text:
It's no surprise that Billy Elliot has achieved a noteable following. It does, after all, have 10 Tony's and has been hailed by critics as one of the best musicals of all time, but I had no idea just HOW profound an impact this performance had on theatre goers. Patrons taken with the production have gone multiple times, eager to compare and contrast their experiences based on the cast, especially "the Billy's". Because the song and dance numbers are so physically demanding, one 'Billy' will only perform twice a week and alternate with the four others, so some patrons simply want to have the chance to see all of them!
All of these boys are immensely gifted! They have to be in order to put on this kind of show. It is truly unlike anything I have ever seen. As I watched in awe while Billy strutted, danced, and back flipped across the stage, my mind wandered in wonder. I couldn't fathom what their practices and rehearsals must be like. It is hard to imagine how much time, work and energy must go into each performance. Though these are characteristics of any successful production, very few shows star a 14 year old!
Of these tremendously hard working boys, we were fortunate enough to see J.P Viernes in the role of Billy Elliot. Inspired by his sister, this California native began his dance training at age 7 as a member of the Shely Pack Dancers. He later furthered his passion for dance studying at the City Ballet San Francisco for two years. At age 9 he received the title of Master Dance of California, a prestigious award given to 9-10 year olds throughout the state of California. From there, he began a long journey to the Broadway stage. In 2007 he auditioned for Billy Elliot in San Francisco and was asked to do a second audition in Los Angeles later that year. After not hearing back for over a year, in 2008 J.P got a call to audition in New York. Finally, in August 2009, Viernes landed the role of Billy in the Chicago production. After five weeks of intensive training in New York with the other Billys, the boys were given a hiatus for the holidays, and then it was back to Chicago for 12 hour day, 6 day a week rehearsals. On March 20, 2010, all of his efforts paid off when he performed at Billy Elliot's preview debut. Viewers were floored by his stellar performance. Another ecstatic audience greeted Viernes in his first official show on April 15, 2010.
It was an honor and privilege to experience this performance. I was left absolutely breathless by the level of raw passion and dedication displayed by the actors, Billy in particular. By the end of the show, I couldn't wait to get back home to tell my friends and family that this show is "out of this world". But there was more, my evening was about to get even better at the after party held at the lavish and luxurious theWit Hotel!
As many enthusiastic audience members and I trudged through torrential rain and whipping wind to the hotel lobby, we were rewarded by a welcoming display. Rich, velvety sofas and chairs furnished the lounge area while a live band played 80's rock hits on the balcony above, the pouring rain a backdrop as it flowed steadily down the floor to ceiling windows. Everyone congregated at the bar and upstairs lounge, sipping cocktails and nibbling on delectable appetizers. The room was abuzz with talk of the show. Groups huddled around the bar laughing and talking about their favorite song and dance numbers. Just as I was leaving, I noticed a boy and his parents entering through the revolving doors. I knew right away it was J.P and his family! He darted up the stairs, eager I'm sure to get something to eat after a long and tiring show, so I unfortunately wasn't able to tell him what a spectacular job I thought he did. However, I was lucky enough to catch the attention of his parents. These were two of the proudest people I have ever seen, as I showered their son with compliments, telling them that he is truly "something special", but they clearly knew that. They smiled ear to ear telling me that he is a very hard worker and just loves what he's doing. Being able to tell them how much I loved it, and seeing their appreciation was the best part of my night!
Billy Elliot has such heart and power plus everything you could ever ask of a musical and much, much more! To see it is to love it, go see it.
Billy Elliot is currently playing through January 15 only at the Ford Center/Oriental Theatre. Individual tickets range in price from $30-$100. A select number of premium seats are also available. Tickets are available at Broadway in Chicago Box Offices (24 W. Randolph St., 151 W. Randolph St., and 18 W. Monroe St.); the Broadway In Chicago Ticket Line at (800) 775-2000; all Ticketmaster retail locations (including Hot Tix and select Carson Pirie Scott, Coconuts and fye stores); and online at www.BroadwayInChicago.com . Tickets are available for groups of 15 or more by calling (312) 977-1710.


text:
Arlen Specter, the senior senator from Pennsylvania and longtime endangered species, launched his 2010 re-election bid on the Senate floor yesterday.
Specter's ostensible target was Eric Holder, the Obama administration's nominee for attorney general; as the ranking Republican member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Specter vowed - in notably harsh tones - to give Holder a very tough time during the upcoming confirmation hearings, just to ensure that Holder will not be merely a water carrier for the Obama White House.
But, between the lines, here's what Specter was really saying: "I'm up for re-election in less than two years, which means it's time for me to suck up to the right wing of my party. I've long had a reputation as a moderate Republican, but moderate Republicans are an endangered species, especially in the Northeast; basically, the only ones left in the Senate are me and the two ladies from Maine. The right-wing Pennsylvania voters almost booted me out four years ago - I barely survived the party primary that April, beating conservative Pat Toomey by only 1.6 percent - and those voters would love to get me in the 2010 party primary. So this means I've gotta start sucking up to them, prove to them that I can be tough on Obama, and play the obstructionist when necessary. Better start now."
Conservative activists require no less. One of the top activists, Patrick Ruffini, said as much the other day: "The GOP's number one priority politically is to set into motion a series of events that will make Obama look more ineffective, partisan, and unpopular than he is today...we need to set the stage for a unified and effective Republican opposition that will actually fight from top to bottom."
And so Specter is falling into line. One would certainly expect the ranking Judiciary Committee Republican to quiz Eric Holder closely during confirmation hearings; as I have written here, Holder was the Justice Department official, eight years ago, who signed off on President Clinton's notorious pardon of Marc Rich. But, until yesterday, Specter had only voiced mild skepticism about Holder. In his Senate speech on the Senate floor, however, Specter frontally attacked Holder, raising the possibility that Holder might turn out to be as bad as...Alberto "Gonzo" Gonzales, the notorious lackey for George W. Bush.
Specter's key passage: "Mr. Gonzales left office accused of politicizing the Justice Department, failing to restrain executive overreaching, and being less than forthcoming with Congress...I am convinced that many of attorney general Gonzales' missteps were caused by his eagerness to please the White House. Similarly, when Mr. Holder was serving as deputy attorney general to President Clinton, some of his actions raised concerns about his ability to maintain his independence from the president. I am prepared to give Mr. Holder a full opportunity to explain his past actions and convince the (Judiciary) committee and the Senate that his record warrants confirmation."
For Senate politesse, that's strong stuff. Holder hasn't even taken office yet, and already Specter is suggesting comparisons to Gonzo, and vowing to closely scrutinize the Clinton years (no doubt, with more vigilance than his Republican-led Judiciary panel ever scrutinized the Bush years).
But that's politics. The guy has to make nice with the right if he wants to survive a 2010 Republican primary; after all, Toomey and at least two other conservatives are weighing the possibility of assailing Specter on his right flank.
Moreover, Specter may have a problem with the Republican electorate. In Pennsylvania, the GOP runs a "closed" primary, which means that only registered Republicans can vote. As Rick Santorum, the former Pennsylvania senator, explained last week in a newspaper column, "Specter's biggest problem...may be that thousands of southeastern Pennsylvania Republicans who voted for him in 2004 can't vote for him in the (2010) primary. Why? Because they're no longer Republicans."
Exactly. I've got the figures here. Between November 2004 and November 2008, the statewide tally of registered Pennsylvania Republicans shrank by roughly 162,000. It's safe to assume that a huge share of those emigrants are moderates from the Philadelphia suburbs who got fed up with the Bush regime and the Republican Congress. Those are the voters that Specter needs to survive a primary; without them, the Republican primary electorate is disproportionately dominated by the conservative voters who have stuck with the party.
Santorum was right. Arlen Specter's top concern is not a challenge from the left, from Chris Matthews or some other Democrat. It's a heightened challenge from the right, from a candidate who can leverage the increasingly conservative primary electorate. Which is why Eric Holder will be the first item on Specter's to-do list.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Pine Nuts 8 oz (Raw, Premium)
The goodness of fresh pine nuts can be used in numerous recipes. Works great using a small quantity in raw cashew cheese, a pesto sauce or just sprinkle over a salad. Also a little in your Raw Vegan Cheese Cake recipe along with a small amount of lemon juice will add a unique subtle cheesy taste. Make the best raw vegan mock cheese creations on your block.
Natural Zing always stores our nuts under refrigeration until shipped so you will get the freshest nuts and seeds available (direct from the farm). Refrigerating your nuts keeps them fresher longer.
NET WT.: 8 oz
Ingredients: ORGANIC PINE NUTS
Copyright © 2020 Natural Zing's Raw Food StorePowered by osCommerce


text:
French Economic History
France (frăns, Fr. fräNs), officially French Republic, republic (2015 est. pop. 64,457,000), 211,207 sq mi (547,026 sq km), W Europe. France is bordered by the English Channel (N), the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Biscay (W), Spain and Andorra (SW), the Mediterranean Sea (S; the location of the island of Corsica), Switzerland and Italy (SE), and Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium (NE). The natural land frontiers are the Pyrenees, along the border with Spain; the Jura Mts. and the Alps, along the border with Switzerland and Italy; and the Rhine River, which is part of the border with Germany. France's capital and largest city is Paris.
Although France's old historic provinces were abolished by the Revolution, they remain the country's basic geographic, cultural, and economic divisions. These provinces mirror France's natural geographic regions and, despite modern administrative centralization, retain their striking diversity. The heart of France N of the Loire River is the province of Île-de-France, which occupies the greater part of the Paris basin, a fertile depression drained by the Seine and Marne rivers. The basin is surrounded by the provinces of Champagne and Lorraine in the east; Artois, Picardy, French Flanders (see Nord dept.), and Normandy in the northeast and north; Brittany, Maine, and Anjou in the west; and Touraine, Orléanais, Nivernais, and Burgundy in the south. Further south are Berry and Bourbonnais. Further east, between the Vosges Mts. and the Rhine, is Alsace; S of Alsace, along the Jura, is Franche-Comté.
