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Coordinates: 41°53′32″N 12°29′07″E / 41.8922°N 12.4852°E / 41.8922; 12.4852
The Roman Forum (Latin: Forum Romanum, Italian: Foro Romano) is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum.
It was for centuries the center of Roman public life: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated the city's great men. The teeming heart of ancient Rome, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history.[1] Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archeological excavations attracting numerous sightseers.
Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The Roman kingdom's earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient former royal residence, the Regia (8th century BC), and the Temple of Vesta (7th century BC), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins, all of which were rebuilt after the rise of imperial Rome.
Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the Umbilicus Urbis and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic's formal Comitium (assembly area). This is where the Senate—as well as Republican government itself—began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area.
Over time the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BC). Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia, along with the new Curia Julia, refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever greater numbers.
Eventually much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum Romanum to the larger and more extravagant structures (Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Ulpia) to the north. The reign of Constantine the Great, during which the Empire was divided into its Eastern and Western halves, saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This returned the political center to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later.
Unlike the later imperial fora in Rome—which were self-consciously modelled on the ancient Greek plateia (πλατεῖα) public plaza or town square—the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically and piecemeal over many centuries.[2] This is so despite the tidying up of men like Sulla, Caesar and Augustus who attempted, with some success, to impose a degree of order there. By the Imperial period the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 metres.[3]
Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the Capitoline Hill to that of the Velian Hill. The Forum's basilicas during the Imperial period—the Basilica Aemilia on the north and the Basilica Julia on the south—defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square, the buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the Forum Adjectum) extending southeast as far as the Arch of Titus.[4]
Originally the site of the Forum had been marshy lake where waters from the surrounding hills drained.[5] This was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima. Because of its location, sediments from both the flooding of the Tiber River and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising the level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early Republican times.
As the ground around buildings began to rise, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus. Excavations in the 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 metres above sea level. Archaeological finds show human activity at that level with the discovery of carbonised wood.
An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as Triumphs. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate (Porta Triumphalis) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the Velian Hill down the Via Sacra and into the Forum.[6]
From here they would mount the Capitoline Rise (Clivus Capitolinus) up to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum.[7] (In addition to the Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by a number of storied roads and streets, including the Vicus Jugarius, Vicus Tuscus, Argiletum, and Via Nova.)
The original, low-lying, grassy wetland of the Forum was drained in the 7th century BC with the building of the Cloaca Maxima, a large covered sewer system that emptied into the Tiber River, as more people began to settle between the two hills.
According to tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between Romulus, the first king of Rome controlling the Palatine Hill, and his rival, Titus Tatius, who occupied the Capitoline Hill. An alliance formed after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the Comitium. It was here at the Vulcanal that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance.[8]
The Forum was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined.[9] The original Forum functioned as an open air market abutting on the Comitium, but eventually outgrew its day to day shopping and marketplace role. As political speeches, civil trials, and other public affairs began to take up more and more space in the Forum, additional fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities around them.
Rome's second king, Numa Pompilius (r. 715–673 BC), is said to have begun the cult of Vesta, building its house and temple as well as the Regia as the city's first royal palace. Later Tullus Hostilius (r. 673–642 BC) enclosed the Comitium around the old Etruscan temple where the senate would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted that temple into the Curia Hostilia close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC Tarquinius Priscus had the area paved for the first time.
During the Republican period the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city.[10] However, in order to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between the Comitium and the Temple of Vesta by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjacent central plaza that was becoming the Forum.[11]
The 5th century BC witnessed the construction of the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the Temple of Saturn (497 BC) and the Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 BC).[12] The Temple of Concord was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus. A long held tradition of speaking from the elevated speakers' Rostra—originally facing north towards the Senate House to the politicians and assembled elite—put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum. A tribune known as Caius Licinius (consul in 361 BC) was supposed to have been the first to turn away from the Roman elite towards the people in the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by Gaius Gracchus.[13]
This began the tradition of locus popularis, in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the mos maiorum ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. When Censor in 318 BC, Gaius Maenius provided buildings in the Forum neighborhood with balconies, which were called after him maeniana, in order that the spectators might better view the games put on within the temporary wooden arenas set up there.
The earliest basilicas (large, aisled halls) were introduced to the Forum in 184 BC by Marcus Portius Cato, which began the process of "monumentalizing" the site. The Basilica Fulvia (which underwent several rebuildings and names: Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, Basilica Paulli, Basilica Aemilia) was dedicated on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. It was followed nine years later by the Basilica Sempronia on the south side.[14]
Many of the traditions from the Comitium such as the popular assemblies, funerals of the nobility and games were transferred to the Forum as it developed.[15] Especially notable among these was the move of the comitia tributa, then the focus of popular politics, in 145 BC. Particularly important and unprecedented political events took place in 133 BC when, in the midst of riots in and around the Forum, the Tribune Tiberius Gracchus was lynched there by a group of Senators.
In the 80s BC, during the dictatorship of Sulla, major work was done on the Forum including the raising of the plaza level by almost a metre and the laying of permanent marble paving stones.[16] (Remarkably, this level of the paving was maintained more or less intact for over a millennium: at least until the sack of Rome by Robert Guiscard and his Normans in 1084, when neglect finally allowed debris to begin to accumulate unabated.[17])
In 78 BC, the immense Tabularium (Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus. In 63 BC, Cicero delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator Catiline at the Forum (in the Temple of Concord, whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were led to their deaths at the Tullianum, the nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans.[18]
Over time the Comitium was lost[19] to the ever-growing Curia and to Julius Caesar's rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC. That year two supremely dramatic events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: Marc Antony's funeral oration for Caesar (immortalized in Shakespeare's famous play) was delivered from the partially completed speaker's platform known as the New Rostra and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the Temple to the Deified Caesar was subsequently built by his great-nephew Octavius (Augustus).[20] Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy Cicero there.
After Julius Caesar's death, and the end of the subsequent Civil Wars, Augustus would finish his great-uncle's work, giving the Forum its final form. This included the southeastern end of the plaza where he constructed the Temple of Divus Iulius and the Arch of Augustus there (both in 29 BC). The Forum was witness to the assassination of a Roman Emperor in 69 AD: Galba had set out from the palace to meet rebels, but was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter. He was immediately met by a troop of his rival Otho's cavalry near the Lacus Curtius in the Forum, where he was killed.
During these early Imperial times much economic and judicial business transferred away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of Trajan's Forum (110 AD), these activities transferred to the Basilica Ulpia.
The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus was added the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons, and is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honorific memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew the Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vesta and the Curia.[21] The last had recently burned and Diocletian's version is the one that can still be visited today.
The reign of Constantine the Great saw the division of the Empire into its Eastern and Western halves, as well as the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last significant expansion of the Forum complex. This restored much of the political focus to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later.
In the 6th century some of the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. On August 1, 608, the Column of Phocas, a Roman monumental column, was erected before the Rostra and dedicated or rededicated in honour of the Eastern Roman Emperor Phocas. This proved to be the last monumental addition made to the Forum. By the 8th century the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of the abandoned and ruined temples.[22]
An anonymous 8th-century traveller from Einsiedeln (now in Switzerland) reported that the Forum was already falling apart in his time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the Forum Romanum persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum.
After the 8th century the structures of the Forum were dismantled, re-arranged and used to build feudal towers and castles within the local area. In the 13th century these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level.[23]
The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse.
Artists from the late 15th century drew the ruins in the Forum, antiquaries copied inscriptions in the 16th century, and a tentative excavation was begun in the late 18th century.
A cardinal took measures to drain it again and built the Alessandrine neighborhood over it. But the excavation by Carlo Fea, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803, and archaeologists under the Napoleonic regime marked the beginning of clearing the Forum, which was only fully excavated in the early 20th century.
Remains from several centuries are shown together, due to the Roman practice of building over earlier ruins.
Today, archeological excavations continue along with constant restoration and preservation. Long a major tourist destination in the city, the Forum is open for foot traffic along the ancient Roman streets which are restored to the late Imperial level. The Forum Museum (Antiquarium Forense) is found at the Colosseum end of a modern road, the Via dei Fori Imperiali.
This small museum has a significant collection of sculpture and architectural fragments. There are also reconstructions of the Forum and the nearby Imperial Fora as well as a short video in several languages. It is entered from the Forum by the side of Santa Francesca Romana (No. 53 Piazza S. Maria Nova) and is open from 08:30 to one hour before sunset. Admission is 12 Euros.
