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Hetzner - DokuWiki
What is the difference between local and ceph disks for servers?
Servers with local disks keep all data on a local RAID mirror on the host system. They are optimized for high I/O performance and low latency and are especially suited for applications which require fast access to disks with low latency, such as databases.
Servers with ceph disks store their data on a remote filesystem. Each block is stored on three different servers. They are especially suited for higher availability needs: If the local host hardware fails, we will boot the server on a different machine.
Can I use Cloud-Init when creating servers?
While creating your server, you can inject cloud-init user data. This means you can make your server execute special commands while booting, like creating users or running a shell command.
#!/bin/bash touch /tmp/cloudinit_was_here
For more examples see https://help.ubuntu.com/community/CloudInit and http://cloudinit.readthedocs.io/en/latest/topics/examples.html
In order for cloud-init to work, you must use the system images we provide as they include a special cloud-init datasource.
What are floating IPs and how do they work?
Floating IPs help you to create highly flexible setups. You can assign a floating IP to any server. The server can then use this IP. You can reassign it to a different server at any time, or you can choose to unassign the floating IP from servers all together.
Floating IPs can be used globally. This means you can assign a floating IP to a server in one location and later reassign it to a server in a different location. For optimal routing and latency, floating IPs should be used in the location they were created in.
For floating IPs to work, you must configure them inside the operating system of the server you use.
To temporarily configure a floating IPv4 "22.214.171.124", you can run
ip addr add 220.127.116.11/32 dev eth0
Please note that this configuration will not survive a reboot.
To configure the first IPv6 address of floating IPv6 netblock 2a01:4f8:2c17:2c::/64, you should run:
ip addr add 2a01:4f8:2c17:2c::1/128 dev eth0
For permanent configuration, please see the documentation of your Linux distribution.
What are snapshots and backups?
Snapshots and backups are copies of your server's disks.
You can create snapshots when you need them and keep them forever until you decide to delete them. We at Hetzner Online will store the snapshots even if you delete the server of which the snapshot was taken. We invoice for snapshots on a per Gigabyte per month basis. See here in the billing FAQ
Backups are nightly copies of your server. Our system will automatically create them for every server that you have enabled them on. They are invoiced with a flat fee per server. See here in the billing FAQ. Backups are bound to a single server and will automatically be deleted if you delete the server. For every server there are seven slots for backups. If all slots are full and you create an additional one, then the oldest backup will be deleted.
To access a snapshot or a backup, you will need to either:
- Use the Cloud Console to create a new server and choose the snapshot or backup as a source image. Or
- Rebuild an existing server using the snapshot or backup as a source image. Note that this will overwrite the contents of the server's disk.
When creating snapshots or backups, we recommend that you power down your server to ensure data consistency on the disks. You may, however, also create them from a running system. In this case we will try to flush the disk caches of your operating system using Qemu Guest Agent before snapshotting. However in this case we cannot guarantee data consistency.
What are projects, and how can I use them?
You can group your servers and other resources into projects. For each project you can invite other users to join and therefore work with you on the project via Cloud Console. To invite a user select "Access; Members; Add Member".
You can then enter the email address of the person you want to invite and choose their role, which determines their access level in this project.
The invitee will get an email containing a special link. After clicking it he can log in with his existing Hetzner Account details or create a new account. On completion he can accept the invitation and work together with you in your project.
You can always revoke access to the project or change the role of another member by going to "Access; Members in your Cloud Console".
Each member's role in a project determines what they are allowed to do:
|Highest access level. Can do everything an admin can do. Will be invoiced for all resources in the project, regardless of who created them. Each project can only have one owner.
|Can do everything a member can do. Additionally can manage project members (add/remove/change role) and API tokens.
|Can create, modify and delete all resources in the project, such as servers, floating IPs, images, etc.
| Can create, modify and delete all resources in the project except for:
Are there limits to the number of resources I can get?
Our cloud services are designed in a way so that you can tap into additional resources easily.
In order to prevent abuse, we put some limits on the number of resources a single account can create. If you reach any resource limits and would like us to increase the resources, please contact our support team via Cloud Console.
How can I reinstall a server?
Our recommended way to do this is to delete your old server and create a new one instead. This way you can ensure that all settings -- e.g. regarding ssh access keys and other things -- are fresh and up-to-date. There is also a high chance that your new server will get the same ip address your old, deleted server had.
If you really want to keep your server, you can replace its disk with a fresh install by using the rebuild server tool in the Cloud Console. However rebuilding your server using a different Linux distribution than the one it was created with can have unexpected consequences. Since cloudinit data only gets created one time upon server creation, your server might have cloudinit settings that are unfit for the Linux distribution your are using. For example, when rebuilding a server that was created with Ubuntu using Debian, your apt sources file may need manual adjustment.
How can I access the server I rebuilt?
Assume you rebuilt your Server server1 from a snapshot called snap1.
Case 1: server1 was originally created without selecting a SSH-Key:
After rebuild, a new root-password for server1 will be generated and mailed to you. It will be set on first boot using the cloud-init mechanism.
If snap1 contained injected SSH keys, these will also continue to work.
Case 2: server1 was created with selecting your SSH-Key key1:
After rebuild, the key key1 will be injected into server1 on first boot using the cloud-init mechanism. You can use key1 to access your server.
If snap1 contained any more keys in its authorized_keys file, you can also still use these to access server1.
In any case server1 cannot be accessed using a root-password directly after the rebuild, even if one was set in snap1.
Case 1 and Case 2 only apply if you restore a snapshot that was taken from our officially provided images. If you used the rescue system or other means to install the server snap1 was taken from, it will not be fit for reconfiguration via cloud-init, and its behavior might be different.
While creating a new server I have selected a snapshot as source image. How can I access this server?
Assume you created your Server server1 from a snapshot called snap1.
Case 1: You did not select a ssh key while creating server1
After server creation a root-password for access will be generated and mailed to you. It will be set using the cloud-init mechanism.
If snap1 contained injected SSH keys these will also continue to work.
Case 2: You selected ssh key key1 while creating server1
After server creation the key key1 will be injected into server1 using the cloud-init mechanism. You can use key1 to access your server.
If snap1 contained any more keys in its authorized_keys file you can also still use these to access server1.
In any case server1 cannot be accessed using a root-password directly after it creation, even if one was set in snap1.
Case 1 and Case 2 only apply if you use a snapshot that was taken from our officially provided images. If you used the rescue-system or other means to install the server snap1 was taken from it will not be fit for reconfiguration via cloud-init and its behavior might be different.
The keyboard mapping in the console window seems to be wrong. How can I fix this?
All of our images come with keyboard mapping set for a US keyboard. If you have something different, you need to configure it yourself within your server.
For example, on Ubuntu you can do so by running
sudo dpkg-reconfigure keyboard-configuration
and selecting the keyboard layout you are using on your local PC. After a reboot, the keyboard mapping in the console will be correct.
How do you bill your servers?
Servers have both a monthly price cap and a price per hour. Your server's bill will never exceed its monthly price cap. If you choose to use the server for less than a month, you will be billed at the hourly rate.
Mathematically speaking, you will be billed the minimum amount, whether that is the monthly price cap OR the hourly price multiplied by the number of hours you used the server.
Hourly usage of a server is always rounded up: If you create a server just for a few minutes you will still be billed for one whole hour. This reflects the additional load on your systems that is caused by the server's creation.
Do you bill servers that are off?
Yes. All servers that have finished their creation process will be billed until they are deleted, regardless of their state.
This is because, internally, we allocate full resources to servers regardless of their power state. And it enables rapid startup and boot times for you, the customer.
How do you bill for floating IPs?
Floating IPs are billed monthly. If you use your floating IP for less than a month, you will be billed for the appropriate fraction of it.