South-central France is occupied by the rugged mountains of the Massif Central, one of the country's major natural features. It comprises the provinces of Marche, Limousin, Auvergne, and Lyonnais. To the E of the Rhône River, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps, are Savoy, Dauphiné, and Provence. The French Alps have some of the highest peaks in Europe, including Mont Blanc. The Rhône valley widens into a plain near its delta on the Mediterranean; part of the coast of Provence forms the celebrated French Riviera. Languedoc extends from the Cevennes Mts. to the Mediterranean coast W of the Rhône. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. The southwestern part of France comprises the small Pyrenean provinces of Roussillon, Foix, Béarn, and French Navarre and the vast provinces of Gascony and Guienne. The last two constitute the great Aquitanian plain, drained by the Garonne and Dordogne rivers, which flow into the Bay of Biscay. The central section of the west coast, between the Gironde estuary and the Loire, is occupied by the provinces of Saintonge, Angoumois, Aunis, and Poitou.
Since 1972 France has been administratively divided into regions, which now number 18 as a result of consolidation. The 13 that metropolitan France is divided into are Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Brittany, Burgundy–Franche-Comté, Center–Val de Loire, Corsica, Grand Est, Hauts-de-France, Île-de-France, New Aquitaine, Normandy, Occitania, Pays de la Loire, and Provence–Alpes–Côte d'Azur.
France also has a number of overseas departments, territories, and countries which, legally, are part of the French Republic. The overseas departments, which also are regions, are Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion, and French Guiana. The overseas countries and territories are New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna Islands, and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories. Mayotte is a departmental collectivity and region, and St. Pierre and Miquelon is a territorial collectivity.
About 75% of the population live in urban areas. Until the end of World War II the population increase in France was perhaps the lowest in Europe, but in postwar decades the rate has increased. The mingling of peoples over the centuries as well as immigration in the 20th cent. has given France great ethnic diversity. A large influx of predominantly North African immigrants has had a great effect on the cities, especially Paris and Marseille.
French is the nation's language. There are also a number of regional dialects, which are largely declining in usage. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine. A small number speak Flemish, a Dutch dialect, in French Flanders. In Celtic Brittany, Breton is still spoken, as is Basque in the Bayonne region, Provençal in Provence, Catalan at the eastern end of the Pyrenees, and Corsican on the island of Corsica.
Roman Catholicism is by far the largest religion in France, nominally professed by about 85% of the population, although only an estimated 5% are churchgoers. With growing immigration from Asia, Turkey, and North Africa, France also has a large Muslim population, estimated at 3 to 5 million. There are smaller numbers of Protestants and Jews. Separation of church and state was made final by law in 1905.
France is one of the world's major economic powers. Agriculture plays a larger role than in the economies of most other industrial countries. A large proportion of the value of total agricultural output derives from livestock (especially cattle, hogs, poultry, and sheep). The mountain areas and NW France are the livestock regions. The country's leading crops are wheat, sugar beets, corn, barley, and potatoes, with the most intensive cultivation N of the Loire; the soil in the Central Massif is less fertile. Fruit growing is important in the south. France is among the foremost producers of wine in the world. The best-known vineyards are in Burgundy, Champagne, the Rhône and Loire valleys, and the Bordeaux region. The centers of the wine trade are Bordeaux, Reims, Épernay, Dijon, and Cognac.
France's leading industries produce machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metals, aircraft, electronics equipment, textiles, and foods (especially cheeses). Advanced technology industries are also important. Coal, iron ore, bauxite, and other minerals are mined. Tourism is an important industry, and Paris is famous for its luxury goods. Nuclear energy furnishes 75% of all electricity produced in France. In addition to the Paris area, important industrial cities are, in the northeast, Metz, Strasbourg, Roubaix, and Lille; in the southeast, Lyons, Saint-Étienne, Clermont-Ferrand, and Grenoble; in the south, Marseilles, Toulouse, Nice, and Nîmes; and in the west, Bordeaux and Nantes. Other important cities are Orléans, Tours, Troyes, and Arles.
France has an extensive railway system, the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français (SNCF). The first of a number of high-speed rail lines (TGVs) was completed in 1983, linking Paris and Lyons. Subsequent lines connected Paris to several other French cities, as well as Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and, via the Channel Tunnel, Great Britain.
The government at one time had majority ownership in many commercial banks, some key industries, and various utilities, including the telephone system. The government has since reduced its holdings in many companies, although it still controls energy production, public transportation, and defense industries.
Leading exports are machinery and transportation equipment, aircraft, plastics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, and beverages. Leading imports are machinery and equipment, vehicles, crude oil, aircraft, plastics, and chemicals. Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States are the main trading partners. The chief ports are Rouen, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Brest, Saint-Nazaire, Nantes, Bordeaux, Toulon, Dunkirk, and Marseilles.
Since the Revolution of 1789, France has had an extremely uniform and centralized administration, although constitutional changes in 2003 now permit greater autonomy to the nation's regions and departments. The country is governed under the 1958 constitution (as amended), which established the Fifth French Republic and reflected the views of Charles de Gaulle. It provides for a strong president, directly elected for a five-year term; an individual is limited to two terms as president. A premier and cabinet, appointed by the president, are responsible to the National Assembly, but they are subordinate to the president. The bicameral legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies to the 577-seat National Assembly are elected for five-year terms from single-member districts. The 348 senators are elected for six-year terms from each department by an electoral college composed of the deputies, district council members, and municipal council members from the department, with one half of the Senate elected every 3 years.
France's 22 administrative regions (see above under Land) each have a directly elected regional council, primarily responsible for stimulating economic and social activity. The regions are further divided into 96 departments (not including the four overseas departments), which are governed by a locally elected general council, with one councilor per canton. Further subdivisions are districts (arrondisements), cantons, and communes. The districts and cantons have little power. The communes, however, are more powerful because they are responsible for municipal services and are represented in the national government by the mayor.
Ancient Gaul to Feudalism
Some of the earliest anthropological and archaeological remains in Europe have been found in France, yet little is known of France before the Roman conquest (1st cent. BC). The country was known to the Romans as Gaul. It was inhabited largely by Celts, or Gauls, who had mingled with still older populations, and by Basques in what became the region of Gascony. Some of the Gallic tribes undoubtedly were Germanic. Settlements on the Mediterranean coast, notably Marseilles, were established by Greek and Phoenician traders (c.600 BC), and Provence was colonized by Rome in the 2d cent. BC The conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar (58–51 BC; see Gallic Wars) became final with the defeat of Vercingetorix. Early in the course of the following five centuries of Roman rule Gaul accepted Latin speech and Roman law, developed a distinct Gallo-Roman civilization, and produced many large and prosperous cities. Lugdunum (Lyons) was the Roman capital.
Christianity, introduced in the 1st cent. AD, spread rapidly. From the 3d cent., however, the internal decline of the Roman Empire invited barbarian incursions. Among the Germanic tribes that descended upon fertile Gaul, the Visigoths, Franks, and Burgundii were the most important. Rome and its governors in Gaul sought, by alliances, to play the barbarians off against each other. Thus Aetius defeated (AD 451) the Huns under Attila with the help of the Franks. But in 486 (10 years after the traditional date for the fall of Rome) the Franks, under Clovis I, routed Syagrius, last Roman governor of Gaul. Clovis, who had made himself ruler of all the Franks, then defeated the Visigoths and, after accepting Christianity (496), conquered the Alemanni. He extinguished the Arian heresy (see Arianism) and founded the dynasty of the Merovingians—but he failed to provide for the unity of Gaul when, as was customary, he divided his lands among his sons at his death.
Throughout the 6th and 7th cent., Gaul was torn by fratricidal strife between the Merovingian kings of Neustria and of Austrasia, the two realms that ultimately emerged from Clovis's division and were united only for brief periods under a sole ruler. Especially after Dagobert I (d. 639), Merovingian rule sank into indolence, cruelty, and dissipation. Gaul was depopulated, the cities were left in ruins, commerce was destroyed, and the arts and sciences were ignored. In the 8th cent. the only remnant of Roman civilization, the church, was threatened by extinction when the Saracens invaded Gaul.
In the meantime a more rigorous dynasty, the Carolingians, had come to rule Austrasia as mayors of the palace in the name of the decadent Merovingian kings, and had united (687) Austrasia with Neustria. In 732, the Carolingian Charles Martel decisively defeated the Saracens between Poitiers and Tours. His son, Pepin the Short, dethroned the last Merovingian in 751 and proclaimed himself king with the sanction of the pope. Pepin's son was Charlemagne.
Crowned emperor of the West in 800, Charlemagne expanded his lands by conquest. He gave his subjects an efficient administration, created an admirable legal system, and labored for the rebirth of learning, piety, and the arts. But his son, Emperor Louis I, could not maintain the empire he inherited. At Louis's death (840), his three sons were fighting each other. In 843 the brothers, Charles II (Charles the Bald), king of the West Franks, Louis the German, and Emperor Lothair I, redivided their territories (see Verdun, Treaty of). Charles was recognized as the ruler of the lands that are now France.
The Carolingians had only superficially transcended the economic, social, and political fragmentation of the land. The weakness of central authority was a major reason for the development of feudalism and the manorial system. Raids by Norsemen, beginning in the late 8th cent., contributed to the decline of royal authority; in 885–86, the Norsemen even besieged Paris. The authority of the kings was increasingly usurped by feudal lords. Among the most powerful of these were the dukes of Aquitaine and of Burgundy and the counts of Flanders, of Toulouse, of Blois, and of Anjou. In 911 the Norse leader Rollo was recognized as duke of Normandy.
The Birth of France
When the Carolingian dynasty died out in France, the nobles chose (987) Hugh Capet as king. It is from this date that the history of France as a separate kingdom is generally reckoned (see table entitled Rulers of France since 987 for a listing of the kings of France and subsequent French leaders). The early Capetians were dukes of Francia, a small territory around Paris, and were without power in the rest of France. By unremitting effort they gradually extended their domain, razed the castles of robber barons, and held their own against the great feudatories. Louis VI (reigned 1108–37) brought this process into full force, and it was continued by Louis VII (1137–80).
