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Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research
versão On-line ISSN 2219-0635
versão impressa ISSN 0030-2465
Onderstepoort j. vet. res. vol.79 no.2 Pretoria Jan. 2012
Economic benefits or drivers of a 'One Health' approach: Why should anyone invest?
Jonathan RushtonI; Barbara HäslerII; Nicoline de HaanIII; Ruth RushtonIV
IAnimal Health Economics, RVC, United Kingdom
IIAgrihealth, RVC and LCIRAH, United Kingdom
IIIFood and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
IVForensic Psychologist, Independent Consultant, United Kingdom
One Health concepts and ideas are some of the oldest in the health discipline, yet they have not become main stream. Recent discussions of the need for One Health approaches require some reflection on how to present a case for greater investments. The paper approaches this problem from the perspective of the control and management of resources for health in general. It poses the following questions, (1) where do we need extra resources for One Health, (2) where can we save resources through a One Health approach and (3) who has control of the resources that do exist for One Health? In answering these questions three broad areas are explored, (1) The management and resources allocated for diseases, (2) The isolation of parts of the society that require human and animal health services and (3) The use of resources and skills that are easily transferable between human and animal health.
The paper concludes that One Health approaches are applicable in many scenarios. However, the costs of getting people from different disciplines to work together in order to achieve a true One Health approach can be large. To generate tangible benefits requires careful management of specialist skills, knowledge and equipment, which can only be achieved by a greater openness of the human and animal health disciplines. Without this openness, policy makers will continue to doubt the real value of One Health. In summary the future success of One Health is about people working in the research, education and provision of health systems around the world embracing and managing change more effectively.
Since 2008 a number meetings have taken place and documents produced (Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Animal Health Organisation/World Health Organisation 2008; Chatham House 2010; Canadian Public Health Agency 2009; World Bank 2010) that have raised the need for a more holistic approach to problems that affect the health of humans, animals and the general environment. Such an approach is not new, but the need for it has been given a much sharper focus with the increasing incidence of diseases that have the potential of creating large economic impacts, human deaths and losses of environmental diversity.
The articulation of the need to adopt a One Health approach was accepted at a meeting of governments (IMCAPI) in Hanoi in April 2010. This was followed by a meeting in Stone Mountain, Georgia, USA to discuss how One Health can be operationalised. One of the recommendations of that meeting was the need for a document that clearly presents an investment strategy for One Health. Whilst the authors acknowledge the ongoing work in this area, the general feeling is that the One Health approach is still some way from being main stream with human and animal health policy making. The questions that come to mind are:
- Why is One Health not main stream?
- If One Health is important, how can the case for a major paradigm shift be more persuasively presented?
The paper explores these questions from the perspective of resource allocation namely by looking at, (1) where extra resources are needed for One Health, (2) where resources can be saved with a One Health approach, and (3) who has control of the resources that do exist for One Health at the moment.
The environments generating health problems are dynamic. The human population continues to grow with expansions greatest in the last fifty years occurring in the developing world (Figure 1).
In addition to the growth in populations there are constant changes in the movement of people and settlement patterns. Some the most dramatic have been the movements of people from Central America and Mexico to North America in the last 15 years and in general the movement of people to urban environments. To keep pace with these changes livestock systems and their associated value chains have evolved. Delgado et al. (1999) described this as a livestock revolution; in fact it was a second revolution, as the first occurred in the 1800s in Europe and the associated colonies (Rushton 2009). This first revolution was largely based on ruminant production, and the second and most recent revolution being based largely on intensive monogastric systems and to some extent from a growth in milk production. The world has seen greater specialisation and intensification of livestock systems leading to increased output per animal and per unit of labour. There has also been massive expansion of livestock populations particularly poultry and pigs and a concentration and clustering of livestock populations. In general there has been an increase in the sophistication and globalisation of livestock product value chains.
Originally these changes in the livestock sector were celebrated although there were early concerns of poorer livestock producers being left behind (De Haan et al. 2001; Heffernan 2002; Food and Agriculture Organisation 2005; Owen et al. 2005) and negative impacts on the environment (De Haan, Steinfeld & Blackburn 1997; Steinfeld et al. 2006).
What was not anticipated were the growing problems with the control of transboundary animal diseases and more specifically the resurgence of zoonotic diseases (Greger 2007). One of the issues that has been raised it is that as domestic livestock populations increase there has been greater contact with wildlife. Also as human populations have pushed into new areas there has been increased contact between human populations and wildlife. Therefore potentially two different sources of diseases either through direct contact with wild animals or through domestic species possible acting as liaison hosts. In addition to these contacts with wildlife the emerging food chains have generated greater levels of moral hazard (asymmetry of information) where people consuming livestock products are unlikely to know how animals are raised and fed, and how the product was handled and stored before it arrives on the plate. An extreme example of this comes from the UK where only 339000 people work in agricultural holdings (only 0.6% of the population) yet they produce food and therefore can affect the wellbeing of 60 million people (see Figure 2).
Responses to these existing and emerging challenges have been strong with greater control of many transboundary animal diseases, and success stores such as the global eradication of rinderpest and the regional eradication of diseases such as foot and mouth disease and classical swine fever. However, there have been major setbacks such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, SARs and highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. The emergence of these problems and the apparent increase in the frequency at which such pathogens emerge (Woolhouse & Gowtage-Sequeria 2005; Woolhouse 2008; Jones et al. 2009) indicate a need to reassess how the world deals with change and manages health. As the livestock sector and human society changes there is a need to monitor with different intensities and manage health risks in different ways. Where risks can be quantified there has been a tendency towards allocating resources for monitoring and management in a targeted manner. Yet the predictions of the emergence and re-emergence of disease problems have not been strong with obvious examples being BSE, H5N1, H1N1. There are two possibilities from this scenario: what we are observing are not predictable events they are random and cannot be identified through commonly used statistical methods or that our current risk models are inadequate at simulating reality. Either could be true, the more immediate challenge is to redirect resources so that problems as they emerge are addressed proportionately to the impact they cause and that response are not based on fears that are held. To achieve this there is a need for information on how resources are currently allocated and whether this use of use resources could be improved.
Economic logic for investment in One Health
Investments in One Health need to recognise two different aspects:
- Disease impact
- Costs of disease in terms of losses in production of livestock
- Costs of controlling the disease
- Human health impacts and costs
- Avoidable losses - the costs of disease that can be avoided by implementing a disease control programme.
The disease impact gives some idea of the economic importance of a problem and whether there is a need to dedicate further resources in terms of education and research. The decision on surveillance and intervention needs to assess if their costs are less than the avoidable losses generated. The following sections will explore areas in One Health where this could be the case.
Looking at resources in the health system
The section is divided into three different areas, (1) resources dedicated to specific disease problems across humans and animals, (2) human populations that have poor access to resources for health and (3) resources can be moved between human and animal health issues easily.
Responses to specific diseases and health problems
Diseases can be relatively easily split into those that are problematic in humans, those that are problematic in animals and those can cause problems in both human and animal populations. The authors would suggest that the most appropriate approaches to diseases that cause problems in humans or animal populations need specialised approaches and in general this is how human health and animal health systems have evolved. However, the diseases that cause problems in both humans and animals - the zoonoses -require generalised approaches (Figure 3).