How do you bill for traffic?
We only bill for outgoing traffic. Incoming and internal traffic is free. Internal traffic includes other Hetzner Cloud servers, other Hetzner Online dedicated root servers, and other Hetzner Online servers, services, or web hosting packages.
If you exceed the traffic included in your package, we will bill you for every TB of over usage. If you only consume a fraction of a TB, it will be rounded up to the next full TB.
Example: Your server has 20TB included traffic. Within a month you use 20.8TB. You will be billed for 1 TB of over usage.
How do you bill for snapshots and backups?
Snapshots are billed per gigabyte per month. If a snapshot only exists for a fraction of a month, then it will only be billed for this fraction. We will only bill you for the space the compressed snapshot uses in our storage system. So if you create a snapshot of a disk of 40GB, you will be billed for 40GB or less - depending on how the data on your disk compresses.
Backups are billed as a monthly flat price which is 20% of the price of the server you activate them for. So if you activate backups for a server that costs €2.49 per month, you will be billed an additional €2.49 * 0.2 = €0.498/month. For this price you will get a total of 7 backup slots.
When will I get my invoice?
When you sign up for our offer, we will create the first invoice earlier than usual. We will only do this for the very first invoice. We find that it helps prevent abuse.
You can manage your open invoices at any time, regardless of when we create your invoice, via your account on Cloud Console by going to "Account; Billing".
After the first invoice, we will create invoices based on full calendar months. To space out invoices, we may create them up to 28 days after the last month was completed.
How do I keep my costs under control?
You can set alerts that will send you an email if you exceed a certain cost limit. To set an alert, go to "Account; Billing" in your Cloud Console.
You can set values per project by clicking on the numbers.
How are small amounts handled in invoices?
All amounts within an invoice are added to the total sum with high precision.
Example: You use multiple servers with a price of 0.004€ for just one hour. On invoice creation all of these amounts will be added to the total sum of the invoice with high precision and only after that the total sum will be rounded to two digits using commercial rounding rules.
Technical details
What hardware do my servers run on?
Hetzner Cloud servers run on the latest generation of Intel Xeon CPUs (Skylake) with ECC RAM. For local storage we use NVMe SSDs.
What hypervisor and NIC/disk drivers do you use?
We are running KVM as a hypervisor. We use virtio for both virtual NICs and disks.
Is there any way to get a custom configuration?
Customized virtual servers (additional RAM, additional/larger drives etc.) are not currently available.
How are your images set up?
The images we provide use cloud-init to set up networking and other options.
They come with qemu-guest agent preinstalled. It is used for:
- force flushing of disk caches before snapshots and backups are created
- resetting the root password on your request
If you do not want to have qemu guest agent running, feel free to uninstall it. However you will lose the functionality mentioned above.
Can I install Windows?
Right now we are focusing on support for Linux as an operating system. You can install Windows manually on your own using an ISO image. For more information, please see here.
Please note that we will not provide any support for Windows.
Are you patched against Meltdown and Spectre?
All currently released stable patches are applied. We expect to apply more patches as they get released by our vendors over the new few days and weeks.
Future plans
Do you plan to add x feature?/Will you add more features?
We started Hetzner Cloud with the minimal feature set we think is necessary to enter the market. However we intend to continually add new features and services. We have designed our internal development methods and systems to allow us to add more features.
Unfortunately we cannot provide you with a precise roadmap of the things we are working on. However you can stay up to date by following us on Twitter at https://twitter.com/hetzner_online
Will you add additional locations in different geographic regions?
We are actively looking into this option right now.
Can I access your Service through an API?
Of course! You can find current the api docs under https://docs.hetzner.cloud.
If you develop something against our API we appreciate feedback through the support form of your Cloud Console.
Do you sponsor efforts to integrate Hetzner Cloud into Open Source libs?
Yes we do: If you are developing integrations based on our API and your product is Open Source you may be eligible for a free one time €50 (excl. VAT) credit on your account. Please contact us via the support page on your Cloud Console and let us know the following:
- The type of integration you would like to develop
- Link to the GitHub repo you will use for the project
- Link to some other Open Source work you have already done (if you have done so)
A list of integrations that are already done or being worked on can be found here:
We'd love to hear from you! :)
Is there a command line (CLI) tool to access Hetzner Cloud?
Yes. It is provided as an Open Source Project here: https://github.com/hetznercloud/cli
If you would like to contribute or extend it, please do so by opening pull requests.
Is there a library to access Hetzner Cloud from my programming language?
We currently provide a library for Go as Open Source under https://github.com/hetznercloud/hcloud-go.
You can find inofficial libraries for many languages at our integrations list: https://github.com/hetznercloud/awesome-hcloud
Since our API is very easy to use you may not even need a full lib and a quick HTTPS request may be enough; check out our API documentation at https://docs.hetzner.cloud
Work for us
We are looking for new developers. So if you like our product and would like to work for Hetzner Online, please take a look at https://career.hetzner.com


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Home > News & Events > Wayland Press Release Archives > 2005 News Releases > July 2005 > WBU-Lubbock opening classes at Reese
WBU-Lubbock opening classes at Reese
LUBBOCK – A small group gathered Tuesday morning in the conference center at the Reese Technology Center to announce an educational partnership between Wayland Baptist University and the center.
Wayland will offer classes at Reese when the fall term begins on Aug. 24. Classes will be held in the evenings, from 6-10 p.m. Monday through Thursday. The classes will meet at the Reese Conference Center at 401 Gilbert Drive.
Dr. Kent Brooks, dean of the WBU-Lubbock campus, told the group that it was a privilege to be offering classes at Reese again. WBU-Lubbock was housed at Reese when the military base was in operation, but moved into Lubbock when it closed.
"We have wanted to be back out here since it closed," Brooks said.
Eric Williams, executive director of the Reese Technology Center, explained that of the 114 research parks across the United State, Reese is the fifth largest and the only one associated with three institutions of high learning. Wayland is joining South Plains College and Texas Tech in offering courses at the center. Williams said 34 percent of the center is dedicated to higher education.
"This is an historic day for Reese," Williams said. "No other park in the U.S. has dedicated this much to higher education."
In the early stages of its partnership with Reese, Wayland's course offerings will focus on business and education with the possibility of additional degree programs being offered in the future. WBU-Lubbock offers four, 11-week terms a year. The fall term begins Aug. 24 and runs through Nov. 5.
For more information on the course offerings at Reese, contact Wayland at 806-785-9285 or visit the campus at 2002 W. Loop 289, Suite 120.

subset: commoncrawl


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Information for Faculty and Staff
Guidelines for General Education Courses
Before submitting a request for Gen Ed designation, please review the descriptions of the General Education categories in General Education Guidelines. All General Education courses must be 4 credits, except for B, O, S, and Y courses. Students must take a General Education course for a letter grade in order to fulfill the requirement, except where Pass/Fail is the only option, which will primarily occur in B, S, and Y courses.
How to Submit Courses for Designation
Faculty, instructors, and departments interested in submitting courses for General Education designation should use the online course submission form. For more information, please contact Liz Abate, Coordinator of General Education, at 607-777-2146 or email@example.com.
Frequently Asked Questions
- FAQ about submitting courses for General Education designation
- FAQ about Composition (C) courses
- FAQ about Global Interdependencies (G) courses
Assessment of General Education
Information on the course portfolio assessment process for General Education, including links to the Faculty Senate legislation regarding assessment of General Education and reports on several of the General Education categories, may be found at https://www.binghamton.edu/general-education/information-faculty/gen-ed-assessment.html
Policies and Procedures
The General Education Policies and Procedures Manual is available for advisers, faculty and staff online at http://undergrad.binghamton.edu/policy/.


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Dexter Morgan may have met his match.
Actor Sean Patrick Flanery will have a "major recurring role" in the upcoming eighth season of Showtime's Dexter, Deadline reports. The Boondock Saints star will play an ex-cop who owns a private investigation business in Miami.
It's unclear what role Flanery's character, Jacob Elroy, will have in relation to Dexter (Michael C. Hall) or how he might impact the show's possibly final season. (Showtime Entertainment President David Nevins said during a Television Critics Association panel earlier this month that there is "a clear end game in place," though he failed to confirm that Season 8 will be the show's last.
In other casting news, British actress Charlotte Rampling has also landed a recurring role, according to Entertainment Weekly. She'll play a neuro-psychiatrist who specializes in criminal profiling and studying young psychopaths.
Dexter returns Sunday, June 30 at 9/8c.


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The Hockeyroos will appear at an 11th straight Olympic Games after booking their place at Tokyo 2020 with a resounding 5-0 win in the second and final qualifier against Russia tonight.
The result gave the Hockeyroos a 9-2 victory on aggregate to ensure they will join the Kookaburras in representing Australia at next year's Games.
After a 4-2 win in the opening game yesterday, the overall result was decided inside the opening half of tonight's second match as all of the goals came in the first 30 minutes.
Mariah Williams scored a brace while Grace Stewart, Sophie Taylor and Emily Chalker also got on the score sheet.
"I feel really happy for the girls," said Head Coach Paul Gaudoin after the win
The partnership between mining industry leader Ausdrill and the world number two ranked Hockeyroos has been further strengthened with a new two year contract renewal that will take the partnership past a decade. Ausdrill's association with Australia's national hockey teams first began in 2011, and its continuation as the Official Naming Rights Partner of the Hockeyroos and the Official Supporting Partner of the Kookaburras will take the partnership up to 2021. In addition to valuable funding for the Hockeyroos and Kookaburras High Performance Program, the partnership also encompasses a range of other benefits.


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It turns out that Professor Proton has a rival!
Bob Newhart will reprise his Emmy-winning role in an upcoming episode of The Big Bang Theory that will also guest-star Bill Nye, CBS announced Wednesday.
How long can The Big Bang Theory go on?
When Professor Proton seeks Leonard's (Johnny Galecki) help with an experiment, an angry and jealous Sheldon (Jim Parsons) will get his revenge by befriending rival science TV host Bill Nye of Bill Nye the Science Guy fame.
Nye currently appears on Dancing with the Stars, while Newhart just won an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy for his role on the CBS comedy last season.
The Big Bang Theory airs Thursdays at 8/7c. Newhart and Nye's episode is slated to air on Thursday, Nov. 7.
(Full disclosure: TVGuide.com is owned by CBS.)


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Reliable Garage Door Company near Grosse Pointe, MI
Go-to Garage Door Company for over 20 years!
The exceptional service provided by our technicians at Town & Country Door make us the best among any garage door company throughout garage door company and surrounding areas. We've operated this family-owned business with great pride since 1995. Earning yearly awards from reputable business reviewers like Angie's List and the US Commerce Association for our quality installation and repair services, you can certainly trust the safety of your home or building to us. We'll make sure that your installation, garage door replacement, and even spring or opener repair is completed properly the first time.
Why Choose Town & Country Door?
- Over 20 Years of Experience
- Experts in Installation & Repair
- Extended Hours
- Rapid Response
- Fully Licensed & Insured
- Open evenings and weekends
- Angie's List Super Service Award Winners Since 2011
- 5-Time Bloomfield Hills, Michigan "Best Small Business" Award Winner
- Highly Competitive Pricing
- and more!
Garage Door Installation & Services in Grosse Pointe
We have been a team for over two decades in garage door installation, keeping safety the highest priority. We recommend that you trust an experienced and licensed Garage Door Company like Town & Country Door in order for you to stay safe and free from dangerous injury prone garage installation or spring repair. When you work with us, our technicians will educate you on all of your options, providing only honest and fair information and estimates. We offer 9 different and beautiful collections of garage door styles, each with numerous panel designs and colors to choose from.
At Town & Country Door, we specialize in repairing all makes and models of garage doors, garage door springs, automatic garage door openers, garage door cables, rollers, hinges, and more! Whether we installed them initially or not, our experienced technicians can accurately diagnose any issue and repair the damages quickly. With extended hours, we also provide same-day service and always try to get to you right away. We value our customers' time, which is why we have mastered fast service that maintains quality.
Our services include:
- Garage Door Installation/Replacement
- Garage Door Spring Repair/Replacement
- Automatic Garage Door Opener Installation/Repair
- Replacement Parts including rollers, hinges and cables
- Garage Door Opener Replacement/Diagnosis
- Service & Repairs on ALL Makes & Models
Keeping Customers Satisfied in Grosse Pointe MI & the Surrounding Area
Having experience with all makes and models of garage doors, we have provided our services to those who live in Southeast Michigan for quite some time. We value what our customers have to say - if you need a new garage, or a repair to an existing one don't hesitate to give us a call!
Our Garage door opener went on the blink. I had passed by Town and Country Door several times on the way to church. I called them on Monday morning, explained problem and was given an appointment time. The technician arrived promptly and assessed situation made suggestions as to which door opener would do the best Job. then made the installation. I would like to commend Justin for his diligence and prompt efficient service. I will recommend Town and Country to my friends.Stan*
Our garage door opener began working intermittently a few weeks ago. We had another repair company by to fix the problem when it started, but they obviously didn't do a good job because we couldn't close the door last night. This morning, that company said they were busy today, but we could try for tomorrow. We called Town & Country and Brian said he would send someone this morning! Jordan was our Tech. Jordan quickly determined we needed a new opener, gave us options, we selected one and he installed it -all today. Jordan is intelligent, knowledgeable, efficient and polite. My husband and I are now loyal customers of T & C. They are very service minded.Ann*
We had a problem with our garage door. After checking company's reviews on the Internet, I called Town & Country Door, talked to Christian, and he offered to send a repairman the same day. Justin was very professional and efficient. The problem was solved right away. Excellent service!Alla*


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Pockets, Paper Piecing & Shaped Christmas Cards
Viewer Comments
aaaaaa! just love this stuff.
I love all of the ideas in this webisode especially the snowman. But I have a question. How does Teresa get such a perfect matte around the snowman and paper pieced Christmas tree? Does she use the Magic Matter?
Reply from Paper Wishes Customer Service:
Teresa just has a sure hand. Probably all the fabric applique she has done in her life!
These webisodes must go on! Paulette and Sara are so delightful and I get a lot of enjoyment and ideas!!!
I just love these webisodes. I'm a advid scrapbooker but I'm pretty new to card making. I usually buy my Christmas cards but this year, with the help of your webisodes, I will be making them myself. Thank you ladies for all of the wonderful ideas. Teresa is a genous. Keep up the great work.
What darling cards and so many ideas that can be used in many different applications! I especially loved the flocking! Thank you so much for these wonderful webisodes!
Thank you so much for these webisodes on Christmas cardmaking. I love the tip for offseting the paper for the front of the card. The cutaway cards and pocket cards are beautiful. I also love the paper-pieced Christmas trees with glitter domes. I am full of ideas for my seasonal cardmaking. Keep up the good work!
Another WOW episode..Thanks
I love the webisodes and look forward to them each week. The special "Week of Webisodes" are so much fun! I can hardly wait to get home from work to see what's next. The card ideas are great! Thank you!
I love your webisodes! I especially love the week long ones. Thank you for doing these, please keep them coming.
I loved it! I have inspiration for new cards. I especially loved the pockets and using them with gift cards. What fun!
Teresa's a genius!! Why can't I come up with some of these ideas on my own??? Thanks so much for these webisodes!!
I love the cards and ideas that you have shared with us.. Thank you so much////
This is the best. The cards are outstanding. Thank you for doing these episodes I have learned a lot.
Great ideas for Christmas Cards! I love the shaped cards. Thank you too for the tip on offsetting the card front paper. This measurment has been a problem for me foreveer. I love the webisodes, thanks.
You have such good ideas and tips for cards. I learns some great ones. Thanks, keep em coming.
Just amazing! Another fantastic webisode filled with beautiful card ideas that are very versatile. Going back to the previous week of webisode with the one about card recipes, I can see using some of these pocket ideas on other occasion cards. Makes me want to just dig into my stash and start creating. Thanks so much ladies, and Theresa you are so very talented.
Please don't ever take the "Archives" off your website. I use it for examples all the time and would be lost without it.
Love the xmas cards and really love the web site. keep up the good work and GREAT ideas .thank you, Elaine
Can't wait to see the new webisodes. I turn my computer on first thing in the morning. Keep up the good work.
These webisodes are wonderful! Thanks so much for explaining and showing in detail how the cards are made in this webisode.
Paper Wishes Weekly Webisodes feature free scrapbooking video classes and card making video classes! Every week Paulette and LeNae bring you new online scrapbooking or card making classes demonstrating the very latest paper craft and scrapbooking techniques. Each of our free card making and scrapbooking classes also gives you unique project ideas and tips from Paper Wishes' Design Team. Come back often so you don't miss any of the fun in our card making and scrapbooking classes! You are sure to be inspired! Also watch for our "Week of Webisodes" events where we feature new scrapbooking video classes daily!


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Cardiff City have unveiled their home shirt for their very first season in the Premier League. The new Cardiff home kit for the 2013-14 season is designed by Puma, and features an all red kit with white trim.
To be completely honest with you, I've seen better kits worn by kid soccer teams. The red shirt is very ordinary and features no redeeming qualities other than a small racing stripe on the front collar. According to the club website, "the two Puma King stripes reflect the fans loyalty to the club, which is appreciated by all." Blech!
In the photograph above (from the Cardiff City website), the shorts look a darker shade of red.
The other disappointing feature is how tiny and how insignificant the club's icon (and nickname) the bluebird is on the shirt. It's small peck, drowned by red.
Just as Southampton's kit was incredibly disappointing last season on their return to the top flight, Cardiff City's kit design is equally unattractive. Puma, who are a company renowned for designing quality shirts that look quite different than the run-of-the-mill shirts from Adidas and Nike, have delivered one of their most disappointing shirts in quite some time.
Full disclosure: I'm a Swansea City supporter. But even as a Jack, I tried to remain objective on this one.
What do you think? If you disagree with me, let me know in the comments section below? Will you be buying this shirt? If so, tell us why below.


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Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology
On-line version ISSN 1445-7377
Print version ISSN 2079-7222
Indo-Pac. j. phenomenol. (Online) vol.14 n.2 Grahamstown Oct. 2014
Phenomenology, psychotherapy and the quest for intersubjectivity
Archana Barua; Minakshi Das
Intersubjectivity is a key concept in phenomenology as well as in psychology and especially in psychotherapy, given the reliance of the therapeutic process on its location in relationship. While psychotherapy encompasses a range of what Owen (2006) terms "talking therapies", this paper focuses mainly on the Freudian model of psychoanalysis and its connection with Husserlian and Heideggerian phenomenology respectively. Freud's recognition that symptoms have meaning, and that the methodical disclosing of their meaning needs to be guided by the experience of the patient, accords with the emphasis of phenomenology on empathic attunement to the lived experience of the other. Insofar as the orientation of psychoanalysis towards methodically disclosing meaning gives it a hermeneutic dimension, it is also compatible methodologically with the interpretative mode of phenomenology. While Karlsson (2010, p. 13) identifies seven centrally significant "points of connection" between psychoanalysis and phenomenology, Thompson (2005, p. 40) suggests that "psychoanalysis is already phenomenological in its latency ... . Indeed, Freud's principles of technique make little sense outside a phenomenological context".
Can it thus be claimed that, in the quest for intersubjectivity, sufficient common ground exists for meaningful dialogue between psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and phenomenology in general, and between Sigmund Freud, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger in particular? That is what this paper seeks to explore.
The paper proceeds from pointing to the ambiguity of the Freudian mode as simultaneously natural scientific and hermeneutic to exploring the fundamental points of difference and commonality between psychoanalysis and phenomenology, and in particular the significance of the role of the unconscious and intentionality in psychoanalysis and phenomenology respectively, as well as the orientation of both towards greater understanding of one's being in the world. Ultimately, however, the authors conclude that, while the points of commonality would seem conducive to dialogue between the Freudian and the phenomenological in the psychotherapeutic domain, their differences in aims and approach, each shaped by a different view of humankind, continue to obstruct it. The quest for it nevertheless remains ongoing, as demonstrated not only by the academic endeavours of theoreticians such as Owen and Karlsson, but by the contemporary urge of second century psychoanalysis for a theoretically coherent turn away from the Cartesian and towards the authentically intersubjectively relational.
Phenomenology and Psychotherapy
Freud's innovations in the field of psychiatry remain not only influential but fundamental in the areas of both theory and practice in the broad mental health field, with the terminology in which his theoretical constructs, explanatory concepts and therapeutic techniques are embedded by now an established part of the cultural vocabulary. As a comprehensive model of psychic functioning, Freud's personality theory offers explanatory concepts for understanding human development, motivation and behaviour. In the field of clinical practice, it both roots and frames the process of psychoanalysis as a method focused on capturing "the genesis of otherness" in order to achieve its aim "to help individuals negotiate psychic difficulties - such as neuroses and psychoses - that arise from the dynamical conflicts between the instinctual forces" (Cutrofello, 2005, p. 122).
Despite the fact that the reliance of Freud's "meta-psychology" on the mechanistic, reductionist, and thereby positivist, model of natural science has been challenged by critics from various schools of thought, there is nevertheless consensus among contemporary psychoanalytic theoreticians that this is not the only philosophical framework within which psychoanalysis functions, but that two distinct and rival models of psychoanalysis are in fact operative. Nissim-Sabat (1995) asserts that, "from its inception psychoanalysis has embodied two conflicting traditional models for theoretical work: 1) Freud's mechanistic and reductionist, that is, positivist, natural science framework, his "meta-psychology", and 2) his interpretive, or hermeneutic, framework" (p. 163). This accords with Ricoeur's assessment that, "on the one hand, [psychoanalysis] aims to expose the sense of psychic phenomena and therefore proceeds hermeneutically or phenomenologically, respectively. Yet, on the other hand, it strives to explain these phenomena through recourse to the economics of psychic forces and their conflicts, following the ideal of the natural sciences" (Ricoeur, 1965; in Lohmar & Brudzińska, 2012, p. x).
Since psychoanalysis inevitably retains this ambiguity, one may wonder with which particular version of the Freudian model one can begin in attempting to assess the possibility of meaningful dialogue between Freud and phenomenology. The problems one faces are not only diverse, but pivotal. The natural science model of psychoanalysis dichotomises the positions of psychoanalysis and phenomenology in their understanding not only of what is truly scientific in science as such, but of the reality of human being. From this perspective, the Freudian psyche is reduced to the "thingness" of the solipsistic Cartesian mind, and psychoanalysis hence trapped in the dualism that phenomenology rejects. If science is taken as naturalism and reductionism in psychoanalysis, then phenomenology stands opposed to psychoanalysis. As Owen (2003) elucidates, "Natural accounts ... devalue meaning, consciousness, the sense of the other and the intersubjective relationship. ... Natural interpretation ignores the observable phenomena in favour of what is naturally causative of conscious phenomena. ... When taking the natural route, consciousness is bypassed and the meaningful intersubjective world is lost" (p. 247). Thus, it would seem that, as Nissim-Sabat (1991) concludes, "With a concept of science that is broader than natural science, phenomenology is incompatible with both the hermeneutic and natural science models currently espoused by psychoanalytic theoreticians" (p. 44).