In the 11th cent. the towns had begun regaining population and wealth. Drawing together for their common defense (see commune), the townspeople won increasingly advantageous charters from the king and from their feudal lords. Commerce revived, and the great fairs of Champagne made France a meeting place for European merchants. The Cluniac order and the revival of theological learning at Paris (which was to make the Sorbonne the fountainhead of scholasticism) gave France tremendous prestige in Christendom. This rebirth reached its height in the 13th cent. and was aided by the leading role that France played in the Crusades. The crusaders established the French ideal of chivalry—personified in Louis IX (St. Louis)—in most of Europe. French courtly poetry and manners became European models.
In England, French manners and culture also predominated among the nobles because of the Norman Conquest (1066). The fact that the Norman English kings were also French nobles, holding or claiming vast fiefs in France, brought the two nations into centuries of conflict. When Henry II, king of England and duke of Normandy, married (1152) Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, Eleanor brought as her dowry extensive areas in France. Louis's successor, Philip II (Philip Augustus; 1180–1223), clashed repeatedly with Henry's sons, Richard I and John. Defeating John in 1204 and again, resoundingly, at Bouvines (1214), Philip soundly established the military prestige of France.
During Philip's reign a greater France emerged. The crusade against the Albigenses (begun 1208) netted the crown the huge fiefs of the counts of Toulouse in S France, and the royal domain (directly subject to the king) now formed the larger part of the kingdom. Philip made the royal authority felt throughout the land. Paris was rebuilt. Louis IX (1226–70) organized an efficient and equitable civil and judicial system. Under Philip IV (1285–1314), the royal administration was improved even more. Philip failed to incorporate Flanders into his holdings, as the Flemish crushed the French at Courtrai (1302). To meet his revenue needs Philip taxed the clergy, summoning the first national States-General (1302) to support his policy. He also destroyed the wealthy Knights Templars. Papal objections to these moves led to the Babylonian Captivity (1309–77) of the popes (see papacy).
Philip's son, Louis X, ruled briefly (1314–16); he was succeeded by two brothers, Philip V (1317–22) and Charles IV (1322–28). Within a few years after the death of Charles IV, who was also without a male heir, progress toward national unification was halted, and for more than a century France was rent by warfare and internal upheaval.
The Making of a Nation
In 1328, Philip VI (1328–50), of the house of Valois, a younger branch of the Capetians, succeeded to the throne. The succession was contested by Philip's remote cousin, Edward III of England (grandson of Philip IV), who in 1337 proclaimed himself king of France. Thus began the dynastic struggle known as the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), actually a series of wars and truces. It was complicated by many secondary issues, notably civil troubles in Flanders and the War of the Breton Succession.
The French defeats at Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), the epidemic of the Black Death, the Parisian insurrection under Étienne Marcel (1357–58), the Jacquerie (peasant revolt) of 1358, and the pillaging bands of écorcheurs plunged France into anarchy and forced John II (1350–64) to accept the humiliating Treaty of Brétigny (1360). Under Charles V (1364–80), however, Bertrand Du Guesclin recovered (1369–73) all lost territories except Calais and the Bordeaux region. Charles VI (1380–1422) became insane in 1392, although he had lucid intervals. Rivalry for power at court led to the terrible strife between Armagnacs and Burgundians. In 1415, Henry V of England revived the English claim, renewed the war, and crushed the French—unaided by the Burgundians—at Agincourt. In 1420, Charles VI made Henry V his heir, disinheriting his son, the dauphin, later Charles VII (see Troyes, Treaty of). The dauphin nevertheless assumed the royal title in 1422, but his authority extended over only a small area.
The English now held most of France, including Paris. Powerful Burgundy, under Philip the Good, was allied with England. In 1428 the English besieged the key city of Orléans. At this hour appeared Joan of Arc, who helped relieve Orléans, rallied the dauphin's followers, and in 1429 stood by the dauphin's side as he was crowned at Reims. In 1435, Burgundy, although exacting exorbitant concessions, allied itself with France (see Arras, Treaty of). In 1453 the English lost their last hold on French soil outside Calais.
It was left for Louis XI (1461–83) to destroy the power of the last great feudal lords and to incorporate into the royal domain almost all of present France. He was aided by the downfall (1477) of Charles the Bold of Burgundy and by the extinction of the Angevin dynasty. Brittany was united with France shortly afterward (see Anne of Brittany), and the larger part of the fiefs held by the Bourbon family was confiscated in 1527.
Under the reigns (1483–1560) of Charles VIII, Louis XII, Francis I, Henry II, and Francis II, France proved its amazing recuperative powers despite the heavy drain imposed on its resources by the Italian Wars (1494–1559). The superficially brilliant reign of Francis I (1515–47) was taken up with almost constant warfare against the Hapsburg Charles V; however, this period also saw the spread of the Italian Renaissance into France (see French art; French literature). The first phase of the struggle between France and the house of Hapsburg ended with the triumph of Hapsburg Spain in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559).
The Reformation and its Aftermath
Beginning in the reign of Francis I, the Reformation gained many adherents in France (see Huguenots). In 1560 religious conflict flared up in the first of the ferocious civil wars (see Religion, Wars of) that tore France asunder during the reigns (1560–89) of the last Valois kings, Charles IX and Henry III. The Catholics, led by the ambitious Guise family, eventually formed the Catholic League and obtained Spanish support against the Protestant Henry of Navarre, the legal heir of Henry III. Navarre was supported by some moderate Catholics as well as by the Protestants. He defeated the League but had to accept Catholicism before being allowed to enter (1594) Paris. Ruling as Henry IV, he became the first Bourbon king of France. With his great minister, Sully, he made France prosperous once again and encouraged French explorers in Canada.
Religious freedom and political security for Protestants were promulgated in the Edict of Nantes (1598; see Nantes, Edict of), but after Henry's assassination (1610) by a Catholic fanatic the rights of the Huguenots were steadily reduced. Under his successor, Louis XIII (1610–43), and in the minority of Louis XIV, two great statesmen successively shaped the destiny of the kingdom—Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin. They led France to victory in the Thirty Years War (1618–48), which France entered openly in 1635, joining the Protestant allies against the Hapsburg powers, Austria and Spain. Austria was defeated in 1648 (see Westphalia, Peace of), Spain in 1659 (see Pyrenees, Peace of the). At home, Richelieu destroyed the political power of the Huguenots, and Mazarin overcame the nobles in the wars of the Fronde.
Louis XIV (1643–1715), aided by the genius of Jean Baptiste Colbert (d. 1683) and François Louvois, completed Richelieu's and Mazarin's work of centralization. Raising the position of the king to a dignity and prestige hitherto unknown in France, Louis XIV made France the first power in Europe and his court at Versailles the cynosure of Europe. But his many wars undermined French finances, and his persecution of the Huguenots (the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685) caused serious harm to the economy as thousands of merchants and skilled workers left France. His successes in the War of Devolution (1667–68) against Spain and the Dutch War (see Dutch Wars) of 1672–78 inspired all Europe with fear of French hegemony and resulted in the diplomatic isolation of France. The War of the Grand Alliance (1688–97) against Louis XIV began to turn the tide; the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), although it did not end with a clear victory over France, marked the end of French expansion in Europe. The reign of Louis XIV saw the height of French power in America. France, at the end of Louis's reign, was exhausted from its attempt at primacy; yet its latent strength and wealth were so great that it recovered prosperity within a few years.
The Ancien Régime and Attempts at Reform
Louis XV (1715–74) inherited a unified France, but a France still burdened by the remnants of feudalism. The "absolute" power of the king was hedged in by a stupendous multitude of dusty charters and special privileges—often granted to remove the recipients from national politics—held by families, guilds, monopolies, communes, and provinces, and by the clergy and nobles. Taxes, although onerous, were raised inefficiently and inequitably, partly by the farmers general (see farming, in taxation), partly by the state. Commerce, based on mercantilism, was hampered by restrictive regulations, monopolies, and internal tariff barriers. Rural overpopulation outstripped the stagnant agricultural productivity. Colbert had reorganized the administration by curtailing the power of the provincial governors and by reestablishing the administrative units called intendancies, originated by Richelieu. The intendants were trusted civil servants who carried out the policies of the central government, but their capacity to break down local privilege was limited. In several provinces, notably Brittany, the local assemblies of the three estates retained the power to thwart reforms.
A more significant stronghold of aristocratic privilege and vested interests was the parlement; the parlements skillfully related their special interests to the still popular ideal of local liberty. The ever-expanding bourgeoisie as well as the large body of landowning farmers, however, were finding the remnants of feudal dues, services, and other customs increasingly intolerable. Economic reform became the rallying cry of the physiocrats and their disciples such as Turgot. Many philosophers of the Enlightenment, notably Voltaire, looked hopefully to the monarchy for administrative rationalization, but the crown's sporadic attempts at reform, particularly of finances, were hindered by the parlements. Operating under a system of outworn privilege, the wealthiest country in Europe was ruled by a government perennially on the verge of bankruptcy.
The honest administration (1726–43) of Cardinal Fleury had barely extricated France from the disastrous failure of the Mississippi Scheme (1720), when Louis XV plunged into the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48) and the Seven Years War (1756–63). Not only was the treasury drained, but France lost its empire in India and North America. Turgot's reforms, instituted early in the reign of Louis XVI (1774–92), were cut short in 1776, when he was dismissed. Seeking to avenge its defeat by Britain in the Seven Years War, France supported the American Revolution (1775–83). Financially, however, the war was a disaster for France.
The Revolution and Napoleon I
In 1788, after neither Calonne nor Loménie de Brienne could get the necessary financial measures enacted, Necker was called back to office to attempt to repair the irreparable, and the States-General were convoked for the first time since 1614. Thus began the upheaval that shook Europe from 1789 to 1815 (see French Revolution; French Revolutionary Wars; Directory; Consulate; Napoleon I). The States-General were transformed into the National Assembly (1789); a constitutional monarchy was created (1791); war with much of Europe began, accompanied by violence and the growth of radical factions in France (1792); the king and queen were beheaded (1793); Robespierre presided over the Reign of Terror (1793–94) until his own execution.
A reaction ushered in the Directory (1795–99), terminated by Napoleon Bonaparte's coup. Napoleon made himself emperor (1804) and led his armies as far as Moscow. After his defeat at Waterloo (1815) virtually nothing remained for France from the Napoleonic conquests except the basis for a powerful legend. But Napoleonic administration and law (see Code Napoléon) left a permanent impact on France. From the ancien régime there reemerged the church (1801 Concordat with the Vatican) and an aristocracy less affluent and shorn of its feudal privileges but still influential.