Some of the zoonotic diseases cause significant impacts in specific locations (Knobel et al. 2005 for rabies), and some that are classified as zoonotic cause huge disruptions (Otte et al. 2010 for HPAI H5N1). However, the zoonotic diseases as a whole do not tend to have a large enough impact in human and animal populations at the same time to have warranted the creation of generalised health service that approaches the problems from a combined human and animal population perspective (Maudlin, Eisler & Welburn 2009). For example, tuberculosis is one of world's major human disease problems, but the causative and self maintaining pathogen of this disease is not Mycobacterium bovis, the pathogen in cattle, it is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Therefore whilst the disease complex as a whole could be considered zoonotic, the pathogens tend to be species specific with some spillover into other species populations. Similarly, brucellosis pathogens are specific to livestock species with spillover into humans where the pathogen can remain but not spread between people. Probably the most challenging pathogens in terms of affecting both human and animal populations are the parasitic problems such as cysticercosis and cystic echinococcosis.
This is not to argue that zoonotic diseases are not important, but that as a group they do not seem to cause sufficient impact across both human and animal populations for societies to have a cadre of people who work across species or organisations that follow the disease across animal and human populations. The problem actually lies in where resources are spent on diseases that circulate in animals and cause spillover impacts in the human population. For example brucellosis causes a significant economic impact, but the costs of controlling the disease in animals are greater than the benefits generated in the animal population, it is only when benefits from the prevention of disease in humans is taken into account that the costs are exceeded (Roth et al. 2003). The implications for such disease problems is the need for One Health thinking at a much higher level of budgetary and resource allocation, so that control campaigns in animals are sufficiently well financed to lead to benefits in humans. This requires a proactive and preventative approach to disease management, a recognition that disease can be managed further upstream, which requires significant shifts in resource allocation. It does not necessarily mean closer working mechanisms in the field.
There are examples where there has been a need and a successful implementation of One Health in the eradication of disease with strong field level coordination such as the control of cystic echinococcosis and Echinococcus in places such as New Zealand and the ongoing attempts to remove cysticercosis from the northern area of Peru (Gonzalez 2011).
It is also argued that the non-communicable diseases is a problem that deserves more thought on how best to harness One Health approaches. Food chains process and refine food for both animals and humans and this has important implications on food intake nutritional health and resulting diseases. These aspects are rarely treated as One Health issues and are invariably observed and worried about rather than thinking of the underlying causes. They would require a more general rather than disease specific approach.
In common with all the disease groups there is the need for an understanding of the role of human behaviour in terms bringing host and pathogen together. There is also a need to understand and use how we react when a disease is present which could be in a positive manner in terms of controlling disease and also in negative manner leading to the maintenance of disease. The latter could be due to ignorance and/or economic gain. Finally human behaviour plays a role in consumption and therefore the emergence of non-communicable diseases.
To attract and retain resources that are applied to specialised activities in terms of dealing with diseases there would be a need for an agreement of the human and animal health leaders on who leads, who implements and who gets the resources. In some cases there will be strong arguments that integrated field level approaches are not necessary, but that these require One Health thinking at a budgetary allocation point. Other diseases do require much more integrated approaches such as specific parasitic diseases and the non-communicable diseases.
Where resources are scarce
Many people live in geographical isolation in areas where they are reliant on livestock. Making resources available in these areas for either human or animal health is difficult due to the limited availability of trained resources and the lack of demand for such services. The need for One Health approaches would make sense in terms of matching overall demand for animal and human health services and the potential to supply adequate services. Strong arguments for generalised services and these have been well documented (Schelling et al. 2007; Zinsstag et al. 2007).
Some lessons from these generalised approaches would benefit from examining the literature on the integrated rural development programmes (Roling & Wagemarkers 1998; Morton, Matthewmaan & Barton 1997; Van Veldhuizen et al. 1997). Indeed, One Health services probably need to incorporate aspects of animal production and genetics, water and sanitation and potentially plant health in such regions.
Where resources are underutilised
Many human health and animal health facilities are built that replicate capacity and in some cases have relatively low throughput. In addition there is human capacity building in data collection, storage and analysis skills in the two health areas. In the case of human capacity this can often be in too few numbers and/or with a low demand of their skills in their specific health field
Low throughput and low demand often leads to poor calibration of standards and variable output of results. Small numbers of trained people limit interchange and advancement in knowledge. There are strong arguments that certain aspects of human and veterinary diagnostics, data collection and analysis need to be combined to create synergies which will improve resource use.
Where resources, skills and institutions could provide a service to both human and animal health delivery and budget constraints limit how much redundancy can be allowed -laboratories are an obvious target, and more creative use could be made of epidemiology and socio-economics skills. Better linkages of human and animal health surveillance data may potentially be useful for emerging diseases.
Discussion and conclusions
The environment that leads to the emergence and re-emergence of health problems is dynamic and constantly changing. These changes have led to responses in terms of strengthening disease surveillance, internationally through WHO, OIE, FAO and nationally through multi and bi lateral programmes plus regional agreements. These have generated benefits in terms of:
- Improved understanding of health problem emergence and re-emergence in order to respond in a proportionate and timely manner.
- Generalised systems of health delivery where resources are scarce - very specific situations.
- Combined use of infrastructure and skillsets to improve the use of underutilised resources and create synergies.
The benefits are not constant as the environment is constantly changing. These changing benefits have changing costs that can only be estimated with better monitoring systems of:
- livestock systems
- value chains
- people working within and using these chains.
Yet we have weak systems to monitor the working and behaviour of livestock systems and their associated chains implying that One Health agenda should be expanded to include environmental concerns and human behaviour. Political reality of adopting a One Health agenda also requires thought and needs to be realistic with the development of evidence of added value from One Health approaches through systematic data collection and analysis. The current lack of evidence reflects a lack of funding, collaboration, management and support, and future work needs to pose the following questions:
- How do we improve the monitoring of facilitating environment so we can in real time:
- estimate health problem impact with more accuracy
- estimate the costs (direct costs and institutional costs) of monitoring and control
- estimate benefits from mitigation activities.
We need to search for proportionate and rational responses that involve individuals, communities, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), private and public sectors, and to recognise that no one mechanism will suit all situations - it requires a systems and people centred approach with strong technical leadership.
Madelon Meijer, Oxfam, The Netherlands; Malla Hovi, AHVLA, UK; Wantanee Kalpravidh, David Castellan -FAO, Bangkok; Nick Taylor - University of Reading, UK; Liz Redmond - FSA, UK; Katharina Stark, Dirk Pfeiffer, Javier Guitian - RVC, UK; Mark Rweyemamu and the SACIDS team; Jeff Waage - Leverhulme Centre for Integrative Research on Agriculture and Health, LIDC, UK.
