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Jenkins supports the "master/slave" mode, where the workload of building projects are delegated to multiple "slave" nodes, allowing a single Jenkins installation to host a large number of projects, or to provide different environments needed for builds/tests. This document describes this mode and how to use it.
How does this work?
A "master" operating by itself is the basic installation of Jenkins and in this configuration the master handles all tasks for your build system. In most cases installing a slave doesn't change the behavior of the master. It will serve all HTTP requests, and it can still build projects on its own. Once you install a few slaves you might find yourself removing the executors on the master in order to free up master resources (allowing it to concentrate resources on managing your build environment) but this is not a necessary step. If you start to use Jenkins a lot with just a master you will most likely find that you will run out of resources (memory, CPU, etc.). At this point you can either upgrade your master or you can setup slaves to pick up the load. As mentioned above you might also need several different environments to test your builds. In this case using a slave to represent each of your required environments is almost a must.
A slave is a computer that is set up to offload build projects to from the master and once setup this distribution of tasks is fairly automatic. The exact delegation behavior depends on the configuration of each project; some projects may choose to "stick" to a particular machine for a build, while others may choose to roam freely between slaves. For people accessing your Jenkins system via the integrated website (http://yourjenkinsmaster:8080), things work mostly transparently. You can still browse javadoc, see test results, download build results from a master, without ever noticing that builds were done by slaves. In other words, the master becomes a sort of "portal" to the entire build farm.
Since each slave runs a separate program called a "slave agent" there is no need to install the full Jenkins (package or compiled binaries) on a slave. There are various ways to start slave agents, but in the end the slave agent and Jenkins master needs to establish a bi-directional communication link (for example a TCP/IP socket.) in order to operate.
Follow the Step by step guide to set up master and slave machines to quickly start using distributed builds.
Different ways of starting slave agents
Pick the right method depending on your environment and OS that master/slaves run.
Have master launch slave agent via ssh
Jenkins has a built-in SSH client implementation that it can use to talk to remote sshd and start a slave agent. This is the most convenient and preferred method for Unix slaves, which normally has sshd out-of-the-box. Click Manage Jenkins, then Manage Nodes, then click "New Node." In this set up, you'll supply the connection information (the slave host name, user name, and ssh credential). Note that the slave will need the master's public ssh key copied to ~/.ssh/authorized_keys. (This is a decent howto if you need ssh help). Jenkins will do the rest of the work by itself, including copying the binary needed for a slave agent, and starting/stopping slaves. If your project has external dependencies (like a special ~/.m2/settings.xml, or a special version of java), you'll need to set that up yourself, though.
This is the most convenient set up on Unix. However, if your are on Windows and you don't have ssh commands with cygwin for example, you can use a tool like PuTTY and PuTTYgen to generate your private and public pair of keys.
For connecting to Windows slaves through cygwin sshd, see SSH slaves and Cygwin for more details.
Have master launch slave agent on Windows
For Windows slaves, Jenkins can use the remote management facility built into Windows 2000 or later (WMI+DCOM, to be more specific.) In this set up, you'll supply the username and the password of the user who has the administrative access to the system, and Jenkins will use that remotely create a Windows service and remotely start/stop them.
This is the most convenient set up on Windows, but does not allow you to run programs that require display interaction (such as GUI tests).
Note : Unlike other Node's configuration type, the Node's name is very important as it is taken as the node's address where to create the service !
Write your own script to launch Jenkins slaves
If the above turn-key solutions do not provide flexibility necessary, you can write your own script to start a slave. You place this script on the master, and tell Jenkins to run this script whenever it needs to connect to a slave.
Typically, your script uses a remote program execution mechanism like SSH, or other similar means (on Windows, this could be done by the same protocols through cygwin or tools like psexec), but Jenkins doesn't really assume any specific method of connectivity.
What Jenkins expects from your script is that, in the end, it has to execute the slave agent program like
java -jar slave.jar, on the right computer, and have its stdin/stdout connect to your script's stdin/stdout. For example, a script that does "
java -jar ~/bin/slave.jar" would satisfy this.
(The point is that you let Jenkins run this command, as Jenkins uses this stdin/stdout as the communication channel to the slave agent. Because of this, running this manually from your shell will do you no good).
A copy of
slave.jar can be downloaded from
http://yourserver:port/jnlpJars/slave.jar . Many people write scripts in such a way that this 160K jar is downloaded during the running of said script, to ensure that a consistent version of
slave.jar is always used. Such an approach eliminates the slave.jar updating issue discussed below. Note that the SSH Slaves plugin does this automatically, so slaves configured using this plugin always use the correct
Updating slave.jar
Technically speaking, in this set up you should update
slave.jar every time you upgrade Jenkins to a new version. However, in practice
slave.jar changes infrequently enough that it's also practical not to update until you see a fatal problem in start-up.
Launching slaves this way often requires an additional initial set up on slaves (especially on Windows, where remote login mechanism is not available out of box), but the benefits of this approach is that when the connection goes bad, you can use Jenkins's web interface to re-establish the connection.
Launch slave agent via Java Web Start
Another way of doing this is to start a slave agent through Java Web Start (JNLP). In this approach, you'll interactively logon to the slave node, open a browser, and open the slave page. You'll be then presented with the JNLP launch icon. Upon clicking it, Java Web Start will kick in, and it launches a slave agent on the computer where the browser was running.
This mode is convenient when the master cannot initiate a connection to slaves, such as when it runs outside a firewall while the rest of the slaves are in the firewall. OTOH, if the machine with a slave agent goes down, the master has no way of re-launching it on its own.
On Windows, you can do this manually once, then from the launched JNLP slave agent, you can install it as a Windows service so that you don't need to interactively start the slave from then on.
If you need display interaction (e.g. for GUI tests) on Windows and you have a dedicated (virtual) test machine, this is a suitable option. Create a jenkins user account, enable auto-login, and put a shortcut to the JNLP file in the Startup items (after having trusted the slave agent's certificate). This allows one to run tests as a restricted user as well.
Launch slave agent headlessly
This launch mode uses a mechanism very similar to Java Web Start, except that it runs without using GUI, making it convenient for an execution as a daemon on Unix. To do this, configure this slave to be a JNLP slave, take
slave.jar as discussed above, and then from the slave, run a command like this:
$ java -jar slave.jar -jnlpUrl http://yourserver:port/computer/slave-name/slave-agent.jnlp
Make sure to replace "slave-name" with the name of your slave.
Other Requirements
Also note that the slaves are a kind of a cluster, and operating a cluster (especially a large one or heterogeneous one) is always a non-trivial task. For example, you need to make sure that all slaves have JDKs, Ant, CVS, and/or any other tools you need for builds. You need to make sure that slaves are up and running, etc. Jenkins is not a clustering middleware, and therefore it doesn't make this any easier. Nevertheless, one can use a server provisioning tool and a configuration management software to facilitate both aspects.
Example: Configuration on Unix
This section describes Kohsuke Kawaguchi's set up of Jenkins slaves that he used to use inside Sun for his day job. His master Jenkins node ran on a SPARC Solaris box, and he had many SPARC Solaris slaves, Opteron Linux slaves, and a few Windows slaves.
- Each computer has an user called
jenkinsand a group called
jenkins. All computers use the same UID and GID. (If you have access to NIS, this can be done more easily.) This is not a Jenkins requirement, but it makes the slave management easier.
- On each computer,
/var/jenkinsdirectory is set as the home directory of user
jenkins. Again, this is not a hard requirement, but having the same directory layout makes things easier to maintain.
- All machines run
sshd. Windows slaves run
cygwin sshd.
- All machines have
/usr/sbin/ntpdateinstalled, and synchronize clock regularly with the same NTP server.
- Master's
/var/jenkinshave all the build tools beneath it --- a few versions of Ant, Maven, and JDKs. JDKs are native programs, so I have JDK copies for all the architectures I need. The directory structure looks like this:
/var/jenkins +- .ssh +- bin | +- slave (more about this below) +- workspace (jenkins creates this file and store all data files inside) +- tools +- ant-1.5 +- ant-1.6 +- maven-1.0.2 +- maven-2.0 +- java-1.4 -> native/java-1.4 (symlink) +- java-1.5 -> native/java-1.5 (symlink) +- native -> solaris-sparcv9 (symlink; different on each computer) +- solaris-sparcv9 | +- java-1.4 | +- java-1.5 +- linux-amd64 +- java-1.4 +- java-1.5
- Master's
/var/jenkins/.sshhas private/public key and
authorized_keysso that a master can execute programs on slaves through
ssh, by using public key authentication.
- On master, I have a little shell script that uses rsync to synchronize master's
/var/jenkinsto slaves (except
/var/jenkins/workspace). I also use the script to replicate tools on all slaves.
/var/jenkins/bin/launch-slaveis a shell script that Jenkins uses to execute jobs remotely. This shell script sets up
PATHand a few other things before launching
slave.jar.Below is a very simple example script.
#!/bin/bash JAVA_HOME=/opt/SUN/jdk1.6.0_04 PATH=$PATH:$JAVA_HOME/bin export PATH java -jar /var/jenkins/bin/slave.jar
- Finally all computers have other standard build tools like
cvsinstalled and available in PATH.
Note that in the more recent Jenkins packages, the default JENKINS_HOME (aka home directory for the 'jenkins' user on Linux machines, e.g. Red Hat, CentOS, Ubuntu) is set to /var/lib/jenkins.
Scheduling strategy
Some slaves are faster, while others are slow. Some slaves are closer (network wise) to a master, others are far away. So doing a good build distribution is a challenge. Currently, Jenkins employs the following strategy:
- If a project is configured to stick to one computer, that's always honored.
- Jenkins tries to build a project on the same computer that it was previously built.
- Jenkins tries to move long builds to slaves, because the amount of network interaction between a master and a slave tends to be logarithmic to the duration of a build (IOW, even if project A takes twice as long to build as project B, it won't require double network transfer.) So this strategy reduces the network overhead.
If you have interesting ideas (or better yet, implementations), please let me know.
Node monitoring
Jenkins has a notion of a "node monitor" which can check the status of a slave for various conditions, displaying the results and optionally marking the slave offline accordingly. Jenkins bundles several, checking disk space in the workspace; disk space in the temporary partition; swap space; clock skew (compared to the master); and response time.
Plugins can add other monitors.
Offline status and retention strategy
Administrators can manually mark slaves offline (with an optional published reason) or reconnect them.
Groovy scripts such as Monitor and Restart Offline Slaves can perform batch operations like this. There is also a CLI command to reconnect.
Then there is a background task which automatically reconnects slaves that are thought to be back up. The behavior is configurable per slave (or per cloud, if using cloudy provisioning for slaves) via a "retention strategy", of which Jenkins bundles several (plugins can contribute others): always keep online if possible; drop offline when not in use; use a schedule; behave according to cloud's notion of load.
Transition from master-only to master/slave
Typically, you start with a master-only installation and then much later you add slaves as your projects grow. When you enable the master/slave mode, Jenkins automatically configures all your existing projects to stick to the master node. This is a precaution to avoid disturbing existing projects, since most likely you won't be able to configure slaves correctly without trial and error. After you configure slaves successfully, you need to individually configure projects to let them roam freely. This is tedious, but it allows you to work on one project at a time.
Projects that are newly created on master/slave-enabled Jenkins will be by default configured to roam freely.
Access an Internal CI Build Farm (Master + Slaves) from the Public Internet
One might consider make the Jenkins master accessible on the public network (so that people can see it), while leaving the build slaves within the firewall (typical reasons: cost and security) There are several ways to make it work:
- Equip the master node with a network interface that's exposed to the public Internet (simple to do, but not recommended in general)
- Allow port-forwarding from the master to your slaves within the firewall. The port-forwarding should be restricted so that only the master with its known IP can connect to slaves. With this set up in the firewall, as far as Jenkins is concerned it's as if the firewall doesn't exist. If multiple hops are involved, you may wish to investigate how to do ssh "jump host" transparently using the ProxyCommand construct. In fact, with a properly configured "jump host" setup, even the master doesn't need to expose itself to the public Internet at all - as long as the organization's firewall allows port 22 traffic.
- Use JNLP slaves and have slaves connect to the master, not the other way around. In this case it's the slaves that initiates the connection, so it works correctly with the NAT firewall.
Note that in both cases, once the master is compromised, all your slaves can be easily compromised (IOW, malicious master can execute arbitrary program on slaves), so both set-up leaves much to be desired in terms of isolating security breach. Build publisher plugin provides another way of doing this, in more secure fashion.
Running Multiple Slaves on the Same Machine
Using a well established virtualization infrastructure such as Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM), it is quite easy to run multiple slave instances on a single physical node. Such instances can be running various Linux, *BSD UNIX, Solaris, Windows. For Windows, one can have them installed as separate Windows services so they can start up on system startup. While the correct use of executors largely obviates the need for multiple slave instances on the same machine, there are some unique use cases to consider:
- You want more configurability between the configured nodes. Say you have one node set to be used as much as possible, and the other node to be used only when needed.
- You may have multiple Jenkins master installations building different things, and so this configuration would allow you to have slaves for more than one master on the same box. That's right, with Jenkins you really can serve two masters.
- You may wish to leverage the easiness of starting/stopping/replacing virtual machines, perhaps in conjunction with Jenkins plugins such as the Libvirt Slaves Plugin.
- You wish to maximize your hardware investment and utilization, at the same time minimizing operating cost (e.g. utility expenses for running idling slaves).
Follow these steps to get multiple slaves working on the same Windows box:
- Add the first slave node in Jenkins and give it its own working dir (e.g. jenkins-slave-a).
- Go to the slave page from the slave box and launch by JNLP, then use the menu to install it as a service instead.
- Once the service is running, you'll get jenkins-slave.exe and jenkins-slave.xml in your slave's work dir.
- Bring up windows services and stop the Jenkins Slave service.
- Open a shell prompt, cd into the slave work dir.
- First run "jenkins-slave.exe uninstall" to uninstall the one that the jnlp-launched app installed. This should remove it from the service list.
- Now edit jenkins-slave.xml. Modify the id and name values so that your multiple slaves are distinct. I called mine jenkins-slave-a and Jenkins Slave A.
- Run jenkins-slave.exe install and then check the Windows service list to ensure it is there. Start it up, and watch Jenkins to see if the slave instance becomes active.
- Now repeat this process for a second slave, beginning with configuring the new node in the master config.
When you go to create the second node, it is nice to be able to copy an existing node, and copy the first node you setup. Then you just tweak the Remote FS Root and a couple other settings to make it distinct. When you are done you should have two (or more) Jenkins slave services in the list of Windows services.
Troubleshooting tips
Some interesting pages on issues (and resolutions) occurring when using Windows slaves:
- Windows slaves fail to start via DCOM
- Windows slaves fail to start via ssh
- Windows slaves fail to start via JNLP
Some more general troubleshooting tips:
- Every time Jenkins launches a program locally/remotely, it prints out the command line to the log file. So when a remote execution fails, login to the computer that runs the master by using the same user account, and try to run the command from your shell. You tend to solve problems quickly in this way.
- Each slave has a log page showing the communication between the master and the slave agent. This log often shows error reports.
- If you use binary-unsafe remoting mechanism like telnet to launch a slave, add the
-textoption to
slave.jarso that Jenkins avoids sending binary data over the network.
- When the same command runs outside Jenkins just fine, make sure you are testing it with the same user account as Jenkins runs under. In particular, if you run Jenkins master on Windows, consult How to get command prompt as the SYSTEM user.
- Feel free to send your trouble to
one of our mailing lists|http://jenkins-ci.org/content/mailing-lists
Other readings
- Jenkins Build Farm Experience Volume I, Volume 2, Volume 3 and Volume 4
- HudsonWindowsSlavesSetup


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Diamonds Are A Girl's Best Friend ... and10k White Gold Diamond Twist Ring
a man's worst enemy!
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Round and baguette diamonds display eye-catching sparkle in this beautiful twist knot ring.
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Diamond Clarity:
No two diamonds are alike. A diamond's most distinguishing characteristics are its inclusions, marks that are often invisible to the naked eye. However, under a jeweler's magnifying loupe or microscope they can look like crystals, tiny rivers, or clouds. A diamond's clarity is determined by the presence or absence of inclusions - fewer inclusions mean better clarity - and how visible they are. The greater a diamond's clarity, the greater its brilliance and value. A diamond categorized as internally flawless will have no inclusions, but this is extremely rare.
No two diamonds are alike. A diamond's most distinguishing characteristics are its inclusions, marks that are often invisible to the naked eye. However, under a jeweler's magnifying loupe or microscope they can look like crystals, tiny rivers, or clouds. A diamond's clarity is determined by the presence or absence of inclusions - fewer inclusions mean better clarity - and how visible they are. The greater a diamond's clarity, the greater its brilliance and value. A diamond categorized as internally flawless will have no inclusions, but this is extremely rare.
Diamond Color:
Though diamonds come in a wide range of colors, colorless diamonds have traditionally been considered the most valuable. Most diamonds are graded on a scale using the letters of the alphabet, from D (colorless), the best grade, through Z (a light yellow). It is difficult for the untrained eye to notice such variations in color unless stones are being compared side by side.
Diamond Carat Weight:
A diamond's weight is measured in carats, with one carat being equivalent to 100 points. You will often see a diamond referred to as a 3/4-carat stone or a 75-point diamond. Larger stones are often more highly valued, but size should not be the only consideration - high brilliance, which varies according to clarity, cut, and color grade, is highly desirable in a diamond.
Though diamonds come in a wide range of colors, colorless diamonds have traditionally been considered the most valuable. Most diamonds are graded on a scale using the letters of the alphabet, from D (colorless), the best grade, through Z (a light yellow). It is difficult for the untrained eye to notice such variations in color unless stones are being compared side by side.
Diamond Carat Weight:
A diamond's weight is measured in carats, with one carat being equivalent to 100 points. You will often see a diamond referred to as a 3/4-carat stone or a 75-point diamond. Larger stones are often more highly valued, but size should not be the only consideration - high brilliance, which varies according to clarity, cut, and color grade, is highly desirable in a diamond.
10K Gold by Madison Avenue Collection made with Swarovski Elements Pear Shape RD Pendant Necklace
Sterling Silver Diamond Oval Mother and Child Pendant Necklace
Celebrate the bonds of motherhood with this touching mother and child pendant, whose diamond accents within sterling silver make this a timeless gift.
This heart-shaped pendant reveals a whimsical design with its angel wings and yellow gold halo accents.
The heart is embellished with prong-set white diamonds; their sparkle of which is emphasized by the mixed yellow gold and sterling silver metals on the pendant.
The heart is embellished with prong-set white diamonds; their sparkle of which is emphasized by the mixed yellow gold and sterling silver metals on the pendant.
History of Birthstones
Chances are you can name your birthstone, but have you ever wondered how certain stones came to be associated with particular months? Most gem scholars trace the tradition to the Old Testament story of Aaron, whose breastplate was decorated with twelve precious stones, one for each of the twelve tribes of Israel. Over time, these stones were linked with certain powers and tied to particular astrological signs, and later to calendar months.
There are many variations of birthstone lists, including Mystical birthstones, which originate from Tibet and date back over a thousand years, and Ayurvedic birthstones, associated with ancient Indian medicine and beliefs. Birthstones have also been tied to ancient Pagan religions, and even to the collective wisdom of the legendary lost city of Atlantis.
The Modern birthstone list, perhaps the most universally known, was released by the American National Association of Jewelers and officially adopted in 1912. Whether you embrace birthstone lore, or look upon it with a skeptical eye, there is an undeniable appeal to collecting a beautiful gemstone that is reputed to hold special power, meaning, and good fortune just for you.
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Sterling Silver, 14k Yellow Gold, Diamond, and Swiss Blue Topaz Ring
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December Birthstone: Blue Topaz
Blue topaz is prized for its soothing and captivating blue color, which is usually divided into three categories: sky blue for the palest shade, Swiss blue for the more saturated medium shade, and London blue for the deepest shade. Also known as an artist's stone, blue topaz is reputed to inspire creativity and enhance concentration.
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Beautiful Intense Deep Blue color Topaz set in Strawberry Gold in combination with Chocolate and Vanilla Diamonds make this ring simply stunning!
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Chocolate and White Diamonds 1 3/4 cttw Gladiator Criss Cross Cocktail Ring 14K Rose Gold
Creating a dazzling impression is as simple as black and white.
pave heart pendant is fashioned in 10 karat white gold, and paved all-over with black diamonds.
Two white diamond pave hearts add a striking contrast.
There are 160 round diamonds altogether in this elegant pendant, for a total combined diamond weight of 1 1/2 carats.
The pendant comes complete with an 18-inch chain.
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Sterling Silver Black and White Diamond Angel Wing Pendant Necklace
Stylish, not too expensive.
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After spending all that money on your precious stones, and now are too busy showing off all your bling, here is a quick and easy cheaper solution to keep the sparkle alive
Diamond Dazzle Stik - Bring out the Bling
The Diamond Dazzle Stik uses a premium twist-to-dispense click pen to deliver a specialized cleansing solution to a flow-thru brush. The unique brush has been specifically engineered for ease of cleaning behind diamonds and other precious stones and their mountings. The high performance formula contains micro-fine cleansers and polishing agents combined with a polymer. The polymer fills in fine scratches on the setting, dramatically increases the brilliance and sparkle of the diamond, and reduces the future build-up of dirt. It also serves as a soothing emollient that is gentle on skin. With regular use, the Diamond Dazzle Stik will improve the overall appearance of your diamond jewelry. It's simple and easy to use, just twist, brush and dazzle.
Body chain jewelry is one of the hottest trends for celebrities currently, so get the celebrity look and make a statement
This body chain necklace features draping layers of gold chains that will truly make you the center of attention.
variety of body chains, Finger Ring Hand Chain Bracelets, chain-Shoulder Necklace jewelry here
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5 Row Chain Anklet
Looks great worn backwards when I wear heelless
Makes a great stocking stuffer and gift for friends and relatives
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18k Yellow Gold Plated Sterling Silver Multi-Gemstone and Diamond Hoop Earrings
Gold Purity
The purity of gold is measured in karats. Pure gold measures 24 karats but is too soft in this state to be used effectively in jewelry. So it is alloyed with other metals--silver, copper, nickel, and zinc--to increase its strength and durability. Common measurements once the alloy is added are 18 karat (75% gold), 14 karat (58%), and 10 karat (47.7%). In the United States, the legal karat limit for the metal to still be considered gold is 10 karats. A higher karat measurement in gold content indicates a greater value of the jewelry piece. Gold jewelry should always be stamped with the karat mark, either 18k, 750 (European marking for 18k), 14k, 585 (European marking for 14k), or 10k. In addition, to assure its quality, the piece should be stamped with the manufacturer's trademark or country of origin.
Gold Color
The color of gold may vary based off of the type of metal alloy included and the percentage of the metal alloy used. Most commonly, gold is available in yellow, white and rose coloring.
Yellow gold is the most common color and is usually alloyed with silver and copper. Yellow and white gold are similar in strength and malleability, making them perfect for jewelry that is worn daily.
White gold is alloyed with nickel, copper, and zinc--and while it looks similar to platinum, it has vastly different properties.
Rose-colored gold is alloyed with copper and is often used to accent white or yellow gold. The saturation of color varies from piece to piece and according to gold content.
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Men's 10k Yellow Gold Diamond Poker Rings
Deal yourself a winning hand with this handsome diamond poker ring, made from 10 karat yellow gold. The stepped design displays a fan of five consecutive cards, beginning with the ten of diamonds and ending with the ace.
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If you are on the 'cuff' (yes, pun intended) about buying cuff links for your Superman .....
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Harry Potter Cuff links
Harry Potter went from the loneliest boy in the world to Hogwarts legend in the course of the famous novels. Today he is everyone's favorite boy wizard and loved by so many fans worldwide. These awesome cufflinks are great for any fan of the series
Golf Cuff Links
Looking for a clever golf themed gift idea for the golfer in your life?
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Bling a ling gifts
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Handbags and more Bags
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Gift Shops
Hello Kitty stuff
Types of GemstonesNatural Gemstones
Gemstones that are created in nature. They are often treated to improve their color and appearance.
Created Gemstones
These gemstones are made with the same mineral composition as natural gemstones and are created in laboratories with equipment that simulates the high pressure in heat needed to create gemstones in nature.
Simulated Gemstones
Simulated gemstones are created in a laboratory but in most cases do not have the same mineral composition, color, hardness, and look as natural or lab-created gemstones.
Synthetic Gemstones
Gemstone imitations that copy the same look and color of the natural gemstones but do not have the same chemical or physical compositions.
Jewelers describe the color of a gemstone in terms of three characteristics: hue, saturation, and tone.
A gemstone's basic color is its hue, and those with purer hues (for emeralds, green; for sapphires, blue; and for rubies, red) are generally considered more valuable. Often, however, a hint of another color can be detected. Sapphires will range from purplish blue to greenish blue; emeralds, yellowish green to bluish green; and rubies, orangey red to purplish red.
Saturation is a measure of the intensity or purity of a gem's hue and is determined by the degree to which gray or brown hues mute its defining color. Value tends to increase with saturation, so a fully saturated purplish blue sapphire may well be more expensive than a muted pure blue one.
The tone of a gemstone, a measurement of its lightness or darkness, is usually given as light, medium-light, medium, medium-dark, or dark.
A flawless gemstone is rare and usually extravagantly priced. As with diamonds, most gemstones have inclusions, or tiny mineral flaws, that can be seen under magnification or by the careful eye. Sapphires tend to be moderately included, while emeralds and rubies are usually heavily to moderately included. Make sure that any inclusions in the stone do not penetrate deeply into the gem, as this may cause it to break or crack. Clarity grades range from VVS (very, very slightly included) to I3, in which inclusions are prominent and severely affect the gemstone's beauty.
A gemstone's cut refers to its proportions and symmetry. It is essential in making a gemstone look appealing--the stone should be symmetrical in all dimensions so that it will appear balanced, and so that its facets will reflect light evenly, providing good brilliance. Color should also be taken into account when cutting for optical efficiency. If a stone's color is highly saturated, a shallow cut will allow it to pass more light, while a deeper cut may increase the vividness of a less saturated gem. There is no generally accepted grading system for gemstone cut.
Though a gemstone's weight is usually given in carats, this may not give an accurate idea of its size, because different types of stone have different densities. Therefore, a 1-carat sapphire or ruby will be smaller than a 1-carat emerald, though they have the same weight, because sapphires and rubies (both a form of the mineral corundum) are more dense than emeralds.
Gemstones can also be measured in dimensions (diameter, length, and width). It is important to know the dimensions to ensure that the gemstone weight will be visible and well proportioned in the setting.
Illustration of gemstone dimensions
Gemstones are often treated to enhance color and fill cracks. Please note that, if a gemstone has been treated, this information will be provided in the specifications on the stone's product detail page. There are various accepted techniques, depending on the type of stone. For example, oils and resins are frequently used to fill surface-reaching fissures in emeralds and rubies. This process is not permanent, however; if a treated ruby or emerald is subjected to high heat from a jeweler's torch, an ultrasonic or steam cleaner, or even hot dishwater, the filler may leak out of the stone. Sapphires and rubies are often heated in a kiln or furnace to enhance their color. Such heat treatment, which is considered permanent, has been used for centuries. Lightly colored sapphires may also undergo diffusion treatment. This is done by heating a stone in the presence of coloring elements such as titanium or iron, which causes a thin layer of color to be diffused into the stone's surface. Because this color layer is so thin, a diffusion-treated sapphire should not be repolished.
Heating is the most common gemstone treatment. It can improve clarity and brightness by causing the color of the stone to lighten, darken or change completely.
Often performed on emeralds, oil is often added to stones to seep into their surfaces and improve the finish.
Blue Topaz most commonly receives the irradiation treatment, which is when the gemstone is pounded with subatomic particles or radiation.
Commonly performed on black onyx, chalcedony and pearls to create their variety of colors.
Common for turquoise, impregnation is the infusion of wax into a porous material. It creates a bonding agent to improve cracks and create a smooth surface.
Bleaching is used to lighten the color. It is permanent and undetectable.
Coating is when a lacquer is applied to the surface to improve a gem's appearance and is also improved to improve the color of gemstones.
Gemstone diffusion can improve color, change color created asterisms for star-like glow.
To clean gemstone jewelry, first wipe it with a soft cloth to remove any dirt. Emeralds require only the use of a soft cloth, as cleaners may damage these soft gems. Sapphires and rubies can be cleaned with either an ultrasonic cleaner or a solution of one part ammonia to six parts water, with a soft brush. Store your gemstone jewelry in a soft cloth pouch or jewelry case so it does not touch other pieces in your collection. As with all jewelry, normal wear and tear can loosen prongs and settings, so it is a good idea to have it checked by a professional jeweler who can make repairs as needed.
Jewelry - bracelets, necklaces, earrings and diamond jewelry -
is copyrighted work by Maries Manor Kids Theme Bedrooms

subset: commoncrawl


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Stories by angeljade [7] Series by angeljade [0] Reviews by angeljade [0] Challenges by angeljade [0] Favorite Series [0] angeljade's Favorites [0]Series
Stories by angeljade
|The authors own nothing. Joss, UPN, WB, etc. own Buffy, the show, the characters, the places, and the backstory. The authors own any original plots.


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oon after the Armistice of November 1918, the War Department
Planning for demobilization had begun less than a month before the Armistice, since few in the United States had expected the war to end so quickly. Almost all officers and men in the Army became eligible for discharge when the fighting in Europe stopped. The War Department had to determine how to muster out these men as rapidly and equitably
as possible, without unduly disrupting the national economy, while maintaining an effective force for occupation and other postwar duties. It decided that the traditional method of demobilizing by units was most likely to achieve those goals. Units in the United States relocated to thirty demobilization centers around the country so their personnel could be outprocessed and discharged near their homes. Overseas units returned as quickly as shipping space could be found for them, processed
through debarkation centers operated by the Transportation Service,
and moved to the demobilization centers for deactivation and discharge.
In practice the unit system was supplemented by a great many individual discharges and by the release of certain occupational groups, such as railroad workers and anthracite coal miners.
to a peacetime posture, the Army had no authority to enlist men to replace those being discharged. On February 28, 1919, Congress ended that dilemma by authorizing enlistments in the Regular Army for either one or three years. By the end of the year the Active Army, reduced to about 19,000 officers and 205,000 enlisted men, was again a regular volunteer force.
Regular Army units continued to guard the Mexican border during 1919 and 1920 due to the ongoing revolutionary disturbances in that country. Because the National Guard had not yet been reorganized, the Regular Army also had to supply troops on numerous occasions through the summer of 1921 to help suppress domestic disorders arising out of labor disputes and race conflicts in a restless postwar America.
encountered no unusual difficulties with the populace, and their numbers
were rapidly reduced after the Paris Peace Conference ended in May 1919. They numbered only about 15,000 by the beginning of 1920. After rejecting the Treaty of Versailles that resulted from the peace conference, the United States technically remained at war with Germany until a separate peace was signed in the summer of 1921. Occupying forces gradually withdrew after that, until the last thousand troops departed on January 24, 1923.
After the Armistice, Army units continued to serve elsewhere in the world, including two generally unsuccessful expeditions into revolution torn Russia. In August 1918 the chaos in Russia resulting from the Bolshevik seizure of power induced President Woodrow Wilson to order the Army to join Allied forces in expeditions into Russian territory. Multinational forces penetrated the Murmansk-Archangel region of European Russia and entered Siberia via Vladivostok to safeguard various interests, and support anti-Bolshevik forces. The European Russia force, containing about 5,000 American troops under British command, suffered heavy casualties while guarding Allied war supplies meant for the Tsarist forces and communication lines before withdrawing in June 1919. The Siberian force of about 10,000, under Maj. Gen. William S. Graves, encountered many difficulties in its attempts to rescue Czech troops, captured soldiers of the newly collapsed Austro-Hungarian empire trapped by the deteriorating Russian situation, and to curb Japanese expansionist tendencies in the region between August 1918 and April 1920. Together these two forces incurred about 500 combat casualties. While seen in the West as only a footnote to World War I, the American and Allied intervention into the Russian civil war was deeply resented by the eventually triumphant Reds and continued to foster suspicion of American intentions in the minds of the leaders of the new Soviet Union for years to come.
Between 1923 and 1941, the only Army forces stationed on foreign soil were the garrison of about 1,000 maintained at Tientsin, China, from 1912 until 1938 and a force of similar strength dispatched from the Philippines to Shanghai for five months' duty in 1932. The Marine Corps provided the other small foreign garrisons and expeditionary forces that U.S. policy required after World War I, particularly in the Caribbean area. There remained, of course, the large American garrison in the Philippines with the mission of guarding those islands as part of the
In August 1918, as a civil war raged in Russia, the War Department ordered American troops to the Siberi-
American empire and another major garrison in the Panama Canal Zone protecting that vital waterway. We should not discount the importance of these forces in the careers of thousands of officers and men in the interwar
Reorganization under the National Defense Act of 1920
After many months of careful consideration, Congress passed a sweeping amendment to the National Defense Act of 1916. The National
Defense Act of June 4, 1920, governed the organization and regulation
of the Army until 1950 as one of the most constructive pieces of military legislation ever adopted in the United States. It rejected the theory of an expansible Regular Army that Army leaders had urged since the days of John C. Calhoun. In its place the new defense act established the Army of the United States as an organization of three components: the standing Regular Army, the National Guard, and the Organized Reserves. That component consisted of the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps, two distinct organizations. Each of the three Army components was to be so regulated in peacetime that it could contribute its appropriate share of troops in a war emergency.
the General Staff in both Washington and Paris. When General John J. Pershing became Chief of Staff in 1921 he reorganized the War Department General Staff on the model of his wartime General Headquarters staff in France. The reorganized staff included five divisions: G–1, Personnel;
G–2, Intelligence; G–3, Training and Operations; G–4, Supply; and a new War Plans Division that dealt with strategic planning and related preparations for war. The War Plans Division eventually helped to draft color-coded plans for the event of war with individual nations, such as War Plan ORANGE for Japan; it would also serve as the nucleus for any new wartime General Headquarters established to direct operations.
The General Staff divisions assisted the Chief of Staff in his supervision of the military branches of the War Department and of the field forces. The only major change in this organizational framework during the 1920s came in 1926, when the Air Corps was established as an equal combat arm.
Regular Army Strength and Support
When the National Defense Act was adopted in June 1920, the Regular Army contained about 200,000 soldiers, roughly two-thirds
the maximum authorized strength. In January 1921 Congress directed a prompt reduction in enlisted strength to 175,000 and in June 1921 decreased that figure to 150,000. A year later Congress limited the Regular Army to 12,000 commissioned officers and 125,000 enlisted men, not including the 7,000 or so in the Philippine Scouts; Army strength stabilized at about that level until 1936.
Appropriations for the military expenses of the War Department also stabilized after the early 1920s at roughly $300 million per year. This was about half the estimated cost of fully implementing the force structure authorized in the National Defense Act. During this period the United States spent less on its Army than on its Navy, in accordance with the national policy of depending on the Navy as the first line of defense. War Department officials, especially in the early 1920s, repeatedly expressed alarm over Congress' failure to fully fund the force structure described in the National Defense Act. They believed that U.S. strategy required a minimum Regular Army enlisted strength of 150,000, a figure that grew to 165,000 after the Air Corps Act of 1926. From his position as Chief of Staff, General Douglas MacArthur pointed out that in 1933 the active strength of the Army ranked only seventeenth in the world.
Despite its limited size, the Regular Army still deserved international respect. Foreign observers rated its recently established, newly equipped Air Corps second or third in actual power. But the Air Corps' small inventory of modern equipment offered a marked contrast to the rest of the Army, where ground units had to get along as best they could for almost two decades with weapons left over from World War I. The Army was well aware that these old weapons were becoming increasingly obsolete. In 1933 General MacArthur described the Army's tanks, with the exception of a dozen experimental models, as completely useless for employment against any modern unit on the battlefield.
During the interwar era the Army focused its limited resources on maintaining personnel strength rather than on procuring new equipment. Army arsenals and laboratories were consequently handicapped by small budgets. Despite that obstacle they worked continuously to devise new items and to improve old ones, capitalizing on the rapid technological advances of the 1920s and 1930s. Service boards, acting as links between branch schools and headquarters, tested prototypes and determined doctrines for their employment so they could be incorporated into training manuals. Little new equipment was forthcoming for ground units until Army appropriations began to rise in 1936, but the emphasis on maintaining force levels meant that the acquisition of such equipment did not consume scarce resources in a period of rapid obsolescence.
For a number of years only about a quarter of the officers and half of the enlisted men of the Regular Army were available for assignment to tactical units in the continental United States. Many units existed only on paper; almost all had only skeleton strength. The Regular Army's nine infantry divisions possessed the combined strength of only three full divisions. In May 1927 one of those undermanned infantry divisions, a cavalry brigade, and 200 aircraft participated in a combined-arms maneuver in Texas; but for the most part Regular Army units had to train as battalions or companies.
The continued dispersion of understrength divisions, brigades, and regiments among a large number of posts, many of them relics of the Indian Wars, was a serious hindrance to training Regular Army soldiers; though it was helpful in training the reserve components. Efforts to abandon small posts continued to meet stubborn opposition from local interests and their elected representatives in Congress. In the Infantry, for example, in 1932 the twenty-four regiments available in the United States for field service were spread among forty-five posts, thirty-four of them hosting a battalion or smaller unit.
Promoting the integration of the Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserves by establishing uniformity in training and professional
standards was one of the major purposes of the National Defense
Act of 1920. While falling considerably short of fully realizing that goal, the new Army structure did foster an unprecedented amount of military training for the reserve components. This training brought the regular out of his traditional isolation from the civilian community and acquainted large numbers of National Guard and Organized Reserve personnel with the problems and views of professional soldiers. Reserve component units and the groups in training that contributed to their ranks had an average strength of about 400,000 between the wars. The Reserve Component Training Program would result in an orderly and effective mobilization of the National Guard and Organized Reserve into the Active Army during 1940 and 1941.
In addition to the Guard, the civilian community contained a large number of trained officers and enlisted men after World War I, which provided a reservoir of manpower for the Army. Few enlisted men joined the Enlisted Reserve Corps to participate in the Organized Reserves
after their wartime service. In contrast, large numbers of officers maintained their commissions by serving in the Officers' Reserve Corps (ORC). ORC strength remained fairly consistent during the interwar period at about 100,000 officers, but its composition gradually changed as war veterans were replaced by men commissioned through the ROTC or the Citizens' Military Training Camp (CMTC) programs.
The airplane and the tank both came to symbolize the changing face of warfare during Word War I. But U.S. aviation programs retained their vitality after the war, while the tank fell captive to the conservatism
of existing service branches after the National Defense Act of 1920's dissolution of the Tank Corps. The glamour of flight had captured the public imagination, and champions of air power insisted that the new technology could change the face of warfare. Strategic bombing, according to Italy's Giulio Douhet and other theorists, could replace traditional land and naval actions as the dominant form of warfare by
directly targeting an enemy nation's population and industrial base, hence its will and capacity to wage war.
The most notable domestic use of regular troops in the twenty years of peace that followed World War I happened in the nation's capital
during the summer of 1932. Several thousand "Bonus Marchers" remained in Washington after the adjournment
of Congress dashed their hopes for immediate payment of a bonus for military service in the war. On July 28 marshals and police tried to evict one group encamped near the Capitol, and the ensuing riot produced
some bloodshed. President Herbert C. Hoover directed the Army to intervene. A force of about 600 cavalrymen and infantrymen with a few tanks advanced
to the scene under the personal leadership of Chief of Staff MacArthur. The troops cleared the Bonus
Marchers from the Capitol and eventually evicted them from the District of Columbia, burning their shantytown in the process. The Army had performed an unpleasant task in an efficient manner; but the public largely viewed the use of military force against civilians, most of them veterans, as heavy-handed. The incident tarnished the Army's public image and helped to defeat the administration in the next election.
For fifteen years, from 1921 to 1936, American policy accepted the premise that future wars with other major powers, except possibly Japan, could be avoided. National decision makers pursued that goal by maintaining
a minimum of defensive military strength, avoiding entangling commitments with Old World nations, and using American good offices
The treaties that emerged from the Washington Naval Conference in 1922 temporarily checked the race for naval supremacy. Their provisions
froze new capital-ship construction in the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and other signatory nations for ten years. Limitations on individual capital-ship size and armament and a 5:5:3 ratio in the total permissible capital-ship tonnage of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan guaranteed that none of the three great naval powers could successfully launch a Pacific offensive as long as the powers respected the treaty provisions. Separate provisions froze the construction of new fortifications or naval facilities in the western Pacific. The treaties made a U.S. defense of the Philippines against a Japanese attack nearly impossible, but the general agreement to maintain the status quo in the Pacific and in China offered fair assurance against a Japanese war of aggression as long as the Western powers did not themselves become embroiled in the European-Atlantic area.
During 1928 the United States and France joined in drafting the Pact of Paris, through which many nations renounced war as an instrument of national policy. Thereafter the United States proclaimed that, if other powers did likewise, it would limit its armed forces to those necessary to maintain internal order and defend its national territory against aggression and invasion. In 1931 the Chief of the Army's War Plans Division advised the Chief of Staff that the defense of frontiers was precisely the cardinal task for which the Army had been organized, equipped, and trained. There was no real conflict between national policy and the Army's conception of its mission during the 1920s and early 1930s. But, in the Army's opinion, the government and the American public in their antipathy to war failed to support even the minimum needs for national defense.
The clouds of war began to form again in 1931, when the Japanese seized Manchuria and defied the diplomatic efforts of the League of Nations and the United States to end the occupation. Japan left the League in 1933 and a year later announced that it would not be bound by the postwar system of arms control treaties that had begun with the Washington Naval Conference after the last of its obligations under that system expired in 1936. In Europe, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany during 1933, denounced the Treaty of Versailles, embarked on rearmament, and occupied the demilitarized Rhineland by 1936.
Italy's Benito Mussolini launched his own war of aggression by attacking Ethiopia in 1935. Spain's 1936 revolution produced a third dictatorship and an extended civil war that became a proving ground for weapons and tactics used later in World War II.
In response to these developments the U.S. Congress passed a series of neutrality acts between 1935 and 1937, hoping to avoid entanglement in another European conflict. The United States tried to strengthen its international position in other ways by opening diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1933, by promising eventual independence to the Philippines in 1934, and by liquidating its protectorates in the Caribbean area and generally pursuing the policy of the good neighbor toward Latin America.
No quick changes in American military policy followed. But beginning in 1935 the armed forces began receiving larger appropriations that allowed them to improve their readiness for action. Changes in the
Army over the next three years reflected the increasingly critical international situation and the careful planning of the War Department during General MacArthur's 1930–1935 tour as Chief of Staff. His recommendations led to a reorganization of the combat forces and a modest increase in their size, accompanied by more realistic planning for using the manpower and industrial might of the United States for war if it should become necessary.
The central objective of the Chief of Staff's recommendations was strategic mobility, using the Army's limited resources to replace horses as a means of transportation and to create a small, hard-hitting force ready for emergency use. In pursuit of those objectives the Army wanted to mechanize and motorize its regular combat units as soon as possible and bring them to full strength so they could be trained effectively. The Army also needed new organizations to control the training of larger ground and air units and combined-arms teams and to command them if war came. Between 1932 and 1935 the War Department
improved readiness. The strength and readiness of foreign armies had been increasing even more rapidly.
The slow improvement in Army readiness by the end of the 1930s highlights the fact that the Army was more prepared for war than many of its critics, arguing from the vantage of hindsight after World War II was over, have been willing to admit. In many ways, the Army was as prepared as it could be to fight the war that the civilian and military leadership of the country expected it to fight, a war focusing on the defense of the western hemisphere—"Fortress America"—rather than the war that finally arrived in 1941. When America was forced into war in a very different strategic world of 1941, a world that saw the fall of France and the near collapse of both the USSR and the British Empire, it was forced to prepare large expeditionary forces for overseas combat on a grand scale for a global, two-front war. None of this was foreseen in the 1930s.
The Army in the 1920s and 1930s, responding as always to the strategic needs of the nation as formulated by the civilian leadership and short on personnel, equipment, and funding, had to focus on its primary assigned mission of hemispheric defense. Most of the modernization funds of the Army were absorbed in the rapid expansion of the new Army Air Corps that was seen as one of the Army's principal contributions to that mission.
The second priority of the Army was the defense of the nation's seaports. To accomplish this, the Army poured huge sums into the modernization of the coastal fortifications at eighteen major seaports, increasing the number and caliber of the coast artillery guns and improving
the defenses of their emplacements. Almost one-third of the Army's manpower, over 50,000 soldiers, was tied up in the coast artillery mission as the logical backstop to the Navy and Air Corps defensive belts. The Army even retained a separate coast artillery branch until 1950. In the 1930s the Army was relatively prepared for war but not for the war that came.
During the slow rebuilding of the 1930s the Army began to concentrate, when resources allowed, on equipping and training its combat units for mobile operations rather than for the static warfare that had characterized the Western Front in World War I. It managed to develop some new weapons and equipment that promised improved fire power and mobility once they could be obtained in quantity. Such projects included the mobile 105-mm. howitzer that became the principal
divisional artillery piece of World War II and light and medium tanks that were much faster than the lumbering models of World War I. The Army's tanks still reflected their design origins in the Infantry and Cavalry. Infantry tanks were designed to support infantry assaults, and cavalry tanks were developed as "iron horses" to support traditional cavalry missions Consequently, Army tanks would not compare favorably in firepower, one on one, to World War II German and Russian models. However, many American tanks, such as the fabled M4 Sherman, would be so mechanically reliable and were produced in such great numbers that they proved highly competitive in support of vast infantry formations in mobile warfare.
In terms of infantry weapons, the Army proved highly innovative, adopting the Garand semiautomatic rifle in 1936 as a replacement
In many ways, the Army was as prepared as it could be to fight the war that the civilian and military leadership of the country expected it to fight, a war focusing on the defense of the western hemisphere.
The World War I square divisions consisted of about 22,000 men each. These divisions possessed consider-
for the 1903 Springfield. This gave the U.S. soldier a marked advantage
over his World War II German or Russian counterparts who still employed bolt-action rifles. The infantryman was also assisted by the comparatively rapid motorization of the Army. Horsepower yielded to motor power as quickly as vehicles could be acquired, although horse cavalry retained a hold on Army thinking and tactics for years. After successful field tests the Army decided to improve the mobility of its regular infantry divisions by reducing them from four to three infantry regiments. The new "triangular" divisions would employ only motor transport, decreasing their overall size to little more than half that of their World War I counterparts but enhancing their mobility and combat
slowly during many months of nominal peace. The Protective Mobilization
The Beginnings of World War II
The German annexation of Austria in March 1938 and the Czech crisis in September of the same year awakened the United States and the other democratic nations to the imminence of another great world conflict. In retrospect that new conflict had already begun with
Japan's 1937 invasion of China. When Germany seized Czechoslovakia
in March 1939, war in Europe became a near certainty since Hitler
apparently had no intention of stopping his eastward expansion and Great Britain and France had decided that they must fight rather than acquiesce to further German aggression. In August Germany made a deal with the Soviet Union that provided for a partition of Poland and gave Joseph Stalin
a free hand in Finland and the northern Baltic states. On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. France and Great Britain responded by declaring war on Germany but provided little direct assistance. An overwhelming majority of the American people wanted to stay out of the new war if they could, and this sentiment necessarily governed the initial U.S. response to the perilous international situation.
Immediately after the European war started, the President proclaimed
Under the leadership of Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall and, after July, of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, the Army initiated a large expansion designed to protect the United States and the rest of the western hemisphere from any hostile forces that might be unleashed from the European conflict. The Army expansion was matched by a naval program designed to give the United States a two-ocean Navy strong enough to deal simultaneously with the Japanese in the Pacific and Germany and its new war partner, Italy, in the Atlantic (if they defeated Great Britain). Both expansion programs had the overwhelming support of the American people, who were now convinced that the danger to the United States was very real but remained strongly opposed to entering the war. Congressional appropriations between May and October 1940 reflected the threat. The Army received more than $8 billion for its needs during the following year, a greater sum than it had received to support its activities over the preceding twenty years. The munitions program approved for the Army on June 30, 1940, called for the procurement of all items needed to equip and maintain a 1.2-million-man force by October 1941, including a greatly enlarged and modernized Army Air Corps. By September the War Department was planning to create an Army of 1.5 million soldiers as soon as possible.
The Army had considered organizing an "air infantry" as early as May 1939 in light of German air-landed
On August 27, 1940, Congress approved the induction of the National
Guard into federal service and the activation of the Organized Reserves to fill the ranks of this new Army. It also approved in the Selective
Service and Training Act of September 14 the first peacetime draft of untrained civilian manpower in the nation's history. Units of the National Guard, draftees, members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps, and the reserve officers required to train them all entered active service as rapidly as the Army could construct camps to house them. During the last six months of 1940 the Active Army more than doubled in strength, and by mid-1941 it achieved its planned strength of 1.5 million
officers and men.
Army Air Forces to train and administer air units in the United States. In July it began the transformation of General Headquarters into an operational post for General Marshall as Commanding General of the Field Forces. By the autumn of 1941 the Army had 27 infantry, 5 armored, and 2 cavalry divisions; 35 air groups; and a host of supporting units in training within the continental United States. But most of these units were still unready for action, in part because the United States had shared so much of its old and new military equipment with the nations actively fighting the Axis triumvirate of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
On the eve of France's defeat in June 1940, President Roosevelt had directed the transfer or diversion of large stocks of World War I weapons, ammunition, and aircraft to both France and Great Britain. After France fell, these munitions helped to replace Britain's losses from the evacuation
of its expeditionary force at Dunkerque. Additional aid to Britain materialized in September, when the United States agreed to exchange fifty over-age destroyers for offshore Atlantic bases and the President announced
that future U.S. production of heavy bombers would be shared equally with the British. Open collaboration with Canada from August 1940 provided strong support for the Canadian war effort (Canada had followed Great Britain to war in September 1939). These foreign aid activities
culminated in the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941 that swept away the pretense of American neutrality by openly avowing the intention of the United States to become an "arsenal of democracy" against aggression. Prewar foreign aid was largely a self-defense measure; its fundamental purpose was to help contain the military might of the Axis powers until the United States could complete its own protective mobilization.
distant future. Assuming the probability of simultaneous operations in the Pacific and the Atlantic, they agreed that Germany was the greater menace and that if the United States did enter the war it ought to concentrate
first on the defeat of Germany. This principle was established as shared policy in staff conversations between American and British military representatives in Washington ending on March 29.
By mid-1941, with no attack on the United States, National Guardsmen and draftees whose congression-
engaged in convoy-escort duties in the western reaches of the North Atlantic
and its ships, with some assistance from Army aircraft, were joining British and Canadian forces in their struggle against German submarines. In November Congress voted to repeal prohibitions against the arming of American merchant vessels and their entry into combat zones. The stage was set, as Prime Minister Churchill noted on November 9, for "constant fighting in the Atlantic between German and American ships."
Upon stepping down as U.S. Army Chief of Staff in 1935, Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964) led a military mission to the Philippine Islands and became military adviser to the nascent commonwealth. Focusing on his task
more critical. Despite this evidence and the benefit of superb U.S. code-breaking efforts against Japanese naval and diplomatic codes (MAGIC intercepts) similar to British successes against the Germans (code-named ULTRA), America was caught militarily and psychologically
unprepared for war.
1. Some commentators have described U.S. policy as isolationist in the interwar era. What impact did this policy have on the Army in the interwar period, and how did this affect national security policy?
Cline, Ray S. Washington Command Post: The Operations Division. U.S. Army in World War II. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1951, chs. 1–4.
Gabel, Christopher R. The U.S. Army GHQ Maneuvers of 1941. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1991.
Other Readings
Dallek, Robert. Franklin Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Last updated 10 July 2006


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McDonald's Apprenticeship – Crew Member – Ranelagh Road, Ipswich VAC-51621
This listing has expired
What will I be paid?
We ensure that our pay rates remain competitive for everyone (rates are restaurant specific and may differ depending on location). You will be paid every two weeks.
• Age 16-17: £6.00 per hour
• Age 18-20: £6.85 per hour
• Age 21 * : £8.31 per hour
How does it work?
The McDonald's apprenticeship will build your confidence and develop your life skills whilst preparing you to progress in our business. You will receive training, coaching and support to prepare high-quality food and provide the best service to our customers.
You'll have a dedicated Apprentice Mentor from McDonald's who will be there to support you throughout your apprenticeship.
Alongside your McDonald's learning, your Lifetime Trainers will give you additional knowledge, skills and behaviours to succeed in your role.
What will the role include?
• Prepare our customer's meals with care and respect to McDonald's gold standard!
• Ensure our customers have a special experience, every time! Be genuine, patient and adapt to their needs.
• Keep up-to-date with knowledge on our menu promotions.
• Learn how to work on the different food preparation stations, producing high-quality food for our customers.
Do you have what it takes?
You'll be working in our fast-moving, high energy environment and we're looking for a genuine smile plus an ability to connect with customers and make them feel valued.
If you are confident in approaching and dealing with diverse groups of people, friendly have high energy and take pride in your appearance, this could be the role for you!
What are the perks?
• 28 days holiday per year
• Free meal when you are on shift
• Potential annual pay increase based on performance
• Discounts at over 800 retailers nationally
• McDonald's discount card for when you aren't on shift
• Apprentice Extra NUS card for student discounts and student Oyster Card
Location: Ipswich
Position Type: Apprenticeship
Sector: Hospitality
Working Week : 30-40 hours per week, shift work including evening and weekends
Weekly Wage : £180.00
Application Deadline: 06-04-2020
Possible Start Date : 13-04-2020


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Results 1 to 2 of 2
Thread: Help with creating a program
- 11-27-2011, 06:29 PM #1Member
- Join Date
- Nov 2011
- Posts
- 2
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- 0
Help with creating a program
Part 1. (CAS 9-11) The basic classes and addSample method
Create a class called Sample that has three fields representing the minute past midnight in the day that the sample was collected (an int expected to be in the range 0-1439), the location that the sample was collected from (a String) and the value of the sample (an int). These fields should be constants; i.e. their values should not change for the lifetime of the object. (We are assuming that the temperature sensors are accurate to within 1 degree.)
Write a constructor for this class.
Please help with this program i can't do it. I randomly wanted to create a program but i can't think of a way how the algorhitms should be designed in order to work.
Create a class called Analyser that uses Sample. The analyser should contain a collection of Sample objects.
Within the Analyser class, write a constructor.
Within the Analyser class, write a method with signature
public void addSample(int time, String location, int value)
This method should create a new Sample object and add it to the collection only if the value of the sample is greater than or equal to 0 (absolute zero!) and the minute in which it was taken is in the range 0-1439 (there are 1440 minutes in a day, and we are assuming that all samples are from a single day).
Part 2. (CAS 12-14) Listing all samples
Include this method in the Analyser class to populate the collection with a number of samples for testing purposes:
* Populate collection
public void populate()
addSample(0, "Fraser Noble", 280); // 00:00 7C
addSample(120, "Fraser Noble", 281); // 02:00 8C
addSample(240, "Fraser Noble", 282); // 04:00 9C
addSample(360, "Fraser Noble", 286); // 06:00 13C
addSample(480, "Fraser Noble", 288); // 08:00 15C
addSample(600, "Fraser Noble", 290); // 10:00 17C
addSample(720, "Fraser Noble", 291); // 12:00 18C
addSample(840, "Fraser Noble", 290); // 14:00 17C
addSample(960, "Fraser Noble", 290); // 16:00 17C
addSample(1080, "Fraser Noble", 289); // 18:00 16C
addSample(1200, "Fraser Noble", 288); // 20:00 15C
addSample(1320, "Fraser Noble", 283); // 22:00 10C NO FAULTS
addSample(1600, "Fraser Noble", 288); // SHOULD NOT BE ADDED
addSample(-600, "Meston", 290); // SHOULD NOT BE ADDED
addSample(60, "Meston", 282); // 01:00 9C
addSample(180, "Meston", 282); // 03:00 9C
addSample(300, "Meston", 284); // 05:00 11C
addSample(420, "Meston", 286); // 07:00 13C
addSample(540, "Meston", 291); // 09:00 18C
addSample(660, "Meston", 289); // 11:00 16C
addSample(780, "Meston", 290); // 13:00 17C
addSample(900, "Meston", 200); // 15:00 -73C
addSample(1020, "Meston", 320); // 17:00 47C
addSample(1140, "Meston", 290); // 19:00 17C
addSample(1260, "Meston", 290); // 21:00 17C
addSample(1380, "Meston", 290); // 23:00 17C SENSOR FAULT
addSample(30, "MacRobert", 279); // 00:30 6C
addSample(150, "MacRobert", 280); // 02:30 7C
addSample(270, "MacRobert", 279); // 04:30 6C
addSample(390, "MacRobert", 281); // 06:30 8C
addSample(510, "MacRobert", 285); // 08:30 12C
addSample(630, "MacRobert", 286); // 10:30 13C
addSample(750, "MacRobert", 287); // 12:30 14C
addSample(870, "MacRobert", 288); // 14:30 15C
addSample(990, "MacRobert", 289); // 16:30 16C
addSample(1110, "MacRobert", 287); // 18:30 14C
addSample(1230, "MacRobert", 281); // 20:30 8C
addSample(1350, "MacRobert", 277); // 22:30 5C HEATING FAULT
addSample(1230, "MacRobert", -5); // SHOULD NOT BE ADDED
Write a method that prints out all samples in the collection along with the location from which the sample was taken. For example, this method may print out the following:
[Fraser Noble, 00:00] 280
[Fraser Noble, 02:00] 280
[Fraser Noble, 04:00] 280
[Fraser Noble, 06:00] 280
[Fraser Noble, 08:00] 280
Hint: remember the % and / operators on ints.
Part 3. (CAS 15-17) Highest temperature and faulty sensors
Write a method that displays the highest temperature recorded.
Write a method that displays the locations that have faulty sensors. A sensor is assumed to be faulty if it reports a temperature below 258 Kelvin or above 303 Kelvin. From the data above, this method should report that the Meston sensor is faulty.
Part 4. (CAS 18-20) Faulty heating
Add a new field in your Analyser class that is a collection of String. This will be used to record the locations of faulty sensors. Then write a new method (similar to that for part 3(b)) that populates this collection with the locations of faulty sensors. (Hint: have a look at java.util.HashSet.)
Write a method that reports on buildings with faulty heating. The heating is faulty if the sensor is working correctly (i.e. it is not faulty) and the temperature reported in the building during working hours falls below 288K more than once. Assume that working hours are between 08:00 and 19:00.
Fully document your code using Javadoc style.
Re: Help with creating a program
You'll want to learn Java to be able to do this. Please have a look at the Java tutorials which you can find here: The Really Big Index
Best of luck!
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The Vietnam War | Broadcast Version
The Vietnam War is a ten-part, 18-hour documentary film series directed by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick. In an immersive 360-degree narrative, Burns and Novick tell the epic story of the Vietnam War as it has never before been told on film. The Vietnam War features testimony from nearly 100 witnesses.
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Not my studio but someone who obviously has more money then sense
Is that Amanda's collection?
Numina will be really embarrassed when he finds everybody here making fun of his studio.
how it was in 1992 ? or was it 94 ? theres no effects on this photo , its how everything looked back then....


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I thank John Pickering for his assistance with the development of this page.
Using these photos:
A variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to CalPhotos. Please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image. Use and copyright information, as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location, are available by clicking on the
link under the thumbnail. See also:
Using the Photos in CalPhotos


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Programming/Promoting After-School Youth Programs
While most people don't want to admit it, fall is just around the corner, bringing with it cooler weather and the start of school. If they haven't already, parents are now planning their children's after-school activities. If you don't have your after-school youth programs ready, you still have a little time. But for next year, you should design a plan for promoting the programs as early as July 1.
The type of programs you offer will depend on what your facility can provide. If you have an indoor pool, then develop a swim-lesson program. This is very profitable and always in demand.
If your space allows, gymnastics is a must. Gymnasiums are ideal for youth sport leagues and clinics all year long. And if you can afford to develop a comprehensive program with equipment, then all the better.
Martial arts is another must and can be run as a separate business, as can a dance program. All of these activities appeal to children 5 and older, which means that they have to meet after school or on the weekends.
Since we operate health and fitness clubs, a collection of fitness-oriented classes based on play/learning can be offered up through age 13. The 9-through-13-year-olds are a hard target to reach and need special programming, which includes nutritional counseling, exercise and psychological motivation.
Regardless of what programs you offer, you must target and market appropriately. Children from ages 5 through 14 make up the market for after-school programs. Therefore, you should promote to families, and the grammar and middle schools in your market area (a five-to-seven-mile geographical radius around your club). Here's how.
Contact the local schools to buy ads in their newsletters, which are sent home to parents.
Contact the local townships to buy ads in their quarterly newsletters for their residents.
Develop presentations or programs that can be presented to physical education classes or school assemblies.
Invite classes, scouts and other youth groups to your club to experience a program that you already have.
Join a business-to-school partnership committee in your community. In our county, there is an organization called "Schoolworks," an arm of the local chamber of commerce that develops liaisons between business and education. Through this partnership, there is an opportunity to create programs that the committee will promote throughout the schools. These kinds of connections are key because schools are reluctant to let for-profit businesses promote within their system.
Design a "Kids Recognition Board" in your club, featuring kids who make progress in your programs. A picture of children engaged in activities, along with a description of their accomplishments, works best. This board makes parents very proud and draws more people into the program.
Create a "Kids Club" concept for all the kids who participate in programs. Kids love to belong to clubs. Along with the club membership, they receive a "button" to pin on and a participation certificate at the end of the year.
Design a newsletter just for kids.
Promote the "Kids Club" through your regular club newsletter and on your Web site.
Identify all the "free and community listings" in your area newspapers and put their e-mail addresses in a group address box on your computer. Each Friday, e-mail an update of the special programs you are running for the next month. These will get published.
Plan an open house prior to the opening of each session for your programs. Make sure plenty of staff are on hand; the registration should take place that day with an incentive (free gift, etc).
Offer a referral incentive for kids to invite their friends to the programs and offer a "bring a friend" week.
Don't forget the power of a professionally written press release, which can generate a feature story. This type of free publicity goes a long way.
Develop a small descriptive marketing piece that can be displayed in your local toy stores or children's specialty stores. In exchange, you can place their materials in your club or advertise them in your newsletter.
Partner with local parks and recreation departments, offering your programs as part of their total package. This can be a feeder for members.
The bottom line is to program what kids want at times that are appropriate, and then follow a well-thought-out promotional plan with good timing.
Linda Mitchell is a 20-year veteran of the fitness industry and the director of marketing and public relations for Newtown Athletic Club and Middletown Country Club. She is also the executive director for the Delaware Valley Alliance of Health & Sportclubs.
Guide to Promoting Youth Programs