In 2008 heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding the "Black Stone" marble together over the Lapis Niger.
The Roman Forum has been a source of inspiration for visual artists for centuries. Especially notable is Giambattista Piranesi who created (1748–76) a set of 135 etchings—the Vedute di Roma (Views of Rome)—in which the Forum figured significantly. (Many of the features documented in Piranesi's views have now vanished.)
Notable artists of the Forum include Maerten van Heemskerck, Pirro Ligorio, Canaletto, Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Paolo Panini, Hubert Robert, J.M.W. Turner and many others.
Other fora existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are a number of large imperial fora forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the Forum Iulium, Forum Augustum, the Forum Transitorium (also: Forum Nerva), and Trajan's Forum. The planners of the Mussolini era removed most of the Medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There is also:
Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on the function of the sites. Among these, the Forum cuppedinis, was known as a general market for many goods.
Augustus, Julius Caesar, Ancient Greek religion, Religion in ancient Rome, Marcus Aurelius
Roman Forum, Rome, Italy, Forum Boarium, Temple of Castor and Pollux
Ancient Rome, Roman Republic, Nero, Julius Caesar, Roman legion
Renaissance, Budapest, Classical order, Ionic order, Corinthian order
Rioni of Rome, Roman Forum, Palatine Hill, Municipio I, Dragon


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Miracle vs Chris Tipsy Freestyle Battle [KOTD Canada Edition]
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Patients and Methods: Multicenter retrospective, observational study of 36 patients with severe pemphigus vulgaris (n = 33) and pemphigus foliaceus (n = 3) treated with rituximab before August 31st, 2008 and enrolled in a national observational registery between December 2008 and June 2009.
Results: Within a mean period of observation of 11 (1–37) months, 21 (58 %) pemphigus patients showed complete, 13 (36 %) partial, and 2 (6 %) no response to rituximab treatment. This correlates with a mean improvement of the visual analog scale for well-being of 34 (20–60) at baseline to 75 (40–95) at the last control visit. In 4 (11 %) patients, severe adverse events were recorded including 1 (3 %) serious infection.
Conclusions: Data collected in this systematic registry indicate that rituximab is an effective and relatively safe adjuvant treatment option for refractory pemphigus. To further extend our knowledge on efficacy and safety of this drug, controlled prospective trials are required.
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from MedWorm Query: Pemphigoid


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January 19, 2016 - STAMFORD, Conn. and LUCCA, Italy
Tagetik to Host Tenth Annual Global Conference, "Tagetik In Touch," in New Orleans
U.S. venue selection reflects Tagetik's expanding North American customer base
Tagetik, a visionary leader in global performance management software solutions, today announced that it will host its tenth annual global conference, Tagetik in Touch, from April 24 – 27, in New Orleans.
"Our decision to locate this year's annual conference in the United States is a reflection of our expanding customer base in North America," said Manuel Vellutini, Tagetik co-CEO. "We've crafted an agenda in keeping with our commitment to support the needs of progressive CFOs and finance professionals – one that will give our attendees the insights and intelligence to bring even greater strategic value to their businesses."
Overall, the conference agenda encompasses 44 sessions, including panel and roundtable discussions, case studies, live demos, and partner presentations. The agenda will cover topics critical to modern finance such as what-if modeling and scenario planning, forecasting, dashboarding, and narrative reporting, in addition to product roadmap details, the direction of the CPM market and enterprise cloud technology.
The conference keynote, held on Monday, April 25, will be delivered by well-known political commentator and New Orleans native James Carville, who will give his take on the 2016 presidential election and its impact on business.
"Our solutions attract forward-thinking companies," said Marco Pierallini, Tagetik co-CEO. "This conference will help attendees understand how Tagetik features and enhancements – such as advanced analytics, what-if modeling, and easy-to-use dashboards – can take their financial processes to an even higher level and bring new insights to business leaders."
Registration for Tagetik in Touch is open. For more details, visit the Tagetik in Touch conference website.
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Before you hire your BFF to work for you or alongside you, consider these potential downsides first.
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Bill to revamp Energy Department loan program also would hold guilty officials liable.
A House Republican bill to tighten oversight of the Energy Department's controversial loan guarantee program would impose "negligible" implementation costs of about $1 million over four years, the Congressional Budget Office has reported.
The No More Solyndras Act, (H.R. 6213), named for the solar panel manufacturing company that went bankrupt in August 2011 after eating up a $535 million loan under the guarantee program established at Energy in 2005, would reorganize the program to restrict eligibility for future guarantees to projects that submitted applications before Dec. 31, 2011.
The legislation would require the Treasury secretary to review those guarantees and oblige Energy to consult with the Treasury Department on any changes in the terms and conditions of a loan guarantee. The bill also would impose administrative sanctions and civil penalties of $10,000 to $50,000 on federal officials who violate the requirements of the program. It would direct the Government Accountability Office to prepare a comprehensive report on federal energy subsidies.
The bill was introduced July 26 by House Energy and Commerce Chairman Fred Upton, R-Mich., and cleared his committee Aug. 1.
CBO on Tuesday estimated that implementing the bill would cost about $1 million from 2013-2017, an amount it said would have "no significant impact on spending subject to appropriation."
Correction: An earlier version of this story significantly overstated the amount of money Solyndra received from the loan program. It was about $535 million.


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Insurance providers have seen a flood of regulatory changes in recent years—a flood that is expected to continue, as we have seen already happening in the banking industry. As the amount, complexity, and strategic importance of regulatory requirements continue to increase, insurers must understand and manage the impact to their businesses.
To succeed in this new environment,. Regulatory management needs to be handled diligently, and it requires clearly defined roles and responsibilities within the organization.
BCG has developed a universally applicable regulatory management framework as a result of its experience with companies across multiple regulation-heavy industries, such as banking, pharmaceuticals, energy, telecommunications, automotive, and insurance.
The framework's 12 building blocks cover all regulatory activities, communication channels, and organizational concerns.
Regulatory Map. Identify and structure all current and future regulations and relevant decision processes.
Stakeholder Map. Identify relevant stakeholders and allocate them to internal relationship managers.
Impact Analysis. Identify threats and opportunities among upcoming regulatory trends. Understand their impact.
Regulatory Strategy. Focus on and respond to key regulatory trends.
Business Strategy. Identify which regulations create competitive advantage.
Implementation Plan. Create a comprehensive and efficient roadmap for implementation of the processes required for compliance.
Implementation. Ensure the regulatory processes are implemented correctly and are working effectively and efficiently.
Planning and Ownership. Create a holistic communication plan to express the company's view on regulatory trends.
Goodwill. Leverage cultivated public acceptance and perception.
Coordination. Reiterate corporate point of view to stakeholders and measure success.
Setup toward Stakeholders. Guide stakeholders through networks, channels, and formats.
Organization. Create an internal organization that allows for effective and efficient regulatory management.
Each of these building blocks consists of many detailed analysis, planning, execution, and forecasting activities that can guide an insurance company through the process of understanding and complying with new regulations.


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Yakub assembled a tall ladder of about 20 feet. He purchased paints and other items of necessity in the local stores and collected various pots and old containers. With the help of ropes and burnt coals he designed the outlay of his plan. He started with the bulkhead, then with the corners and back to the center. He created sections that he filled with painted creations in a free style. He never created two similar designs even if it meant simple ornamentation. He worked alone and very rapidly. He maneuvered the big ladder with ease from place to place. He had many fantasies and was familiar with the bible that inspired him to recreate the scenes on the ceiling. The spirit fired his imagination and the colors and the scenes enlivened the dull ceiling background of the holy place that consisted of chalk mixed with some blue. The colors were mixed with water and proved lasting as long as the building was kept dry. Many public buildings and homes in Galicia were painted in a similar fashion and lasted for many years if not decades. Of course, repainting a shul was a big financial outlay and few communities had the necessary resources.
Yacub's wanderings enriched many small town shuls with nice artistic works and gave the worshippers a taste of art. Without him, many of the communities would have simply painted their shuls. Apparently, Yacub had talent and under ordinary circumstances could have developed into an outstanding artist. Yacub worked for a while in Korczyn and one day disappeared and took on another job in another community. He remained there for a while and then returned to Korczyn to finish the job. His disappearance or reappearance surprised no one. It was accepted as a matter of fact. Haim of course felt bad about the situation but he did everything he could to keep him painting. Nobody criticized him for the painter's disappearance. People accepted it as a way of life. No fights erupted over the event. No accusations or acrimonious debates occurred. People respected each other and were concerned with their daily needs. Crime for pleasure was unheard of even amongst the so-called lower elements of Jewish society. It was only the master race that developed the policy of mass murder of innocent people.