Canadian Public Health Agency, 2009, 'Report of the Expert Consultation on One Health', Winnapeg, March 2009, Canadian Government, Ottawa, Canada. [ Links ]
Chatham House, 2010, 'Shifting from Emergency Response to Prevention of Pandemic Disease Threats at Source', Chatham House, London, UK. [ Links ]
De Haan, C., Schillhorn van Veen, T., Brandenburg, B., Gauthier, J., Le Gall, F., Mearns, R. et al., 2001, 'Livestock development: Implications for rural poverty, the environment and global food security', The World Bank, Washington DC, USA. [ Links ]
De Haan, C., Steinfeld, H. & Blackburn, H., 1997, Livestock and the Environment: Finding a Balance, Wrenmedia, Suffolk, UK. [ Links ]
Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. & Courbois, C., 1999, Livestock to 2020. The Next Food Revolution, Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper 28. IFPRI, Washington DC, USA. [ Links ]
Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2005, 'Livestock Policies and Poverty Reduction in Africa, Asia and Latin America', Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative Policy Brief, FAO, Rome Italy. [ Links ]
Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Animal Health Organisation/World Health Organisation, 2008, 'Contributing to One World, One Health - A Strategic Framework for Reducing Risks of Infectious Diseases at the Animal-Human-Ecosystems Interface', FAO, Rome, Italy. [ Links ]
Gonzalez, A., 2011, email, 29 November, email@example.com. [ Links ]
Greger, M., 2007, 'The human/animal interface: Emergence and resurgence of zoonotic infectious diseases', Reviews in Microbiology 33, 243-299. [ Links ]
Heffernan, C., 2002, 'Livestock and the poor: issues in poverty focused development', in E. Owen, T. Smith, M.A. Steele, S. Anderson, A.J. Duncan, M. Herrero et al., (eds.), Responding to the livestock revolution: The role of globalisation and implications for poverty alleviation BSAS Publication 33, 229-245. [ Links ]
Jones, K.E., Patel, N.G., Levy, M.A., Storeygard, A., Balk, D., Gittlemman, J.L. et al., 2008, 'Global trends in emerging infectious diseases', Nature (London) 451, 990-993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06536, PMid:18288193 [ Links ]
Knobel, D.L., Cleaveland, S., Coleman, P.G., Fevre, E.M., Meltzer, M.I., Miranda, M.E.G. et al., 2005, 'Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia', Bulletin of the World Health Organization 83, 360-368. PMid:15976877, PMCid:2626230 [ Links ]
Maudlin, I., Eisler, M.C. & Welburn, S.C., 2009, 'Neglected and endemic zoonoses', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 364, 2777-2787. [ Links ]
Morton, J., Matthewman, D. & Barton, D., 1997, Livestock production extension: issues, case studies and policy options. NRI Socio-economic Series 12. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. [ Links ]
Owen, E., Best, J., Devendra, C., Ku-Vera, J., Mtenga, L., Richards, W. et al., 2005, 'Introduction - the need to change the "mind-set"', in E. Owen, A. Kitalyi, N. Jayasuriya & T. Smith (eds.), Livestock and Wealth Creation. Improving the husbandry of animals kept by resource-poor people in developing countries, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK, pp 1-11. [ Links ]
Otte, M.J., Hinrichs, J., Rushton, J., Roland-Holst, D. & Zilberman, D., 2008, 'Impacts of avian influenza virus on animal production in developing countries', Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, CABI, 3 No. 080. [ Links ]
Roling, N.G. & Wagemakers, M.A.E. (eds.), 1998, Facilitating sustainable agriculture. Participatory learning and adaptive management in times of environmental uncertainty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [ Links ]
Roth, F., Zinsstag, J., Orkhon, D., Chimed-Ochir, G., Hutton, G., Cosivi, O. et al., 2003, 'Human health benefits from livestock vaccination for brucellosis: case study', Bulletin of the World Health Organization 81, 867-876. [ Links ]
Rushton, J., 2009, The economics of animal health & production, CAB International, Wallingford (UK) & Cambridge (USA). [ Links ]
Schelling, E., Bechir, M., Ahmed, M.A., Wyss, K., Randolph, T.F. & Zinsstag, J., 2007, 'Human and animal vaccination delivery to remote nomadic families, Chad.', Emerging Infectious Diseases 13, 373-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1303.060391, PMid:17552089, PMCid:2725911 [ Links ]
Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M. & De Haan, C., 2006, Livestock's Long Shadow Environmental Issues and Options, FAO, Rome, Italy. [ Links ]
Van Veldhuizen, L., Waters-Bayer, A., Ramirez, R., Johnson, D. & Thompson, J., 1997, Farmers' research in practice - lessons from the field, Intermediate Technology Publications, London. [ Links ]
Woolhouse, M.E., 2008, 'Epidemiology: emerging diseases go global', Nature (London) 451, 898-899. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/451898a, PMid:18288175 [ Links ]
Woolhouse, M.E.J. & Gowtage-Sequeria, S., 2005, 'Host range and emerging and reemerging pathogens', Emerging Infectious Diseases 11, 1842-1847. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1112.050997, PMid:16485468, PMCid:3367654 [ Links ]
World Bank, 2010, People, Pathogens and Our Planet. Volume 1: Towards a One Health Approach for Controlling Zoonotic Diseases, The World Bank, Washington, USA. [ Links ]
Zinsstag, J., Schelling, E., Roth, F., Bonfoh, B., Savigny, D.D. & Tanner, M., 2007, 'Human benefits of animal interventions for zoonosis control', Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13, 527-531. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1304.060381, PMid:17553265, PMCid:2725951 [ Links ]
Correspondence to:
Jonathan Rushton
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Herts, AL9 7TA
Email: email@example.com
Note: Proceedings of the Conference of the Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance 'One Health' held at the National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, July 2011.


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This is a free program for families with children who are 5 to 12 years old and on the autism spectrum. Families will have time to explore artworks in the galleries and get creative during a hands-on, art-making experience!
While the needs of individuals with autism are the focus of this program, it is also intended to be fun for parents, siblings (of all ages), and other relatives!
This program is offered on the second Saturday of every month. Reservations are required. Registration for this program opens October 1.
Questions? Call 817.989.5013 or email email@example.com.
Meet at the Information Desk for a tour discussing four American modernist painters—Stuart Davis, Arthur Dove, Marsden Hartley, and Georgia O'Keefe who were promoted and patronized by the influential photographer, Alfred Stieglitz. Based out of his famous 291 Gallery on Fifth Avenue, New York City, Stieglitz showcased new American and European avant-garde artists, broadening American taste to a new level of sophistication. No reservations required.
Meet at the Information Desk for a tour of the highlights of the permanent collection of paintings and sculpture led by one of our friendly, knowledgeable docents. No reservations are required.
Meet at the special exhibition entrance for a guided tour of Wild Spaces, Open Seasons: Hunting and Fishing in American Art. This is the first major exhibition to explore the multifaceted meanings of such outdoor subjects in both painting and sculpture from the early nineteenth century to World War II. This exhibition encompasses a wide variety of portraits, landscapes, still lifes, and genre scenes, including iconic works by Thomas Cole, Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, and Augustus Saint-Gaudens, as well as key pictures by specialists in the category such as Charles Deas, Alfred Jacob Miller, William T. Ranney, and Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait. No reservations required.

subset: commoncrawl


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Looking for a sun-drenched destination packed with history and culture? Book flights to Montpellier and visit the Citadel, join the locals for a game of petanque and relax on the beach. Did you know that Montpellier is home to the oldest medical university in Europe? The building dates back to the 12th century. The city also has its own impressive Arc de Triomphe. And how about the oldest botanical garden in France, le Jardin des Plantes?
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Elijah Preston is accustomed to the taunts by now.
Hey, little dude … Yo, munchkin … Get off the field, sophomore, the latter a derivation from last year's Get off the field, freshman.
In addition to diamonds, Tic Tacs and iPads, add Preston to the list of good things that arrive in small packages. He's listed at 5-feet-5 in the St. Augustine program but admits he's 5-4. He weighs 168 pounds, about 160 of which is squeezed into his thighs.
As for the verbal jabs from opponents, they only boost Preston's resolve.
