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Client Profile: Flexpak Corporation
by Ron Zollars
The medical industry is an enormous and lucrative business today for many companies. Its medical products that are distributed are abundant. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration, however, sets rigid standards for sterilization of products that must be met. Manufacturers of these devices are reliant on companies that can provide thermoforming and packaging for these individual pieces of equipment.
By brief definition, thermoforming is an in-line manufacturing process whereby a plastic sheet is fed into an oven mold and heated at an extremely high temperature until the plastic material becomes pliable. The plastic material is formed to a shape on an aluminum mold and trimmed. One particular company, Flexpak Corporation, has been a leader in providing thermoforming and packaging services to its clients for many years. The employee-owned company, founded in 1974 by Donald Bond is headquartered a few minutes from downtown Phoenix, Ariz. Bond is still active today and serves as chairman of the board at Flexpak. The 84,000 square-foot facility produces millions of custom-thermoforming products annually. Employees specialize in the following six areas: sales development; design and tooling; manufacturing and materials control; quality assurance; finance; and administrative support.
Steve Murray, president and CEO, Flexpak Corporation
Steve Murray, Flexpak's president and chief executive officer joined the company in 2004 as executive vice president and chief financial officer. In January of this year, Murray was promoted to president and CEO. Previously in his career, he held senior management positions in both finance and quality assurance and worked in the aerospace, marketing and distribution industries, primarily in the Midwest.
"In the early days, Flexpak was primarily involved with contract packaging, providing shrink wrapping for numerous store products," said Murray. "The company also did a lot in the packaging of items for mothers of newborn babies as they would leave the hospital. The bags were stuffed with sample diapers, baby toys, coupons and other items. Later, Flexpak migrated into thermoforming and medical device packaging. Today more than 50 percent of our business is in the medical device space."
Recently the company received notoriety for being selected and featured in a segment of the popular TV program — "World's Greatest" which is part of the ION Television network. The premise of the series is dedicated to highlighting the world's greatest companies, products, places and people.
"Flexpak Corporation is exactly the type of company that we like to feature on 'World's Greatest.' They're an award-winning company that has been supplying progressive solutions to the custom thermoforming and contract packaging industry since 1974; market driven and customer focused, they have a great story to tell," said Gordon Freeman, executive producer of the show. The program aired in early May. Visit this link to view the segment. www.flexpakcorp.com/packaging-suppliers.php. Flexpak also was recently selected as a finalist for the prestigious 2011 Arizona Manufacturers Council — "Manufacturer of the Year" award.
In 1987, the company decided to pursue doing an employee stock ownership plan (ESOP). The founder, Donald Bond, after attending a seminar on succession and taxation felt convinced that having an ESOP would be beneficial not only for himself but also for the future of the company. "I believe there is a lifecycle to ESOPs. Early taxation is an imperative and then succession later becomes a factor as the owner gets closer to retirement," said Murray. "As the percentage of ownership builds it is important to think about the culture. We have a mission statement that says we are committed to being a world-class supplier, dedicated to our employees and focused on the customer. The decisions we make are fair, honest and the right thing to do."
Murray reiterates that employee ownership creates the building blocks for a highly productive organization. Former CEO Donald Bond believes that employee ownership also will attract higher qualified employees. "You have to be intentional about using employee ownership," said Bond. "The Beyster Institute is helping in setting the goals and setting an exit plan. How do you finance this and how do you conduct the buyout? We also believe we want to be a 100 percent S corporation and use those tax savings to fund the buyout and future retirement benefits."
We asked Murray if there were any impediments initially in setting up the ESOP and if it was well received. He said that at first it was a little slow because people didn't really understand the concept but over time and through concerted communications efforts from line management, employees became familiar with employee ownership and what it can mean individually to them. At Flexpak, employees are eligible to participate in the ESOP after they have been employed for 12 months and have amassed 1,000 hours. Typically that takes a year to 18 months.
"The ESOP has helped form the culture of the company," said Murray. "Employee motivation is a big factor. Employees look for cost savings as if they have a stake or own the place. You treat things differently when you have a vested interest."
Murray discussed one facet in their work environment for which he is very proud. "We now have achieved ISO 9001:2008 registration for our quality management system. We have medical validation processes in place and we want to capitalize on those technical skills in the medical device industry."
Murray acknowledged that the company has an incredible team of hardworking, dedicated people. "Each individual employee and our managers work to ensure that we have met our goals and adhere to our core policy — doing the right thing," said Murray. According to their Web site the core policy presents an ethical checklist: Is it honest? Is it fair and reasonable? Is it the "right thing" to do? Does it make good business sense in the context of our established objective? If you can answer yes to all of the above then proceed. "Employees are reminded that everyone is accountable to Flexpak's core policy in making the right decision and the ESOP is what helps differentiate Flexpak from other organizations."


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WILLIAMSBURG, August 19, 1775.
The Subscriber begs Leave to inform the Public, that she intends to open a DANCING SCHOOL on Friday next, for young Ladies; she therefore hopes the Gentlemen and Ladies will be kind enough in sending their Daughters. She flatters herself she shall be able to give entire Satisfaction, as no Care or Pains on her part will be wanting. Her Days for teaching are Fridays and Saturdays, every Week; the price 20s. Entrance, and 4l. a Year. The School will be kept at Mr. Blovet Pasteur's. SARAH HALLAM.
Virginia Gazette (Dixon & Hunter) August 19, 1775
About this entry:
Sarah Hallam joined the Hallam family acting company by marrying young Lewis Hallam. By 1775 she was thirty-five years old, had two young sons and was separated from her husband. She taught dancing to the children of tradesmen and gentlemen at Mr Pasteur's on Nicholson St.
Sources: WAR

subset: commoncrawl


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The Auschwitz Jewish Center Fellows Program is a three week study trip for students who are matriculated in graduate programs or are completing undergraduate degrees in 2013 in Holocaust studies and related fields.