Haim provided the expensive tastes of Yacub in the following manner. Each day, Haim walked around in the shul with a box and collected contributions for the painting of the synagogue. People contributed very generously. I frequently witnessed the collection since I was already a barmitzvah boy and studied in the synagogue. Yacub inspired me and I waited each day to see the advancement he made in his painting. One day he told me, you see this point on the ceiling, and tomorrow I will paint four angels there and you will die. The next day I looked all over but did not see the angels. Perhaps he took pity on me. He had a ringing voice that was melodious when he sang and induced me to fantasize. He was very moody and if things did not go his way or he felt slighted, he would kick the paints or the containers and the worshippers would be frightened. Nobody dared to talk to Yacub when he was in such mood. People had patience and understanding for the artist. We have but praise for the artist.
David's parents were in the textile business and Roizale Dym, mother of David, sent material for four pair of slacks for Shlomo. Obviously, the gift was meant for all the children of the house. In normal circumstances, Shlomo's mother would never accept charity gifts but on Purim it was different. To return a Purim gift was considered in bad taste and even sinful. In ancient days in Palestine, the Jews set aside portions of agricultural produce for the poor people and in the Diaspora the tradition of sending gifts to the poor people continued without lowering their self-esteem. The next Purim, Shlomo sent his friend David a miniature wood sled that fitted a small doll. The muddy streets no longer enabled the sled to glide but the symbolic effect was there. He again received for himself and his brothers' material for pants. The third Purim, Shlomo was already twelve and left home. His brother Moshe decided to send David a nice gift. He received material for three pair of pants. The next year, Moshe decided not to send a gift to David since he was not his friend. He feared that it would be construed as charity rather than a Purim gift. Thus, he decided to stop sending gifts to David. The sending of Purim gifts enabled people to help needy people that otherwise would not accept help. Self-esteem was very important in the shtetls and even the granting of charity involved tact and the right approach. An entire system of values and traditions developed on the manner of giving Purim gifts without insulting the givers or the recipients.
On an occasional Saturday afternoon, prior to the third meal of the Shabbat, my mother allowed us to go to Moshe Sroka, a nickname, to purchase on loan a piece of herring for a penny. The herring was eaten with bread and chewed as though it was a lump of sugar. The mixture of bread and herring produced a delicious sensation in the mouth. One Saturday, I asked my mother for permission to get a piece of herring. It so happened that there was no jam, honey or sour milk to spread on the bread. I had the idea that a piece of herring would moisten the bread. Apparently, my mother did not have the money and refused to consent to the purchase. She insisted that I control my appetite. I could have gone to Sroka and purchased the piece of herring. My mother would have had to pay for it. But we were raised to tell the truth and I was not going to cross her. Perhaps she figured that everybody should get a piece of herring and this would entail costs that she could not afford. Anyway, I realized that I would not taste salty matter in my mouth on this Saturday. I could not extend the story too long for the time for the third meal would pass with the appearance of the three stars ending Saturday. So I decided to take a piece of the rim of the bread and chew it together with a soft piece of the bread. I thus created the illusion of eating herring. I accomplished two things, I ate the third meal and created the taste of herring.
The average Jew was not versed in the metaphysical complexities of religions but was raised on the simplicity that one must serve God directly without intermediaries. The Jew was raised with the knowledge that he was responsible for his acts and nobody could obliterate them for him. No indulgences could clean his deeds. Nobody could assume his deeds but himself. He must keep his slate clean if he wants a stake in paradise. The well to do man was respected to the extent that he gave charity and worked for the community. The poor honest and God fearing man was also respected in the shtetl. The rabbi of the community was the highest moral personality. He kept an eye on all the human dealings in the community and had the backing of the Jewish population. He tried to be fair in the arguments or disputes between the members of the kehilla and attempted to lead the community in a righteous path. Disputes occurred and they assumed a religious tone but there were no murders. The disputes were settled through negotiations, discussions and persuasions. Even the simple village Jew saw that justice was done even if the sides were not evenly matched. Every Jew was part of the community that was supported by the torah. The latter was not the exclusive domain of a privileged caste but belonged to every Jew. He could study it whenever he had the time. The aspiration of the Jew was to study the torah in order to improve his spirituality.
In all the towns, the rabbis adjudicated disputes, fights and arguments. They also answered the religious inquiries regarding the rules of Kashrut. Most of the rabbis were highly moral people that set examples in their conduct and created the necessary atmosphere for their spiritual leadership. Even the loudest people would lower their speech when talking to the rabbi who represented the community and not necessarily his own interest. When conflicts arose between poor and rich or whether this institution should receive help, the rabbi influenced public opinion to make the right decision. His influence in social life was very important as well as his abilities to bring the various factions together. He of course knew what was going on in the city and attempted to prevent problems. We had rabbis that were highly moral leaders and influenced a small group of people while others influenced masses beyond the borders. A Gaon of Wilno, a Baal Shem Tov, a Hafetz Haim influenced every Jewish community. Every Jew that looked for the truth could find an ethical personality that would serve him as a guide in his trip through life.
The prophet Elijah was a host to the poorest and humblest Jewish homes located in the most distant places. His moral integrity served as a basis for the Jewish communities throughout the world. Our leaders were morally inspired by generations of spiritual leaders that influenced them. Even the few well to do Jews in history submitted themselves to the rule of the torah or its representatives. We have to remember that Jewish history remembers the spiritual leaders rather than the wealthy merchants. Jews organized themselves wherever they lived. The small communities maintained their religious life while the big communities tried to spread their influence into many areas of Jewish life. The torah was the glue that bound the Jews until the Germans killed them in the name of progress that was baseless and devoid of human values. How could progress be based on killing innocent people and could this nation claim any moral leadership. The obvious answer is in the negative. The Jews proved that in spite of their slaughter their values were correct while the values of their neighbors were based on false premises. Nobody can forgive a person for what he did to other innocent people. One can not ask for forgiveness and enjoy all the comforts of life. The outside appearance is not important what is essential is the inner feeling and if that is not clean than there is no value. Man must rise above the animal.
And now we must find a key that would open the door to our own continuation as a people after the horrible destruction. We must revert to the past and draw from the moral sources our renewed inspirations to serve as a beacon of light for the world. Just as in the past we were not impressed by the wealth and power of the noble but lived a righteous life, so must we now stop looking over the fence and concentrate on our own spiritual values.
During my days, Korczyn had a population of about 300 families. There was a Rabbi, a religious judge or dayan, two shamashim, two slaughterers, a cantor, a study center and a synagogue, a bathhouse divided into a steam room and warm bath room for people that could not take the steam. Woman also used the latter. The facilities had mikvot attached to them, the steam room mikva received cold water from a spring and the second mikva received preheated water. The Jews prayed the entire week in the study center where services were held throughout the day. Few people missed services, except for those that were ill. The study center was packed in the evening for services. Saturdays and holidays there were services in the synagogue and in the study center. There were no other service facilities during my time. The study center was big enough to accommodate all congregants of Korczyn but the synagogue could not be left without services. It was empty the entire week but services were held on Saturday and holidays even during the coldest days of the winter. Usually a synagogue was not heated. The unfinished synagogue of Korczyn provided no shelter against the weather elements; as a matter of fact, it was as cold inside as outside the synagogue. On cold Saturdays, one saw the steam from the mouths of the worshipers as they prayed for it was bitter cold. But they never missed the services at the synagogue, on occasion they would pop into the study center to warm up and return to the synagogue.
Amongst the worshippers at the synagogue, there was Moshe Kirschner who conducted the services and was also the reader of the torah. He took his job seriously and did the best he could for there were no experienced readers in this congregation. He lacked proficiency in the reading of the services and in reading the torah but did the best he could do. He worked very hard to prepare himself for the tasks. He was an exception in the family of brothers and uncles that stressed the need to improve himself spiritually. On Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, the old cantor with a raspy voice conducted the second half of the services as well as the Kol Nidrei service. As far as I remember, the cantor only performed these services in Korczyn. He used to conduct services in the study center when he was younger. The services in the synagogues were fast and simple. As a matter of fact, the synagogue finished the service when the study center was at the half way mark of the services. No cantorial singing was part of the synagogue service. Most of the people were simple people that came to pray and went home. No snobs or well-connected people were found here. But these people maintained the synagogue by conducting services there, without them the place would have been deserted the entire year.