Royalism, Reform, and the Birth of Modern France
The French Revolution and Napoleon established a uniform, modern administrative system, gave land tenure to the peasants, and left to the bourgeoisie a political heritage that they quickly reclaimed. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15; see Vienna, Congress of) restored the borders of 1790 and recognized Louis XVIII as France's legitimate sovereign. The king granted a moderately liberal charter but took France into the reactionary Holy Alliance. His successor, Charles X (1824–30), was the champion of the ultraroyalists.
Charles's efforts to restore absolutism led to the July Revolution of 1830, which enthroned Louis Philippe. The July Monarchy was a frank plutocracy run by the upper bourgeoisie. Under the "citizen king," France conquered Algeria (1830–38). The regime became increasingly autocratic, disregarding the plight of the new urban proletariat. Brought low by the unpopularity of the ministry of Guizot and by economic depression (1846–47), it fell in the February Revolution of 1848. The revolution was at first distinctly radical, but the bourgeoisie triumphed in the June Days.
In Dec., 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected president of the Second Republic. In 1852, by a coup, he extended his term and then proclaimed himself emperor as Napoleon III. He emulated his uncle's autocratic regime at home and carried on a confused foreign policy with unrewarding wars (in Russia, Italy, and Mexico). The Second Empire was, however, a period of colonial expansion (in Senegal and Indochina) and of material prosperity. In 1869, Napoleon instituted a more liberal regime with a parliamentary government. But the empire ended disastrously in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), in which Alsace and Lorraine were lost to Germany until 1918.
The Third Republic (1870–1940) was proclaimed after Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians. After the bloody suppression of the Commune of Paris (1871) by the right-wing provisional government under Adolphe Thiers, Marshal MacMahon, a royalist sympathizer, was elected president (1873). But for the intransigence of Henri, comte de Chambord (the legitimist pretender), France might again have become a monarchy. A republican constitution was finally adopted in 1875. As the various parties combined, separated, and recombined into political blocs, new cabinets followed in quick succession.
The 1880s witnessed the expansion of railroads and public education; the latter revived the age-old quarrel in France between church and state. In 1905, after other issues had been added to the dispute, church and state were separated by law. After the rapid rise and fall (1888–89) of General Boulanger, the stability of France was once more shaken by the Dreyfus Affair (begun 1894), which discredited monarchists and reactionaries and brought anticlerical, moderate leftists to power. Socialism, led by Guesde and Jaurès, was now a major political force but was weakened by internal dissensions. In foreign policy the years before 1914 were marked by continued colonial expansion in Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, West Africa, Madagascar) and Indochina, bringing conflict with Great Britain (see Fashoda Incident) and with Germany (see Morocco). Eventually, France, England, and Russia allied themselves to balance the German-Austrian-Italian combination (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente).
The World Wars
In World War I, France bore the brunt of the ground fighting in the west. Clemenceau was France's outstanding leader. At the Paris Peace Conference (see Versailles, Treaty of) France obtained heavy German reparations and the right to occupy the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years. When reparations payments were defaulted, France occupied the Ruhr (1923–25).
Outstanding among French political figures of the 1920s were Poincaré, Herriot, and Briand. By the middle of the decade relations with Germany had improved (see Locarno Pact). The depression of the 1930s was aggravated by the immobile economic policies of the government, and political complacency was rocked by the Stavisky Affair (1934). The Popular Front, a coalition led by Léon Blum, of Socialists, Radical Socialists, and Communists, won the elections of 1936; Popular Front governments (1936–38) enacted important social and labor reforms before being overturned by conservative opposition.
After Blum's fall, Édouard Daladier assented to the appeasement policy toward Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Spain favored by Britain and made France a party to the Munich Pact (1938). After the outbreak (1939) of World War II he was replaced by Paul Reynaud. In May–June, 1940, France was ignominiously defeated by Germany. Marshal Pétain became head of the Vichy government (see under Vichy) of unoccupied France (other Vichy leaders were Laval and Darlan), which became a German tool, while Gen. Charles de Gaulle proclaimed, from London, the continued resistance of the "Free French." The Allied invasion (Nov., 1942) of North Africa resulted (1943) in the establishment of a provisional Free French government at Algiers and in the complete German occupation of metropolitan France. De Gaulle's government moved to Paris after the city was liberated (Aug., 1944).
By the end of 1944 the Allies, with heroic aid from the French resistance, had expelled the Germans from France. German occupation had been costly and oppressive. Thousands had been executed and hundreds of thousands made slave laborers in Germany. The liberation campaign itself caused much destruction. Although reduced in power and prestige, France became one of the five great powers in the United Nations and shared in the occupation of Germany. De Gaulle became provisional president.
The Fourth Republic and Postwar France
The Fourth Republic was officially proclaimed in 1946; the new constitution reorganized the empire as the French Union and was otherwise quite similar to that of the Third Republic. In the immediate postwar years the Communists, notably Maurice Thorez, a major figure in the PCF and a fixture in government throughout the Fourth Republic and into the Fifth, the moderate Mouvement Républicain Populaire, founded by Georges Bidault, and the Socialists were the strongest of the many political parties; the pattern of short-lived coalitions reappeared. Banks and major industries were nationalized. American aid (see Marshall Plan) helped rebuild the shattered economy. To further economic recovery and begin the political integration of Europe, France participated in creating the institutions of what has become the European Union, most notably the European Economic Community (Common Market).
French military resources were committed to the West by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). France sent thousands of soldiers to Indochina in an attempt to defeat the nationalist-Communist movement led by the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh. The effort collapsed with the French defeat at Dienbienphu (May, 1954). Pierre Mendès-France came to power, determined to end French involvement. French withdrawal from Indochina was agreed upon at the Geneva Conference. Subsequently Morocco and Tunisia also achieved independence. But the war for independence in Algeria destroyed the Fourth Republic. When a right-wing French military coup in Algeria (1958) threatened to spread to metropolitan France, de Gaulle was invited back to power.
Gaullist France
De Gaulle established the Fifth Republic and became its first president in Dec., 1958. The French Union was transformed into the French Community, and most of France's African holdings became independent by 1960. Algerian independence was negotiated despite a terrorist campaign by the Secret Army Organization (OAS) of extremist French soldiers. De Gaulle aimed at restoring France's prestige in world affairs. France became a nuclear power (1960). France blocked Britain's entrance into the European Economic Community and for a time (1965) boycotted the Market's meetings. Diplomatic recognition was extended (1964) to Communist China. In 1966, de Gaulle withdrew French forces from the integrated command of NATO and forced all U.S. and NATO forces to leave France, although he proclaimed adherence in the event of an "unprovoked attack."
In the spring of 1968 widespread student demonstrations against France's obsolete educational system were joined by striking workers and farmers. De Gaulle dissolved the national assembly and, blaming the Communists for the disorders, won a great electoral victory (June, 1968). The Gaullist party won the first absolute majority in the assembly in French history. But de Gaulle resigned in Apr., 1969, after his proposals for regional reorganization and for revision of the senate were defeated in a referendum.
The Contemporary Era
Georges Pompidou, a Gaullist, was elected president in June, 1969. He preserved de Gaulle's independent foreign policy but made innovations domestically, especially in devaluing the franc. In 1971, he reversed French policy and declared support for Britain's entrance into the European Community. Pompidou died suddenly in 1974 and was succeeded as president by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, his finance minister, who defeated Socialist leader François Mitterrand in a close presidential runoff election. Discontent with inflation and unemployment, dissension within the right wing between Giscard and RPR leader Jacques Chirac, and austerity measures imposed by Giscard combined to aid the Socialist party, and Mitterrand won the 1981 presidential election.
Mitterrand quickly dissolved the national assembly, and it became predominantly Socialist after new elections. To placate the Communist party, with which the Socialists had been allied since 1977, four Communist ministers were added to the cabinet. Many large industries (steel, nuclear energy, armaments), private banks, and insurance companies were nationalized, and minimum wage and social security benefits were increased. However, by 1982 the economic situation had worsened, in part because of decreased exports and pressure on the franc; the government devalued the franc, imposed a wage and price freeze, and granted tax concessions to business. In 1984 Mitterrand re-formed the government, excluding the Communists.
In 1986 a right-wing coalition won a majority in Parliament, and Jacques Chirac was appointed premier. He began a policy of privatizing state-owned companies. In the 1988 presidential election a right-wing candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen, ran on an extreme anti-immigration platform and won a significant portion of first-round votes. Mitterrand, however, was reelected in the second round, defeating Chirac.
In 1991 France agreed to sign the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Mitterrand turned increasingly to foreign affairs and pursued a more moderate economic program. Nonetheless, in the 1993 elections, with the Socialists devastated by rising unemployment and corruption scandals, conservative parties captured nearly 85% of the seats in the national assembly, and Édouard Balladur, a Gaullist, became premier. The new government slashed interest rates and followed other policies aimed at stemming France's continuing recession. In 1995, Chirac was elected president, defeating Balladur and a Socialist candidate; he appointed Alain Juppé as premier.
France was beset by a host of problems in 1995, including severe floods and terror bombings; the government faced international criticism for its nuclear testing in the South Pacific, which it resumed after a three-year moratorium; and the country was paralyzed late in the year by a long transportation workers strike. The strike action was one of many that followed the announcement by Premier Juppé of a comprehensive plan to overhaul the massive social security system and to raise taxes—actions aimed at helping to reduce the budget deficit and enable France to qualify for European monetary union, which was achieved in 1999 (see European Monetary System). Chirac ended nuclear testing in 1996 and announced plans for scaling back French military deployment and phasing in an all-volunteer force.
Following parliamentary elections in 1997, Socialist Lionel Jospin became premier. In late 2000, Chirac was accused of involvement in a 1980s kickback scheme that provided funds for political parties when he was mayor of Paris, but he denied any knowledge of the scheme. The charges created political difficulties for Chirac but did not greatly affect his popularity. The Socialist parliament in 2001 approved a bill giving Corsica limited autonomy. The move was originally intended to end separatist violence there, but the year actually saw an increase in attacks, and the law was subsequently ruled in large part to be unconstitutional.