Students of all faiths and ethnicities with an interest in Holocaust studies, Jewish Studies, Polish-Jewish history, memory, or human rights are strongly encouraged to apply. The program covers all costs, including international travel, lodging, room and board, and materials.
The AJC Fellows Program provides a unique educational opportunity to learn about the Holocaust in situ in the context of Poland's history and Jewish heritage. It is the goal of the Auschwitz Jewish Center Fellows Program that Fellows gain not only knowledge of the Holocaust sites they visit, but also an understanding of the legacy of the Holocaust in Poland, its effects on collective memory, and complexities surrounding such categories as victim, bystander, and perpetrator.
After a brief orientation in New York City, the Fellows travel in Poland for three weeks, during which time they visit Kraków, Warsaw, Łódź, Treblinka, and Oświęcim (Auschwitz). The Fellows travel to small towns in the regions surrounding Warsaw and Kraków, as well as through south-eastern Poland and north-eastern Slovakia, to explore the area's rich Jewish heritage and meet with local leaders to learn about pre-war Jewish life, life under the Nazi occupation and Communism, and the state of Jewish communities and memory in Poland today.
In Oświęcim, the Fellows attend an intensive program at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum where they tour the camps, study the history of Jewish, Roma, and Polish inmates, and take part in workshops with Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum staff on the collections and education departments.
While in Oświęcim, the Fellows have the opportunity to meet European students and observe educational workshops at the Auschwitz Jewish Center. Upon returning home, each Fellow will complete an article for the Auschwitz Jewish Center E- Newsletter and an essay reflecting on his or her experience.
Applications for the AJC Fellows Program can be found at https://mjhnyc.wufoo.com/forms/auschwitz-jewish-center-fellows-program-2013/ and are due on January 21, 2013.


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Arid wetlands are vital sources of water in otherwise uninhabitable landscapes. They are critically important life-support systems for the survival of people as sources of water, food and fibre. They help provide regular water supplies and fertile soils, improve water quality, recharge underground aquifers and lessen the impact of seasonal floods. They also support large numbers of plants and animals.
Dry regions of the world exist where climatic factors, ocean conditions and land features, such as mountains, prevent rainfall. They are found in parts of Asia and Australia, southwestern and northern Africa, the Middle East and the western parts of North and South America.
Instead of a complete lack of water, arid and semi-arid areas are often characterised by seasonal rainfall and wetlands that retain water long after the rest of the landscape has dried out. These wetlands include rivers, swamps, and lakes and springs that may dry up for portions of the year. Inland marshes, vernal pools and playa lakes store water in areas where there are no permanent rivers or streams.
A prime example of critical arid wetlands is the Inner Niger Delta and its seasonal floodplains in Mali. This inland delta is extremely rich in natural resources; arid areas with little water turn into vast wetlands for a portion of the year. These wetlands are essential for farmers who use irrigated agriculture, pastoralists who graze animals, and the livelihoods of people who fish and collect plants.
The region is also hugely important to millions of waterbirds that breed in Europe and Asia, such as waders and herons. Another example are the dambo seasonal wetlands in Zambia and Malawi, which if well-managed are the greatest source of food production in areas that are dry much of the year.
In such water-scarce regions, diversions of water can negatively impact healthy wetlands and the services they provide. Population growth, irrigation, industrial activities, dams and other large-scale water management systems increasingly cause the diversion of water from rivers, floodplains and lakes. Reduced rainfall due to climate change – the predicted occurrence of dry areas getting drier – is creating additional water scarcity.
The result is growing water stress, increased levels of wetland drainage and pollution, deforestation, lowering of water tables and vegetated lands drying out and becoming desert. Many rivers no longer reach the sea due to upstream water diversions and once-permanent lakes have dried up completely.
P.O. Box 471
6700 AL Wageningen
The Netherlands
Tel. +31 (0) 318 660 910
Chamber of Commerce Reg. no.: 9099028
RSIN Number: 806703726


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Over the past decade or so Steve Dawson has become such an indelible fixture on the Canadian musical landscape that it's tempting to take him for granted. One of the drawbacks of being so talented is that Dawson makes everything he does sound so effortless. The music that continually flows out of him is so natural and unforced that it's possible to forget all of the toil that went into producing it. Behind the organic, flowing guitar work, the crisp arrangements and the laconic singing voice, resides one of the brightest, hardest working musicians the country has ever produced."
That above statement, which is part of Steve Dawson's biography on his record labels website, could be taken one of two ways. The first way being "Hum, I wonder if that is just the record label hyping up one of it's artists" or the other way is "Wow, that sounds like Steve Dawson's music would be really great to listen to." Well, I have had the good fortune now to listen to the last 3 of his solo albums, which includes his newest release, "Nightshade" and I have also had the good fortune of listening to some of the Albums he either produced, played in, or both, which by the way number over 50 Albums, and believe me when I say, that he is the real deal and when it comes to the Canadian Music Scene, he is a true musical treasure.
Steve Dawson's music can be best described as having a dark side, a light side, and all sides in between, because his music really comes across as a mosaic and what color of music he adds to that mosaic simply comes from how he is feeling at any particular time. Like Jim Byrnes, an artist he knows well via not only playing on his albums but also producing and mixing some of them as well, Steve Dawson is also a great storyteller and he tells his stories in a clear and concise manner that are easy to listen to and just as easy to understand, as one quickly learns while listening to "Nightshade".
"Nightshade" consists of 12 tracks, 11 of which are dynamic new originals written solely by Steve Dawson. The one cover he does on "Nightshade", is called "Gulf Coast Bay" which is an "old Mississippi Sheiks tune", one in which he reprised from the Tribute Album and Tribute Concert DVD he did last year, paying homage to the Mississippi Sheiks.