The synagogue was never finished; the walls were not cemented, the construction beams were exposed as were the beams that held the roof shingles. The roof had holes and when it rained on Saturdays one had to choose a dry place to avoid the puddles. The synagogue had no wooden floor. Nobody knew how long it had remained in this unfinished condition. But rumors had it that the dead people congregated there at midnight during the weekdays and that children and adults better avoid the place. For if one is near the place, he may be called up to the torah and the party must go. At the end of the reading, the visitor must leave the reading platform by going backwards. Otherwise he remained there permanently. People told stories about people or their souls being stuck in the synagogue for generations. The place was immense and unfinished and lent itself to many legends. Anyway, during the daytime it was safe for the dead people, and the souls apparently played games only at night. The same entrance that led to the synagogue also led to the study center. Students closed their talmud books prior to midnight in order to leave the study center before the night activities started.
Besides ghosts, the people had real income problems. There was competition and rivalries but it rarely emerged to the surface and certainly not in the study center or in the synagogue. Here the people prayed for divine intervention on their behalf. But on occasion grievances flared up and they hit the stunned congregation. I remember a case when a person went up to the reading platform and informed the congregation that he wanted to delay the reading of the torah. Pandemonium broke loose, everybody wanted to know what was the problem but that could not be discussed since it was Saturday. Negotiators and intermediaries went back and forth between the parties and tried to solve the problem temporarily until after Saturday. Committees were formed, messengers went and came, the protagonists softened their stands. True, both sides had apparently legitimate grievances but the study center on Saturday was not the place to solve them. Finally, both parties consented that the issue would be resolved during the week and the reading of the torah proceeded. The scene did not last too long but one saw the recourse that a party had against a wrong done by someone else, be it a mighty or rich person. Compromise and mediation solved the problem. These cases were limited but they occurred. Most of the fights were solved before they erupted.
It was difficult to conceive such scene in the Christian church where a simple person stopped a service to express a grievance against someone in the community and the members proceed to solve the problem. In democratic countries such events take place daily. We the worshippers did not see in the dispute as an insult to the worship place, on the contrary we felt all responsible for what happened and wanted to contribute to solve the problem and when it was resolved we felt spiritually richer. The community did the right thing. These feelings bound us in the Diaspora and gave us the strength to withstand all the pressures and deprivations. That Saturday, the service was finished rapidly and we rushed home pleased that a wrong was corrected.
Benyamin lost his business, sold everything in Korczyn and looked for a customer to buy his seat in the study center. He offered the place to all the well-qualified people but they refused to purchase or lacked the money to acquire the seat. He decided to sell the seat on the block. Nathan Nute, the butcher, bought the seat. He was neither a scholar nor a respected individual in Korczyn. He sold and bought animals as well as meat. He hardly made a living from the business. His sons lived in Germany and married out of the faith. They supported him and he led a nice and comfortable life.
Nathan was always neatly dressed and clean but this did not deserve a seat along the eastern wall. For the occasion he acquired a new bekeshe and a shtreimel. He also shaped his beard and curled his peyot to gain respectability. He slid into the seat so as not to attract attention. He never occupied the full seat. He took care not to crease his new clothing that fitted him well. He was quiet pleased with himself in the new seat. He even studied a bit the section of the week and on occasion made a small comment. Moshe Zak was his new neighbor in the study center. He also was not from the elite of the town and felt that Nathan dragged him down socially. He was angry that occasionally turned to a boiling point. What was the sense of seating along the wall if everybody can sit there; but he managed to control himself. One Saturday, he no longer contained himself and went over to Naphtali the dumb one and told him to take his seat along the wall. At last Moshe had some satisfaction. What happened later between the neighbors in the study center only God knows. We must mention that when the Nazis kicked Nathan's sons out of Germany, their wives joined them and they all came to Korczyn where they shared the fate of the Jewish community. Poles killed some members of the family. The local killers were never brought to justice. Thus both sides cooperated to eliminate Jewish presence in Korczyn.
Sometimes women could read in his face the contents of their letters prior to reading them. Zalman was also a host to many people that had no place to sleep. He knew what took place in Korczyn and therefore knew the needy as well as the homeless that he met on the streets. They all had a place at his home. He retired because he no longer could carry the mail. The job was transferred to his son Elimelech who read the Latin script. But he was not lucky; the government soon took away his job. The position that his father held for a lifetime, the son kept for a short period of time. The job was given to a gentile who made his appearance in Korczyn. He was a tall man with a hat that had a shiny visor and above it was the Austrian Eagle. He had a big bag that hung on his shoulder that contained the mail. He took out letters and started asking people where the parties lived. He could not figure out the names and the addresses and exactly where the people lived. He was totally confused. It took him quite a while to figure out where the people lived. For Korczyn had no official street names and numbers. So and so lived near the synagogue, the bathhouse, etc. Even the stores had no signs or names. There may have been one or two signs but they were not important since no one paid attention. Everybody knew where everybody was and where to buy what was needed.
The same applied to people that had no stores or permanent addresses or special trades. But everybody knew Itzik, Yossele, Moshe, Haim Shmay's, Haim Hersh Mayer's, Reisel Yidale's, Feige Haya's, Shmerl balegole etc. People did not use last names that were imposed by the Christian world on them, they managed to live with their own names. Korczyn was the Yiddish name for Korczyna, the removal of the letter a gave it a kosher stamp of approval. Krosno was called Kros by the Jews, Sanok was Sunik and Rzeszow was Reishe. These names functioned amongst the Jews. The moment something was sent outside to an official institution, then the name and address and official town name had to be used. The township of Korczyn was mapped out so that a Jew could find with ease his direction. There was a market and Jews lived along three sides of it. Their flats and stores were located here. Some homes were further out but they belonged to the front properties of the market. Along the left side stretched the road to the synagogue, the study center and further on that was densely populated by Jews. Behind the study center there was already a small street where the bathhouse and the beginning cheder were located. The street led back to the market and was inhabited by Jews. Jews also inhabited the right side of the market to the mill. There were also some Jewish families in the Targowicze area market for animals that was also along the right side of the market. There were about 200 Jewish families and the mailman had his hands full. Frequently, he resorted to Jewish help to untangle addresses. But this was our destiny.
The rabbi's son Asher came to visit his father. He was also rabbi but in another town. The congregants noted that the dayan Mates and the rabbi's son were involved in halachic discussion regarding the meat decision. Each side used precedents to strengthen their ruling. No decision was reached. The Jews in town did not want to enter a religious battle between two religious authorities, but they felt that the prestige of the Jewish community was at stake. Pressure was applied and both sides apologized to the community and slowly ended the dispute. Their wrath they turned to the butcher who involved them in the scheme. Most people finally forgot about the story when Yosef the butcher appeared one Saturday at the study center with a hat instead of a shtreimel. The congregants knew immediately that this was his punishment. For every married man in Korczyn wore a shtreimel on Shabbath and the butcher also wore it up this Saturday. Everybody saw it but nobody pointed. The community understood that this was the punishment meted out by the religious leaders to the butcher for his dealings. The next Saturday he also appeared with the hat. Obviously, this was the punishment and it affected the butcher to the extent that he soon he left Korczyn for the States.
In the USA he opened a kosher butcher store and brought his entire family to the country. Later he closed the store and became a religious supervisor. His beard he never trimmed and the peyot he rolled behind his ears so as not attract too much attention. A long coat and velvet black hat he wore. On Saturday he wore his shtreimel. Here in the States he lived in peace with the religious leadership.
Once, a merchant of Korczyn applied for a loan of 200 zlotys to the bank Zaliczkowa in Kros. He listed his wealth, his business activities, the possibilities of business expansion and the need for the loan. Berl handled all these papers. It also happened that another party by the same name applied to the tax department for a reduction of taxes. He of course blackened the picture to the state, listing every item that would help his case, a large family, a sick wife, poor sales, poor location of the store, etc. There were course specialists in writing these requests in order to get the reduction. The inspector received many such requests and sometimes did reduce the tax payments. It depended on the official and the one in Korczyn was not favorably disposed to Jewish requests. Thus Jews looked to somebody that could influence the decisions. Jews were always accustomed to pray for miracles, for interventions, for help. Most of the time they prayed to God to help them with their problems but they also prayed for good middlemen to help them with their earthly problems. However, the devil intervened and Berl delivered the letters to the wrong places for the envelopes merely listed the name of the sender and both names were similar. The bank received the application for tax reduction and the tax office received the application for a loan. Of course the bank refused the loan and the tax office increased the tax assessment.