However, approached from another perspective, psychoanalysis is neither a science nor philosophy. "[T]he object of psychoanalysis is the zone where the two realms overlap, that is, where the biological or somatic is already mental or cultural and where, at the same time, culture springs from the very impasses of the somatic functions which it tries to resolve" (Zupančič, 2007, p. 2). Owen suggests that the proper stance from which to read Freud are the details of how he worked, that he "disliked rule-bound practice" and did not, in his own words, "consider it at all desirable for psychoanalysis to be swallowed up by medicine and to find its last resting place in a textbook of psychiatry under the heading 'Methods of Treatment'..." (Freud, 1926; in Owen, 2003, p. 16). Contrary to the reductionist model of science associated with the version of psychoanalysis evident in the standard readings of Freud, psychoanalysis as a practice is, as Ricoeur argued, more essentially a hermeneutical science, in that, unlike in other natural sciences, in psychoanalysis the possibility of verification is "based on the narrative character of the psychoanalytic process" (Ricoeur, 1977; in Karlsson, 2004/2010, p. 4). Despite the significance of Ricoeur's distinction between the "hermeneutics of suspicion" characterising the search of psychoanalysis for hidden meaning and the "hermeneutics of faith" implicit in the focus of hermeneutic phenomenology on immediate meaning, the perspective on the practice of psychoanalysis as a "hermeneutical science" opens up possibilities for bridging the gap between psychoanalysis and phenomenology, insofar as it points to the key methodological significance in both domains of meaning, intersubjectivity and empathy.
With the focus of its search for meaning on disclosing the hidden in order to explain what is manifest or experienced, psychoanalysis engages with the unconscious. Phenomenology, on the other hand, begins with lived human experience, which is perceived as already "always 'meaning-full', always orientated, and always value-laden" (Bracken, 1999, p. 84). For phenomenology, "The starting point is to find out how we find ourselves to be human beings who share the same intersubjective object-meanings in one fundamentally shared world" (Owen, 1994, p. 6). In contrast, given its inescapable Cartesian implications, for psychoanalysis intersubjectivity would imply "a thematic exchange between two objectively separate individuals, where one is trying to grasp the objectively separate emotions or experiences of the other" (Reis, 2011). Psychoanalysis nevertheless too deals with the meaningful realm of human interaction and is basically committed to the ideal that, in principle, there is nothing that is meaningless (Karlsson, 2004/2010, p. 79). While exploring the "distorted, illogical and pathological", and thus apparently meaningless, realm of human understanding, with its subject matter the unrevealed zone of our existence that appears strange and unknowable as it remains outside the scope of logical understandability, psychoanalysis seeks to discover the meaning of the experientially meaningless - and thus it looks for a wider dimension of lived meaning that is to be hermeneutically disclosed in order to be re-lived meaningfully rather than logically understood (Karlsson, 2004/2010, p. 14).
Psychotherapy and the Sphere of the Unconscious
Exploring some fundamental points of difference between psychoanalysis and phenomenology may allow for possible points of commonality to be rediscovered. We shall proceed by re-visiting the concepts of conscious intentionality on the one hand and that of the unconscious on the other.
No-one will question that the unconscious is the proper subject matter of psychoanalysis, but what needs clarification is in what sense words like "unconscious", and, for that matter, even the word "conscious", is used in this context, and in what sense one can talk about these terms. One cannot overlook the fact that, as Strong (1984) points out, "there is a certain ambiguity, or more properly an evolution, in Freud's thoughts on the unconscious" (p. 52).
Strong (1984) elaborates on this as follows:
By 1915, ... in the article "The Unconscious", Freud includes both the "conscious" and the "preconscious" (that which can come into consciousness) in a realm that has been "transformed" such that one can "know something about it". Dreams, for instance, are never said to be "in" the unconscious, but are rather the "royal road" to it. And, when Freud wrote The Ego and the Id in 1923, he found that he could "easily bring the concepts into order" (bequem wirtschaften) concerning the relation of the conscious state to that which is unconscious. He argues a few pages later that everything that is "preconscious" and "conscious" can be placed in the realm of the "ego" and that the rest of the psyche - which behaves "as if it were unconscious" - can be called the "id". It is fair to say that even after this writing Freud's use of the word "unconscious" retains both an ordinary and a more technical use, but by and large, after 1923, when he refers to "the unconscious", as opposed to something being unconscious, he means the "id". (pp. 52-53)
In order to explore these various shades of meaning we should begin by bracketing the usual way of looking at these terms. To do justice to both meaning-laden and value-laden terms like mind, matter, conscious, unconscious, and so forth, we have to aim for a deeper and more subtle sense of what makes the term meaningful within a particular discourse. For example, what we usually mean by drives, instincts and so forth may differ from the term's meaning within the stream of psychotherapy. So, too, Freud's conceptual construct was very different from the existing psychological notion of the unconscious as the realm that is other than the one we are aware of, as it always remains in contrast to the conscious realm. Freud (1905/1961, p. 168) defined a drive as "the psychical representative of an endosomatic, continuously flowing source of stimulation", with this concept thus one that lies "on the frontier between the mental and the physical". If, for example, we take libido to be the core of the unconscious, we may very well identify it with the id (das Es), the "untamed and wild" in Freudian psychoanalysis that Karlsson (2004/2010) describes as akin to something like Laplanche's version of the death drive and its libidinal and sexual character of a body ego. But, in Freud, it must be considered in a broader context that differs from the conventional notion of sexuality as a natural condition limited to the adult heterosexual relationship only. Freud included infantile sexuality into its fold. (Karlsson, 2004/2010, pp. xii-xiii)
But what, then, does libido stand for? Karlsson (2004/ 2010) argues that
... the libido concept, or the sexual drives, should not be understood as experienced sexuality, or even as possible to experience. The concept of libido should rather be understood as a theoretical construction, and as such expresses itself most clearly in Freud's economic, energy point of view. (p. xiii)
Understanding of libido and of drive in this way helps us to see the phenomenological underpinnings of these meaning-imbued terms. While the sexual drive has a special characteristic position in the world of human experience, libido is a non-experiential, constructed, scientific concept that provides a psychoanalytic perspective. As such, the concept of libido is understandable against the background of a pre-scientific domain of a sexually vibrant but hitherto unexplored lived dimension of life-world experiences. As Zupancic (2007) submits:
With the term "libido" Freud designates an original and irreducible imbalance of the human nature. Every satisfaction of a need brings with itself the possibility of a supplementary satisfaction, deviating from the object and aim of a given demand while pursuing its own goal, thus constituting a seemingly dysfunctional detour. (p. 466)
Ricoeur (1969/1974b) re-visits meaningful variations of the term libido within the Freudian psychoanalytical context, concluding that, while it is beyond the grasp of the intellect, it is within the domain of experience, and is thus real that way. He argues emphatically that
... the reality of this realism is one which can be known. It is not unknowable. Freud is very helpful in this respect. For him, the knowable is not an instinct (Trieb) in its being as instinct: it is rather a representation by which instincts are represented. (p. 104)
With his submission that "there exists another, more specific form of the unconscious which refers to something inadmissible to consciousness" (Zupančič, 2007, p. 458), Freud seeks to unveil the unknowable nature of the unconscious in itself so that, in order to know it, one has to re-live it, thus keeping room for a human way of knowing that becomes synonymous with the way of being as well. The unconscious is not contained by the conscious ego; it has its own dynamics and desires which are capable of punctuating the ego's actions. Freud in fact suggests that one part of the ego may itself be unconscious.
Karlsson (2004/2010) approaches the unconscious through a discussion of the opposition-pair of consciousness and the unconscious that makes it difficult to identify which is the real agent in the ongoing tussle between the latent and the transparent domains of the ego. More precisely, while the struggle and tension between the two fields is internal to the unconscious itself, there would appear to be a certain complicity at work between the opposed fields of consciousness and the unconscious. Williams (2001, p. 81) notes:
In his essay "The Ego and the Id", Freud noted that the unconscious does not coincide with what is repressed by the ego; it is something more. ... Using the analogy of the horse, Freud writes: "Often a rider, if he is not to be parted from his horse, is obliged to guide it where it wants to go; so in the same way the ego is in the habit of transforming the id's will into action as if it were its own" (Freud, 1923/1962, p. 15).
With its focus on the lived dimension of our experience, psychoanalysis prepares the ground for unearthing the deeper, suppressed root of one's existential suffering that needs therapeutic remedy. The root of this pain and suffering cannot be rationally understood, but, by being unearthed, it can be existentially re-lived. "Freud described this goal as wanting; it is to make the 'unconscious conscious' ..." (Binnell, 1996, para. 40).
Freud held not only that the unconscious is causative, but that conscious intersubjective experience is also caused by unconscious communication. "What guided Freud, and continues to guide contemporary psychodynamic practice, is the concept that there exists a process of unconscious-to-unconscious communication", and that this enables therapists "to interpret the unconscious of clients within their own unconscious" (Scott, 2003, p. 76).
The observation that the unconscious realm, of which a person was unaware, could play an important role in that person's behaviour, became pivotal in psychoanalysis. Freud also learnt from Liibeault and Bernheim that, although patients tend to forget what experiences they underwent during hypnosis, such memories can return if the patient is strongly encouraged to remember them. This observation was important to the development of psychoanalysis. By persisting in utilizing the crucial therapeutic significance of insights and symbols, the therapist attempts to ensure that a certain re-organization of the meaning field of the patient occurs. As Sundara Rajan (1991, pp. 100-105) explains, this re-organization of meanings "gives a certain intelligibility" to the patient's suffering, which "transforms, in a therapeutically significant way, the experience of pain". The aim of psychoanalysis is thus not primarily to remove the suffering, but rather to enable it to be re-understood in a more meaningful, and hence bearable, manner. For "what man cannot bear is not suffering as such but meaningless suffering". This is partly what is implied regarding both the limits and the possibilities of psychoanalysis by Freud's assertion that, even if it is not possible to relieve the patient of the source of his or her suffering, "much will be gained if we succeed in transforming ... hysterical misery into common unhappiness" (Breuer & Freud, 1895/1955, p. 305).
What is evident from the foregoing overview of various shades of the meaning of "the unconscious" in psychoanalysis is that, for psychoanalysis too, the unconscious is to be seen as a sphere of meaning and intention. Lohmar and Brudzińska (2012, p. x) point to Ricoeur (1965)'s interpretation of psychoanalysis "as a theory of subjectivity and thus as a theory of subjective experience", and his emphasis that, in line with phenomenological description, "the kind of subjective experience which psychoanalysis brings to light is always an intentional and sense achieving experience". What this points to is the sense-bestowing phenomenological meaning dimension of terms such as "the unconscious". As Karlsson (2004/ 2010, p. 19) reiterates, "Phenomenology does not study the unconscious of psychoanalysis; that aim is reserved for psychoanalysis itself". Nevertheless, insofar as phenomenology illuminates "the conditions for the possibility of something like the unconscious" (ibid.), it opens the way for a dialogue yielding interesting possibilities.
Karlsson (2004/2010, p. 13ff.) underlines some points of connection between the philosophy of phenomenology and psychoanalysis, starting with their shared interest in the subjective (in terms of experience, feelings, bodiliness) as the field of study. Ricoeur (1969/1974b, pp. 119-120) points out that, with his Cartesian Meditations, Husserl widened the horizon of transcendental subjectivity to include within the domain of the subjectively meaningful the hidden (whether latent or implicit) dimension of intentional acts or meanings ─ thereby making the unconscious part of experience accessible to phenomenological description. "The approach is from the conscious and the explicit to the unconscious and the implicit."
Like Freudian psychoanalysis, "Husserlian phenomenology also began with a critique of reflective consciousness and introduced the theme ... of the prereflective and unreflected. ... The unconscious which is involved in the phenomenological method's theme is the unreflected domain that, interestingly enough, is 'capable of becoming conscious' ... " (Ricoeur, 1969/1974b, p. 102). Husserl concurred with Freud that "some modes of intentionality do not become conscious", but held that they nevertheless "can be elucidated by comparing the manner of conscious givenness of objects of different kinds" (Owen, 2003, p. 82).
A further commonality between psychoanalysis and phenomenology pointed to by Karlsson (2004/2010, pp. 15-16) is the deliberate break of both with the natural attitude in order to ensure openness to meaning as it emerges. In phenomenology, the epochi or bracketing of the natural attitude in order to reach back to "the thing itself" allows for an unbiased reflective stance towards the epistemic subject, whereas in psychoanalysis the process of free-flowing attentiveness allows for opening up the field of the concealed. "That the psychoanalyst would have a kind of psychoanalytic screen through which the analysand's storytelling is filtered must certainly be considered as an outdated and scurrilous portrait" (Karlsson, 2004/2010, p. 6).
On the whole, phenomenology affirms the need for delving into the interiority of self-consciousness. However, in phenomenology the lived dimension of empathic interaction is central, with intentionality shared through empathy. Since experience is not subjective, but inherently intersubjective, one can empathically recognize that another person is in pain even though one can never know another person's pain directly. This is the central position in phenomenology, although there is scope for variations within it. According to Thompson (2005), "Whereas Husserl begins the individual's relationship with oneself and goes from there to 'others', Heidegger begins with our relationships with others and then sets out to investigate how to determine, or reclaim, our relationship with ourselves" (p. 42). Ultimately, as Ricoeur (1969/1974a) asserts, "It is in spite of itself that phenomenology discovers, in place of an idealist subject locked within its system of meanings, a living being which from all time has, as the horizon of all its intentions, a world, the world" (p. 9).
Phenomenologically Oriented Psychoanalysis
"As an art and as a science of healing human suffering ... psychotherapy, as a process, is primarily based on the art of relating and the science of understanding ..." (Vrinte, 1996, pp. ix & 22; italics added). In the context of the psychotherapeutic encounter between the two contributors to the narrative and interpretative flow of the search for meaning, insight, self-knowledge, self-control or self-actualisation, the intersubjective and the scientific are thus inextricably interrelated, with the "art" framed by the "science". When the science of understanding ─ or scientific meaning ─ proves incongruent with the intersubjectively shared intentionality of empathic understanding - or lived meaning - a therapist may turn to questioning the epistemic, scientific and philosophical approaches to man and his world in which his or her training and practice are rooted.
Questioning of the epistemic and philosophical basis of the firmly-rooted scientific model of Freudian psychoanalysis, and seeking to escape its entrapment in the dualistic epistemology and metaphysics stemming from Descartes, Kant and others, led to a search for an alternative model rooted in a philosophy more consistent with the intersubjective reality of human existence. Drawing on existential philosophy, as well as the work of phenomenologically oriented psychoanalysts such as Binswanger and Boss, and, in more recent times, May, Yalom, Van Duerzen and Spinelli, contributed to the development of existential-phenomenological psychotherapy from Heidegger's Daseinsanalytik.
According to Dallmayr (1993, p. 235), Heidegger's intensive interactions with a group of medically trained psychiatrists in Zurich and his critical estimate of their positivist construal of depth understanding, a construal which relies narrowly on libidinal drives seen as a psychosomatic causal mechanism, ultimately led to his developing his Daseinsanalytik (analysis of Dasein), from which evolved the existential-phenomenological therapeutic approach of "existential analysis" (Daseinsanalyse). To cite Cohn (2002) in this regard: "Surprisingly and mysteriously, Heidegger, in the end, returned to his own beginnings, to the phenomena, to his original aim 'to let that which shows itself be seen from itself in the very way in which it shows itself from itself' (Heidegger, 1962, p. 58). This return can be seen in his lectures in Zollikon" (p. 20).
Petzet (as cited in Cohn, 2002) recalls that,
In September 1959, Heidegger started his Seminar for Medard Boss and other psychiatrists with a drawing that showed five half circles, each entered by an arrow: (< . This drawing is meant to show that human existence is essentially never just an object that is somewhere present, least of all an object closed in itself. Rather, this existence consists of "mere" potentialities -neither visible nor tangible - to perceive and be aware of all that encounters and addresses us. (Cohn, 2002, p. 23)
This emphasis on the fluidity and openness of human existence demonstrates its basic incompleteness, and Heidegger compares this with the more object-like representation of psychological constructs:
All the usual capsule-like representations (common, at present, in psychology and psychopathology) of a psyche, a subject, a person, an Ego, a consciousness have - in an existential approach - to be relinquished and give way to a fundamentally different understanding. (Petzet, 1983/1993, p. xxxi)
Lubisi (2002) notes that, while "Husserl's phenomenology influenced qualitative research and psychotherapy alike, ... Heidegger applied the ontological theme of 'being in the world' to Husserl's phenomenology" (p. 2). Binswanger's importing of Heidegger's phenomenology into psychotherapy culminated in the existential-phenomenological paradigm of psychology. Although Binswanger's Daseinsanalyse was initially intended to apply Heidegger's Daseinsanalytik to psychopathology, he ultimately, after some ten years of further inquiry, developed his Daseinsanalyse further in light of Husserl's Cartesian Meditations "that provided him with phenomenological tools to differentiate facts from their essence and thereby to detect and identify the pure eidetic forms of alienated experience" (Sindoni, 2002, p. 658).
Phenomenology provided the much needed tools for understanding pathological deviations from an authentic mode of being in the world. Interrelating Husserl's eidetic phenomenology with Heidegger's existential analysis, Binswanger attempted to understand the sense of being human in one's human destiny in a way that reveals the meaningful dimensions of the patient's being in the world in terms of the "world design" that is revealed for him.
The essential eidetic constitution of the maniac was further cleared up by recourse to Husserl's examination of temporality, where the intentionality of the usual lived experience of the present (praesentatio) seems to be pervaded by the correct connection with the past (retentio) and the essential link with the future (protentio). The defective character of the lived experience of time peculiar to the maniac project constrains the patients, nails them down to mere "momentariety", to a kind of bustling (as clinicians are wont to say), because their acting is no longer capable of recovering from the past, nor can it detach itself from it to be present and project itself into the future with somebody and in the way in which it from time to time decides to "be with" that somebody. (Sindoni, 2002, pp. 661-662)
Binswanger points to the significance of Husserl's contributions in this regard. Not only did the transcendental epochi help to suspend all doctrinal judgments, but it also provided much needed protection of the essential structure of the subject.
As had been clarified, thanks to Husserl, the egological pole thus acquires the significance of reference pole for the explication of all the possible eidetic cross references, making it possible to arrive at that real "I" (lived body, Leib, to distinguish it from the body of the organic functions, Kvrper) that lives and experiences its own world, a world within which it expresses being its discomfort and its anguish. (Sindoni, 2002, p. 659)
Despite occasional overlapping with the Heideggerian perspective of Daseinsanalytik, Husserl thus was, and remained, the principal inspirer of Binswanger's Daseinsanalyse, acknowledged as the unquestioned "maestro" in his thinking on psychopathology, notwithstanding the important role played by other philosophers.
Critical of Binswanger's theory of existential analysis as being a "subjectivistic revision" of Heidegger's philosophy, Boss offers a counter position to Binswanger, interpreting Daseinsanalyse from what he believes to be a proper Heideggerian perspective. Boss interprets the Heideggerian Dasein as a "world disclosure" that "does not happen like agency happens", and is instead to be understood as "lively ... and perceptive openness in the world" (Scott, 2002, p. 664). Accordingly, Boss argues that,
Not only is it most appropriate for a theoretician or philosopher to pay attention primarily to the ways - to how - beings appear, therapists also should give their attention primarily to patients' ways of living with the world openness of their own experiences and relations. (Boss, 1971; in Scott, 2002, p. 664)
Edited by Boss and published in 1987, the Zollikon Seminars now brings into focus not only the detailed record of Heidegger's intensive engagement with psychology and psychoanalysis during that period, but in particular his "hope that his thinking could break away from purely philosophical inquiry to benefit those in human suffering, including psychiatric populations" (Scott, 2002, p. 665).
In his book, Psychoanalysis Outside the Clinic, Frosh (2010) highlights the point that "psychoanalysis arose at the end of the nineteenth century as a practice rooted in the clinic" (p. 1). This reference to the idea of a metaphorical space as a setting for an encounter between someone in psychological distress and a trusted therapist, allows for reconstruing that space in terms of relationship and thus for locating the therapeutic encounter methodologically in the phenomenological realm.
If the clinic can be thought of like this then what becomes central to psychoanalysis is not only a set of specific theoretical constructs (crucially the existence of a dynamic unconscious, but also including notions such as free association, transference and interpretation), but also a live encounter between people, albeit of a special kind. This "liveness" seems absolutely crucial to the practice of psychoanalysis. This is because the capacity of the analyst to understand the patient, and of the patient to benefit from that understanding, depends on the two of them being locked into a visible relationship which can be tracked and reflected upon. (Frosh, 2010, p. 2).
In this light, the bridge between psychoanalysis and phenomenology thus inheres in the movement from metaphorical space to methodology.
Young (2010) defines existential psychotherapy as "a method that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the 'givens' of existence" (p. 3). In this regard, Laing (1995) expresses his indebtedness in the practice of psychotherapy to the efficacy of phenomenological methodology in providing access to the essential dimension of reality:
Phenomenology thus takes us into the issue of what it is one is describing. The discipline that addresses itself to what is this, that, anything is called ontology. Phenomenology is a critical discipline for any science. All explanations require descriptions in order to explain. What we take anything to be profoundly affects how we go about describing it, and how we describe something profoundly affects how we go about explaining, accounting for, or understanding what is what we are, in a sense, defining, by our description. The critical reflective monitoring of all this is existential phenomenology; and the use of this discipline, the effective skilful means of this discipline, its pragmatics, its efficacy in the practice of psychotherapy, is what I want to address ... . (p. 204)
Young (2010), in turn, comments on the seminal significance in the mental health field of Laing's phenomenological orientation:
... Laing's phenomenological research into schizophrenia is seminal: he carefully explored the actual experiential meanings of the words used by those involved to "co-construct" the phenomena of schizophrenia from the accounts of patients and the friends, family members and mental health professionals directly working with them. This led to a totally different "concept" of schizophrenia: instead of it "being" an illness that is primarily genetic and/or biological, with symptoms like meaningless language, and only treatable by medication, it can be seen as an individual's rich, metaphoric and high meaningful linguistic reactions and explorations of essentially dysfunctional and distorted relationships and as a desperate attempt to obtain a sense of self. This perception led to new forms of "treatment", mainly drug-free and in therapeutic communities, where different "relationships" can be formed. (pp. 4-5)
Summing Up and Some Concluding Remarks
What Freud and Husserl share in common is an attention to intentionality, with the unconscious too viewed by both as a realm of meaning and intentionality. According to both the Freudian and the phenomenological traditions, our knowledge of ourselves and our world is perpetually bound up with consciousness. We can come to know even the unconscious only by making it conscious. Karlsson (2004/2010) approaches the shades of meaning of the unconscious through a consideration of the opposition-pair of consciousness and the unconscious. It is this reduction to the level of signification that allows us to perceive the possibility of a dialogue between these two realms. Although the unconscious appears as something strange that is beyond experience, it is nevertheless "inside" the subject, even though something that has never been grasped in conscious experience.
While the differences in approach of psychoanalysis and phenomenology may appear to be great, the similarities are not insignificant. Nevertheless, as Binnell (1996) points out, while both these methods aim to enable the individual to gain greater insight into his or her sense of being in the world, the crucial question is what exactly it is that one is being given insight into. "For the psychoanalytical approach, it is the repressed material in the unconscious; while, for existential phenomenology, it is the life situation of the individual as a whole in relation to the 'unconscious' fundamental project" (Binnell, 1996, para. 40).
Thus one is able to discern two different views of humankind and the psyche. One approach is more concerned with the role of the past in causing the present, and how to "fix" the mistakes of the past. The other approach is a direct attempt to awaken humanity to entering into a state of existence that is for-itself, and reaching for the highest level of actualisation, or authenticity, that it is capable of attaining ... (Binnell, 1996, para. 41)
One can look forward to some positive outcome of this kind of academic exercise aimed at discerning possibilities for meaningful dialogue between Freud and phenomenology. While a challenging task on many fronts, scholars like Owen and others continue to grapple with exploring more deeply meaningful conceptual themes common to both psychoanalysis and phenomenology. We conclude with Owen's formulation of both the need for and the ultimate aim of this process, and Karlsson's hope in this regard:
Despite the use of [terms such as] "hermeneutics", "intentionality", "empathy" and "intersubjectivity" in some areas of psychotherapy and psychological research, there has been no in-depth explanation from the original source in philosophy about what these ideas mean. ... The ultimate aim of this work is to show the importance and ubiquity of making sense of the psychological world but there are many necessary steps to be trod before the ultimate aim can be achieved. (Owen, 2006, p. 3)
Karlsson's hope is that phenomenology will, more specifically,
... make a contribution to building a firmer bridge between psychoanalytic theory (including the metapsychology) and clinical practice, and thereby make psychoanalytic theory and practice more solid and scientifically cogent.
... help psychoanalysis to be grounded in one adequate (for its purposes and conditions) epistemology. (2004/2010, pp. 19-20)
Referencing Format
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About the Authors
Professor Archana Barua teaches philosophy in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology in Guwahati, India.
She received her doctoral degree from the North Eastern Hill University (NEHU) in 1991 and is a recipient of the Gold Medal in Philosophy from the then Prime Minister of India, Smti Indira Gandhi.
Professor Barua has participated in conferences and been invited to deliver guest lectures at King's College, Bournemouth, Leeds and Cambridge Universities in the United Kingdom, as well as at Assumption University in Thailand, Dresden University in Germany, the University of Pavia in Italy, the Sigmund Freud University in Vienna, the University of Western Ontario in Canada, and the University of Johannesburg in South Africa.
Her field of interest encompasses twentieth century European philosophy, especially Husserlian phenomenology and its development in Heidegger; Existentialism (Sartre, Merleau-Ponty); the hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur; and the philosophy and phenomenology of religion. She has also taught and guided research in the areas of German Idealism, Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Kafka.
The author of Phenomenology of Religion (Lexington Books, 2008) and The Tradition of Religion in Assam: A Philosophical Study (Pustak Mahal, 2004), Professor Barua has published extensively in the areas of philosophy, phenomenology, religion, gender issues and environmental ethics, and is a regular contributor to research journals dealing with select areas of Indian philosophy and Gandhian philosophy, as well as religion and culture related to Vaishnavism in general and, in particular, the mediaeval Bhakta Saint of Assam, Mahapurush Sankaradeva.
In addition to her academic endeavours, Archana Barua has had a number of short stories and poems published in Indian literary journals, with a collection of Assamese poems published in 2009 under the title Tumi Noi Hoi Bo'bor Pard, and a collection of her own poetry published in 2012. E-mail address: email@example.com
Minakshi Das is a research scholar in philosophy in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Guwahati. After obtaining her Master's degree in philosophy (with distinction) from Guwahati University, Minakshi enrolled in the PhD programme at IIT Guwahati under the supervision of Professor Barua.
While her present area of research is in the field of intersubjectivity in the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl, she has also presented research papers exploring Buddhist ethics and euthanasia, with a special emphasis on Japanese Zen Buddhism. Recently, her papers entitled "Woman and Internet: A Philosophical Study of Gender Inequality" and "Thinking Like a Video Gamer: A Philosophical Study of Understanding Embodied Subjectivity" were respectively presented at the 2013 Asian Conference on Arts and Cultures held in Bangkok, Thailand, and at the 1st International Avant-Conference held in November 2013 in Torun, Poland. E-mail address: email@example.com


text:
A Summer CigarGlass splits burgundy into facets
through the crystal ball of a wine glass
that has no power to tell the future,
only quiet it down to a numbness.
I have to laugh at the idea
of a ten dollar bottle of wine paired
with a ten dollar cigar.
It takes four matches to light –
What hidden pleasures
will the thick, spicy smoke enhance
in my cheap Malbec?I hear the neighbors cursing at each other,
taking the stress of back-to-back retail jobs
and a janitorial position during graveyards
out on the family they work for,
the bus hydraulics hissing from Meridian,
an immigrant grandmother laughing as she ticks
off hopscotch numbers with her first-generation
grand-daughter in between planting
her soon-to-be blooming annuals in the neat
boxes of her tiny Garden of Eden
in poor East Boston, a pristine space, the only thing
still sandwiched between calamity and the sea.
Smoke curls from my lips
to cast about into the breeze.
I have to keep pace with the cigar
and carefully note the wind's strength.
If I smoke too little
the flame will go out.
Sometimes I think we could break with the intensity
that's in the beauty of a single moment in our own skins
but the taste is fleeting,
quick to be scattered away.
Life only deals out
happiness fractured into fragments
here and there, from time to time.
For some reason, I always reach
for the same happiness recipe
though I never have the same ingredients.
You've got to learn to cook what's in your kitchen.
It's been a long winter, so
get drunk on summer, and spin
what love you can from the warm air.
When the cigar burns down,
the closer [it] gets to my lips, the
sparser my breaths become, or
it'll burn too hot.


text:
It's bright and on the inside of my sunglasses, the lenses are dappled with droplets of sweat. I am running away from the island I have shared with you, on the straight causeway that connects it to the coast: a brilliant, broiling Atlantic void on my left and the great, grand Strait on my right – that tuna-stuffed Styx, the dazzling blue Rubicon that made this, to the ancients, the ultimate dividing line: the edge of the world, the coast of everything.
Tarifa wobbles in the drops – little playa chica and its No Shitting sign, the tuna sculpture, the ludicrous but likeable outline of Santa Catalina, a derelict mansion. I flick my head to dislodge the drops and get a better view. It's all still here, in all its glare and glory – the ocean, the hills behind the town, the pink dome of the St Mateo church. The castle and the modern port with its rotating ferries, the tumbling roofs of the old town, the schools and the fish factory and the holiday lets further up the beach. The cargo ships that clutter up the sea lanes and the huge dune at Valdevaqueros where the kite surfers congregate.
I've done a couple of kilometres and I'll give it another couple. Then I'll go home. I'm running so that I might stay alive a little longer and live a little better while I'm at it. Keep the blood pumping and the pump strong. I'm running so that I can write, running to get endorphins flowing and synapses firing. More