In the 2002 presidential and parliamentary elections Chirac won a resounding victory. Jospin, who ran against Chirac for the presidency, failed to make it into the runoff, where Chirac's opponent was the right-wing nationalist Jean-Marie Le Pen. Jospin resigned as premier, and Chirac went on the win the presidency. The Socialists suffered a further setback in the national assembly elections, when the center-right alliance, the Union for the Presidential Majority (UMP; subsequently the Union for a Popular Movement), won three fifths of the seats. Jean-Pierre Raffarin was appointed premier by Chirac.
In 2002–3, as the Bush administration pushed for the abandonment of UN weapons inspections in Iraq and for the UN approval of the use of force to oust Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and disarm Iraq, President Chirac became one of the strongest international opponents of war. France threatened to veto any resolution that explicitly authorized the use of force, which led to acrimonious relations with the United States and Great Britain. France's strong stand, which was also supported by Germany, also led to divisions in the European Union and NATO, whose member governments disagreed on whether to use force against Iraq.
A referendum in July, 2003, calling for approval of a new Corsican assembly with limited autonomy (made possible by amendments to the constitution) failed to pass; the government had supported the measure in hopes of undercutting Corsican separatists. The following month an estimated 11,000 people, largely elderly, died as a result of a persistent heatwave in which temperatures in parts of the country rose to above 104°F (40°C).
Local and regional elections in Mar., 2004, resulted in a clear victory for the Socialists. The vote was seen as rejection of the government's moves to make changes in the French social welfare system, with its generous welfare, health-care, and pension benefits. The government subsequently also suffered losses in the September elections for the senate. In May, 2005, voters rejected the proposed new constitution for the European Union, resulting in a further embarrassment for the government, and Premier Raffarin resigned. Dominique de Villepin, who had been interior minister, succeeded Raffarin as premier.
In Oct., 2005, following strident comments by Interior Minister Sarkozy on urban violence linked to immigrants, and the accidental deaths of two black youths who were trying to hide from the police, nighttime riots by persons of African and Arab descent occurred in suburbs of Paris, spread to other Parisian suburbs, and in November spread to many other places in France. The government declared a state of emergency, which lasted for the rest of 2005, but provocative comments by some officials continued to feed immigrant resentment. The riots, which highlighted the alienation and poverty of the French of non-European descent, did not end until after mid-November.
A new national crisis arose in early 2006 when Villepin pushed through changes to French labor law that would make it easier to fire workers under age 26 during their first two years with a company. A series of demonstrations and strikes against the law occurred in Mar.–Apr., 2006. Although the law was enacted, in a setback for Villepin, he subsequently announced that it would be replaced by new legislation designed to reduce youth unemployment. Charges that Villepin had targeted (2004) Sarkozy for investigation by the secret service in an attempt to smear his party rival brought calls for Villepin to resign, but Chirac continued to support the premier. (Villepin was acquitted of the charges in 2010.)
Sarkozy secured the UMP nomination for president in Jan., 2007, while the Socialists had earlier nominated Ségolène Royal, the first woman to be a major party candidate for the office. Sarkozy led the crowded field after the first round in Apr., 2007, and soundly defeated Royal in the runoff in May. After taking office, Sarkozy appointed François Fillon, a former education and labor minister, as premier.
The UMP was expected to gain seats in the subsequent June parliamentary elections, but the party actually lost seats. It nonetheless retained a solid majority in the National Assembly. Proposed pension benefit changes and civil service job cuts led to a nine-day transport workers strike and shorter walkouts by other workers in Nov., 2007. Disenchantment with the economy and with Sarkozy's personal style and his very public divorce and remarriage since becoming president contributed to Socialist gains in the Mar., 2008, local elections.
Sarkozy won parliamentary approval in July, 2008, for constitutional amendments that limiting a person to two terms as president and increasing some of parliament's powers. In 2009, France decided to return its forces (except its nuclear forces) to NATO's military command. Though France weathered the 2008–9 global recession better than most European nations, the weak French economy and increasing unemployment contributed to a significant Socialist-led coalition win in regional elections in Mar., 2010. In October the government secured legislation changing the pension system (including raising the retirement age, a measure that was partially reversed in 2012) in order to reduce public deficits and debt; the changes sparked months of protests that culminated in October with a series of crippling strikes and protests.
The recession at times strained relations with Germany when the two leading eurozone nations disagreed over how to respond to its effects (both initially and in the early 2010s when soaring budget deficits affected Greece and some other eurozone nations), but Sarkozy generally supported the reliance on government austerities as a response to the eurozone fiscal crisis. The Socialists and their allies did well again in the Mar., 2011, local elections, largely repeating their 2010 success, and in September they won control of the French Senate for the first time since the Fifth Republic was established. The 2012 presidential elections resulted in a victory for the Socialists as François Hollande defeated Sarkozy after a runoff (May); Hollande named Socialist Jean-Marc Ayrault premier. In the June legislative elections, the Socialists and their allies won a majority of the seats in the National Assembly. In mid-2013 the new government enacted a number of labor reforms; a modest overhaul of the pension system's funding was passed in late 2013. A poor showing by the Socialists in the Mar., 2014, local elections led to Ayrault's resignation, and Hollande named Interior Minister Manuel Valls to succeed him. The Socialists also fared poorly in the Mar., 2015, local elections.
A Jan., 2015, an deadly attack in Paris, on a satirical magazine notorious for its cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad and on a kosher grocery store, was claimed by Al Qaeda. A coordinated series of bombings and attacks in Paris on November 13, by terrorists associated with the Islamic State, killed 130 persons and injured several hundred. A state of emergency was declared (and subsequently continued into 2017) while security forces sought those terrorists who had escaped and also raided sites associated with the perpetrators and planners. In the first round of the subsequent regional elections (Dec., 2015), the National Front made record gains, but the party placed third after the final round of voting, which was won by the Republicans (the renamed UMP). July, 2016, saw another attack in which dozens were killed and hundreds injured, as a Tunisian man drove a truck through a Bastille Day crowd in Nice. That same month the government forced a further labor reform bill through the parliament; the law was opposed by many labor unions and had sparked several weeks of strikes.
Valls resigned as premier in Dec., 2016, to run for president; Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve was appointed to succeed him. In the 2017 presidential election, Emmanuel Macron, a former investment banker and finance minister in Hollande's government who ran as an independent, won April's first round, and the National Front's Marine Le Pen placed second; Macron easily defeated Le Pen in the May runoff, receiving two thirds of the vote. Macron appointed Édouard Phillipe, a member of the Republican party, as premier. Macron's Republic Forward! movement and the allied Democratic Movement subsequently won a majority in the June National Assembly elections, but voter turnout was historically low. The September Senate elections left that body in control of the Republicans; that same month Macron enacted significant changes to France's labor laws by decree.
A classic geographic study is J. Brunhes, Géographie humaine de la France (2 vol., 1920–26), and E. E. Evans, France (1966), is also useful. J. Michelet is still regarded by many as the greatest of French historians. Among more recent general histories of France, those edited by E. Lavisse and by G. Hanotaux are outstanding. A monumental multivolume work is F. Funck-Brentano, ed., National History of France (tr., 10 vol., 1916–36). The many authors of classic historical works on France include, for the medieval period, M. L. Bloch, C. V. Langlois, F. Lot, A. Luchaire, and Fustel de Coulanges; for the 17th cent., Voltaire; for the French Revolution and Napoleon I, H. Taine, A. Aulard, G. Lefebvre, A. Mathiez, and F. Masson; for the history of the working class and of commerce, É. Levasseur; for cultural history, A. Rambaud.
See also A. Cobban, A History of Modern France (3 vol., 3d ed. 1966–67); D. M. Pickles, The Fifth French Republic (3d ed. 1966) and France (2d ed. 1971); A. Horne, To Lose a Battle: France 1940 (1969) and La Belle France: A Short History (2005); J. M. Hughes, To the Maginot Line (1971); M. Marrus and R. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (1981); H. R. Kedward and R. Austin, ed., Vichy France and the Resistance: Ideology and Culture (1985); P. Pinchemel, France: A Geographical, Social, and Economic Survey (1987); M. Larkin, France since the Popular Front (1988); P. Benedict, ed., Cities and Social Change in Early Modern France (1989); C. Flockton and E. Kofman, France (1989); R. Aldrich and J. Connell, ed., France in World Politics (1989); E. Weber, The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s (1996); F. Giles, The Locust Years: The Story of the French Republic, 1946–1958 (1996); P. Burrin, France under the Germans (1997); D. Roche, France in the Enlightenment (1999); J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (2001); J. P. Bury, France, 1814–1940 (6th ed. 2003); J. Jackson, The Fall of France (2003); C. Jones, The Great Nation (2003); G. Robb, The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography from the Revolution to the First World War (2007); W. Beik, A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France (2009); E. Berenson et al., ed., The French Republic (2011); F. Brown, For the Soul of France: Culture Wars in the Age of Dreyfus (2009) and The Embrace of Unreason: France, 1914–1940 (2014).


text:
Please note: Your Eventbrite ticket is a confirmation of your reservation. Pet Photography is NOT a free event. All prices are listed on the Bayside website.
Bayside Santa + Pet Photography is back for another year! Who could miss the opportunity to snap up a photo with Santa & your best four-legged fur friend? Book your session to capture the magic of Christmas with your pet and Santa at Bayside.


text:
"Living Witnesses: Triumph Over Tragedy Book Launch"
Los Angeles, CA (PRWEB) October 10, 2012
The Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust, the oldest Holocaust museum in the U.S., and A Dime and A Penny Foundation, a Holocaust non profit, are pleased to announce the release of the portrait book trilogy, Living Witnesses: Triumph Over Tragedy. The launch event will take place tomorrow at Paramount Studios' Paramount Theatre on October 11, 2012 at 6:30pm.
"The books serve as a reminder and a testament to the spirit of survival burning in anyone who suffers and overcomes," said Mark Rothman, Executive Director of the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust.
The project captures the lives and experiences of Holocaust Survivors including 30 people from Los Angeles as well as other parts of the US, Israel and Europe. Each photo illustrates the glorious conquest of the heart-wrenching past and how those experiences helped shape the Survivors' lives. Book proceeds will be donated to Jewish Family Services on behalf of Holocaust Survivors in need.
"I understand the value of a photograph," said Monni Must, portrait photographer and co-author of the books. "Five years ago when I lost my daughter tragically, I turned to Holocaust Survivors who not only taught me the value of a photograph, but they taught me the most important lesson of all: how to go on in the wake of tragedy."
The world-renowned, one hundred and three year old Sir Nicholas Winton, a man responsible for saving the lives of 669 children during the Holocaust, is one of the many featured in the project. His grandson, Laurence Winton Watson, will be speaking at this event on his grandfather's behalf. Sir Winton lead an effort to provide safe train passage from Europe to London as part of what became known as the kinder transports.
The event is free and all are invited to attend and learn about these Survivors and how their stories are an inspiration to all who have endured tragedy. All three books are available on-line for $350.00 at http://dimeandpenny.org/store/. Holocaust Survivors will receive a discount.
As Survivors age, organizations such as Jewish Family Services find them needing increasing amounts of a wide range of assistance. Their needs are often much greater than those of other elderly men and women, in large part because of the depravations they suffered during the Holocaust.
About Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust
Holocaust Survivors founded the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust in the early 1960s as a permanent repository for their personal artifacts from the Holocaust and the world the Nazis destroyed. Today the Museum hosts docent-led school tours, survivor lectures, exhibitions on the Holocaust, and numerous special events. Museum admission is always free. Visit us on-line at http://www.lamoth.org on the Web.
About A Dime and A Penny Foundation
A Dime and A Penny 501(c)3 was created in 2011 by Detroit-based photographer Monni Must. The photographic charity endeavors of the organization exist to help others find hope in the midst of tragedy. The foundation produces books, exhibits and other projects whose proceeds help those in need. To RSVP, email RSVP (at) dimeandpenny (dot) org or for more information about visit http://www.dimeandpenny.org/.
For the original version on PRWeb visit: http://www.prweb.com/releases/prweb2012/10/prweb9993087.htm


text:
Commercial, Personal/Corporate, Products, Services
By By Thierry Dubois | October 3, 2013
Send Feedback
French manufacturer Helicopteres Guimbal has unveiled numbers on the cost of a Cabri G2 overhaul. The first examples of the two-seater were overhauled last summer at the Guimbal factory in Aix-en-Provence, after 2,200 flight hours.
For each of the two 2010 Cabris operated by Jonkoping, Sweden-based flying school Northern Helicopters, the downtime was six weeks, according to the airframer. "In 2,200 flight hours, each of these Cabris generated revenues in the amount of about three times its selling price," founder and CEO Bruno Guimbal said. Then, the overhaul cost 25 percent of this price, he went on.
Cabri in flight. Photo courtesy of Helicopteres Guimbal
A Cabri G2, in its baseline version, today sells for €293,000 (around $395,000). By contrast, a Robinson R22 sells for $276,000. But an R22 overhaul costs twice that of a Cabri, according to Guimbal.
"Thanks to its reduced maintenance needs, infinite fatigue life for all components (including the main rotor and the composite airframe) and absence of hard-time limits, the Cabri G2 is proving it is the most cost-efficient training helicopter on the market," Guimbal asserted.
The EASA recently granted the company a Part 145 approval for maintenance and overhaul of the helicopter and its systems. Over 50 Cabri G2s are flying in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. Hélicoptères Guimbal now has 36 employees.
Related: Maintenance News


text:
Kenny G and his wife are playing the same discordant tune.
The smooth-jazz hitmaker has filed for divorce, nearly seven months after his mate of almost 20 years, Balynda Benson-Gorelick, filed for a legal separation.
G, whose full name is Kenneth Bruce Gorelick, cited irreconcilable differences as the reason for the split, according to court documents obtained by E! News. They have two sons together, Max and Noah.
U.S. & World
Adrienne Maloof opens up on her separation from husband Paul Nassif
G, who is reportedly worth about $48 million, stated in his petition that he and Benson-Gorelick's assets will be divvied up according to an existing prenuptial agreement.
At 14, Noah is the only minor child involved and G is asking for joint legal and physical custody.
The 56-year-old saxophonist is also requesting that he and his soon-to-be ex-wife be responsible for their own legal fees.


text:
I upgraded from 10.10 to 11.04 (kernel 2.6.38-9) and now Ubuntu won't fully boot. I get this message:
Gave up waiting for root device. Common problems:
- Boot args (cat /proc/cmdline)
- Check rootdelay= (did the system wait long enough?)
- Check root= (did the system wait for the right device?)
- Missing modules (cat /proc/modules; ls /dev)
ALERT! /dev/mapper/isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume01 does not exist. Dropping to a shell!
Which resulted in falling back to a BusyBox shell.
If I do
ls -l /dev/mapper I get:
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume0 -> ../dm-0
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume0p1 -> ../dm-1
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume0p5 -> ../dm-2
I tried booting with an older kernel (2.6.35-28) and that worked (except for x because the nvidia drivers weren't build) and did
ls -l /dev/mapper and I got:
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume0 -> ../dm-0
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume01 -> ../dm-1 # my ext4 partition
isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume05 -> ../dm-2 # my swap partition
So I
sudo apt-get purge linux-image-2.6.38-9-common and then reinstalled
nvidia-common for 2.6.35-28 (dkms rebuild the module). Then when I rebooted into 2.6.35-28 I got the same
/dev/mapper/isw_jhdfjbgej_Volume01 error that I got with 2.6.38-9.


text:
Weekly Auctions of Exceptional Items
- Art & Design from 1860
DoneThu, May 01, 2014 6:00 AM EDT
Cambridge, UK
Art & Design from 1860
Auction of ceramics, glass, works of art, metalwares, furniture, prints and paintings from the period 1860 to the present day.
Auction Details
Auction Information
Bid Increments
PriceBid Increment
Monday 28th April 10.00 - 17.00 Tuesday 29th April 10.00 - 17.00 Wednesday 30th April 10.00 - 19.00 Thursday 1st May 09.00 - 10.45
Clifton House
1 & 2 Clifton Road
Cambridge, CBI 7EA
Buyer's Premium
- 26.4%
Terms & Conditions
SOCIETY OF FINE ART AUCTIONEERS AND VALUERS and the ROYAL INSTITUTION OF CHARTERED SURVEYORS CONDITIONS OF BUSINESS INFORMATION FOR BUYERS 1. INTRODUCTION. The following informative notes are intended to assist Buyers, particularly those inexperienced or new to our salerooms. All sales are conducted on our printed Conditions of Sale which are readily available for inspection and normally accompany catalogues. Our staff will be happy to help you if there is anything you do not fully understand. 2. AGENCY. As auctioneers Cheffins usually contract as agents for the seller whose identity, for reasons of confidentiality, is not normally disclosed. Accordingly, if you buy, your primary contract is with the seller. 3. ESTIMATES. Estimates are designed to help buyers gauge what sort of sum might be involved for the purchase of a particular lot. The lower estimate may represent the reserve price and certainly will not be below it. Estimates do not include the Buyer's Premium or VAT (where chargeable). Estimates are prepared some time before the sale and may be altered by announcement before the sale. They are in no sense definitive. 4. BUYER'S PREMIUM. The Conditions of Sale oblige buyers to pay a buyer's premium at 23.4% on the hammer price of each lot purchased, which shall include VAT on the premium at the rate imposed by law. If using a live bidding platform there is a 3% surcharge. 5. VAT. (*) indicates that VAT is payable by the purchaser at the standard rate (presently 20%) on the hammer price as well as being an element in the buyer's premium. This imposition of VAT is likely to be because the seller is registered for VAT within the European Union and is not operating the Dealers Margin Scheme or because VAT is due at 20% on importation into the UK. The double symbol (**) indicates that the lot has been imported from outside the European Union and the present position is that these lots are liable to a reduced rate of VAT (5%) on the gross lot price (i.e. both the hammer price and the buyer's premium). Lots which appear without either of the above symbols indicate that no VAT is payable on the hammer price. This is because such lots are sold using the Auctioneers Margin Scheme and it should be noted that the VAT included within the Premium is not recoverable as input tax. 6. Cheffins are, primarily, agents for the seller. We are dependent on information provided by the seller and whilst we may inspect lots and act reasonably in taking a general view about them, we are normally unable to carry out a detailed or any examination of lots in order to ascertain their condition in the way in which it would be wise for a buyer to do. Intending buyers have ample opportunity for inspection of goods and, therefore, accept responsibility for inspecting and investigating lots in which they may be interested. Please note carefully the exclusion of liability for the condition of lots contained in the Conditions of Sale. Neither the seller nor we, as the auctioneers, accept any responsibility for their condition. In particular, mechanical objects of any age are not guaranteed to be in working order. However, in so far as we have examined the goods and make a representation about their condition, we shall be liable for any defect which that examination ought to have revealed to the auctioneer but which would not have been revealed to the buyer had the buyer examined the goods. Additionally, in specified circumstances lots misdescribed because they are ?deliberate forgeries? may be returned and repayment made. There is a three week time limit. (The expression ?deliberate forgery? is defined in our Conditions of Sale.) 7. ELECTRICAL GOODS. These are sold as ?antiques? only and if bought for use must be checked over for compliance with safety regulations by a qualified electrician first. 8. EXPORT OF GOODS. Buyers intending to export goods should ascertain (a) whether an export licence is required and (b) whether there is any specific prohibition on importing goods of that character because, e.g. they may contain prohibited materials such as ivory. Ask us if you need help. 9. BIDDING. Bidders will be required to register before the sale commences and lots will be invoiced to the name and address on the registration form. Some form of identification may be required if you are unknown to us. Please enquire in advance about our arrangements for telephone bidding. 10. COMMISSION BIDDING. Commission bids may be left with the auctioneers indicating the maximum amount to be bid excluding buyers? premium. They will be executed as cheaply as possible having regard to the reserve (if any) and competing bids. If two buyers submit identical commission bids the auctioneers may prefer the first bid received. Please enquire in advance about our arrangements for the leaving of commission bids by telephone, fax or email. 11. METHODS OF PAYMENT. As a general rule any cheques tendered will need to be cleared before removal of the goods is permitted. Please discuss with our Accounts Office in advance of the sale if other methods of payment are envisaged. (N.B. As a consequence of the Money Laundering regulations 2003, we are no longer able to accept cash payments in excess of £7,500. This includes single payments amounting to this sum or multiple payments totalling £7,500.) 12. REFUND POLICY. In specified circumstances lots misdescribed because they are ?deliberate forgeries? may be returned and repayment made. There is a three week time limit. (The expression ?deliberate forgery? is defined in our Conditions of Sale.) 13. COLLECTION AND STORAGE. Please note what the Conditions of Sale state about collection and storage. It is important that goods are paid for and collected promptly. Any delay may involve the buyer in paying storage charges. CONDITIONS OF SALE Cheffins carries on business with bidders, buyers and all those present in the auction room prior to or in connection with a sale on the following General Condition and on such other terms, conditions and notices as may be referred to herein. 1. DEFINITIONS In these Conditions: (a) 'auctioneer' means Cheffins or its authorised auctioneer, as appropriate; (b) 'deliberate forgery' means an imitation made with the intention of deceiving as to authorship, origin, date, age, period, culture or source but which is unequivocally described in the catalogue as being the work of a particular creator and which at the date of the sale had a value materially less than it would have had if it had been in accordance with the description; (c) 'hammer price' means the level of bidding reached (at or above any reserve) when the auctioneer brings down the hammer; (d) 'terms of consignment' means the stipulated terms and rates of commission on which Cheffins accepts instructions from sellers or their agents; (e) 'total amount due' means the hammer price in respect of the lot sold together with any premium, Value Added Tax chargeable and any additional charges payable by a defaulting buyer under these Conditions; (f) 'sale proceeds' means the net amount due to the seller, being the hammer price of the lot sold less commission at the stated rate, Value Added Tax chargeable and any other amounts due to us by the seller in whatever capacity and however arising; (g) 'You', 'Your' etc. refer to the buyer as identified in Condition 2. (h) The singular includes the plural and vice versa as appropriate. 2. BIDDING PROCEDURES AND THE BUYER (a) Bidders are required to register their particulars before bidding and to satisfy any security arrangements before entering the auction room to view or bid. (b) The maker of the highest bid accepted by the auctioneer conducting the sale shall be the buyer at the hammer price and any dispute about a bid shall be settled at the auctioneer?s absolute discretion by re-offering the Lot during the course of the auction or otherwise. The auctioneer shall act reasonably in exercising this discretion (c) Bidders shall be deemed to act as principals. (d) Once made, no bid may be withdrawn. (e) Our right to bid on behalf of the seller is expressly reserved up to the amount of any reserve and the right to refuse any bid is also reserved. 3. INCREMENTS Bidding increments shall be at the auctioneer?s sole discretion. 4. THE PURCHASE PRICE The buyer shall pay the hammer price, together with a premium thereon of 23.4% which shall include VAT on the premium at the rate imposed by law. 5. VALUE ADDED TAX Value Added Tax on the hammer price is imposed by law on all items affixed with an asterisk or double asterisk. Value Added Tax is charged at the appropriate rate prevailing by law at the date of sale and is payable by buyers of relevant Lots. (Please refer to the Information for Buyers for a brief explanation of the VAT position.) 6. PAYMENT (1) Immediately a Lot is sold you will: (a) give to us, if requested proof of identity, and (b) pay to us the total amount due in cash or in such other way as is agreed by us. (2) Any payments by you to us may be applied by us towards any sums owing from you to us on any account whatever without regard to any directions of you or your agent, whether express or implied. 7. TITLE AND COLLECTION OF PURCHASES (1) The ownership of any Lots purchased shall not pass to you until you have made payment in full to us of the total amount due. (2) You shall at your own risk and expense take away any lots that you have purchased and paid for not later than 3 working days following the day of the auction or upon the clearance of any cheque used for payment after which you shall be responsible for any removal, storage and insurance charges. (3) No purchase can be claimed or removed until it has been paid for. 8. REMEDIES FOR NON-PAYMENT OR FAILURE TO COLLECT PURCHASES (1) If any Lot is not paid for in full and taken away in accordance with these Conditions or if there is any other breach of these Conditions, we, as agent for the seller and on our own behalf, shall at our absolute discretion and without prejudice to any other rights we may have, be entitled to exercise one or more of the following rights and remedies: (a) to proceed against you for damages for breach of contract; (b) to rescind the sale of that Lot and/or any other Lots sold by us to you; (c) to resell the Lot (by auction or private treaty) in which case you shall be responsible for any resulting deficiency in the total amount due (after crediting any part payment and adding any resale costs). Any surplus so arising shall belong to the seller; (d) to remove, store and insure the Lot at your expense and, in the case of storage, either at our premises or elsewhere; (e) to charge interest at a rate not exceeding 1.5% per month on the total amount due to the extent it remains unpaid for more than five working days after the sale; (f) to retain that or any other Lot sold to you until you pay the total amount due; (g) to reject or ignore bids from you or your agent at future auctions or to impose conditions before any such bids shall be accepted. (h) to apply any proceeds of sale of other Lots due or in future becoming due to you towards the settlement of the total amount due and to exercise a lien (that is a right to retain possession of) any of your property in our possession for any purpose until the debt due is satisfied (2) We shall, as agent for the seller and on our own behalf pursue these rights and remedies only so far as is reasonable to make appropriate recovery in respect of breach of these conditions. 9. THIRD PARTY LIABILITY All members of the public on our premises are there at their own risk and must note the lay-out of the accommodation and security arrangements. Accordingly neither the auctioneer nor their employees or agents shall incur liability for death or personal injury (except as required by law by reason of our negligence) or similarly for the safety of the property of persons visiting prior to or at a sale. 10. COMMISSION BIDS Whilst prospective buyers are strongly advised to attend the auction and are always responsible for any decision to bid for a particular Lot and shall be assumed to have carefully inspected and satisfied themselves as to its condition we will if so instructed clearly and in writing execute bids on their behalf. Neither the auctioneer nor our employees or agents shall be responsible for any failure to do so save where such failure is unreasonable. Where two or more commission bids at the same level are recorded we reserve the right in our absolute discretion to prefer the first bid so made. 11. WARRANTY OF TITLE AND AVAILABILITY The seller warrants the auctioneer and the buyer that the seller is the true owner of the property consigned or is properly authorised by the true owner to consign it for sale and is able to transfer good and marketable title to the property free from any third party claims. 12. AGENCY The auctioneer normally acts as agent only and disclaims any responsibility for default by the seller or buyer. 13. TERMS OF SALE The Seller acknowledges that Lots are sold subject to the stipulations of these Conditions in their entirety and on the Terms of Consignment as notified to the consignor at the time of the entry of the Lot. 14. DESCRIPTIONS AND CONDITION (1) Whilst we seek to describe lots accurately, it may be impractical for us to carry out exhaustive due diligence on each lot. Prospective buyers are given ample opportunities to view and inspect before any sale and they (and any independent experts on their behalf) must satisfy themselves as to the accuracy of any description applied to a lot. Prospective buyers also bid on the understanding that, inevitably, representations or statements by us as to authorship, genuineness, origin, date, age, provenance, condition or estimated selling price involve matters of opinion. We undertake that any such opinion shall be honestly and reasonably held and accept liability for opinions given negligently or fraudulently. Subject to the foregoing neither we the auctioneer, nor our employees or agents, nor the seller accept liability for the correctness of such opinions and all conditions and warranties, whether relating to description, condition or quality of lots, express, implied or statutory, are hereby excluded. This Condition is subject to the next following Condition concerning deliberate forgeries and applies save as provided for in paragraph 6 in ?Information to Buyers?. (2) Private treaty sales made under these Conditions are deemed to be sales by auction for purposes of consumer legislation. 15. FORGERIES Notwithstanding the preceding Condition, any Lot which proves to be a deliberate forgery (as defined) may be returned to us by you within 21 days of the auction provided it is in the same condition as when bought, and is accompanied by particulars identifying it from the relevant catalogue description and a written statement of defects. If we are satisfied from the evidence presented that the Lot is a deliberate forgery we shall refund the money paid by you for the Lot including any buyer?s premium provided that (1) if the catalogue description reflected the accepted view of scholars and experts as at the date of sale or (2) you personally are not able to transfer a good and marketable title to us, you shall have no rights under this condition. The right of return provided by this Condition is additional to any right or remedy provided by law or by these Conditions of Sale. 16. GENERAL Cheffins shall have the right at our discretion, to refuse admission to our premises or attendance at our auctions by any person. 17. Compensation (1) Any right to compensation for losses liabilities and expenses incurred in respect of and as a result of any breach of these Conditions and any exclusions provided by them shall be available to the seller and/or the auctioneer as appropriate. (2) Such rights and exclusions shall extend to and be deemed to be for the benefit of employees and agents of the seller and/or the auctioneer who may themselves enforce them. 18. Any notice to any buyer, seller, bidder or viewer may be given by first class mail or Swiftmail in which case it shall be deemed to have been received by the addressee 48 hours after posting. 19. Special terms may be used in catalogue descriptions of particular classes of items in which case the descriptions must be interpreted in accordance with any glossary appearing within the catalogue. 20. Any indulgence extended to bidders buyers or sellers by us notwithstanding the strict terms of these Conditions or of the Terms of Consignment shall affect the position at the relevant time only and in respect of that particular concession only; in all other respects these Conditions shall be construed as having full force and effect. 21. English law applies to the interpretation of these Conditions. Company Details: Cheffins, Clifton House, 1-2 Clifton Road, Cambridge, CB1 7EA Tel: 00 44 (0)1223 213343 Fax: 00 44 (0)1223 271949 E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com Condition Reports Whilst we seek to describe lots accurately, it may be impractical for us to carry out exhaustive due diligence on each lot. Prospective buyers are given ample opportunities to view and inspect before any sale and they (and any independent experts on their behalf) must satisfy themselves as to the accuracy of any description applied to a lot. Prospective buyers also bid on the understanding that, inevitably, representations or statements by us as to authorship, genuineness, origin, date, age, provenance, condition or estimated selling price involve matters of opinion. We undertake that any such opinion shall be honestly and reasonably held and accept liability for opinions given negligently or fraudulently. Subject to the foregoing neither we the auctioneer, nor our employees or agents, nor the seller accept liability for the correctness of such opinions and all conditions and warranties, whether relating to description, condition or quality of lots, express, implied or statutory, are hereby excluded. Please refer to our Terms and Conditions Important Notice for Buyers of Ceramics and Glass Key to Ceramic & Glass cataloguing (D) Damage (R) Restoration (W) Wear and Fritting Important Notice for Buyers Droit de Suite Please note that the 'Artist's Resale Right' regulations will be in effect during some sales. It is a measure designed to supply living artists and artists who have died within the last 70 years, with a percentage of the amount that their works sell for at auction. The items to which this charge may apply include all types of pictures and some ceramics, glassware, tapestries, photographs, furniture and decorative arts. Lots where Droit de Suite may be payable are indicated by a § after the lot number. The levy is imposed upon items which make upwards of 1,000 Euros (converted at the current rate of exchange on the day of the sale) and the buyers of the items to which the measure applies will be charged for the royalty in accordance with the table below. Portion of the Sale Price Royalty Rate From 1,000 - 50,000 euro 4% From 50,000.01 - 200,000 euro 3% From 200,000.01 - 350,000 euro 1% From 350,000.01 - 500,000 euro 0.5% Exceeding 500,000 euro 0.25% For Example: If a painting sells for £1,500 (hammer price), it will be subject to the usual Buyer's Premium (23.4% including VAT) and an additional charge of £60 as the royalty rate being 4% of £1,500. For more information please contact the office. Alternatively visit the following website for more information http://www.dacs.org.uk An Explanation of Cataloguing Practice A work catalogued with the name(s) or recognised designation of an artist, without any qualification is, in our opinion, a work by the artist. In other cases the following expressions, with the following meanings are used: 'Attributed to...' - in our opinion probably a work by the artist in whole or in part 'Studio of...' - in our opinion a work executed in the studio or 'Workshop of...' workshop of the artist, possibly under his supervision 'Circle of...' - in our opinion a work of the period of the artist and showing his influence 'Follower of...' - in our opinion a work executed in the artist's style but not necessarily by a pupil 'Manner of...' - in our opinion a work executed in the artist's style but of a later date 'After...' - in our opinion a copy (of any date) of a work of the artist 'Signed...', 'Dated...', 'Inscribed...' - in our opinion the work has been signed/ dated/ inscribed by the artist - the addition of a question mark indicates an element of doubt 'With signature...', 'With date...', 'With inscription...' - in our opinion the signature/ date/ inscription is by a hand other than that of the artist All measurements are in centimetres, height before width. Important Notice for Buyers of Jewellery: Treatment and Condition of Gemstones Gemstones are often treated to enhance their colour and improve their appearance. They may be heated or treated by oil or resin to intensify colour and transparency. Other techniques such as dyeing, irradiation, coating and impregnation may also be used. Be aware that unless the catalogue description specifically states that the stone is natural, we have assumed that any treatment may not be permanent and that special care of the stone may be needed in the future. Payment & Collection Payment All purchases must be paid for in full on the day of the sale. After the sale you will receive an invoice for the full amount by post and by email where you have 5 working days to complete payment. Please refer to our Terms and Conditions We accept the following methods of payment: Bank Transfer - direct to our bankers, Barclays Bank Bene't St, Cambridge, Sort Code: 20-17-19, Account number: 50690961, IBAN: GB22BARC20171950690961, Swift Code: BARCGB22 Cash - As a consequence of the Money Laundering Regulations 2003, we are no longer able to accept cash payments for sums in excess of £7,500. This includes single payments amounting to this sum or multiple payments totalling £7,500. Cheques - supported by a valid guarantee card, Cheques are accepted entirely at our discretion (please note you must allow 6 working days for a cheque to clear before we release any goods purchased). Debit cards - payments can be made in person or over the telephone (please note there is a £200 limit for payments over the telephone). Credit cards - are subject to a surcharge of 2%. Payments can be made in person or over the telephone (please note there is a £200 limit for payments over the telephone). Collection and Clearance In some circumstances small or portable lots may be collected during the sale on production of a purchaser's sale receipt. Our staff are here to help, but please remember that the smooth conduct of the sale has to be their first consideration at all time. We do not have facilities for the storage of sold items on the Premises therefore all sold lots must be collected no later than 10 days after the sale. After this date all uncollected lots may be removed to a storage facility and may be subject to a removal charge. Stored items can only then be collected by prior appointment. Goods will not be delivered until all outstanding charges have been settled. Packing & Shipping We regret we are unable to provide any onsite packing services. However if the items are small and light weight we may be able to accommodate but at our discretion. Otherwise we recommend Mail Boxes Etc., Melvyn Ince, International Shipping or Alban Shipping who will collect from Cheffins and offer cartage to international and domestic locations. They will be pleased to provide prompt individual quotations directly. We can also recommend other carriers or shippers on an individual basis. Mail Boxes Etc. 23 King Street, Cambridge, CB1 1AH Tel: +44 (0)1223 361601 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com www.mbe.uk.com Melvyn Ince International Shipping Little Haven 42 Beatrice Road Wisbech Cambridgeshire, PE13 3PE Tel/Fax: + 44 (0)1945 464781 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com Alban Shipping Unit 4, Premier Business Park Dencora Way Luton, Bedfordshire, LU3 3HP Tel: +44 (0)1582 493099 Fax: +44 (0)1582 490147 www.albanshipping.co.uk
Popular Searches
Artists & Creators
© 2002-2020 LiveAuctioneers. All Rights Reserved.Cookie PolicyTerms & ConditionsPrivacy Policy
This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Terms of Service and Privacy Policy apply.


text:
U.N. special rapporteur says new anti-rape law should have done more to address causes and consequences of violence against women
NEW DELHI (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - India missed a golden opportunity to tackle violence against women, by enacting a law that toughens punishments against sex offenders but fails to address the root causes and consequences of gender abuse, a U.N. expert said Wednesday.
The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013, or "anti-rape law" was enacted last month, after the fatal December gang rape of a student sparked protests over the treatment of women in the largely patriarchal country.
The legislation, which includes death for repeat rapists, was based on a recommendations made by a panel headed by late former Chief Justice J.S. Verma, but it disappointed many activists who said it had been watered down.
Rashida Manjoo, U.N. Special Rapporteur on violence against women, who was on a 10-day visit to investigate gender abuses in the country, told a news conference that the making of a new law had presented a "golden moment" for India, but that this has had been lost.
"While this legislative reform is to be commended, it is regrettable that the amendments do not fully reflect the Verma Committee's recommendations," Manjoo said.
"This development foreclosed the opportunity to establish a holistic and remedial framework which is underpinned by transformative norms and standards, including those relating to sexual and bodily integrity rights. Furthermore the approach adopted fails to address the structural and root causes of and consequences of violence against women."
Manjoo, a South African national, said criminalising marital rape, lowering the age of consent from 18 to 16, and addressing sexual abuses faced by gays, lesbians and transgenders should have been part of the legislative reforms.
Indian girls and women face a plethora of threats. These include sexual and domestic violence, dowry-related deaths, crimes in the name of honour, witch-branding, acid attacks, female foeticide, early marriage and human trafficking.
According to latest figures from the National Crimes Records Bureau (NCRB), there were 228,650 reported crimes committed against women in 2011, an increase of seven percent from the previous year.
Manjoo, who travelled to various regions of the country including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Manipur and Tamil Nadu, met with many women who shared their personal experiences of violence and survival.
"The pain and anguish in the testimonies of loss, dispossession, and various human rights violations, was visceral and often difficult to deal with," she said.
"The denial of constitutional rights in general, and the violation of the rights of equality, dignity, bodily integrity, life and access to justice in particular, was a theme that was common in many testimonies."
The U.N. envoy said that she did not meet with very senior officials, despite requests to meet with parliamentarians, the minister for women and child development, members of the judiciary and Sonia Gandhi, leader of the ruling Congress-led coalition government.
She added that although it was part of her mandate, she also did not gain access to shelters, psychiatric hospitals, detention centres or jails.
"Unfortunately it didn't happen on this mission. But the norm on many of my missions is that I do get access to speaking to people," she said. "There was no refusal in India about meeting with anyone in particular. There was silence and silence is not acquiescence."
Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.


text:
First Look: New Drinks at Five Leaves, Brooklyn
Plenty of cocktail menus around town are the obvious work of a single person, with through-lines in spirits, themes, or philosophy. But Dan Sabo of Five Leaves in Brooklyn, who switched out almost his entire cocktail menu just last week, decided he'd prefer a collaboration.
"There are four other bartenders here," Sabo told us, "and I got them all into it. They go and come up with ideas, we do tastings, we refine them. It makes for a much more varied and interesting list than I could've come up with myself."
Dan Sabo started as the bar director of Five Leaves when they opened in Greenpoint in September of 2008 and has been there, with a few months working elsewhere, ever since.
"It's been amazing to watch the neighborhood change," he told us. "When we opened, we were pretty much the only place around, and people expected us to have good cocktails. It grew out of necessity." Now, he says, "we sell more house cocktails than beer, wine, soda, anything."
For the most part, they're fresh, ingredient-driven drinks, rather than ones based around showcasing a single brand of spirit. Novel fruit and even soda mixers, lots of spices, and herbal accents all appear in a menu that varies wildly in terms of spirits used and the aesthetics of each drink. It's clear that there are a lot of ideas contained in this cocktail list. "Some bartenders say, I'd never serve a drink I didn't like," Sabo told us—"but I think that's insane. I don't love ginger in drinks, but that doesn't mean you shouldn't. We all have different tastes."
At Five Leaves right now, they're still accommodating neighborhood regulars with a few standbys: a grapefruit margarita, the sweet tea vodka–based Southern Belle, the self-explanatory "whiskey in a jar." But the rest of the list has flipped, with eight more drinks just added to the menu.
Come take a look at the new drinks, incorporating everything from aquavit to mezcal, guava to Cel-Ray soda.
Five Leaves
18 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn NY 11222 (map)