The news reached the study center between the minha and maariv services. It became the topic of the evening and of course Berl was ridiculed. He explained the reason for the confusion but the listeners were not impressed. They had a good laugh at the expense of Berl, although they sympathized with the two merchants. The story broke the monotony of the winter months and became the topic of conversation for some time.
Our small place had four children and our mother. Friends and visitors always came and went. Beggars entered the house hoping, and usually getting, a coin donation or a piece of bread or a plate of soup if the food was ready. Sometimes it was a plate of potato soup, or a bean and noodle soup or other cooked dishes. The beggar usually had the choice, money or food. Our subtenant Ester also competed with us by giving money donations to beggars. Please excuse me for digressing from the topic. My mother had even prepared a pillow gift with geese feathers that she plucked herself as well as dried mushrooms that I have never seen in the States. How she knew that these items were non existent in the States, I do not know. Anyway, everything was prepared with tender care for the guest. The latter took Israel's coach at the railway station in Kros and within a half-hour was at our home. She complained that the ride was too rough. Young people walked from Korczyn to Kros in about 45 minutes; the coach took less although the actual road was longer. The coach was also pleasant and everybody had a seat. Furthermore, the coach had shock absorbers to smooth the ride, the seats were upholstered, the legs of the passengers were covered with blankets to protect them from dust or rain. The road was paved with stones that eliminated the monotonous sliding of the coach. The ride was pleasant and reminded one of the carousel rides in the circus. The wheels were delicate and rimmed with rubber. Only the hoofs of the horses made that familiar and repetitious noise. Yet the guest complained about the terrible ride.
I asked her how the rides were in the States and she said that all roads in the USA were smooth like our wooden floor. I accepted that the USA builds homes, provided jobs, supplied food, beverages and clothing. But I found it difficult to believe that the roads were like our floor. This seemed to bother me for years. Even when I visited the big cities in Galicia or the city of Budapest seventeen years later, I noticed that certain roads were evenly paved but certainly not like our floor. The massive urban transportation only strengthened my thesis that the comparison was a bit far fetched. At the time, I met another cousin from the USA, Luis Schnek, who traveled to the spa of Karlsbad in Czechoslovakia. Actually, I met both cousins at the spa of Teplitz Scheinow. Louis was but skin and bones. He owned a haberdashery store that he estimated to be worth about 30,000 dollars. He considered himself an average businessman. I was astounded; in Korczyn a merchant with a store of 1000 dollars was considered a wealthy person and certainly acted the part. People treated him with deference and here Luis stated that he is not a rich person. I could not make sense of these discussions. Furthermore, he complained that the mattress of the spa was terrible. This reminded me of the complaints of my cousin about her bed in our house, on her previous trip. I examined the mattress and concluded that the Emperor could sleep on it. But Luis insisted that the bed was terrible and in the USA they have better beds. He brought the latest news about my brother and described the USA for me. Of course, there were many exaggerations as I found out later. I arrived in the USA in 1921, and the next day, my cousin Luis took me to the barbershop and had the barber remove the mustache and all other unnecessary hair without even asking me. We then walked for a while and he suggested that I always look ahead and never back. Only later did I understand the meaning of the sentence.
Meisner and Wolf were still the main door bell ringers and collectors, and I facilitated their task by chauffeuring them about to save their energies. But time did not stand still. Their constant personal appearances emphasized the need for help. At the meeting we also discussed ways and means of helping survivors with urgent problems. Our agenda was lengthy and we discussed the various items and were engrossed in the discussions when I suddenly asked the other members whether they prayed minha, they answered in the negative and we stood up as one and prayed. The scene reminded me of troops responding to the visit of an officer. With such spiritual soldiers God could truly boast. Honor their memory.
The work of anonymous charity can not be measured in money terms or any other terms. Even the promise of heavenly rewards can not be measured. Most of us like to be rewarded immediately even if it is only with some honor. But Meisner and Wolf did not care for honors. They devoted themselves to the task of helping their landsmen be it in Korczyn or the USA. They worked ceaselessly to awaken in us the need to help and this was their precious contribution. They created all the contacts with the Korczyner Jews throughout the world and enabled us to stay in contact to this day. They formed the basis for the entire help activity prior, during and after WWI and WWII. Many people knew the name Meisner for this was the first address that the survivors of Korczyn wrote to but this is another chapter.
Here I would like to mention Mendele, who although well connected in Korczyn, here in the States he worked for a living. True he never made it big but was pleased with his life. He was the first stop on our planned visits in Brooklyn. He lived near Prospect Park in Brooklyn. We passed the park and I asked whether he visited the place and he answered spontaneously that he visited the place to cast his sins or Tashlich. It appeared that many areas in Brooklyn have no access to water bodies where religious Jews could cast their sins on Rosh Hashana. So they assemble right after the holiday and travel to the park to perform the service. Thus, Jews solved their religious problems in the States.
All communities that contained very religious Jews had a special problem on Shabbath or Holidays since they were not permitted to carry items. They could not even carry a prayer book or a talit to shul. Only if a wire that symbolically demarcated the area as one domain fenced in the shtetl, were they permitted to carry prayer books and prayer shawls. Women could wear their kerchiefs to shul, the tcholent could be picked up from the bakery, and food could be sent to the shul for the third meal. Of course, there was always the possibility that someone forgot an item in one's pocket and carried it on Shabbath. True, an unintentional sin but still a sin for the very observant. When a place had no enclosure, the children were the main porters on Shabbath. They became quite knowledgeable in the area and knew all the ins and outs. The non-Jewish neighbors were not enthused about this Jewish custom of symbolically enclosing them in their areas and sometimes tore the wires. The custom was easily practiced in ancient Palestine but in the shtetl it frequently presented problems. The youngsters were aware of these problems and frequently tried to avoid them. Still Jews tried to observe the custom in spite of the objections of the local non-Jewish population that frequently created wedges that prevented the running of the wires.
Korczyn had a special problem with the enclosure for the church stood in the midst of the Jewish population and the enclosure wire had to run through the church property. Three sides of the Market Square were inhabited by Jews; along the fourth side was the church along the road to Kros. The church protruded between Haim Horowitz's and Mendel Schroit's houses. The entrance to the church was from the Market Square. The bishop of Lemberg was a native of Korczyna and he built a beautiful church fit for a large city. The location of the church prevented continuous running wire for the Jews in Korczyn. The Jews tried to enclose the area. According to one version, Avraham Haim Horowitz paid a Polish farmer to stretch the wire across the church property to the house of Mendel Schroit. Whether this was strictly kosher from a halacha point is doubtful but we would accept it for the purpose of the story. Someone noticed a strange wire on the church property soon cut the wire. Perhaps the same fellow that installed it. Another version stated that the wire was stretched from Horowitz's house to a point that nearly bordered the church property and then continued to Schroit's house. This wire was cut during a procession from the church to the cemetery when the crucifix entangled itself in the wire. Thus Korczyn had no enclosure. The Jewish community filled a petition to the court but lost the case.
Zishe Beck, the son in law of Nafthali Raab, petitioned the Austrian crown for a wire permit but the appeal was rejected. The Jewish community leaders tried to appeal to a higher judicial instance according to Shmuel Leib Kaufman. He stated that the community wrote a letter to the son of the famous Dzikower Rabbi, Nafthali Haim, who was in Palestine. He suggested that some important leaders of the community should travel to the grave of the famous rabbi Mendele of Rymanow and recite particular psalms. They were to abstain from chit chatting on their way back and merely discuss spiritual matters until they reached the office of the kehilla of Korczyn. There they were to recite a particular line of the torah. The messengers abided by all the requests until they reached the office. Then they had to decide who would be the spokesman and recite the line. Since they considered such discussion mundane, they started to murmur and point fingers until all three lost courage and headed home without reporting to the community leaders. None of these leaders lived longer than the year in question. Apparently, the heavenly verdict was quite severe and unintended. My father told the story to me every year when we read the particular line of the torah. He also believed that had we followed the instructions to the letter, Korczyn would have had an enclosure.