Sitting in the St. Augustine football office this week during lunch, Preston said, "It motivates me a lot. I know that when I'm at this size, at this grade level, that I can play with these big dudes."
That he can. Through eight games for the 6-2 Saints, Preston has rushed for 820 yards. He's averaging 7.7 yards per carry. Against Otay Ranch he scored on a 91-yard kickoff return, plus 78 - and 47-yard runs from scrimmage.
"He's just very explosive," said Otay Ranch coach Anthony Lacsina. "Kind of like (Darren) Sproles. He's got great instincts in the open field. He knows how to juke and knows when to put his head down to get a few extra yards."
In the summer before his freshman year at Saints, Preston showed up for a strength and speed camp.
"When he beat everyone by five yards in the 40-yard dash," said Saints coach Richard Sanchez, "we knew at that point he had some talent."
Initially, Sanchez spoon-fed his freshman last season. The first four games Preston averaged seven carries per game. But when junior Tyler Herburger was knocked out for the season in Week 4 with a fractured leg, in stepped Preston.
Check out his game-by-game rushing yards the rest of the season: 119, 156, 99, 173, 205, 206, 153, 203, 95.
Said Sanchez: "After Tyler got hurt, the biggest question was. 'Is he ready for it mentally?' He proved to us that he was. That's what impressed me the most."
As you would expect on any campus, but particularly at the quaint, 92-year-old all-boys Catholic school plopped in the middle of North Park, teammates and coaches made sure Preston's head didn't swell.
Regarding Preston's appearance when he wore the required beanie during Freshman Welcome Week, Sanchez said, "He looked like he was in the sixth grade."
Teammates busted Preston's chops last season not because he was hogging headlines, but because despite all the success, he walked around like the Seven Dwarfs' Grumpy.
"They told me not to be so angry all the time," he said. "Smile a little bit more."
With teammates crammed into the small coaches' office, eating lunch and studying videotape, Preston added, "I'm not really the smiling type."
Preston is hardly loquacious, but now he dishes out as much dirt as he receives from teammates.
"We'll make fun of his Afro, touch it all the time," said senior offensive lineman Zach Smith. "He gives us a little punch back."
That was Preston spraying water down Smith's back this week at practice.
Said Smith, "He's kind of like this mischievous little kid."
Besides Preston's God-given gifts of speed, vision and elusiveness, Sanchez said one of the back's best skills is patience. Rather than just taking a handoff and plowing straight ahead, he gives linemen a chance to make blocks, then reacts.
"I just see the little creases," said Preston. "Then when I see daylight, I burst and go."
His attitude doesn't hurt, either.
"Look, I know I'm small," he said. "But I'm not scared."
Famous short running backs
Maurice Jones-Drew 5-foot-7 Delivers as much punishment as receives
Barry Sanders 5-foot-8 The greatest running back ever?
Ray Rice 5-foot-8 Sporting a Super Bowl ring


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End-of-life notice: American Legal Ethics Library
As of March 1, 2013, the Legal Information Institute is no longer maintaining the information in the American Legal Ethics Library. It is no longer possible for us to maintain it at a level of completeness and accuracy given its staffing needs. It is very possible that we will revive it at a future time. At this point, it is in need of a complete technological renovation and reworking of the "correspondent firm" model which successfully sustained it for many years.
Many people have contributed time and effort to the project over the years, and we would like to thank them. In particular, Roger Cramton and Peter Martin not only conceived ALEL but gave much of their own labor to it. We are also grateful to Brad Wendel for his editorial contributions, to Brian Toohey and all at Jones Day for their efforts, and to all of our correspondents and contributors. Thank you.
We regret any inconvenience.
Some portions of the collection may already be severely out of date, so please be cautious in your use of this material.
Indiana Rules of Professional Conduct
Comment - Rule 3.4
[1] The procedure of the adversary system contemplates that the evidence in a case is to be marshaled competitively by the contending parties. Fair competition in the adversary system is secured by prohibitions against destruction or concealment of evidence, improperly influencing witnesses, obstructive tactics in discovery procedure, and the like.
[2] Documents and other items of evidence are often essential to establish a claim or defense. Subject to evidentiary privileges, the right of an opposing party, including the government, to obtain evidence through discovery or subpoena is an important procedural right. The exercise of that right can be frustrated if relevant material is altered, concealed or destroyed. Applicable law in many jurisdictions makes it an offense to destroy material for purpose of impairing its availability in a pending proceeding or one whose commencement can be foreseen. Falsifying evidence is also generally a criminal offense. Paragraph (a) applies to evidentiary material generally, including computerized information. Applicable law may permit a lawyer to take temporary possession of physical evidence of client crimes for the purpose of conducting a limited examination that will not alter its potential evidentiary value. In such a case, applicable law may require the lawyer to turn the evidence over to the police or prosecuting authority, depending on the circumstances.
[3] With regard to paragraph (b), it is not improper to pay a witness's expenses or to compensate an expert witness on terms permitted by law. The common law rule in most jurisdictions is that it is improper to pay an occurrence witness any fee for testifying and that it is improper to pay an expert witness a contingent fee.
[4] Paragraph (f) permits a lawyer to advise employees of a client to refrain from giving information to another party, for the employees may identify their interests with those of the client. See also Rule 4.2.


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Motorhead, the coolest cat in the litter
Wick's World
Jack and Jill went to bed. They sired a cat named Motorhead.
Last week I shared the tales of Jack the travelling cat. What I didn't tell you is that Jack eventually settled down and married a cute young Siamese named Jill. They had one litter before Jack got fixed or Jill got spayed. This happened so long ago that neither my wife nor I can remember which. What we do remember is that the coolest cat in the litter was eventually tagged with the name Motorhead. Even as a small kitten, that cat had such a loud purr you would have swore a lion was roaring.
His mother, Jill, was exactly the opposite. Although she had a moderate purr, when it came time to meow, she would simply mouth the word. No sound whatsoever, so we eventually changed her name to Silent Meow.
Motorhead had many siblings. There was Mervin, the dumbest cat of all time, whose favorite sleeping spot was in the middle of the gravel road by our farmhouse. He quickly used up his nine lives. Cunning and Filet seemed like Siamese twins because they always hung out together. When we gave them away, the new owners knew they came as a couple. White Toe was named after his white toe, of course. Black Cat was the darkest of the lot.
However, none of them came close to matching the style and class of Motorhead. We eventually got rid of the rest of the litter, taking only Motorhead along with us to Texas. By this time Jack had become a deadbeat dad and Jill ran off with some cool cat down the road.
Unknown to us at the time, Motorhead inherited more than just a cocky attitude from his father. Like Jack, he also hated being cooped up in hot vehicles. By the time we approached Waco, Texas, he decided to have no more of this.
Remember, this was in the early 70s and many vehicles weren't equipped with air conditioning, at least not the ones I owned. We drove with the windows down trying to circulate the 105 degree air that accompanied us. Right smack dab in the heart of Waco, driving 75 miles per hour down I-35, Motorhead made his move.
Without warning, he leapt from my wife's lap and hit the pavement running. Amazingly, he dodged traffic and ran up the side of the hill. He disappeared somewhere along the service road. We took the next exit and began our search. It didn't take long to find him. He was lying in the shade of a mesquite bush literally licking his wounds. Except for a big chunk of fur that was missing on his front leg, he appeared none for the worse.