As with previous releases, Steve Dawson took on the reigns as Producer and Mixer for "Nightshade" and also, as on other Albums, he has once again surrounded himself with great musicians and singers which included, Chris Gestrin (Keys), Keith Lowe (Bass), Geoff Hicks (Drums), and singers Jill Barber, Jeanne Tolmie, and Alice Dawson. With Steve's amazing Guitar work and Vocals, "Nightshade" comes together like a fine vintage wine and in doing so Steve has quite possibly created his best Album yet.
As with other works of Steve Dawson, it is his amazing gift as a Guitarist which has always stood out. "Nightshade" is of course, no exception to that rule. That is evident from the very first notes of the opening track, "Torn and Frayed" and continues in abundance throughout "Nightshade", clearly dominant in all his songs regardless of what type of guitar he is playing. Track 7, "The Side of the Road" even gets him showing us his musicianship as a banjo player, which adds even more to the mystique that is Dawson's music.
Many will probably be saying, that Steve Dawson's "Nightshade" is his best album, to date. I have not heard all that he has, done but I tend to think that they may be right about that.
"Nightshade" is the kind of album that seems to transcend just simply comparing it to a bunch of different genres. To be sure, it got the blues on it, but there is so much more to this album, which makes it uniquely Steve Dawson's and uniquely very very good.
"Nightshade" is yet another great representation of a great Canadian artist. Fabulous CD and Highly Recommended...


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About This Activity
Join us for New Mexico's 10K high altitude challenge
This 10k trail run begins at 9,207 feet with a 2,612 feet elevationgain in the first 3 miles. It's all down hill from there!Pre-registration includes an event t-shirt.
Imagine standing at a race start line, looking upward, and seeing only the first 1/4 mile of the race course because the trail bends around the back side of a ski mountain and the summit is so far above you that it is not visible from the base of the mountain.
It is with trepidation perhaps, or maybe excitement, or even dread, to consider a climb of more than 2,600 feet in three miles before reaching the halfway point in a race course. Once the initial shock is over—the climb of course—it's all downhill.
Getting back to the climb...think rocky, unstable footing, no shade, lack of oxygen, gut-busting steepness, heavy breathing and even some gasps and groans from the effort. Oh, but the views! Incredible if taking the time to enjoy them. Me, I was dizzy from the elevation gain and had no plans to stop. Why? Competition. There were two women ahead of me. A top-three place finish was great considering how I was feeling on the uphill, yet I knew if I could just maintain, I could pick up time on the descent and maybe make up some time and a place...or two.
Before the race I estimated about 12-14 minute miles on the uphill, 7 minutes per mile on the descent. I figured this after looking at a tiny ski-trail map of the Taos Ski area online and judging how long it took me a few weeks prior to run to the top of Vail Mountain on a similar elevation gain over three miles.
For me, it's a bit about planning. Some people don't care about the course, the terrain, or the competition, they just show up and run. I like to know all of these elements of the race plus what the weather is going to be on race morning, where the restrooms are, what the trail looks like just beyond the start line, what the approach to the finish line looks like, and everything in between. If possible, I like to run part, or all of the course before I race. Certainly not practical when arriving the night before the race.
Of the 31 runners on race morning, Saturday, August 25, for the Taos Ski Valley Up and Over 10k Trail Run, only a few decided to stand on the start line. Trepidation perhaps. Starting at 9,207 feet with 2,612 feet of elevation gain looming. Trepidation for sure, if not dread.
We got some last minute instructions about the course and were informed that there would be no countdown to the start, we were to just "go" after we heard a gun shot. Of course no one knew when the gun shot would come so we nervously waited with our fingers on our chronographic watches. Somehow I was in second place right from the start and I was taking it easy. Only one fellow took off in the lead and he, like many rabbits, became a turtle as the race went on. I made the first switchback turn and slowly approached the second before a few men passed me. A woman I spoke with at the start then surged past me in the first 1/2 mile. Her name was "Tas" I later learned and she had run the race last year, in the first year of the event. At the start she told me that it took her about 1:10 to 1:12 to race it—so I guessed she was probably last year's winner since the organizer told me the women's winning time for 2006 was 1:12. She would be my competition along with another woman I saw warming up at the start who just "looked fast."
I settled into what I felt was a comfortable, yet oxygen-deprived, 12+ minute pace and a solid top-10 position which I hoped to keep up for the duration of the climb. Consistent pace is what I suggest to runners for this type of event. "Get into a gear that you know you can sustain for the duration of a climb," is my best advice.
There would be three aid stations on the course, one halfway to the top, another at the summit, and a third at about the 4.5 mile point. When I looked at my watch and saw 25 minutes at the first aid station, I knew that my 12 minute pace was a fleeting dream and I was hoping now to go under 50 minutes on the climb.
The second woman passed me somewhere along the climb before that first aid station, she was the one who "looked fast" as she warmed up at the start. I could see her just ahead of me for the rest of the climb and I figured if I could just keep her in my sights, I could catch her — just maybe — on the descent. Considering how I was feeling toward the top—dizzy, unsteady, depleted, tired—that dream was in jeopardy of becoming rather distant as well. I managed a sub 50 minute ascent so that invigorated me...sort of.
It is amazing how cresting the top of a climb can change your attitude rather quickly. Just three miles to go and all downhill. This is my kind of running.
Tas was right, it was steep...and rocky. The speedy second-place woman was just ahead of me tiptoeing down the mountain. I blasted past her and she yelled out, "You go sister!" Inspiration for sure.
The descent was my strength, but the pounding was pretty intense and the footing was a bit treacherous in spots. I even had to slow down in several sections and amend my seven-minute pace accordingly. I passed the final water stop and knew I still had a mile or so to go. It was fairly solitary running, much like many trail races that have small fields and are also rather challenging. I saw one other runner ahead of me on the trail whom I thought I would catch, but didn't, and heard no one behind me.