Some of the needy people had perhaps complaints or expected more than they received but our funds were limited. We lacked the great orator to awaken the conscience of the Korczyners to do more but also the survivors kept to themselves their experiences and did not share them with the rest of us. Perhaps their material would have acted as a stimulus for contributions, but this was not the case. They kept their past to themselves or shared with their friends. The society never received this material. As a matter of fact, we did not even know whether all the people that claimed to be from Korczyn were really from the hamlet or nearby places. Few of the survivors participated in the activities of the society thus we had no way of knowing the real situation. Still Haim made decisions as best as he could and based on the evidence at his disposal. His letters of hope and encouragement reached everybody. Perhaps the donations were limited but this was all that we could send. He never ignored people and answered all the mail. He found people of Korczyn and established contact with them. He corresponded with all landsmen
Following WWII, the emergency meetings of the Korczyner landsmanshaft were well attended. Different people attended different meetings. As time passed less and fewer people attended the meetings and the collection declined. Haim called and wrote letters asking for donations. Things reached such situation that we sent 60-80 invitations to a meeting and five or six people showed. We tried all kinds of devices but no response. We decided to follow the other societies who also ceased their meetings and decided to invest all our energies in creating a yizkor book of Korczyn. Haim immediately sent out letters informing all the members that the society is preparing to publish a book People were invited to sent materials or to write items for the book and some responses were very impressive. We accepted all the materials. Some of course did not bother to write; this was their loss. Nobody could claim that they did not know about the yizkor book. We advertised it and send everybody reminders.
Now I shall return to Haim. I saw that the interest in the yizkor book was small, very few members placed orders. Haim on the other hand continued with his relief activities year after year without ever complaining. He sent packages or cash prior to Passover and Rosh Hashana to all the needy of Korczyn. The yizkor book with all the publicity netted a quarter of the expenses that were paid for the book. I must confess that I never took an interest in the financial aspects of the society until the yizkor book expenses appeared. Suddenly, things did not add up. I could not explain things nor did I understand many activities. I asked Haim for an updated list of the membership and also explanations as to the nature of the givers. It soon transpired that many recipients were not from Korczyn but needed help and Haim gave them. This was reckless especially since it involved public money. Of course, we were also at fault for not taking an interest in the activities of the society and letting Haim make all the decisions. I as president must also share the blame for not being more involved in the activities of the financial aspects of the Korczyner Relief society. True, he did not squander the money or use it for personal use, still public money must be accounted for. I therefore decided that in the future, I will be more involved in the activities and take a greater interest in the running of the society. We must also thank Haim for his hard work in the organization and urge him to cooperate with other members so as to produce the best results in the future.
p.407 picture of Haim Dawidowitz and his wife
In spite of the darkened ceiling, we could still see the beautiful work that Yakub did 34 years ago. The community could not afford to hire an artist to repaint the study center and just to paint the shul was a pity. So layers of dust accumulated but the signs of the zodiac and other creations were still visible. Nobody wanted to obliterate this beauty with paint, nor could it be washed since water would have dissolved the paintings. Thus the shul aged with the ceiling and the paintings. At the door of the study center, on the right and next to the first window, stood Simha [Diller] shamash with his stand of goodies. On the windowsill he displayed some chocolate bars, apples, candy, and a box of cookies. On a bench nearby he had baskets of apples, various sizes and colors. He sold them without a scale. He had golden delicious, green, and small apples. He also had a basket with fruits that were already touched and sold them for pennies. On Saturday, Simha gave his merchandise on credit. He had tags with the names of his clients and tags with the numbers 5, 10, and 15 pennies. Following a transaction, he would join the price tag with the name tag and present it for payment during the week. The accounting system worked very well. On the entrance door to the study center, Simha wrote with chalk each Friday, the time for lighting candles and the end of the Shabbath. On the other door, there was an announcement to the public that the cost of using the steam bath will hence be 20 pennies and 5 additional pennies for small brooms. A tub of water will cost 30 pennies. The public is asked to visit the bathhouse after 2 PM. The statement was signed and sealed with the seal of the kehilla.
Moshe Dawid Fesel sat close by Simha shamash. He was a jovial man and liked to pock the ears of the youngsters and when he managed to hit one, he exploded with joy. The youngsters accepted these pranks. To the left of the door was the stove built from bricks. The corners were bolted with irons. A specialist built the stove. The side door to the stove was wide enough to admit logs, especially in the winter when the stove burned all the time. Above the stove, there was a window with iron bars where people used to put their wet towels from the mikve. Behind the stove, stood crazy Meir. He hardly left the position. Occasionally, he would shout an expression and then bite his fingers. Along the stove usually sat several property owners such as Eliezar Raab, Hersh Holoshitz, Benyamin Rubin, Israel Blank, Yehiel Weinberg, Menashe Hofstater and Hersh Katz. Next was a table with candle drippings. A lamp stood in a pot of sand on the table. The Jews read a holy book or recited psalms or repeated the good deeds performed by well known rabbis such as the Rabbi Mendale, Rabbi Hersh and Rabbi Yossele from Rymanow.
Following the services, people headed home unless news items reached the shul. Then the worshippers discussed the items from all points of view. News was scarce and it barely reached Korczyn. Prior to WWI and especially after it, new winds began to reach the township. Zionism reached the Jewish masses. The youngsters espoused the idea and it gained many adherents. The old generation was fearful of the new development and feared for their families. The young generation openly challenged the older generation and its ways of thinking. Neither party wanted to understand the other one. Both fought for Jewish survival but with different approaches and different philosophies. Local and national elections became battlegrounds of ideologies. No longer was the public pacified with a few statements. The people wanted to know and asked questions that had to be answered. The business as usual approach came to an end. Answers had to be provided. The same changes also appeared in Korczyn.
Still some of the old ways remained. Shlomo Yossef the matchmaker from Dukla appeared in shul with his umbrella. Shlom Binem Zucker whispered in his ear that he needed a husband for his daughter. The matchmaker presented his clients, this one was a jewel, educated and fine looking, etc. He collected all the requests, sorted them and filed them in his particular filing system in order to prevent a mix up of possible matches. One had to remember the social hierarchy in each place when dealing with matchmaking.
Following the services, Jews sat along long tables and studied Gemarrah with commentaries, mishnayot, Shulhan Arouch, the section of the week with Rashi commentaries; the children reviewed the material they had studied during the day. The elder fellows sat at their own tables. When the lights did not reach people, they bought candles for five pennies and read by them. The shul was busy until midnight. Then the night watchman announced the hour and people headed home. The streets were deserted and restful.
p. 412. Picture of Mechel Horowitz, his mother and sisters that were killed by the Germans in 1942 in Korczyn
p.412. Picture of Mordechai Horowitz, brother of Mechel Horowitz, was killed in Aushwitz.
Simha donned his talit and phylacteries and started to conduct the service. He led a very fast pace and some of the worshippers urged a slower pace, notably Benyamin Rubin, Israel Blank, and Hersh Haim Rothenberg. Simha pointed out that he must prepare for the fair in Kros and merchants have lots of preparations.
The people heading to the fair finished the service, and without breakfast headed to the market to see their coachman that would carry the merchandise. Now they waited for the drivers to finish their Sunday service at the church. Finally the coachmen appeared, most of them were familiar with each other and the merchandise for most of them used the same coachmen. Still most merchants preferred to arrange things beforehand and finalize items with a shot at the inn. Monday morning, the coaches were already loaded and ready to go. The merchants squeezed themselves into the available slots and the trip started. When the coaches reached the mountain before Kros, all people left the coaches for the horses barely ascended the mountain. They then rejoined their seats on the other side of the mountain and soon reached the city. Shmuel Aron Teller carried not only baked goods for the market but also kosher butters and cheese for his very religious customers in Kros.
The Sunday prior to the fair, all the merchants assembled everything that went to the market. The textile merchants took all their wares, the haberdashers crated all their goods: shirts, underwear, children shoes, gloves, meters, glasses, multi color hair ribbons, and sewing kits. Clothing merchants took their thick coats with quilted linings, breeches, and winter coats. Nahum Kirschner and his son in law took crates of winter and summer scarves and shawls. Mechel Kirchner sold fur hats with earflaps that he sewed himself. The grocery people fixed their stands so that the roofs remained in place and protected them against the rain or snow in the winter and the sun in the summer. The skin merchants portrayed their wares that were in bags. Shmuel Lipales, Moshe Lutman's brother, also sold leather leggings, wax and cattle skins. The baker Shilem Weinstein with his breads, halot, rolls, and bagels also traveled to the fair. The butchers hired drivers to drive the purchased animals back to Korczyn. Most of the inhabitants of the hamlet placed great faith in the fair. They hoped that it would provide them with a nice income that would take care of their taxes, rents, food, clothing, wood for the winter, schooling expenses and other necessities. Sunday evening approached, the skies darkened suddenly, the fear of rain or snow immediately affected the mood of the local Jews. Still most of them went to the evening services.