We really couldn't blame the cat for wanting out of the car. We wanted out, too. However, we had several hundred miles before we would reach the border town of McAllen, Texas, and our jobs at the Hilton Inn. After a brief rest, we continued south.
Motorhead just didn't seem like a proper name for a cat with as much pizzazz as he had. We crowned him "The Waco Kid." The name stuck and his tale was told many times over. The legend of the leaping feline followed him for his lifetime.
We didn't see much of the Waco Kid that winter. He was definitely a night owl. The strangest thing, however, was that we would never see him eat. He stuck his nose up at the cat food we offered although his bowl was always full.
Just prior to heading north for the summer, our 90-year-old neighbor lady saw us packing the car.
"I'm sure going to miss your cat. He just loves that fresh shrimp I feed him every night."


text:
Benin Population: 10,741,458243 VISITORS FROM HERE!
« Previous Country | Next Country » Back to Flag Counter Overview
|Present day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a West African kingdom that rose to prominence in about 1600 and over the next two and a half centuries became a regional power, largely based on its slave trade. Coastal areas of Dahomey began to be controlled by the French in the second half of the 19th century; the entire kingdom was conquered by 1894. French Dahomey achieved independence in 1960; it changed its name to the Republic of Benin in 1975. A succession of military governments ended in 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and the establishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles. A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later, free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO as president, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africa from a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power by elections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities were alleged. KEREKOU stepped down at the end of his second term in 2006 and was succeeded by Thomas YAYI Boni, a political outsider and independent, who won a second five-year term in March 2011. Patrice TALON, a wealthy businessman, took office in 2016 after campaigning to restore public confidence in the government.
Sandbanks create difficult access to a coast with no natural harbors, river mouths, or islands
|Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Benin, between Nigeria and Togo
|Geographic coordinates:
| total: 112,622 sq km
land: 110,622 sq km
water: 2,000 sq km
Size comparison: slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
|Land Boundaries:
|total: 2,123 km border countries (4): Burkina Faso 386 km, Niger 277 km, Nigeria 809 km, Togo 651 km
|121 km
|Maritime claims:
|territorial sea: 200 nm
|tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
|mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
|Elevation extremes:
|Natural resources:
|small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
|Land use:
| agricultural land: 31.3% arable land 22.9%; permanent crops 3.5%; permanent pasture 4.9% forest: 40%
other: 28.7% (2011 est.)
|Irrigated land:
|230 sq km (2012)
|Natural hazards:
|hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north from December to March
|Current Environment Issues:
|inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
|International Environment Agreements:
| party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
|^Back to Top
| noun: Beninese (singular and plural)
adjective: Beninese
|Ethnic groups:
|Fon and related 38.4%, Adja and related 15.1%, Yoruba and related 12%, Bariba and related 9.6%, Fulani and related 8.6%, Ottamari and related 6.1%, Yoa-Lokpa and related 4.3%, Dendi and related 2.9%, other 0.9%, foreigner 1.9% (2013 est.)
|French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
|Muslim 27.7%, Catholic 25.5%, Protestant 13.5% (Celestial 6.7%, Methodist 3.4%, other Protestant 3.4%), Vodoun 11.6%, other Christian 9.5%, other traditional religions 2.6%, other 2.6%, none 5.8% (2013 est.)
|10,741,458 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2016 est.)
|Age structure:
| 0-14 years: 43.04% (male 2,358,838/female 2,264,204)
15-24 years: 20.32% (male 1,110,607/female 1,072,196)
25-54 years: 30.24% (male 1,641,547/female 1,606,185)
55-64 years: 3.56% (male 165,496/female 217,192)
65 years and over: 2.84% (male 120,629/female 184,564) (2016 est.)
|Dependency ratios:
| total dependency ratio: 82%
youth dependency ratio: 76.7%
elderly dependency ratio: 5.3%
potential support ratio: 19% (2015 est.)
|Median age:
| total: 18 years
male: 17.7 years
female: 18.4 years (2016 est.)
|Population growth rate:
|2.75% (2016 est.)
|Birth rate:
|35.5 births/1,000 population (2016 est.)
|Death rate:
|8 deaths/1,000 population (2016 est.)
|Net migration rate:
|0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2016 est.)
| urban population: 44% of total population (2015)
rate of urbanization: 3.67% annual rate of change (2010-15 est.)
|Major urban areas - population:
|PORTO-NOVO (capital) 268,000 (2014); COTONOU (seat of government) 682,000; Abomey-Calavi 757,000 (2015)
|Sex ratio:
| at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
25-54 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
55-64 years: 0.76 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.66 male(s)/female
total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2016 est.)
|Mother's mean age at first birth:
|20.3 note: median age at first birth among women 25-29 (2011/12 est.)
|Maternal mortality rate:
|405 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)
|Infant mortality rate:
| total: 54.2 deaths/1,000 live births male: 57.3 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 51 deaths/1,000 live births (2016 est.)
|Life expectancy at birth:
| total population: 61.9 years male: 60.5 years
female: 63.3 years (2016 est.)
|Total fertility rate:
|4.86 children born/woman (2016 est.)
|Contraceptive prevalence rate:
|12.9% (2011/12)
|Health expenditures:
|4.6% of GDP (2014)
|Physicians density:
|0.06 physicians/1,000 population (2008)
|Hospital bed density:
|0.5 beds/1,000 population (2010)
|Drinking water source:
| improved:
urban: 85.2% of population
rural: 72.1% of population
total: 77.9% of population
urban: 14.8% of population
rural: 27.9% of population
total: 22.1% of population (2015 est.)
|Sanitation facility access:
| improved:
urban: 35.6% of population
rural: 7.3% of population
total: 19.7% of population
urban: 64.4% of population
rural: 92.7% of population
total: 80.3% of population (2015 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
|1.06% (2015 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
|69,100 (2015 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - deaths:
|2,800 (2015 est.)
|Obesity - adult prevalence rate:
|8.1% (2014)
|Children under the age of 5 years underweight:
|18% (2014)
|Education expenditures:
|4.3% of GDP (2014)
| definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 38.4%
male: 49.9%
female: 27.3% (2015 est.)
|School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):
| total: 12 years male: 14 years
female: 11 years (2013)
|Unemployment, youth ages 15-24:
| total: 2.4% male: 1.5%
female: 3.1% (2010 est.)
|^Back to Top
|Country name:
| conventional long form: Republic of Benin
conventional short form: Benin
local long form: Republique du Benin
local short form: Benin
former: Dahomey
etymology: named for the Bight of Benin, the body of water on which the country lies
|Government type:
|presidential republic
| name: Porto-Novo (official capital); note - Cotonou (seat of government)
geographic coordinates: 6 29 N, 2 37 E
time difference: UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
|Administrative divisions:
|12 departments; Alibori, Atacora, Atlantique, Borgou, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, Mono, Oueme, Plateau, Zou
|1 August 1960 (from France)
|National holiday:
|National Day, 1 August (1960)
|previous 1946, 1958 (preindependence); latest adopted by referendum 2 December 1990, promulgated 11 December 1990 (2016)
|Legal system:
|civil law system modeled largely on the French system and some customary law
|18 years of age; universal
|Executive branch:
| chief of state: President Patrice TALON (since 6 April 2016); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Patrice TALON (since 6 April 2016); Prime Minister (vacant)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); last held on 6 March and 20 March 2016 (next to be held in 2021)
election results: Patrice TALON elected president; first round percent of vote - Lionel ZINSOU (FCBE) 28.4%, Patrice TALON (independent) 24.8%, Sebastien AJAVON (independent) 23.0%, Abdoulaye Bio TCHANE (ABT) 8.8%, Pascal KOUPAKI (NC) 5.9%, other 9.1%; second round percent of vote - Patrice TALON 65.4%, Lionel ZINSOU 34.6%
|Legislative branch:
| description: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by proportional representation vote; members serve 4-year terms)
elections: last held on 26 April 2015 (next to be held in April 2019)
election results: percent of vote by party - FCBE 30.2%, UN 14.4%, PRD 10.6%, AND 7.6%, RB-RP 7.1%, other 30.1%; seats by party - FCBE 33, UN 13, PRD 10, AND 5, RB-RP 7, other 15
|Judicial branch:
| highest court(s): Supreme Court or Cour Supreme (consists of the court president and 3 chamber presidents organized into an administrative division, judicial chamber, and chamber of accounts); Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle (consists of 7 members including the court president); High Court of Justice (consists of the Constitutional Court members, 6 members appointed by the National Assembly, and the Supreme Court president); note - jurisdiction of the High Court of Justice is limited to cases of high treason by the national president or members of the government while in office judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court president and judges appointed by the national president upon the advice of the National Assembly; judges appointed for single renewable 5-year terms; Constitutional Court members - 4 appointed by the National Assembly and 3 by the national president; members appointed for single renewable 5-year terms; High Court of Justice "other" members elected by the National Assembly; member tenure NA
subordinate courts: Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; district courts; village courts; Assize courts
|Political parties and leaders:
|Alliance for a Triumphant Benin or ABT [Abdoulaye BIO TCHANE] African Movement for Development and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN] Benin Renaissance or RB [Lehady SOGLO] Cowrie Force for an Emerging Benin or FCBE [Yayi BONI] Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI] New Consciousness Rally or NC [Pascal KOUPAKI] Patriotic Awakening or RP [Janvier YAHOUEDEOU] Social Democrat Party or PSD [Emmanuel GOLOU] Sun Alliance or AS [Sacca LAFIA] Union Makes the Nation or UN [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI] (alliance superceded Alliance for Dynamic Democracy or ADD) United Democratic Forces or FDU [Mathurin NAGO] note: approximately 20 additional minor parties
|Political pressure groups and leaders:
|other: economic groups; environmentalists; political groups; teachers' unions and other educational groups
|International organization participation:
|ACP, AfDB, AU, CD, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, MINUSMA, MONUSCO, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
|National symbol(s):
|leopard; national colors: green, yellow, red
|National anthem:
| name: "L'Aube Nouvelle" (The Dawn of a New Day)
lyrics/music: Gilbert Jean DAGNON
note: adopted 1960
|Diplomatic representation in the US:
| chief of mission: Ambassador Omar AROUNA (since 21 May 2014)
chancery: 2124 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656
|Diplomatic representation from the US:
| chief of mission: Ambassador Lucy TAMLYN (since 8 November 2015)
embassy: Caporal Bernard Anani, 01 BP 2012, Cotonou
mailing address: 01 B. P. 2012, Cotonou
telephone: [229] 21-30-06-50
|^Back to Top
The free market economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Cotton is a key export commodity; high prices supported export earnings. Growth in real output has averaged 6.5% since 2014. Inflation has subsided and remained 1% over the past several years. An insufficient electrical supply continues to hamper Benin's economic growth though the government recently has taken steps to increase domestic power production. Private foreign direct investment is small, and foreign aid accounts for the majority of investment in infrastructure projects. Benin's 2001 privatization policy continues in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture. Benin has appealed for international assistance to mitigate piracy against commercial shipping in its territory. Though security remains a problem, the Port of Cotonou has made progress towards implementing the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code in an effort to remain competitive. Projects included in Benin's $307 million Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) compact (2006-2011) were designed to increase investment and private sector activity by improving key institutional and physical infrastructure. The four projects focused on access to land, access to financial services, access to justice, and access to markets (including modernization of the port). The Port of Cotonou is the largest component of Benin's economy with revenues projected to account for more than 40% of Benin's national budget. Realizing its economic potential requires further efforts to infrastructure upgrades, stemming corruption, and expanding access to foreign markets in Nigeria and neighboring landlocked countries. In September 2015, Benin signed a MCC second Compact for $375 million that is designed to strengthen the national utility service provider, attract private sector investment, fund infrastructure investments in electricity generation and distribution, and develop off-grid electrification for poor and unserved households. In order to raise growth, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, encourage new information and communication technology, and establish Independent Power Producers (IPP).
|GDP (purchasing power parity):
| GDP (purchasing power parity): $24.31 billion (2016 est.) $23.24 billion (2015 est.) $22.14 billion (2014 est.)
note: data are in 2016 dollars
|GDP (official exchange rate):
|GDP (official exchange rate): $8.93 billion (2015 est.)
|GDP - real growth rate:
|4.6% (2016 est.) 5% (2015 est.) 6.5% (2014 est.)
|GDP - per capita (PPP):
| GDP - per capita (PPP): $2,200 (2016 est.) $2,100 (2015 est.) $2,100 (2014 est.)
note: data are in 2016 dollars
|Gross national saving:
|16.3% of GDP (2016 est.) 16.7% of GDP (2015 est.) 16.3% of GDP (2014 est.)
|GDP - composition, by end use:
| household consumption: 68%
government consumption: 14.2%
investment in fixed capital: 26.3%
investment in inventories: 0.5%
exports of goods and services: 24.3%
imports of goods and services: -33.3% (2016 est.)
|GDP - composition, by sector of origin:
| household consumption: 68%
government consumption: 14.2%
investment in fixed capital: 26.3%
investment in inventories: 0.5%
exports of goods and services: 24.3%
imports of goods and services: -33.3% (2016 est.)
|Agriculture - products:
|cotton, corn, cassava (manioc, tapioca), yams, beans, palm oil, peanuts, cashews; livestock
|textiles, food processing, construction materials, cement
|Industrial production growth rate:
|4.2% (2016 est.)
|Labor force:
|3.662 million (2007 est.)
|Unemployment rate:
|Population below poverty line:
|37.4% (2007 est.)
|Household income or consumption by percentage share:
| lowest 10%: 3.1%
highest 10%: 29% (2003)
|Distribution of family income - Gini index:
|36.5 (2003)
| revenues: $1.5 billion
expenditures: $1.939 billion (2016 est.)
|Taxes and other revenues:
|16.8% of GDP (2016 est.)
|Public debt:
|40.2% of GDP (2016 est.) 37.4% of GDP (2015 est.)
|Fiscal year:
|calendar year
|Inflation rate (consumer prices):
|Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (2016 est.) 0.3% (2015 est.)
|Current account balance:
|-$892 million (2016 est.) -$893 million (2015 est.)
|$1.713 billion (2016 est.) $1.841 billion (2015 est.)
|Exports - commodities:
|cotton, cashews, shea butter, textiles, palm products, seafood
|Exports - partners:
|India 24.2%, Gabon 14.6%, China 7.2%, Niger 6%, Bangladesh 5%, Nigeria 4.9%, Vietnam 4.2% (2015)
|$2.591 billion (2016 est.) $2.727 billion (2015 est.)
|Imports - commodities:
|foodstuffs, capital goods, petroleum products
|Imports - partners:
|China 42.1%, US 8.9%, India 5.7%, Malaysia 4.8%, Thailand 4.3%, France 4% (2015)
|Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
|$645.5 million (31 December 2016 est.) $731.6 million (31 December 2015 est.)
|Debt - external:
|$2.34 billion (31 December 2016 est.) $2.115 billion (31 December 2015 est.)
|Market value of publicly traded shares:
|Exchange rates:
|Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (XOF) per US dollar - 605.7 (2016 est.) 591.45 (2015 est.) 591.45 (2014 est.) 494.42 (2013 est.) 510.53 (2012 est.)
|^Back to Top
|Electricity - production:
|200 million kWh (2014 est.)
|Electricity - consumption:
|1 billion kWh (2014 est.)
|Electricity - exports:
|0 kWh (2013 est.)
|Electricity - imports:
|1.1 billion kWh (2014 est.)
|Electricity - installed generating capacity:
|163,000 kW (2015 est.)
|Electricity - from fossil fuels:
|99.4% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
|Electricity - from nuclear fuels:
|0% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
|Electricity - from hydroelectric plants:
|0.6% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
|Electricity - from other renewable sources:
|0% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
|Crude oil - production:
|0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
|Crude oil - exports:
|0 bbl/day (2013 est.)
|Crude oil - imports:
|0 bbl/day (2013 est.)
|Crude oil - proved reserves:
|8 million bbl (1 January 2016 es)
|Refined petroleum products - production:
|0 bbl/day (2013 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - consumption:
|41,000 bbl/day (2014 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - exports:
|4,914 bbl/day (2013 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - imports:
|44,950 bbl/day (2013 est.)
|Natural gas - production:
|0 cu m (2013 est.)
|Natural gas - consumption:
|0 cu m (2013 est.)
|Natural gas - exports:
|0 cu m (2013 est.)
|Natural gas - imports:
|0 cu m (2013 est.)
|Natural gas - proved reserves:
|1.133 billion cu m (1 January 2016 es)
|Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy:
|5 million Mt (2013 est.)
|^Back to Top
|Cellular Phones in use:
|total: 9.318 million subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 89 (July 2015 est.)
|Telephone system:
| general assessment: inadequate system of open-wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections; fixed-line network characterized by aging, deteriorating equipment
domestic: fixed-line teledensity only about 2 per 100 persons; spurred by the presence of multiple mobile-cellular providers, cellular telephone subscribership has been increasing rapidly
international: country code - 229; landing point for the SAT-3/WASC fiber-optic submarine cable that provides connectivity to Europe and Asia; long distance fiber-optic links with Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria; satellite earth stations - 7 (Intelsat-Atlantic Oc (2015)
|Broadcast media:
|state-run Office de Radiodiffusion et de Television du Benin (ORTB) operates a TV station with multiple channels providing a wide broadcast reach; several privately owned TV stations broadcast from Cotonou; satellite TV subscription service is available; (2007)
|Internet country code:
|Internet users:
|total: 709,000 percent of population: 6.8% (July 2015 est.)
|^Back to Top
|6 (2013)
|Airports (paved runways):
| total 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2013)
|Airports (unpaved runways):
| total 5
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2013)
| total 438 km
narrow gauge: 438 km 1.000-m gauge (2014)
| total 16,000 km
paved: 1,400 km
unpaved: 14,600 km (2006)
|150 km (seasonal navigation on River Niger along northern border) (2011)
|Ports and terminals:
|major seaport(s): Cotonou LNG terminal(s) (import): Cotonou
|^Back to Top
|Military branches:
|Benin Armed Forces (Forces Armees Beninoises, FAB): Army (l'Arme de Terre), Benin Navy (Forces Navales Beninois, FNB), Benin Air Force (Force Aerienne du Benin, FAB) (2013)
|Military service age and obligation:
|18-35 years of age for selective compulsory and voluntary military service; a higher education diploma is required; both sexes are eligible for military service; conscript tour of duty - 18 months (2013)
|Military expenditures:
|1.03% of GDP (2012) NA% (2011) 1.03% of GDP (2010)
|^Back to Top
|Transnational Issues
|Disputes - International:
|talks continue between Benin and Togo on funding the Adjrala hydroelectric dam on the Mona River; Benin retains a border dispute with Burkina Faso near the town of Koualou; location of Benin-Niger-Nigeria tripoint is unresolved
|Illicit drugs:
|transshipment point used by traffickers for cocaine destined for Western Europe; vulnerable to money laundering due to poorly enforced financial regulations (2008)
|^Back to Top
« Previous Country | Next Country » Back to Flag Counter Overview
Source: CIA - The World Factbook


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Home>Products>Palm Fruit Processing Line>100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE
100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE
- Shandong,China (Mainland)
- Palm Fruit Processing Line
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Product Details
|Palm Oil
|Cold & Hot Pressing Machine
|Automatic Grade:
|Production Capacity:
|100TPD palm oil processing plant
|Place of Origin:
|Jinan, China (Mainland)
|Brand Name:
|Model Number:
|palm oil processing plant cost
|depend on capacity
|depend on capacity
|depend on capacity
|After-sales Service Provided:
|Overseas service center available
|palm oil processing plant cost
|palm oil processing plant
|Stainless steel
|Engineers request:
|1-2 engineers
|Oil Grade:
|Environment friendly:
|Business type:
|12 months
|oil processing plant
|oil rate:
Product Description
Shandong Leader Machinery Co.,Ltd. cold and hot amphibious screw oil press machine is a new research improvement product.Palm Fruit Processing Line is for oil extraction from oil-bearing materials,such as rapeseed,peanut,tea seed,soybean, sunflower seed,shea butter,palm kernel and so on.Equipped with micro-electrical control,infrared heating and filtration system,100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE can press oil through cold press and hot press. pour raw material to the machine,Shandong Leader Machinery Co.,Ltd. can get pure oil which can be eaten directly.100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE is very suitable for individual users.
The specificaitons of 100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE:
(1).Cleaning: Our vibration screen and destoner will Remove the raw material peanut in various impurities, such as: iron, stones, clump, such as the plant leaf, clean up after the raw material peanut impurity content should not exceed 0.2%.
(2).Crushing: Oil seed is crushed into 6-8 pieces. In order to meet the requirements of crushing, the peanut is suitable for crushing with the moisture of 7% to 12%.
(3). Softening: The purpose of softening is to adjust the moisture and temperature of oil, and make it soft.
(4).flaking process: Rolling raw material into flakes, and the purpose is to increae surface area, destroy the peanut cell tissue, shorten the way of oil out from cake.
(5).Drying: Adjust moisture of rice bran to meet the requirement of going to extraction process.
(6).cooking process: use steam cooking, inject direct steam and cook the flakes to meet the requirement of oil press.
100 TPD hot sale products palm oil processing plant cost with ISO9001:2000,BV,CE
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palm oil process
1) Compact and strong structure, and easy operation.
2) The automatic control system which can adjust barrel pressure.
3) High oil pressing efficiency, and residual oil in cake is less than 8%.
4) Low crushing efficiency for palm nut.
Process for palm oil processing plant cost:
Equipments which directly related to the palm fruit oil process (from fresh fruit to final products) are divided into six systems as follows:
1.Fruit reception system of palm oil machine
1.1 Use truck to transport the ripe and fresh palm fruits from fruit ranch, weigh up them by platform scale and record, and then pour them into the discharging table.
1.2 Start control valve to open the discharging table, then fruit drop in the fruit basket car freely.
1.3 Drag the fruit basket car which loaded with fresh palm fruits to the downward of the bridge crane by power cable tray and cable tray, then use bridge crane to sling the fruit basket car to the track lead to sterilizer sterilizing tank.
2. Sterilizer system of palm oil machine
2.1 After drag the fruit basket car into the sterilizer sterilizing tank, close the sterilizer sterilizing tank and open the vent valve below it. Then inlet saturated vapor, close the vent valve after the cold air in the tank was excluded generally, and enter into the period of steaming and sterilizing.
2.2 Close the inlet valve after the sterilizing process. Drain out the water and vapor in tank, then you can open the door of the sterilizer sterilizing tank.
2.3 Drag the cooked fruit basket car to the downward of the beige crane.
3.Threshing system of palm oil process
3.1 Pour the sterilized fruit in the fruit basket car into the unloading equipment.
3.2 Feed the fruit regularly into the fruit-separating machine to separate.
3.3 After twisting and beating in the fruit-separating machine, the fruits will fall off entirely.
4. Pressing system of palm oil machine
4.1 Palm fruit was transported to crasher by elevator.
4.2 Fruit was heated in crasher.
4.3 After sterilizing, the broken palm fruit flow into the palm oil press machine to pressing. Oil and water mixture outflow from pressing chamber shell hole, in the same time, the fiber cake and core was discharged from bonehead clearance and then drop in the packing anger of broken cake.
5. Fiber, cake, shell and kernel separation system of palm oil process
5.1 Fiber cake was dropped into packing auger, use interrupted blade to break up the palm cake, evaporate the palm cake constantly during the transportation, and the enter into the fiber and core separation machine. Use induced draft system which compose of draught fan and wind net to transport fiber to boiler room to burn. Palm core of large proportion drops into the bucket elevator from the other side of the fiber and core separating machine and then to transport to the core charging bucket to dry.
5.2 Open the discharging hole which is at the bottom of the core chafing bucket, then palm core drop into husking machine to husk.
5.3 Use shell kernel separator to separate the shell and kernel mixture after husking.
5.4 Kernel are charged into kernel-holding tank and shell are transported to boiler room to burn.
6.Clarification system of palm oil machine
6.1 Use vibrated sifting filter to remove residues like fiber in the crude palm oil, then the oil enter into the passivating tank.
6.2 There are indirect and direct steam in the passivating tank. After passivation, palm oil and water mixture are banished to the high-order position tank and then flow into the clarification tank.
6.3 Clarified oil flow into the oil tank, use disc separator to remove water in oil and then use plate heat exchanger to eliminate the residual water completely.
6.4 After vacuum drying, the oil flow into net oil tank and then feed into the final-product oil tank directly
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text:
Sup folks, I have a rather unorganized homework assignment which consists of creating a program which stores the users initial balances and maintains their checking account.
The assignment template:
Write a class with methods to help you balance your checking account(an object class-main method is not in this class). The CheckingAccount Class should have at least two instance variables: the balance and the total service charges, along with methods to get and set each instance variables. You may add other variables and methods if you like. The program should read the initial balance for the month, followed by a series of transactions. For each transaction entered, the program should display the transaction data, the current balance for the account, and the total service charges. Service charges are $0.10 for a deposit and $0.15 for a check. If the balance drops below $500.00 at any point during the month, a service charge of $5.00 is assessed once for the month. Anytime the balance drops below $50.00, the program should print a warning message. If the balance becomes negative, an additional service charge of $10.00 should be assessed for each check until the balance becomes positive again. A transaction takes the form of an int number, followed by a double number. If the int number is a 1, then the double number is the amount of a check. If the int number is 2, then the double number is the amount of a deposit. The last transaction is 0 with no number to follow it.
A sample Input/Output dialogue might look like this: (Use the JOptionPane for the dialog)
I Enter your initial balance: 879.46
O Initial balance : $879.46
I Enter trans code:1
I Enter trans amt: 400.00
O Transaction : Check in amount of $400.00
Current Balance : $479.46
Service charge : Check --- charge $0.15
Service charge : Below $500 --- charge $5.00
Total service charge : $5.15
I Enter trans code: 2
I Enter trans amt: 100
O Transaction : Deposit in amount of $100.00
Current Balance : $579.46
Service charge : Deposit --- charge $0.10
Total service charge : $5.25
I Enter trans code: 0
O Transaction : End
Current Balance : $579.46
Total service charge : $5.25
Final Balance : $574.21
Code template:
public class Main { //global variables: //define a CheckingAccount object to keep trach of the // account information. public static void main (String[] args) { // defines local variables // get initial balance from the user // perform in a loop until the trans code = 0 // get the trans code from the user and process it with appropriate helper method // When loop ends show final balance to user. } public static __________ getTransCode() { } public static _________ getTransAmt() { } public static __________ processCheck(___________) { } public static __________ processDeposit(___________) { } } --------------------CheckingAccount.java ------------------------- public class CheckingAccount { private double balance; private double totalServiceCharge; public CheckingAccount(double initialBalance) { balance = ______________________; totalServiceCharge = ______________; } public ____________ getBalance() { return _______________; } public void setBalance(double transAmt, int tCode) { if(tCode == 1) balance = ___________________; else //if(tCode == 2) balance = ______________________; } public ____________ getServiceCharge() { return totalServiceCharge; } public void setServiceCharge(double currentServiceCharge) { totalServiceCharge = ___________________________; } }
To define the checkingaccount object, I did:
public class Assignment1 { CheckingAccount info; double balance = 0; info = new CheckingAccount(balance); public static void main(String[] args) {
however an error comes up stating: identifier expected
My code currently consists of this:
import javax.swing.JOptionPane; public class Assignment1 { CheckingAccount info; double balance = 0; info = new CheckingAccount(balance); public static void main(String[] args) { String balance, transcode, transamount, input; double ibalance; int tcode; double tamount; do { balance = JOptionPane.showInputDialog ("Enter your initial balance: "); ibalance = Double.parseDouble(balance); transcode = JOptionPane.showInputDialog ("Enter your transaction" + " code:"); tcode = Integer.parseInt(transcode); if(tcode >= 1) { transamount = JOptionPane.showInputDialog ("Enter your trans amount:"); tamount = Double.parseDouble(transamount); public static int getTransCode() { int transcode; return transcode; } } public static _________ getTransAmt() { } public static __________ processCheck(___________) { } public static __________ processDeposit(___________) { } } }
With the last 4 methods given by my instructor, although I am not sure what they are used for. Would the getTrans method be only used to return the transaction value?
Also how would I proceed from here? After asking the user for the transaction amount, I have to post the users checking account as so:
This is the sample run code my professor has supplied, after asking the user for the transaction amount.
Transaction: Check in amount of $50.00
Current Balance: &450.00
Service Charge: Check --- charge $0.15
Service Charge: Below $4000 --- charge $5.00
Total Service Charge: $5.15
I understand how to post the transaction amount and the current balance, as the current balance would just be a simple calculation of initial balance - transaction amount.
I don't understand how to calculate the service charge, with all the parameters in place of, if the balance is below 500 you have to charge 5.00. I'm guessing this is done by using a nested if - else statement, however the sample code my professor provided includes nothing of that sort, just the checkingaccount.class