There were no spectators on course save for the aid stations and a few supporters who hiked up from the finish line to cheer on their friends, which also adds to the solitary nature of trail racing. When I saw some supporters near the finish line they urged me on saying that I only had 1/2 mile to the finish line. It was a bit longer than that, but close enough to ramp up my pace a bit.
I crossed the line in 1:13:05, good enough for second woman and sixth overall. Pleased to be in the top ten, second among the women, and equally pleased that we top-three women were all in our 40s.
The race awards ceremony started after everyone had crossed the finish line and post-race chatter was well underway. Every participant received a coupon for lunch with their race entry. Lunch, along with a cute T-shirt and some great swag made the nearly four-hour drive from Colorado Springs more than worthwhile. Add great volunteer support, and this low-key, small town event is a must-do mountain race for your August racing calendar.
Early Bird $35 (by July 1)
Pre-registrations $40 (by August 1)
Race Day $45


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Groundwater contamination near the site of a closed Ford plant in Shelby Township is more widespread than initially believed, and cleanup of the site could cost as much as $150 million, a chemical expert said.
The situation could pose a health threat to residents in the area if the site isn't soon cleaned up, said James Dragun, a soil chemistry expert.
'In our language, there is a threat to the public welfare and public health,' said Dragun, founder of the Dragun Corp., an environmental science and engineering consulting company. '… Threat indicates something that could happen.'
As part of an ongoing lawsuit in Macomb County Circuit Court, Dragun's firm was hired by Shelby Township and developer Grand Sakwa to determine if operations over the years on the Ford property near 23 Mile and Mound roads impacted the environment. An initial report last year indicated health-threatening chemicals TCE and TCA were present in the groundwater. Now, the situation has worsened, Dragun said.
'If action is delayed, the problem grows,' Dragun said.
Moreover, the contamination is moving toward Central Park Manor, a residential development of some 500 homes near the old plant site.
Dragun has been critical of Ford for what he deems is the company's failure to adequately address the problem and devise a remediation plan.
Dragun will present his latest findings Wednesday night to the Shelby Township Board of Trustees during a special 'town-hall' meeting to review the status of the property. The meeting will be held at the Shelby Township municipal building, located near 24 Mile Road and Van Dyke.
Among the conclusion Dragun plans to present:
• The contaminated area is at least twice the size of what was reported last August.
• The Ford property is the source of the contamination.
• Groundwater is most likely contaminated at Shelby Township's baseball/recreation facilities near 23 Mile Road and Van Dyke.
Ford Motor Company issued a prepared state.
'Ford is continuing to conduct an extensive investigation on the property, and are working with the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality to determine what actions, if any, need to be taken. We have kept local residents apprised of our activities, and will continue to do so as the process develops. We take this issue seriously and remain committed to doing what is right for the community and the environment.'
Robert Huth, Shelby Township attorney, said the township's meeting is designed to keep residents informed of the situation around the former Ford property. Huth said the automaker bears responsibility for cleaning the site.
The 205-acre parcel was home to Visteon and earlier to what was called Ford's Utica Trim Plant. The facility was phased out in 2008 and 2009 and ultimately closed.
Indiana Metals, a company that redevelops industrial property, bought the parcel in 2011 and was in the process of demolishing buildings when a legal dispute landed it, Shelby Township, Grand Sakwa and Ford in court.


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Halley's Comet
Halley's Comet or Comet Halley, officially designated 1P/Halley,[2] is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years.[2][10][11][12] Halley last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.[13]
Halley's Comet on 8 March 1986
|Discovered by
|Prehistoric observation;
Edmond Halley (recognition of periodicity)
|Discovery date
|1758 (first predicted perihelion)
|Orbital characteristics[2]
|Epoch 17 February 1994 (2449400.5)
(last perihelion: 9 February 1986)
(next perihelion: 28 July 2061)[1]
|75.32 yr
|Earth MOID
|0.0638 AU (9.54 million km)
|Physical characteristics
|15 km × 8 km[3]
Mean diameter
|11 km[2]
|2.2×1014 kg[4]
Mean density
|0.6 g/cm3 (average)[5]
0.2–1.5 g/cm3 (est.)[6]
|~0.002 km/s
|2.2 d (52.8 h) (?)[7]
|28.2 (in 2003)[9]
Halley's returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC. Clear records of the comet's appearances were made by Chinese, Babylonian, and medieval European chroniclers, but, at those times, were not recognized as reappearances of the same object. The comet's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer Edmond Halley, after whom it is now named.
During its 1986 apparition, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by spacecraft, providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation.[14][15] These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices—such as water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia—and dust. The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.
Comet Halley is commonly pronounced /ˈhæli/, rhyming with valley, or /ˈheɪli/, rhyming with daily.[16][17] Colin Ronan, one of Edmond Halley's biographers, preferred /ˈhɔːli/ (HAW-lee, similar to holly). Spellings of Halley's name during his lifetime included Hailey, Haley, Hayley, Halley, Hawley, and Hawly, so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain, but contemporary individuals with this last name appear to prefer the version that rhymes with "valley".[18]
Computation of orbitEdit
Halley was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproved in 1577 by Tycho Brahe, who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System.[19]
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton's Comet),[20] he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model.
Ultimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley, who, in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits.[21] Having compiled a list of 24 comet observations, he calculated that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler).[21][22] Halley thus concluded that all three comets were, in fact, the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 74–79 years. After a rough estimate of the perturbations the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758.[23] While he had personally observed the comet around perihelion in September 1682,[24] Halley died in 1742 before he could observe its predicted return.[25]
Halley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by Johann Georg Palitzsch, a German farmer and amateur astronomer. It did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a retardation of 618 days.[26] This effect was computed prior to its return (with a one-month error to 13 April)[27] by a team of three French mathematicians, Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute.[28] The confirmation of the comet's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics, and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power.[29] The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1759.[29]
Some scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognized Halley's Comet as periodic.[30] This theory notes a passage in the Bavli Talmud[31] that refers to "a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err."[32]
Researchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by numerical integration starting from accurate observations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 due to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use ancient Chinese comet observations to constrain their calculations.[33]
Orbit and originEdit
Halley's orbital period has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC.[29][11] Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6 AU.[34] This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus. Its aphelion, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of Pluto). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°.)[35] Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the Earth of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h).[36] Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October.[37] Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the Eta Aquariids meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower.[38]
Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet; one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less.[39] This contrasts it with long-period comets, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit is atypical.[29] Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 20–30 degrees or less) are called Jupiter-family comets. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets.[39][40] As of 2015[update], only 75 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 511 identified Jupiter-family comets.[41]
The orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System.[39] If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the Oort cloud,[40] a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of 20,000–50,000 AU. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the Kuiper belt,[40] a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU (Neptune's orbit) and 50 AU from the Sun (in the scattered disc). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a trans-Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, 2008 KV42, whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.[42]
Halley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations.[43] The non-gravitational effects can be crucial;[43] as Halley approaches the Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion of four days, average.[44]
In 1989, Boris Chirikov and Vitaly Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations. These studies showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales.[45] Halley's projected lifetime could be as long as 10 million years. These studies also showed that many physical properties of Halley's Comet dynamics can be approximately described by a simple symplectic map, known as the Kepler map.[46] More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within the next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years.[47][40] Observations by D.W. Hughes suggest that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80 to 90% over the last 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions.[15]
Structure and compositionEdit
The Giotto and Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other ices) begin to sublimate from the surface of its nucleus.[48] This causes the comet to develop a coma, or atmosphere, up to 100,000 km across.[3] Evaporation of this dirty ice releases dust particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as fluorescence, whereas dust particles scatter the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible.[49] As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionized by the solar ultraviolet radiation,[49] pressure from the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long tail, which may extend more than 100 million kilometres into space.[48][50] Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause disconnection events, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus.[14]
Despite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometres long, 8 kilometres wide and perhaps 8 kilometres thick.[b] Its shape vaguely resembles that of a peanut.[3] Its mass is relatively low (roughly 2.2 × 1014 kg)[4] and its average density is about 0.6 g/cm3, indicating that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a rubble pile.[5] Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's rotation period was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours.[15] Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex.[48] Although only 25% of Halley's surface was imaged in detail during the flyby missions, the images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater.[15]
Halley is the most active of all the periodic comets, with others, such as Comet Encke and Comet Holmes, being one or two orders of magnitude less active.[15] Its day side (the side facing the Sun) is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapour, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide,[51] with traces of hydrocarbons[52] although more-recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia.[53] The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in the outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks.[48] The dust particles decreased in size down to the limits of detection (~0.001 µm).[14] The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past. Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water.[48]
Giotto provided the first evidence in support of Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublimate (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct,[48] though with modifications. Halley's albedo, for instance, is about 4%, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it; about what one would expect for coal.[54] Thus, despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth, Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The surface temperature of evaporating "dirty ice" ranges from 170 K (−103 °C) at higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; Vega 1 found Halley's surface temperature to be in the range 300–400 K (27–127 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat.[14] Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials, and thus more closely resembled a "snowy dirtball" than a "dirty snowball".[15][55]
Prior to 1066Edit
Halley may have been recorded as early as 467 BC, but this is uncertain. A comet was recorded in ancient Greece between 468 and 466 BC; its timing, location, duration, and associated meteor shower all suggest it was Halley.[56] According to Pliny the Elder, that same year a meteorite fell in the town of Aegospotami, in Thrace. He described it as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load.[57] Chinese chroniclers also mention a comet in that year.[58]
The first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji, which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north.[59] The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, now owned by the British Museum.[59]
The apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen "day beyond day" for a month.[60] This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great, an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan, "a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC." Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that "Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC" as the comet would have been a "most recordable event"; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings.[61]
The apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the Book of Han by Chinese astronomers of the Han Dynasty who tracked it from August through October.[10] It passed within 0.16 AU of Earth.[62] According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, a comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year.[63] Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ, has led some theologians and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the Star of Bethlehem. There are other explanations for the phenomenon, such as planetary conjunctions, and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus' birth.[64]
If, as has been suggested, the reference in the Talmud to "a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err"[65] (see above) refers to Halley's Comet, it may be a reference to the 66 AD appearance, because this passage is attributed to the Rabbi Yehoshua ben Hananiah. This apparition was the only one to occur during ben Hananiah's lifetime.[66]
The 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles.[67] It was also recorded in the Tamil work Purananuru, in connection with the death of the south Indian Chera king Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai.[68]
The 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09 AU of Earth.[62] The 684 AD apparition was recorded in Europe in one of the sources used by the compiler of the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicles; it is the oldest-known image depicting a comet. Chinese records also report it as the "broom star".[69][22] The 451 AD apparition was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons.[70] In 837, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 AU (3.2 million miles; 5.1 million kilometres) from Earth, by far its closest approach.[62] Its tail may have stretched 60 degrees across the sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East.[10] In 912, Halley is recorded in the Annals of Ulster, which state "A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared."[71]
In 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings; it was a bad omen for Harold, but a good omen for the man who defeated him, William the Conqueror. The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star. Surviving accounts from the period describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the Moon. Halley came within 0.10 AU of Earth at that time.[62]
This appearance of the comet is also noted in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Eilmer of Malmesbury may have seen Halley previously in 989, as he wrote of it in 1066: "You've come, have you? ... You've come, you source of tears to many mothers, you evil. I hate you! It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country. I hate you!"[72]
The Irish Annals of the Four Masters recorded the comet as "A star [that] appeared on the seventh of the Calends of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards."[71] Chaco Native Americans in New Mexico may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs.[73]
The 1145 apparition was recorded by the monk Eadwine. The 1986 apparition exhibited a fan tail similar to Eadwine's drawing.[69] Some claim that Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the 1222 apparition.[74] The 1301 apparition may have been seen by the artist Giotto di Bondone, who represented the Star of Bethlehem as a fire-colored comet in the Nativity section of his Arena Chapel cycle, completed in 1305.[69] Its 1378 appearance is recorded in the Annales Mediolanenses[75] as well as in East Asian sources.[76]
In 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary, culminating in the Siege of Belgrade in July of that year. In a papal bull, Pope Callixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his Lives of the Popes that,[77]
A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name. He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk.
Platina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had "excommunicated" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention.[78]
Halley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara, a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470).[79]
After witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of Debre Berhan (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign.[80]
Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict its 1759 return.[81] Streams of vapour observed during the comet's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit.[82]
The 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April[62] and came to perihelion on 20 April,[62] was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which spectroscopic data were obtained.[14] Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 AU,[62] making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet.[83][84] One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen,[85] which led astronomer Camille Flammarion to claim that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas "would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet."[86] His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack "anti-comet pills" and "anti-comet umbrellas" by the public.[87] In reality, as other astronomers were quick to point out, the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail.[86]
The comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of the Xinhai Revolution that would end the last dynasty in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time, recorded,
The people believe that it indicates calamity such as war, fire, pestilence, and a change of dynasty. In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day, no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet."[88]
The 1910 visitation is also recorded as being the travelling companion of Hedley Churchward, the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. However, his explanation of its scientific predictability did not meet with favour in the Holy City.[89]
The comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes. One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers, a supposed Oklahoma religious group, attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster, but were stopped by the police.[90]
American satirist and writer Mark Twain was born on 30 November 1835, exactly two weeks after the comet's perihelion. In his autobiography, published in 1909, he said,
I came in with Halley's comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together.'[91][92]
Twain died on 21 April 1910, the day following the comet's subsequent perihelion.[93] The 1985 fantasy film The Adventures of Mark Twain was inspired by the quotation.
Halley's 1910 apparition is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910, which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was actually visible in broad daylight for a short period, approximately four months before Halley made its appearance.[94][95]
Halley's 1986 apparition was the least favourable on record. The comet and Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun in February 1986, creating the worst viewing circumstances for Earth observers for the last 2,000 years.[96] Halley's closest approach was 0.42 AU.[97] Additionally, with increased light pollution from urbanization, many people failed to even see the comet. It was possible to observe it in areas outside of cities with the help of binoculars.[98] Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April of 1986.[99]
Halley's approach was first detected by astronomers David Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m Hale telescope at Mount Palomar and a CCD camera.[100] The first person to visually observe the comet on its 1986 return was amateur astronomer Stephen James O'Meara on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 24-inch telescope on top of Mauna Kea to detect the magnitude 19.6 comet.[101] On 8 November 1985, Stephen Edberg (then serving as the Coordinator for Amateur Observations at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and Charles Morris were the first to observe Halley's Comet with the naked eye in its 1986 apparition.[102][103]
Although Halley's Comet's retrograde orbit and high inclination make it difficult to send a space probe to it,[104] the 1986 apparition gave scientists the opportunity to closely study the comet, and several probes were launched to do so. The Soviet Vega 1 started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, and the first ever of its nucleus,[15] and made its flyby on 6 March, followed by Vega 2 making its flyby on 9 March. On 14 March, the Giotto space probe, launched by the European Space Agency, made the closest pass of the comet's nucleus.[15] There were also two Japanese probes, Suisei and Sakigake. The probes were unofficially known as the Halley Armada.[105]
Based on data retrieved by Astron, the largest ultraviolet space telescope of the time, during its Halley's Comet observations in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet's coma.[106] The comet was also observed from space by the International Cometary Explorer (ICE). Originally International Sun-Earth Explorer 3, the probe was renamed and freed from its L1 Lagrangian point location in Earth's orbit to intercept comets 21P/Giacobini-Zinner and Halley.[107] ICE made its closest approach on March 28, 1986.
Two Space Shuttle missions—the ill-fated STS-51-L (ended by the Challenger disaster)[108] and STS-61-E—were scheduled to observe Halley's Comet from low Earth orbit. STS-51-L carried the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-203) satellite, also called the Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable (HCED).[109] STS-61-E was a Columbia mission scheduled for March 1986, carrying the ASTRO-1 platform to study the comet.[110] Due to the suspension of America's manned space program after the Challenger explosion, the mission was canceled, and ASTRO-1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS-35.[111]
After 1986Edit
On 12 February 1991, at a distance of 14.4 AU (2.15×109 km) from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months, releasing a cloud of dust 300,000 km (190,000 mi) across.[48] The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from magnitude 24.3 to magnitude 18.9.[112] Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the Very Large Telescopes at Paranal, Chile, when Halley's magnitude was 28.2. The telescopes observed Halley, at the faintest and farthest any comet has ever been imaged, in order to verify a method for finding very faint trans-Neptunian objects.[9] Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit.[9]
The next predicted perihelion of Halley's Comet is 28 July 2061,[1] when it is expected to be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth.[11] It is expected to have an apparent magnitude of −0.3, compared with only +2.1 for the 1986 apparition.[113] It has been calculated that on 9 September 2060, Halley will pass within 0.98 AU (147,000,000 km) of Jupiter, and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0.0543 AU (8,120,000 km) of Venus.[114]
In 2134, Halley is expected to pass within 0.09 AU (13,000,000 km) of Earth.[114] Its apparent magnitude is expected to be −2.0.[113]
Halley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the astronomical designations for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented widespread sighting.[2][115] For example, "1P/1982 U1, 1986 III, 1982i" indicates that for the perihelion in 1986, Halley was the first period comet known (designated 1P) and this apparition was the first seen in half-month U (the second half of October)[116] in 1982 (giving 1P/1982 U1); it was the third comet past perihelion in 1986 (1986 III); and it was the ninth comet spotted in 1982 (provisional designation 1982i). The perihelion dates of each apparition are shown.[117] The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate, mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non-gravitational effects. Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the Julian calendar, while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the Gregorian calendar.[118]
Halley's Comet is visible from Earth every 74–79 years.[2][10][11]
|Year BC/AD
|Gap (years)
|Date of perihelion
|Visible duration
|Closest approach
|15 May
|15 – 25 May
|First confirmed sighting.
|20 May
|Seen by Babylonians.
|15 August
|6 – 19 August
|Seen by the Babylonians and Chinese.
|8 October
|August – 10 October
|Watched by Chinese for two months.
|26 January
|25 – 26 January
|May be the comet described in Josephus's The Jewish War as 'A comet of the kind called Xiphias, because their tails appear to represent the blade of a sword' that supposedly heralded the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD.[63]
|25 March
|22 – 25 March
|Described by the Chinese as bluish-white in colour. Described in Tamil literature and death of Chera (Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai) king after appearance of comet.[119]
|6 April
|6 April – 17 May
|Described by the Roman historian Dion Cassius as 'a very fearful star' .
|7 April
|7 – 20 April
|Seen in China, but not spectacular.
|13 February
|13 – 16 February
|Comet passed 13.5 million kilometres from Earth.
|3 July
|28 June – 3 July
|Appeared before the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons.
|15 November
|27 September – 15 November
|Noted in China and Europe, but not spectacular.
|26 March
|15 – 26 March
|Comet passed 13.5 million kilometres from Earth.
|26 November
|2 October – 26 November
|First known Japanese records of the comet. Seen in Europe and depicted 800 years later in the Nuremberg Chronicle. Attempts have been made to connect an ancient Maya depiction of God L to the event.[120]
|10 June
|20 May – 10 June
|Seen in China, at the same time as another comet.
|25 February
|25 – 28 February
|Closest-ever approach to the Earth (5 million km). Tail stretched halfway across the sky. Appeared as bright as Venus.
|27 July
|18 – 27 July
|Seen briefly in China and Japan.
|2 September
|2 – 5 September
|Seen in China, Japan, and (possibly) Korea.
|25 March
|January – 25 March
|Seen for over two months in China. Recorded in England and depicted on the later Bayeux tapestry which portrayed the events of that year.
|19 April
|15 – 19 April
|Depicted on the Eadwine Psalter, with the remark that such 'hairy stars' appeared rarely, 'and then as a portent'.
|10 September
|10 – 28 September
|Described by Japanese astronomers as being 'as large as the half Moon . . . Its colour was white but its rays were red'.
|22 October
|22 – 31 October
|Seen by Giotto di Bondone and included in his painting The Adoration of the Magi. Chinese astronomers compared its brilliance to that of the first-magnitude star Procyon.
|9 November
|9 – 14 November
|Passed within 10 degrees of the north celestial pole, more northerly than at any time during the past 2000 years. This is the last appearance of the comet for which Oriental records are better than Western ones.
|8 January
|8 January – 9 June
|Observed in Italy by Paolo Toscanelli, who said its head was 'as large as the eye of an ox', with a tail 'fan-shaped like that of a peacock'. Arabs said the tail resembled a Turkish scimitar. Turkish forces attacked Belgrade.
|26 August
|26 August
|Seen by Peter Apian, who noted that its tail always pointed away from the Sun. This sighting was included in Halley's table.
|27 October
|27 October
|Seen by Johannes Kepler. This sighting was included in Halley's table.
|15 September
|15 September
|Seen by Edmond Halley at Islington.
|13 March
|13 March – 25 December
|Return predicted by Halley. First seen by Johann Palitzsch on 1758 December 25.
|16 November
|August – 16 November
|First seen at the Vatican Observatory in August. Studied by John Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope.
|1P/1909 R1, 1910 II, 1909c
|20 April
|20 April – 20 May
|Photographed for the first time. Earth passed through the comet's tail on 20 May.
|1P/1982 U1, 1986 III, 1982i
|9 February
|9 February
|Reached perihelion on 9 February, closest to Earth (63 million km) on 11 April. Nucleus photographed by the European space probe Giotto and the Russian probes Vega 1 and 2.
|28 July
|28 July 2061
|Next return of Halley's comet.
See alsoEdit
- ^ a b Donald K. Yeomans. "Horizon Online Ephemeris System". California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 1P/Halley" (11 January 1994 last obs). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 13 October 2008.
- ^ a b c "What Have We Learned About Halley's Comet?". Astronomical Society of the Pacific (No. 6 – Fall 1986). 1986. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
- ^ a b G. Cevolani; G. Bortolotti; A. Hajduk (1987). "Halley, comet's mass loss and age". Il Nuovo Cimento C. Italian Physical Society. 10 (5): 587–591. Bibcode:1987NCimC..10..587C. doi:10.1007/BF02507255.
- ^ a b R. Z. Sagdeev; P. E. Elyasberg; V. I. Moroz. (1988). "Is the nucleus of Comet Halley a low density body?". Nature. 331 (6153): 240–242. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..240S. doi:10.1038/331240a0.
- ^ S. J. Peale (1989). "On the density of Halley's comet". Icarus. 82 (1): 36–49. Bibcode:1989Icar...82...36P. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90021-3.
densities obtained by this procedure are in reasonable agreement with intuitive expectations of densities near 1 g/cm3, the uncertainties in several parameters and assumptions expand the error bars so far as to make the constraints on the density uniformative ... suggestion that cometary nuclei tend to by very fluffy, ... should not yet be adopted as a paradigm of cometary physics.
- ^ S. J. Peale; J. J. Lissauer (1989). "Rotation of Halley's Comet". Icarus. 79 (2): 396–430. Bibcode:1989Icar...79..396P. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90085-7.
- ^ R. R. Britt (29 November 2001). "Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System". Space.com. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
- ^ a b c "New Image of Comet Halley in the Cold". European Southern Observatory. 1 September 2003. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d G. W. Kronk. "1P/Halley". cometography.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2008.
- ^ a b c d D. K. Yeomans; J. Rahe; R. S. Freitag (1986). "The History of Comet Halley". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 80: 70. Bibcode:1986JRASC..80...62Y.
- ^ Yeomans, D. K.; Kiang, T. (1 December 1981). "The long-term motion of comet Halley". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 197 (3): 633–646. Bibcode:1981MNRAS.197..633Y. doi:10.1093/mnras/197.3.633. ISSN 0035-8711.
- ^ O. Ajiki; R. Baalke. "Orbit Diagram (Java) of 1P/Halley". Jet Propulsion Laboratory Solar System Dynamics. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
- ^ a b c d e D. A. Mendis (1988). "A Postencounter view of comets". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 26 (1): 11–49. Bibcode:1988ARA&A..26...11M. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.26.090188.000303.
- ^ a b c d e f g h H. U. Keller; D. Britt; B. J. Buratti; N. Thomas (2005). "In Situ Observations of Cometary Nuclei" (PDF). In M. Festou; H. U. Keller; H. A. Weaver (eds.). Comets II. University of Arizona Press. pp. 211–222. ISBN 978-0-8165-2450-1.
- ^ "Halley". Merriam–Webster Online. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ "Saying Hallo to Halley". Retrieved 8 May 2015.
- ^ "New York Times Science Q&A". The New York Times. 14 May 1985. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ Lancaster-Brown pp. 14, 25
- ^ Lancaster-Brown p. 35
- ^ a b Lancaster-Brown p. 76
- ^ a b Ley, Willy (October 1967). "The Worst of All the Comets". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 96–105.
- ^ Lancaster-Brown p. 78
- ^ Yeomans DK, Rahe J, Freitag RS. The history of comet Halley. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 1986 Apr; 80 62–86; page 81.
- ^ Lancaster-Brown p. 80
- ^ Lancaster-Brown p. 86
- ^ Sagan and Druyan p. 74
- ^ Lancaster-Brown pp. 84–85
- ^ a b c d D. W. Hughes; et al. (1987). "The History of Halley's Comet". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 323 (1572): 349–367. Bibcode:1987RSPTA.323..349H. doi:10.1098/rsta.1987.0091. JSTOR 37959.
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External linksEdit
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Comet Halley.
- Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets (1706 reprint of Halley's 1705 paper)
- Halley's nucleus by Giotto spacecraft (ESA link)
- Image of Halley in 1986 by Giotto spacecraft (NASA link)
- cometography.com
- 1P/Halley at CometBase database
- seds.org
- Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris
- Donald Yeomans, "Great Comets in History"
- A brief history of Halley's Comet (Ian Ridpath)
- Photographs of 1910 approach taken from the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections
|Numbered comets
(periodic comet navigator)


text:
Pretty much every test side has fallen in a heap lately. Even South Africa are prone to a good lollapse when they get in the mood. This is at a time too when a lot of the best batsmen of the late 90s and the first decade of the 00s are either retired or entering their final years. In the past few tests we've seen England and India demolish each others batting in different tests, Australia and South Africa do the same, and New Zealand and Sri Lanka took it to even more hilarious heights with only one 300+ score being posted in the series, and that was on a first innings road against an attack which left it all to Herath for the most part.
We've also seen a rise in the overall quality of young pace and spin stocks. There aren't any spinners in the Warne or Murali class at present, but the spin stocks are more evenly spread. Almost everyone has a tweaker who varies between very good and at least dangerous on their day. Likewise while in the 00s Australia and South Africa had their mitts on all the great quick bowlers, now we're seeing almost every test side producing some pace bowling depth. Even sides who traditionally don't have as many good quicks as spinners like India have produced guys like Yadav who looks a real asset.
You expect sides like Australia, New Zealand, and to an extent India, who have relatively less experienced top order batting to sustain some speed wobbles at test level, but the likes of South Africa, England and Sri Lanka, all with very established batting line ups, have been getting rolled for low scores, especially the top orders (yes I did catch the test today, but Australia have had their moments with the ball in this series). While a fair share of the collapses have been on seamers or turners, a fair share of roads (Adelaide, Colombo) have seen recent Lollapses as well.
So, do you put this down to an influx of new batsmen all at once, better bowlers, more favourable pitches or a mix of all three? If a mix (I anticipate this to be the most common answer), what are the proportions in that mix?
It certainly makes for awesome viewing.
edit: I didn't include West Indies v Bangladesh because I haven't watched a ball and only followed it loosely on cricinfo. All I remember is NUFAN tasting it, so I'd be keen to hear the pattern there.


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Spanish Single Major
Part of the Bachelor of International Studies program
Commencing semesters, 2019
Semester 1
Semester 2
Program level
Program code
Humanities and Social Sciences
School of Languages and Cultures
St Lucia
Delivery mode
Australian/domestic students
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Email: hass.uq.edu.au/askhass
Phone: +61 7 3365 1333
International students
International Student Advisor
Email: www.uq.edu.au/international/enquiry
Phone: Outside Australia: + 61 3 8676 7004 Within Australia (Free Call): 1800 671 980
Why study Spanish?
Spanish is the first language of more than 400 million people and the second language of millions more in Europe, the United States, Brazil, Asia and North Africa. Spanish is an official language in international bodies such as the United Nations and World Bank. With Australia's increased exposure to the world economy and competitive labour market, being fluent in a world language like Spanish will give you highly employable communication skills. There is also a strong tradition in the areas of Spanish and Latin American literature and culture, which this major will explore.
View the course list for courses that can be studied as part of the Spanish single major.
What it costs
Please view the Bachelor of International Studies for indicative fees.
How to apply
Please view the Bachelor of International Studies for information on key dates and how to apply.


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