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text:
In our experience, the first 100 days after a private equity firm takes ownership of an asset are critical to long-term value creation. During those early months, private equity firms can follow several practical suggestions to kick-start growth.
Over the years, we've developed and field-tested methodologies and tools—customized to the private equity sector—that can support operational improvement and growth acceleration at portfolio companies.
A 100-day plan outlines the most urgent value-creation steps that firms can take as soon as the deal closes. The objective is to identify key value drivers and create a roadmap to make improvements in those areas.


text:
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The Best Kindness Starts With Me
My Audible audio book fiction recommendation this month is :
Start With Why by Simon Sinek
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Chris O'Hearn
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text: Read more in; Islands in the Storm, Storm Surge; A Coastal Village Battles the Atlantic, Beach Wars; 10,000 Years on a Barrier Beach. Available in local bookstores, and Amazon, Also See Strawberry Hill, UPNE, and Schiffer book tabs at the top of this page. 10% will go toward the David Mountain Memorial Fund to provide environmental books to Cape Cod and North Shore students.


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text:
Move the guide to refine
2 hotels found in Obshtina Ivanovo
Result 1-2
Ivanovo, 81 Olimpiyska Street
2.8 km
Koshov, Han Asparuh Str. 6
4.6 km
After entering a search request the hotel room prices and availability are being downloaded real-time from approximately 30 hotel- and booking websites. If it is unexpectedly not possible to request the hotel room prices and availability from one or a few providers, or if one provider does not transmit the information to LookingforBooking after entering a search request, only the prices and availability from available providers are being displayed. If you want to see the full picture of all hotels at LookingforBooking, you should search without a date. Then you will be able to compare all hotels on their location and facilities.


text:
Bledar Morina is a minor character voiced by Gregory Korostishevsky in Grand Theft Auto IV.
An Albanian gangster and part of the small Albanian Mafia, Bledar is a member of a small gang of thugs based in Broker. Along with Kalem, Bledar is led by Dardan Petrela, a loan-shark who extorts the lower members of society.
One such man is Roman Bellic, who owes them gambling debts. Despite pressure from Russian mobster Vladimir Glebov to leave Roman alone, Dardan continues to harass him for the owed money by chasing him out of a poker game and eventually tracking him down to his taxi depot. Bledar smashes Roman's computer and Dardan threatens him with a knife, but Roman's cousin Niko Bellic breaks the party up and breaks Dardan's arm. Dardan and Bledar flee, but catch up with Roman later.
Bledar later assaults Roman along with Kalem at a basketball court, but Niko arrives and beats them both to death. Afterwards Niko tracks down and kills Dardan.
LCPD Database information
Surname: Morina
First Name: Bledar
Age: 31
Place of Birth: Albania
Affiliations: Linked to Russian and Eastern European criminals in Hove Beach.
Criminal Record:
- 2005 - Possession Stolen Property
- 2007 - Extortion
- Small time Albanian thug.
- Believed to be part of a money lending and extortion operation that targets illegal immigrants when they arrive in US.
- Based in Hove Beach.
- If the player can acquire a gun early in the game and before the mission, Niko can also kill Bledar and Kalem by giving a fatal shot to both of them with a clean headshot, or a barrage of bullets.


text:
XSport Fitness will add two locations — one in Hicksville, NY, and the other in the West Loop area of Chicago. The $10 million, 45,000-square-foot mega fitness centers will include 150 pieces of cardio equipment with personal flat screen televisions, more than 300 strength-training machines, free-weight areas, two group exercise rooms, a four-lane pool, whirlpool, rock climbing walls, basketball courts, and sauna and steam rooms.
Fitness Together Franchise Corp., which recently sold its 500th personal training franchise, named Kevin Betts as its president, according to Rick Sikorski, CEO and founder of Fitness Together. Betts has served as vice president of operations since 1999, working alongside Sikorski for 14 years. Betts began working with Fitness Together in 1993 as a personal trainer while a student at Arizona State University. He was promoted to general manager of the company's largest fitness studio in 1996 and then became vice president of operations for Fitness Together in 1999.
Healthworks Fitness Centers, Boston, launched a green initiative effort, called Greener, early this month. As part of the initiative, the company will recycle, transition to eco-friendly cleaning supplies and bath products, switch to energy-efficient light bulbs, and reduce printing by 30 percent across the company's five clubs.


text:
| 17.6°C Dublin
Southampton extended their unbeaten run to a fifth league match but were unable to eke out a deserved Barclays Premier League victory against Stoke.
Blustery conditions made the St Mary's encounter a battle of wills, with the odd sudden downpour making life even tougher for both sides.
Southampton edged the grizzly encounter but Stoke's resilience and impressive second-half defending saw the match finish 2-2.
All four Premier League encounters between these sides have now ended level, although Saints looked good for three points when Rickie Lambert curled home an impressive early free-kick.
The set-piece was awarded after Charlie Adam handled, although he made amends with an exquisite through-ball for Peter Odemwingie to score Stoke's first away goal of 2014.
It began a spell of three goals in six minutes, with Steven Davis fortuitously putting Saints back ahead as his cross evaded Asmir Begovic, only for City to again level through former Southampton frontman Peter Crouch.
Mauricio Pochettino's side dominated the second half but were unable to find a way past Stoke, who held on to end a four-game losing streak away from the Britannia Stadium.
Both sides made two alterations for the clash in similarly blustery conditions to the reverse encounter in November.
Artur Boruc remembers the 1-1 draw all too well, having been caught out after 13 seconds by Stoke counterpart Begovic's long kick up the field.
There was another early goal this time, although here it was Begovic picking the ball out of his net after Saints were awarded a free-kick on the edge of the box following an Adam handball.
The position looked ideal for a cross but Lambert had other ideas, sending the ball curling into the top right-hand corner.
It was quite the start from Saints but not one that put the visitors off, with Odemwingie testing Boruc with a low strike soon after.
Saints were having to defend diligently to keep Stoke at bay and were creating little at the other end until an impressive Davis-led getaway in the 28th minute.
Winning the ball deep in his own half, the Northern Ireland captain ran the length of the field before playing through the overlapping Nathaniel Clyne, whose strike across goal was parried by Begovic.
After a sudden downpour cleared, Saints returned to the attack and Clyne saw a shot blocked before a close-range Lambert attempt was somehow turned away.
It was a missed chance the hosts were made to rue in the 38th minute.
Atoning for the handball that gifted Saints the opener, Adam, making his 50th league appearance for Stoke, played an exquisite through-ball for Odemwingie to direct home past Boruc.
The goal was Stoke's first away from home in 369 minutes but they were back behind just three minutes later as Davis' cross evaded everyone in the box and rippled the back of the net.
Begovic should have done better with the goal, which could also be said for counterpart Boruc three minutes later.
Adam was again the provider, with his corner from the right met at the near post by Crouch before Boruc could punch the ball away.
The second half begun in the same end-to-end fashion, but without goals punctuating the play every couple of minutes.
Jay Rodriguez, left unmarked from a corner, sent a header wide and Davis glanced a cross straight into Begovic's grasp, before Maya Yoshida recovered from an ill-timed slip to head away from danger as Crouch loitered.
Referee Craig Pawson waved away a penalty appeal from the hosts after Adam Lallana's cross struck Glenn Whelan's hand as Pochettino's side upped the ante, with Lambert seeing a 20-yard strike deflected behind.
Jack Cork struck wide after Jose Fonte and Crouch had a tiff at the other end, with the giant striker booked soon after as the home fans reminded him of his Portsmouth links.
Saints were dominating the play but were being frustrated time and time again by Stoke's miserly defence.
Ryan Shawcross was leading the back line with aplomb, with only one clear-cut chance for the hosts in the dying stages.
Substitute Calum Chambers' fine ball to the far post was met by Morgan Schneiderlin, but the midfielder's close-range strike flew into the side-netting - much to the delight of the 1,041 visiting fans.
PA Media


text:
City Directories - Indianapolis
Records: 69,360
What is a city directory?
Before the modern phone book, many cities and towns published alphabetical directories of their residents. These publications contain lists of names and addresses of most adults and businesses in the town. They often contain the names of husband and wife, and in some cases even include references to spouses no longer living, such as "Brown, Ellen, widow of Samuel."
