hydrogenated oils. Not only are these oils unhealthy, they coat the capsule ingredients with a layer of saturated fat hindering nutrient absorption. Some studies Paradise Herbs has seen list this hindrance to be as high as 80%. Doing the math on this, that cuts down nutrient contents utilized to 20%, not very good to say the least. All Paradise Herbs product labels conform to all applicable DSHEA labeling laws. Paradise Herbs' standards of excellence will leave you with a finished product you can feel safe and confident consuming.


text:
Coconuts Rifle Western Bootie
Sorry, this item is sold out!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Item # 237380
Go wild for the western look this season! The Coconuts Rifle is an adorable cowboy boot, perfect for transitioning between seasons!
- Distressed faux leather upper with embroider detail
- 7" shaft height, inside zipper
- 1½" block heel
- Synthetic sole
- Imported
- View More Women's Coconuts Shoes
By: Renee829
Location: Pittsburgh
October 26, 2013
"Love them! Great boots and I gets lots of compliments."
By: moqui
Location: Tucson AZ
July 17, 2013
"this boot is super cute goes with jeans skirts shorts and dresses."
By: shayquattro
Location: boston
May 03, 2013
"great comfy boots, perfect for summer concerts!"
By: gritandglam61
Location: New Mexico
September 12, 2012
Get Your Country On!
"These boots are so unique. They really stand out due to the distressed appearance. They are not real leather upper, but a great faux job. Different in color compared to photo, they appear more of a purply brown, but super cool color goes with a lot of color schemes. Very comfy and perrrrfect for skinny jeans with a little bling. Easy to dress up for more of a metro look, or down and dirty for kickin' in the barn. Earthy and Elegant all in one boot. Love 'em."
Click anywhere to close this.


text:
Final Sale - Gucci Leather Script Loafer
Sorry, this item is sold out!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Item # dsw12prod3780063
Known best for its Italian craftsmanship and elegant style, Gucci is a worldwide legend in designer fashion. With timeless style & iconic appeal, this leather driving moc is perfect for your casual style.
- PLEASE NOTE: For this style, we recommend ordering a ½ size larger than normal
- Leather upper
- Petite script logo ornament
- Round toe
- Fully lined in leather
- Flexible split rubber sole
- Rubber heel guard prevents wear and tear while driving
- Made in Italy
- Exclusively at DSW
- View more Women's Gucci Shoes
By: princezz
Location: Killeen, Tx
February 24, 2013
Painfully Gucci
"These shoes are not to be worn for lengthy walking. They hurt really bad. Too narrow."
By: JB1969
Location: NJ
October 10, 2012
"Very pretty shoe, runs a little narrow but they are fine."
By: Ibizashoppa
Location: Detroit
May 10, 2012
Gotta Love 'Em!
"I am in love with DSW! These shoes are wow wow wonderful. So much so, that I had to order another pair. They do run slightly narrow, but they are soft leather which I anticipate will stretch to fit perfectly. With all the reward offer possibilities on DSW, and all of the color options in this shoe, I think I see pair number three in my near future."
By: Attoot
Location: OHIO
April 23, 2012
luxuries brand with unbeatable price..
"this is an amazing shoes !!i love love love them.. its comfy and nice.."
Click anywhere to close this.


text:
At Today's Concept, we are well stocked in the best and most reputable name brands of kitchenware. But we also know that true culinary enthusiasts want quality in their cooking tools, and don't need to be told which products offer better service than others. Instead, their concerns are less about what kind of kitchenware to buy, but rather, how best to fashion a very efficient and decorative-looking kitchen out of those appliances. For those consumers interested in coordinating the look of their kitchen appliances, consider our selection of Hamilton Beach Ensemble Series.
Sold as two separate color-coordinated packages – the Red Series and the Black Series – each of these stylish sets comes with its own unique, high quality kitchenware. Both series utilize the same sleek design approach, with each ensemble's products modeled similarly and coated with the same color scheme. If you like red in the kitchen, the Ensemble Beach Red Series offers kitchenware all in that color. If you're more a fan of black, the Black Series gives you the tools you want in the color you like.
Each ensemble series also comes with specific appliances. The Red Series is comprised of a blender, can opener and programmable coffeemaker. The Black Series is also available with a can opener and blender, but substitutes the coffeemaker for a ultra-wide-slot two slice toaster. This kind of variety ensures that if you only choose to buy one package, you won't completely miss out on the products offered, but if you also choose to buy both, there's enough uniqueness in the tools for sale here.
For more information on these or the other quality culinary products we have to offer at Today's Concept, visit our online store.


text:
Sort by: Viator Recommends | Traveler Rating | Most Recent
Oahu Trips From the Big Island
By Viator, June 2016
There's no doubt that the Big Island of Hawaii is beautiful, with all the natural wonders of Hawaii encapsulated in its blue-water boundaries. But Hawaii is no ordinary island chain. The beauty of ... Read more
Download the Viator Insider's Guide to Hawaii
By Viator, September 2015
2934 Ratings | Tours & Tickets
At Viator, our goal has always been to help travelers find the best things to see and do around the world. Our team of travel insiders handpicks every tour, our mobile apps keep you connected on ... Read more
Volcano Tours
By Viator, September 2015
Volcanoes not only created the amazing mountains, valleys and waterfalls of Hawaii, they also allowed magnificent tropical plants to flourish in the mineral-rich soil. On the Big Island of Hawaii, ... Read more
Tours From Hilo
By Viator, July 2015
A lush and historic town with a funky, old-school type of charm, many of the tours from Hilo focus on the volcanic splendor of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Located only an hour drive from ... Read more
Snorkeling With Manta Rays On Hawaii?s Big Island
By Viator, July 2015
Of all the ocean activities available in the state of Hawaii, few of them offer more excitement and enchantment than snorkeling with manta rays off of the Big Island of Hawaii. The world?s largest ... Read more
Big Island Beaches
By Viator, June 2015
Black-sand to white-sand, crystal-clear calm to surf?s up, the Big Island has plenty of beaches to choose from ? and no wonder, when it has more coastline than any other Hawaiian island. Most of ... Read more
3 Days on the Big Island: Suggested Itineraries
By Viator, April 2015
Hawaii is world famous for its stunning natural landscapes, its active volcanoes, its lush greenery, its warm blue waters, and in some cases, it?s throbbing cultural nightlife. Now that you?ve ... Read more
Tours From Kona
By Viator, April 2015
Many of the tours from Kona, as visitors to Hawaii?s Big Island might expect, focus on activities found along the Kona coast of Hawaii?s Big Island. That being said, one of the largest visitor draws ... Read more
Kona Coffee Tours: Best Farms and Itineraries
By Viator, October 2014
Anyone with a morning caffeine addiction has heard of Kona coffee. It?s some of the richest, tastiest?and most expensive?coffee grown anywhere in the world, and the small growing area means that an ... Read more
Big Island Zipline Adventures
By Viator, October 2014
Hawaii was the first state in America to offer zipline adventures, and in the past decade the popularity of ziplining has exploded to all of the islands. Today, whizzing across a verdant valley is ... Read more
Hawaii Waterfalls
By Viator, August 2014
There?s little more iconic than the image of a sheer mountain cliff surrounded by sea, its verdant flora overtaking the whole of the mountainside, greenery everywhere save for a little gap in the ... Read more
Best Places For Seeing Turtles on the Big Island
By Viator, August 2013
There are few experiences more iconic to Hawaii than swimming with a Hawaiian green sea turtle. From the moment their head breaks the surface in a clumsy gasp for air, to the moment they dive down ... Read more
Things to Do on the Big Island of Hawaii
By Hudson, USA, November 2011
Let?s be honest. It can get confusing. You?re heading to Hawaii , but what island again? There are a handful of islands that comprise the 50th US state, but Hawaii specifically refers to the ... Read more


text:
Skechers Cut-Out Sneaker - Womens
Sorry, this item is sold out!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Looks like you've got more shoe shopping to do - have fun!
Item # 267952
Cut-out detailing to add to your super hip casual style the Skechers® Bungee Cut-Out sneaker is a top pick for fashionable comfort.
- Suede leather and mesh fabric upper
- Slip on bungee laced casual sneaker design
- Mesh fabric panels for cooling effect
- Cushioned insole
- Shock absorbing midsole
- Flexible rubber traction sole
- Imported
- View more Skechers
By: cardiackate
Location: MA
March 22, 2013
"Easy to slip on and off. Like the style of the shoe but not good to wear for long periods of time"
Click anywhere to close this.


text:
Chapter 7
Ephraim and Syria wage war against Judah—Christ will be born of a virgin—Compare 2 Nephi 17.
2 And it was told the house of David, saying, Syria is confederate with
3 Then said the Lord unto Isaiah, Go forth now to meet Ahaz, thou, and
4 And say unto him,
5 Because Syria, Ephraim, and the son of Remaliah, have taken evil counsel against thee, saying,
6 Let us go up against Judah, and vex it, and let us
7 Thus saith the Lord God, It shall not stand, neither shall it come to pass.
8 For the head of Syria is
9 And the head of Ephraim is Samaria, and the head of Samaria is Remaliah's son.
10 ¶Moreover the Lord spake again unto Ahaz, saying,
11 Ask thee a sign of the Lord thy God; ask it either in the depth, or in the height above.
12 But Ahaz said, I will not ask, neither will I
13 And he said, Hear ye now, O house of David; Is it a small thing for you to weary men, but will ye weary my God also?
14 Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a
16 For
17 ¶
18 And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall
19 And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon all bushes.
20 In the same day shall the Lord
21 And it shall come to pass in that day, that
22 And it shall come to pass, for the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall eat butter: for
23 And it shall come to pass in that day, that every place shall be, where there were a thousand vines at a thousand
24 With arrows and with bows shall men come thither; because all the land shall become briers and thorns.
25 And on all hills that shall be