Most directories list a resident's occupation and employer as well. In such cases, one could map out the commutes for the employees of a particular establishment.
Some examples of the important and unique information found in city directories are given in "The wealth of information" section below.
How to use city directories
City directories at Fold3 are featured in two categories: Miscellaneous, which include small town directories in five of the six New England states. And the primary category "City Directories," which includes directories for thirty large metropolitan centers in twenty states. While all city directories share many of the same features, the directories for large cities are primarily covered in this description.
City directories are organized on Fold3 as follows:
- alphabetically by state,
- then alphabetically by city,
- then chronologically by year of publication,
- then alphabetically by last name, with only the name listed at the top of each page showing in the browse menu.
If you are looking for a particular name, use the search mode. But failing that, browse to the state and town in which you're looking for someone. Then search within the browse menu, or simply browse through the list of names printed at the top of each page until you find the correct page to review. It's a little like flipping through a phone book, glancing only at the names in the top corner until you get to the section of the alphabet you're looking for.
Check supplementary listings
Shown above is an image of a page of "supplementary" names. These are names added after the directory was ready to go to press. "Names too late for regular insertion, changes in location, etc." It is always a good idea to check these pages for people you expect to find in the directory but aren't able to.
Search peculiarities
When doing a search, there are times when the name you enter in the search box takes you to a page where that name is not highlighted. For example, if you search for "Dilling" within city directories, two of the results you see include one for Edmund Coulson in the Berlin, Massachusetts, 1911 directory, and another for Charles W. Campbell in the Bolton, Massachusetts, 1911 directory.
Coulson and Campbell are the names listed at the top of each pertinent page, and therefore the correct headers of the pages you need to look at (like the names in the top corners of the phone book). Zoom in on the page images and pan down to Dilling (after all, D follows C in an alphabetical listing). You'll find in the Berlin directory, that Antoine Dilling removed to Clinton and that Mrs. Elizabeth Dilling lives on McPherson Road. In Bolton, you'll find Anton Dilling residing on Balville Street.
For help in deciphering abbreviations, see the article below on "Abbreviations used in city directories."
Organization of records
You'll notice that some of the city directories have a title page listing other towns included in the publication. At Fold3, the towns have been divided under each particular town's heading. As an example, in the Newton, New Hampshire, 1912-13 city directory, the cover page states that it includes Newton, Kingston, East Kingston, and Plaistow, all adjacent towns in Rockingham County. Yet those towns won't be found in that menu under "Newton." They've been separated out. Instead, you'll want to look under "Kingston," "East Kingston," and "Plaistow" as they appear in the browse menu for New Hampshire cities.
If you see a town noted on one directory's cover, look through the browse index for that town's subsection, as it has already been broken out by Fold3 so you can more easily locate the town information you seek.
There are instances where a business directory of one city will be included in another city's residence directory. As an example of this, see the Salem, Massachusetts, 1861 directory with listings for businesses in Danvers.
Abbreviations used in city directories
Abbreviations in city directories are fairly easy to figure out, and pretty standard across the country. You will usually find a list of abbreviations included with the directory, typically toward the front of the publication.
Shown here, are examples of lists of abbreviations used in two different city directories - Newport, New Hampshire, in 1909; and Bangor, Maine, in 1871-72.
Although some publishers or communities have unique designations for their lists, you can usually count on the following to describe the location of a residence:
- h. - house
- bds. - boards
- opp. - opposite
- r. -rear
- c. or cor. - corner
- blk. - block
- wf. - wharf [you're unlikely to encounter this abbreviation in, say, a Phoenix directory]
- n. - near
- sq. - square
- pl. - place
- ct. - court
- av. - avenue
- bet. - between
Note that "st." is usually not used to designate "street." When a street name is not followed by abbreviations for avenue, court, place, etc., it is safe to assume that it is a "street."
Particular to the Bangor directory are such abbreviations as "E. M. sq." for "East Market Square," "H. & E. iron works" for "Hinckley & Egery iron works," and "M.C.R.R." for "Maine Central Railroad."
In the Newport directory, there is a unique listing of "sum. res." for "summer residence." In addition, there are abbreviations included for occupations, most of which are standard in other 20th-century city directories. These include:
- agt. - agent
- carp. - carpenter
- lab. - laborer
- pres. - president
- prop. - proprietor
- sec. - secretary
The wealth of information
City directories contain terrific clues for anyone researching a particular person or family. You'll not only find addresses, relationships, and employment, but also death information and relocation information.
Each listing is a snapshot of a community. View the attached images for clues to people's interests and lives.
- Chase Pascal E dog fancier h Stow road
- Bigelow George, watchman, 69, died April 14, 1901. Sarah W., 70, died October 16, 1901
- Bishop Etta M., widow of Fred A., house 24 Emmons. William, moved to East Boston, Mass.
- On the same page is Charles A. Blaisell, a reporter for the Milford Journal, and Gilbert M. Billings, the publisher and proprietor of the Milford Gazette.
- Ransom Harold L., student (Dartmouth), home Union ct


text:
With a variety of care options to choose from, selecting the appropriate drug and alcohol rehabilitation facility can be an overwhelming experience. If you, your spouse or your child is looking for a luxury detoxification program that can help you get clean and sober from Darvocet, Darvon, alcohol or some other substance you are addicted to, we're here to help you find an in-patient or out-patient detox clinic in catered to your own needs.
Does your provider cover a stay at an AAC Facility?


text:
David Heaslip of Bracebridge has been selected as one of the 40 riders to ride across Canada in the 2010 Sears National Kids Cancer Ride. If you ask David why he wants to do it he'll say "If not now….when?" David's 68 now, and will be 69 during the ride. His other slogan is "…because I think I can!".
David's interest in fitness started back in 1998. An executive on Bay Street in Toronto, time in the office or flying around the country in the back of a 747 airplane had packed on the weight. There was no time for fitness at all.
One day a light bulb went off and he decided to join a downtown fitness club. He got up before dawn, headed to the gym and got on the treadmill. Twelve months later he had lost 54 pounds and 11 inches from around his waist. At this point he started strength training, and then dabbled at distance running. That didn't prove to be too exciting.He retired in 2000 and moved to his lakeside home in Muskoka. He joined the Muskoka Fitness Club in Bracebridge, and kept up his daily routine. A few months later he was invited by a couple of gym members to take the CanFitPro Personal Trainer certification. He did, and he loved it. He went back to Bracebridge and spoke at several service club luncheons about wellness as we age.
He then took the CanFitPro Wellness and Nutrition program to bolster his knowledge. At the same time, he completed the Million Metre Row on the indoor rowing machine. He was invited to join a social bike riding club, and caught the bug. He went on to take his indoor cycling certification at Georgian College, and introduced classes to Muskoka Fitness.
David believes that just because you are older that you shouldn't stop being active and fit. He has no illusions about the effects that aging has on our bodies. He understands the naturally diminished system functions, the diminished lung capacities, and the lower heart capabilities, but believes that with aggressive training he will he able to hold his own during such a grueling ride.
The Sears National Kids Cancer Ride is believed to be the world's largest fundraising event for childhood cancer. Starting on Canada's west coast in Vancouver on September 9th, 2010 and finishing on Canada's east coast in Halifax on September 23rd, the event is an epic journey. As they travel from coast to coast along a well planned route, national cyclists will be joined by local community riders who will cycle for as little as 10 KM or more. They will stop at Sears locations for community support and refreshments, and visit with pediatric oncology centres along the way. A volunteer team will accompany the national team to ensure the safety of all riders, ensure optimum riding conditions, drive support vehicles, and tend to the needs of all the riders.
Each rider is responsible for raising $25,000 in pledges to help meet this year's goal of $2 million.
If you would like to sponsor David, go to his webpage at www.snkcr.com/davidheaslip or visit the homepage
at www.
When he signed up, he was motivated to get behind a cause that had the potential to directly affect the lives of children living with cancer and their families. Each rider pays a $4,000 registration fee to cover their own costs, which means that 100% of the money raised goes directly towards the cause.
As they ride through the cities along the way, they'll attend numerous community events, where they'll hear stories of the many ways the money raised by the Sears National Kids Cancer Ride has helped children with cancer and their families.
If you would like to get involved in the fight against children's cancer, and want to participate in his fundraising efforts, I know he'd welcome all the support that he can get!
Please check out his link
He can be reached at: