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A Call to Action: April 23, 2018
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Arusha City is a major international diplomatic hub. Also, the city hosts and regards as the de facto capital of the East African Community. Since 1994, the city hosts the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Also, it is a multicultural city with a majority Tanzanian population of different backgrounds. The background bases on indigenous Bantu, Arab-Tanzanian, and Indian-Tanzanian populations. However, there is a plus small White European and white American minority population. Religions of the Arusha population are Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu. Moreover, Arusha has its own National Park, which is well known as Arusha National Park.
Apart from the above, Arusha first settled in the 1830s. Therefore, this was by the agro-pastoral Arusha Maasai from the Arusha Chini community, south of Mount Kilimanjaro. The production bases on grains, honey, as well as beer with the pastoral Kisongo Maasai. Also, livestock, produces milk, meat, and skins. However, demand for Arusha's foodstuffs increases substantially since the 1860s. This comes when the Pangani Valley trade route was extended through Old Moshi, Arusha, and ultimately to western Kenya. Although it was not yet a town, it was a regional center and had a number of urban features.
Despite its proximity to the equator, Arusha's elevation of 1,400 meters (4,600 ft) on the southern slopes of Mount Meru. Therefore, this keeps temperatures relatively low and alleviates humidity. Cool dry air is prevalent for much of the year. The temperature ranges between 13 and 30 degrees Celsius with an average of around 25 degrees. It has distinct wet and dry seasons and experiences an eastern prevailing wind from the Indian Ocean, a couple of hundred miles east. This is just a little sum-up about Arusha city.


text:
by Evan Pattak
WASHINGTON, PA, Sept. 15, 2021 — Dave Palone, harness racing's all-time "winningest" driver with 19,683 victories, added another honor to his Hall of Fame career Wednesday at The Meadows. When he piloted Lous Sassin to victory in a Keystone Classic, Palone passed $150 million in career purses. The win lifted his earnings total to $150,003,463.
Palone's success might not have been predicted as he had no harness racing in his background when his father Butch, a car dealer, introduced him to the sport as a fan at The Meadows.
"My dad barely knew the difference between a trotter and a pacer, but he loved the game, and he passed that along to me," Palone says. "When he took me to my first Adios, I was hooked. I was always competitive in sports, and I knew right away this was what I wanted to do.
"I wouldn't have dreamed my horses would earn $150 million. It would take me a long time to make that working at a convenience store, which is about all I'm qualified for except this. So I'm very appreciative."
After learning the trade from trainer Herman Hylkema and others, Palone began driving in 1982 when he earned a less-than-robust $1,955 in 14 starts. But as he gained confidence and attracted more competitive horses, the purses began flowing. Between 2008 and 2011 alone, Palone's mounts earned more than $41 million.
He's been the leading driver at The Meadows for 33 straight years — he's almost certain to wrap up No. 34 — but he's dramatically reduced his presence on the Grand Circuit.
"It was great getting those opportunities, and I cherished being in those big races and getting to drive the top horses," he says. "But I never, ever liked the traveling. These days, the fellas jump on a plane and travel together. I was always the only guy from The Meadows who had to find my way. It was hard for me to get to places. That makes for a long night if you don't do any good. Thankfully, we had a good run, and I'll never forget those times."
Palone says his most memorable wins came in the Little Brown Jug (P-Forty-Seven, 2005), the Adios (Washington VC, 1999), and the Breeders Crown (In Focus, 2008; Uncle Peter, 2011; Sweet Lou, 2011). But he also cites a lesser-known triumph with Dontellmenomore in the 1991 Beacon Course Trot (now the Stanley Dancer Trot), a Hambletonian prep at the Meadowlands.
"That was important," he says, "because it was a $400,000 race, the horse wasn't eligible for the Hambletonian, and I hadn't had much exposure racing against the Campbells and O'Donnells of our sport."
Although he's been driving a little less each year, Palone says he has no immediate plans to retire.
"My biggest fear is not being able to fill a day because I can't sit still. You can only play so much bad golf, you can only drive your wife nuts so much. I still love driving horses. I don't love the nasty weather or chasing at 30-1, but I still love being in the hunt. How many 59-year-olds get to compete with their sport's best?"
That $150 million in purses has meant $7.5 million in commissions for Palone, and he allows that has changed him in a way. For most of his career, the first thing he did each morning was check his "doubles," races where he'd been named to drive more than one horse and needed to make choices. That's no longer the case.
"The first thing I check now," he jokes, "is the stock market."


text:
- Research
- Open Access
- Published:
Stabilization of Memory States by Stochastic Facilitating Synapses
The Journal of Mathematical Neuroscience volume 3, Article number: 19 (2013)
1806 Accesses
5 Citations
8 Altmetric
Bistability within a small neural circuit can arise through an appropriate strength ofexcitatory recurrent feedback. The stability of a state of neural activity, measured bythe mean dwelling time before a noise-induced transition to another state, depends on theneural firing-rate curves, the net strength of excitatory feedback, the statistics ofspike times, and increases exponentially with the number of equivalent neurons in thecircuit. Here, we show that such stability is greatly enhanced by synaptic facilitationand reduced by synaptic depression. We take into account the alteration in times ofsynaptic vesicle release, by calculating distributions of inter-release intervals of asynapse, which differ from the distribution of its incoming interspike intervals when thesynapse is dynamic. In particular, release intervals produced by a Poisson spike trainhave a coefficient of variation greater than one when synapses are probabilistic andfacilitating, whereas the coefficient of variation is less than one when synapses aredepressing. However, in spite of the increased variability in postsynaptic input producedby facilitating synapses, their dominant effect is reduced synaptic efficacy at low inputrates compared to high rates, which increases the curvature of neural input-outputfunctions, leading to wider regions of bistability in parameter space and enhancedlifetimes of memory states. Our results are based on analytic methods with approximateformulae and bolstered by simulations of both Poisson processes and of circuits of noisyspiking model neurons.
1 Introduction
Circuits of reciprocally connected neurons have been long considered as a basis for themaintenance of persistent activity [1]. Such persistent neuronal firing that continues for many seconds after atransient input can represent a short-term memory of prior stimuli [2]. Indeed, Hebb's famous postulate [3] that causally correlated firing of connected neurons could lead to astrengthening of the connection, was based on the suggestion that the correlated firingwould be maintained in a recurrently connected cell assembly beyond the time of a transientstimulus [3]. Since then, analytic and computational models have demonstrated the ability ofsuch recurrent networks to produce multiple discrete attractor states [4], as in Hopfield networks [5, 6], or to be capable of integration over time via a marginally stable network, oftentermed a line attractor [7, 8]. Much of the work on these systems has assumed either static synapses, orconsidered changes in synaptic strength via long-term plasticity occurring on a much slowertimescale than the dynamics of neuronal responses. Here, we add some new results pertainingto the less well-studied effects of short-term plasticity—changes in synaptic strengththat arise on a timescale of seconds, the same timescale as that of persistentactivity—within recurrent discrete attractor networks.
The two forms of short-term synaptic plasticity—facilitation anddepression—affect all synapses of the presynaptic cell according to its train ofaction potentials. Synaptic facilitation refers to a temporary enhancement of synapticefficacy in the few hundreds of milliseconds following each spike, effectively strengtheningconnections to postsynaptic cells as presynaptic firing rate increases. Synaptic depressionis the opposite effect—reduced synaptic efficacy in the few hundreds of millisecondsfollowing a presynaptic spike, effectively weakening connection strengths as presynapticfiring rate increases. The dynamics of these processes (Table 1)also impacts the variability in postsynaptic conductance, in particular when synaptictransmission is treated as a stochastic event. The variability affects informationprocessing via the signal-to-noise ratio [9–11] and also determines the stability, or robustness, of discrete memory states [12, 13].
When analyzing the stability of discrete states, we focus on the mean value of andfluctuations within the postsynaptic feedback conductance, since that is the variable with aslow enough time constant to maintain persistent activity in standard models ofnetwork-produced memory states [14, 15]. In our formalism, we rely on fluctuations in this NMDA receptor-mediatedfeedback conductance to be on a slower timescale (100 ms) than the membrane timeconstant, which is short (<10 ms), in part because each cell receives a barrage ofbalanced excitatory and inhibitory inputs. When synapses are dynamic, both the meanpostsynaptic conductance and its fluctuations are altered from the case of static synapses.
Here, we show how a presynaptic Poisson spike train, which produces an exponentialdistribution of interspike intervals (ISIs), produces a distribution of inter-releaseintervals (IRIs) that is not exponential if synapses are either facilitating or depressing.We then consider how the nonexponential distribution of IRIs affects both the mean andstandard deviation of the postsynaptic conductance differently from the exponential,Poisson, distribution of IRIs. These results affect the calculation of stability of memorystates, yielding differences in the parameter ranges where bistability exists and producinglarge changes in the spontaneous transition times between states, which limit theirstability.
A two-state memory system is limited by the lifetime of the less stable state [16]. For a given system, one can typically vary any parameter so as to enhance thelifetime of one state while reducing the lifetime of the other state. If we define thesystem's stability as the lifetime of the less stable state, then the optimalstability of a system arises when the lifetimes of the two states are equal. In this paper,for a given system, defined by the neural firing-rate curve and type of synapse, weparametrically scale the total feedback connection strength to determine the system'soptimal stability. In so doing, we find that optimal stability of bistable neural circuitsis enhanced by synaptic facilitation.
2 Statistics of Synaptic Transmission Through Probabilistic Dynamic Synapses
In the following, we assume that synaptic facilitation and depression operate by modifyingthe release probability of presynaptic vesicles. Following vesicle release, neurotransmitterbinds to receptors in the postsynaptic terminal. The fraction of receptors bound at any onetime determines the fraction of open channels, known as the gating variable, s,which is proportional to the conductance producing current flow into the postsynaptic cell.The dependence of s on presynaptic firing is affected by the dynamic properties ofthe intervening synapse. In particular, the distribution of intervals between vesiclerelease events is not identical to the interspike interval (ISI) distribution: facilitatingsynapses increase the likelihood of short inter-release intervals (IRIs) compared to longintervals, so increase the coefficient of variation (CV); whereas depressing synapses makeshort release intervals unlikely and produce a more regular sequence of release intervals,reducing the CV (Fig. 1). While the means of these distributionscan be calculated by standard methods [17], it is valuable to know the full distribution, since changes in the CV of IRIsaffect the variability of the postsynaptic conductance, and thus alter properties likesignal-to-noise ratio and the stability of memory states to noise fluctuations.
2.1 Distribution of Release Times for a Poisson Spike Train Through StochasticDepressing Synapses
The distribution of release times of a vesicle for depressing synapses with a singlerelease site is simpler to calculate than that for facilitating synapses, because whenconsidering synaptic depression alone, the probability of release from a single sitesimply depends on the time since last release of a vesicle from that site. Therefore, wewill solve for depressing synapses before moving to the case of facilitating synapses,where the probability of release depends on the number of intervening spikes. Thesubsequent result for facilitating synapses will prove to be more biologically relevant,as synapses typically contain multiple releasable vesicles, so it is only in the casewhere the baseline release probability is low—in which case facilitationdominates—that failure of release is common enough to affect the distribution ofrelease times. The case of probabilistic release in depressing synapses with multiplerelease sites is more complex, though the first two moments of the IRI probabilitydistribution have been calculated by others [18].
Synaptic depression arises because of the time needed to recycle and replenish vesiclesfollowing release of neurotransmitter. Synaptic depression can be treated stochastically [19] by assuming vesicle recovery is a Poisson process, with the likelihood of avesicle being release-ready, or "docked," as , where T is the time since the prior vesiclerelease. Thus, the distribution of inter-release intervals (IRIs) can be calculated byrequiring that a vesicle be docked within the interval and then adding the time for aspike to appear after the vesicle is docked. We assume a docked vesicle has a releaseprobability of and incoming spikes arrive as a Poisson process of rater. Since probability of docking between time and is evaluated at , or
and the probability of the first spike after time being at time T and causing release as, we have
which leads to a mean IRI of
The reduction in probability of small IRIs is a simple example of the temporal filteringof information presented by others [18]. The addition of the extra probabilistic process of vesicle recovery, whichunderlies synaptic depression, causes IRIs to be more regular, as evidenced in Eqs.(2)–(3) by a reduced coefficient of variation (CV) of IRIs from the Poisson value of1:
which has a minimum value of at and a maximum value of 1 as or . For example, in the curves shown in Figs. 1c1–1c2, at 2 Hz and 0.87 at 50 Hz.
2.2 Distribution of Release Times for a Poisson Spike Train Through StochasticFacilitating Synapses
For facilitating synapses, we take the following form for release probability,, where between presynaptic spikes:
Each spike produces an increase in F from (which determines the release probability of that spike) to (which is the new release probability for an immediate,subsequent spike) such that
where is the facilitation factor, taking a value between 0 and 1,indicating the fractional increase from the pre-spike release probability toward asaturating release probability of .
To calculate the distribution of interrelease intervals (IRIs) we need to calculate theprobability of release as a function of time, following a prior release. Althoughpresynaptic spikes arrive with constant probability per unit time in a Poisson process,vesicle release occurs more often when the facilitation variable is high. Thus,immediately after release, the likelihood of release is greater than on average, becausethe facilitation variable takes some time (on the order of ) to return to a baseline value. Furthermore, when calculatingthe IRI distribution, we must be aware that , which is the mean value approached by F conditionedon no intervening release event will be lower than the mean value, , since long IRIs are more associated with time windows offewer intervening presynaptic spikes than chance.
To proceed, we first calculate , the mean of the facilitation variable immediately aftervesicle release. To arrive at this quantity, we use the mean value of the facilitationvariable averaged across all presynaptic spikes [17]:
and the variance of this quantity [9]:
Together, these can be used to calculate , which is the mean value of the facilitation variable justprior to firing when averaged across only those spikes that actually cause release, sincerelease probability is proportional to . The latter averaging produces a higher value than, since higher instances of are more likely to result in release, so weight the averagemore than lower values:
where is the probability that F takes the value immediately prior to an incoming spike and the denominatornormalizes the distribution. Hence,
From this, the mean value of the facilitation variable immediately following vesiclerelease can be calculated as
The above formula is exact and was matched by simulated data at all values of rsimulated (data not shown).
To estimate the steady state value of F a long time from any priorrelease—a steady state that may never be reached if the product of firing rate andbase release probability is much higher than —we solve a self-consistency equation for this value, and ignore fluctuations by assuming release probability is for each presynaptic spike. One can calculate then theprobability of N spikes in a given interval, T, conditioned on therequirement that none of those spikes caused vesicle release, while the facilitationvariable is at its mean steady state value of . The result is:
which is the result for a Poisson process of modified rate, . This allows us to self-consistently calculate by using the result for the mean value of the facilitationvariable given such a modified spike rate, such that
which can be solved using the quadratic formula to give
a value which is always below and in close agreement with simulated data (not shown).
Finally, to fit the IRI distribution, we assumed exponential decay from to with a time constant such that the initial slope (when theprobability of any intervening spikes is zero) matches that of an exponential decay to 1with time constant (the initial rate of decrease of F in the absence ofintervening spikes). That is, we take the release to follow an inhomogeneous Poissonprocess with a rate, which depends on time, T, since the prior release event,given by
The distribution of IRIs is then given by [17]
a function, which is plotted in Figs. 1b1–1b2, where it is indistinguishable from the simulated data. Similarly,indistinguishable is the cumulative IRI distribution plotted in Figs. 2b1–2b2, justifying the approximations that led toour results.
Finally, it should be noted that when synapses are facilitating, consecutive IRIs arecorrelated. For example, when the presynaptic rate is 2 Hz in the simulation used toproduce Figs. 1b1 and 2b1, thecorrelation between one IRI and the subsequent one is 0.028, while with a presynaptic rateof 50 Hz the correlation is 0.015. Such a correlation, which cannot be obtained fromthe IRI distribution alone, further increases any variability in postsynaptic conductance,above and beyond the increase due to the altered shape of the IRI distribution.
In summary, the main difference produced by facilitation from the exponentialdistribution of inter-spike intervals (which is retrieved by setting either or to zero) is an enhancement of probability at low Tand a corresponding reduction at high T. These changes produce a CV of IRIsgreater than 1 ( at 5 Hz and at 50 Hz in the examples shown in Figs. 1b1–1b2) enhancing the noise in any neuralsystem.
2.3 Mean Synaptic Transmission via Dynamic Synapses
We assume that at the time of vesicle release the postsynaptic conductance increases in astep-wise manner, with a fraction, , of previously closed channels becoming opened. This causesthe synaptic gating variable, s, to increase from its prior value, to according to . It then decays between release events with time constant,, according to .
If one assumes that successive inter-release intervals (IRIs) are uncorrelated then onecan calculate the mean, , and variance, , in the postsynaptic gating variable (and hence thepostsynaptic conductance, which is proportional to s) via:
where the averages of and are taken over the distribution of interrelease intervals,, as given in the prior section (Fig. 1, Eqs. (3), (18)) and we have used the solution at time t following the i th spike at time. Solution of the above equations leads to
which allows us to calculate the mean synaptic conductance through static and dynamicsynapses (Fig. 3a).
Similarly, combining
leads to
which allows us to calculate the variance in postsynaptic conductance (Fig. 3b).
When synapses are static, release times are distributed as a Poisson process of rate, where r is the presynaptic Poisson rate and is the static release probability. In this case, the meanvalue of the gating variable is calculated by standard methods [20] to give
a function plotted in Fig. 3a (blue curve), where it exactlymatches the simulated data (black asterisks). A similar calculation leads to the variancein synaptic transmission for static synapses [12, 20] as
a function plotted in Fig. 3b (blue curve), where it exactlymatches the simulated data (black asterisks). The variance can be written as a function ofthe mean synaptic transmission by substituting for r into Eq. (24) with from Eq. (23) to produce the reduced formula:
which is plotted in Fig. 3c (blue curve).
For probabilistic depressing synapses with "all-or-none" release, the IRIsare independent as the synapse is always in the same state immediately post-release. TheIRIs are distributed according to Eq. (3), which leads to
so that using Eq. (4) for the mean IRI, , we have
which, plotted as a red curve in Fig. 3a, precisely matchesthe simulated data (black circles). Similarly, making the substitution for probabilisticdepressing synapses:
into Eq. (22), allows us to evaluate as plotted in Fig. 3b (red solidcurve), where it precisely matches the simulated data (black points).
For probabilistic facilitating synapses, we use an approximate formula for to evaluate the expected value of the exponential decay—essentially a Laplace transform—since the fullformula is intractable for these purposes. We found after testing many formulas againstsimulated quantities that so long as we correctly included the facilitation factorimmediately after release as and the approximate release probability a long time afterrelease as , the principal requirement was to use a probability densityof IRIs, with the correct value for the mean IRI. For facilitating synapses we know themean IRI, :
We fulfilled these three requirements by grossly simplifying the actual decay of thefacilitation variable post-release, letting it switch between its immediate post-releasevalue of to its steady state value, , at a time, into the IRI where is chosen to produce the correct value of. That is, we approximated the probability distribution ofIRIs, , as
From such a distribution we can easily calculate moments, and , of the postsynaptic conductance using the Laplace transformswhere
The corresponding mean postsynaptic conductance, using Eq. (20), plotted inFig. 3a (green curve) is indistinguishable from the simulateddata (black points). This form of the mean synaptic transmission through facilitatingsynapses will be used in the next section when we assess the stability and robustness ofmemory states produced by such synaptic feedback. The variance in synaptic transmission ofthe simulated data (Fig. 3b, black points) is no longerprecisely fit by the approximate formula, obtained from Eq. (22), Eq. (31) and using Eq.(31) with replaced by to calculate (Fig. 3b, green curve). However,since the approximate formula slightly overestimates the variance, it will tend tounderestimate the stability of any memory state. Thus, a more precise fit would enhancestability (Fig. 4d). Figure 3c(green curve) indicates that for all values of mean synaptic transmission, the variance isgreater when synapses are facilitating.
3 Stability of Discrete States Enhanced by Short-Term Synaptic Facilitation
Groups of cells with sufficient recurrent excitatory feedback can become bistable, capableof remaining, in the absence of input, in a quiescent state of low-firing rate, or aftertransient excitation, in a persistent state of high-firing rate. Given the inherentstochastic noise in neural activity—spike trains are irregular, with the CV of ISIsoften exceeding one—the activity states have an inherent average lifetime, whichincreases exponentially with the number of neurons in the cell-group. In this section, weshow analytically that addition of synaptic facilitation to all recurrent synapses canincrease the stability of such discrete memory states by many orders of magnitude. We followthe methods presented in a prior paper for static synapses [12] and extend them to a circuit with probabilistic facilitating synapses.Calculations of stability are based on the mean of first-passage times between two stablestates [21]. We assume that neurons spike with Poisson statistics, while the variability inthe postsynaptic conductance, which possesses a long time constant (100 ms) typical ofNMDA receptors [15], determines the instability of states. Since synaptic facilitation ofprobabilistic synapses affects both the mean and variance of the postsynaptic conductance(Figs. 3a–3b), both must becalculated and taken into account when determining the lifetime of memory states. Wedescribe the method briefly below, leaving a reproduction of the full details to thefollowing sections.
Bistability arises when the deterministic dynamics of the network produces multiple fixedpoints—firing rates at which —at least two of which are stable. The deterministic meanfiring rate depends on the total synaptic input to a group of cells. The total synapticinput includes a feedback component via recurrent connections as well as an independentexternal component. At a fixed point, the feedback produced by a given firing rate is suchthat the total synaptic input exactly maintains that given firing rate (intersections inFigs. 4a, 4b). For a network to possessmultiple fixed points, the curve representing synaptic transmission as a function of firingrate and the curve representing firing rate as a function of synaptic input must intersectat multiple points (Figs. 4a, 4b). Betweenany two stable fixed points is an unstable fixed point, where the curves cross back in theopposite direction. The stability of any individual fixed point is strongly dependent on thearea enclosed between the two curves from that fixed point to the unstable fixed point. Thisenclosed area acts as the height of an effective potential (Fig. 4c), which, for a given level of noise in the system determines the mean passagetime from one stable fixed point to the basin of attraction of the other fixed point, i.e.,the mean lifetime of the memory state. Importantly, the lifetime is approximatelyexponentially dependent on the effective barrier height, or the area between the two curves.Thus, changes in the curvature of synaptic feedback as a function of firing rate, which canhave a strong impact on the area between the f-I curve and the feedback curve, can affectstate lifetimes exponentially.
When we analyze the extent of this effect as wrought by synaptic facilitation, we find agreatly enhanced barrier in the effective potential (Fig. 4c),which demonstrates the additional curvature in the neural feedback function outweighs anyincrease in noise in the system (which enters the denominator in the effective potential,Eq. (35). Consequently, the lifetime of both persistent and spontaneous states in a discreteattractor system, can be enhanced by several orders of magnitude when synapses arefacilitating (Fig. 4d). Alternatively, one can obtain the samenecessary stability with far fewer cells, for example, to produce a mean stable lifetime ofover a minute for both the low and high activity states, with all-to-all connections, onlyeight cells are necessary in the example with facilitating synapses, whereas forty arenecessary when synapses are static.
3.1 Analytic Calculation of Mean Transition Time Between Discrete Attractor States
To calculate transition times between discrete attractor states, and hence assess theirstability to noise, we produce an effective potential for the postsynaptic conductance asthe most slowly varying continuous variable of relevance. We use standard methods fortransitions between stable states of Markov processes [21] but first must calculate the deterministic term, , and diffusive term, , for a group of cells with recurrent feedback. Thecalculations in the case of static synapses were produced and validated elsewhere [12] but we briefly reiterate them in the following paragraphs. When synapses arefacilitating, the only alterations are the expression for mean synaptic conductance, (Fig. 3a) and its variance, (Fig. 3b), and a newly optimizedstrength of feedback connection to ensure both spontaneous and active states remain asstable as possible.
Our essential assumption is to treat the behavior of the postsynaptic variable,s, given a presynaptic Poisson spike train at rate r, as anOrnstein–Uhlenbeck process, which matches the mean and variance of s, whilemaintaining the same basic synaptic time constant for decay to zero in the absence ofpresynaptic input. Thus, we have
(by matching the mean of s) and
(by matching the variance of s) where the subscript "1" indicatesthe variance produced by a single presynaptic spike train. For a circuit with Npresynaptic neurons producing feedback current, we scale down individual connectionsstrengths so that the mean feedback current is independent of N, but the noise isreduced as , since s is the fraction of maximal conductance().
We close the feedback loop by ensuring the presynaptic firing rate is equal to thepostsynaptic firing rate, so use the firing rate function [22]:
with rate multiplier , threshold , and concavity all obtained by fitting to leaky integrate-and-firesimulations [12]. S is a scaled version of s, accounting for the totalfeedback conductance, , where W is the sum of connection strengths of allcells and held fixed when N is varied.
The effective potential, , for a group with N feedback inputs per cell is
which leads to a probability density, :
where C is a normalization constant. The mean transition time from a stablestate centered at to a state centered at is [21]:
a function which is plotted for both static and facilitating synapses in Fig. 4d.
3.2 Simulation of Mean Transition Time Between Discrete Attractor States
We compared the results of our approximate analysis (Fig. 4d,curves) with those of computer simulations of noisy leaky-integrate and fire neurons. Todo this, we simulated small circuits of excitatory neurons connected in an all-to-allmanner, using the parameters given in Table 2. Each neuronreceived independent background Poisson inputs, both excitatory and inhibitory, such thatinterspike intervals had a CV of 1 at low firing rates, decreasing gradually to 0.8 by afiring rate of 100 Hz. We simulated for either 200,000 seconds, or until 20,000transitions between states were made, whichever was sooner. The mean transition times areplotted in Fig. 4d (open and closed circles), where they showgood qualitative agreement with the analytic curves.
3.3 Results for Multiple Circuits
In the example shown, bistability in the control system with static synapses requiredparticular fine-tuning of parameters, so was not very robust. One could wonder that if adifferent system were chosen—in particular a different f-I curve wereused—then the system with static synapses might not be improved by the addition ofsynaptic facilitation. That is, should synaptic facilitation always enhance robustness ofsuch bistable neural circuits? To address this point, we parametrically varied theproperties of the f-I curve (Eq. (34)) and for each set of parameters, we systematically varied the feedback connection strength,W, to test whether the system could be bistable.
As a result (Fig. 5), we found that the set of parameters able to produce bistability when synapses are static is asubset of the set found when synapses are facilitating. Thus, synaptic facilitation canproduce bistability when it is not possible with static synapses, but the reverse is nottrue. As a corollary, the set of parameters able to produce bistability when synapses are depressing is asubset of the set found when synapses are static.
For all parameter sets able to produce bistability, we assessed the optimalstability of the memory system. As the excitatory feedback connection strength,W, increases, so the mean lifetime of the high-activity state increases, whilethe mean lifetime of the low-activity state decreases. We consider optimal stability ofthe memory state as the value of the lifetime when high-activity and low-activity statesare equally durable. More specifically, we calculate the minimum of and as a measure of the stability of memory and parametricallyvary W to find the maximum stability for a given set of and given type of synapses. In all cases where comparison waspossible, stability is enhanced when synapses are facilitating and stability is reducedwhen synapses are depressing, compared to the case of static synapses (Fig. 6).
It is worth emphasizing that the two effects of synaptic facilitation on synaptictransmission have opposing consequences for attractor state stability. While the increasedcurvature in the curve of mean synaptic transmission increases stability of discreteattractors, the increased variance (Fig. 3c, green curve)decreases stability. While our results demonstrate that the deterministic effect dominates(i.e., the net effect of facilitation is to enhance stability), it is instructive toassess the contribution of each of the two effects alone. Thus, for a given mean synaptictransmission calculated for facilitating synapses, we used the variance in synaptictransmission corresponding to static synapses (Fig. 3c, bluecurve) and recalculated the lifetimes of memory states. While changing the noise does notchange significantly the parameter range for bistability (i.e., Fig. 5 is, to first order, unaffected by changes in noise) it does have aconsiderable impact on the lifetimes of states. In particular, by using the reduced noiseof static synapses—a reduction of at most 20 %—the optimal lifetimewas typically a factor of e higher in a circuit with 20 neurons and higher in a circuit with 40 neurons (using the parameters ofFig. 4d). Figure 7 demonstratesthe enhanced lifetime in the hybrid model across networks—the ratio is alwaysgreater than one and extended to as high as 50 in the networks examined. Thus, theincreased noise in the postsynaptic current produced by synaptic facilitation does produceconsiderable destabilization of state lifetimes—the hybrid model of synapticfacilitation without such enhanced noise produces the greatest possible stability ofdiscrete memory states.
4 Discussion
Bistability relies upon positive feedback, which can arise from cell-intrinsic currents orfrom network feedback. Synaptic facilitation is a positive feedback mechanism in circuits ofreciprocally connected excitatory cells, since the greater the mean firing rate, the greaterthe effective connection strength, further amplifying the excitatory input beyond thatproduced by the increased spike rate alone. This property of synaptic facilitation enhancesthe stability of memory states and renders them more robust to distractors [23]. Other forms of positive feedback, such as depolarization-induced suppression ofinhibition (DSI), which depends on activity in the postsynaptic cell, can similarly producerobustness in recurrent memory networks [24].
When the bistability necessary for discrete memory is produced through synaptic feedback ina circuit of neurons, the relative stability to noise fluctuations of each of the two stablefixed points depends exponentially on the area between the mean neural response curve andthe synaptic feedback curve (Figs. 4a–4b). While the synaptic feedback curve is monotonic in firing rate, for staticsynapses it is either linear (in the absence of postsynaptic saturation) or of negativecurvature (decreasing gradient), with the effectiveness of additional spikes decreasing athigh rates when receptors become saturated. However, when the synapse is facilitating, thesynaptic response curve has positive curvature when firing rates are low—the effect ofeach additional spike is greater as firing rate increases. Here, we showed how such aneffect could increase the area between intersections of synaptic feedback and neuralresponse curves, enhancing stability dramatically (Figs. 4–6).
We note that the addition of positive curvature at low rates to the negative curvature athigh, saturating rates in the curve of synaptic transmission as a function of presynapticfiring rates (Fig. 3a) inevitably increases the areas betweenthree points of intersection with any firing rate curve without such an"S"-shape (Figs. 4a–4b).Since the "S"-shape is a hallmark of synaptic facilitation, not present forsynaptic transmission through static synapses, facilitation can always enhance stability ofsuch bistable systems. Less mathematically, a facilitating synapse with the same effectivestrength as a static synapse at intermediate firing rates is stronger at high firing rates,enhancing the stability of a high-activity state (where a drop in synaptic transmission isdetrimental), while at the same time is weaker at low firing rates, enhancing the stabilityof a low-activity state (where a rise of synaptic transmission is detrimental).
It is worth pointing out the converse—that short-term synaptic depression reduces therobustness of such discrete attractors. Indeed, in Fig. 5, weshow that the range of parameters for which a bistable system exists is much narrower whensynapses are depressing (D) versus static (S) or facilitating (F). Since synaptic depressioncontributes a negative curvature to the f-I curve, it tends to reduce the"S-shape" needed for bistability. Or, perhaps more intuitively, high synapticstrength is needed to maintain a high-firing rate state if synapses are depressing, but suchhigh synaptic strength is more likely to render the low-firing rate spontaneous stateunstable.
The changes in the shape of the distribution of inter-release intervals caused by dynamicsynapses alter the fluctuations in post-synaptic conductance. In particular, facilitationenhances the variability and depression reduces the variability arising from a Poisson spiketrain. While the extra variability caused by facilitating synapses tends to destabilize amemory system, this effect was overwhelmed by the increase in stability due to therate-dependent changes in mean synaptic transmission described above. However, the increasein conductance variability, in particular, being on a slower timescale than membranepotential fluctuations, can be a factor in explaining the high CV of neural spiketrains.
Our calculations are based on a simplified formalism, in which the firing-rate curve (f-Icurve) of a neuron is first assumed or fit (Eq. (34), [22]) under in vivo-like conditions, assuming a given level of noise in the membranepotential. Since the shape of the f-I curve depends on both the mean and variance of theinput current [25, 26], it might appear invalid to discuss changes in the variability of input currentdue to dynamic synapses in the context of a fixed f-I curve. However, the time constants forshort-term synaptic plasticity and the NMDA receptor-mediated currents are more than anorder of magnitude greater than the time constant of the membrane potential under theconditions of strong, fluctuating balanced input that produce the irregularity of spiketrains seen in vivo. Since the neuron's membrane potential can sample its probabilitydistribution—which determines the likelihood of a spike per unit time—morerapidly than the timescale for changes in that probability distribution, our analyticmethods provide a reasonable description of the circuit's behavior (Fig. 4d).
In summary, we have demonstrated the ability of short-term synaptic facilitation tostabilize discrete attractor states of neural activity to noise. We have shown this bysimulations and through analytic methods, which include a consideration of how stochasticdynamic synapses mold the distribution of interrelease intervals (IRIs) into a form thatdiffers from the exponential distribution of incoming interspike intervals (ISIs). Thealtered IRI distribution affects both mean synaptic transmission and the variability oftransmission due to a presynaptic Poisson spike train—both of which have a strongimpact on the stability of memory states. The increased variability of synaptic transmissiondue to facilitation is more than countered by the effect of facilitation on mean synaptictransmission, which enhances the robustness of bistability, leading to stable memory stateswith fewer neurons.
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Bourjaily MA, Miller P: Dynamic afferent synapses to decision-making networks improve performance in tasksrequiring stimulus associations and discriminations. J Neurophysiol 2012, 108: 513–527. 10.1152/jn.00806.2011
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Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Cite this article
Miller, P. Stabilization of Memory States by Stochastic Facilitating Synapses. J. Math. Neurosc. 3, 19 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-8567-3-19
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-8567-3-19
- Dynamic synapses
- Stochastic processes
- Facilitation
- Poisson process
- Bistability
- Persistent activity
- Short-term memory
- First-passage time


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Holy Spirit Church
Saturday August 25th, 2018
9:30am - 10:30am
Funeral Mass
Boucher Funeral Home, Inc.
Saturday August 25th, 2018
Order Flowers now for guaranteed delivery before Florence's visitation.
Florence Tourigny
Florence (Dubuc) Tourigny, 102, of Templeton, formerly of Gardner, died peacefully Wednesday, August 22, 2018 in Alliance Health at Baldwinville, surrounded by her family.
Florence was born in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada on December 4, 1915, the daughter of the late Philias and Rosina (Ares) Dubuc.
She was a member of Annunciation Parish/Our Lady of the Holy Rosary Church of Gardner, and its Ladies of St. Anne Society.
A devoted wife and mother, Florence spent her life as a homemaker caring for her family. Florence enjoyed playing cards, walking, and watching the news on television. She also liked spending time at the Hinsdale Greyhound Park in Hinsdale, NH watching the greyhound races.
Florence was predeceased by her husband of 65 years, Herve H. Tourigny, who died in 2003.
She leaves two sons, Clement G. Tourigny and his wife Evelyn of Gardner, and Claude P. Tourigny and his wife Rosemarie of Estero, FL; one daughter, Diane T. Brideau and her husband Donald of Gardner; seven grandchildren, thirteen great-grandchildren; several nieces, nephews and cousins. Florence was predeceased by two brothers, Florent Dubuc and Barney Dubuc; and two sisters, Virginia Oldham and Therese Miller.
Funeral Services will be held Saturday, August 25th from the Boucher Funeral Home, Inc., 110 Nichols Street, Gardner with a Mass at 11:00 a.m. in Annunciation Parish/Our Lady of the Holy Rosary Church, 135 Nichols Street, Gardner. Burial will be in Notre Dame Cemetery, West Street, Gardner.
A calling hour will be held Saturday, August 25th from 9:30 a.m. – 10:30 a.m. in the funeral home.
Memorial contributions may be made to Alliance Health at Baldwinville, Activity Fund, 51 Hospital Road, Baldwinville, MA 01436. Please reference in memory of Florence Tourigny.
To plant memorial trees or send flowers to the family in memory of Florence Tourigny, please visit our flower store.
My family and I would like to extend our heartfelt condolences. May you find comfort in warm memories and coming promises. (Revelation 21:3,4)
Kristina Sep 1 2018 12:00 AM
Diane,we were sorry to hear of your loss. Prayers are flowing your way.
Ed & Jeanne Savaria Aug 26 2018 12:00 AM
We are thinking and praying for Memere, my Dad, my Auntie Diane and Uncle Claude today. Memere lived a beautiful life and we will miss her. I'm sorry I cannot attend but we send our love from Australia.
Michelle (Tourigny), Brian, Ethan, Declan and Patrick Turner
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Michelle Tourigny Aug 25 2018 12:00 AM
It has been my pleasure to have known her all these years!
I was glad to be there for her at the end.
Father Fran Roberge and the Community of St. Vincent de Paul
Father Fran Roberge and St. Vincent de Paul Parish Aug 23 2018 12:00 AM


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It's a myth the US can be energy independent within the next several decades
The US imports 10 million barrels of oil per day. This is more than it is producing itself, and over half of its oil consumption. If the US keeps consuming oil as it is now, imports will make up an estimated 70% of consumption in 2025.
It has been suggested by various policy makers that the US can be made energy independent within the next decade or two by simply growing more biomass, combined with oil savings. This is a myth. The volumes are simply too high.
What may surprise you is that the countries the US imports most from are Canada and Mexico, only then followed by Saudi Arabia. Other facts and figures and thoughts are offered in this first podcast on oil, gas and coal: our largest energy sources for the foreseeable future.
Posted in: Clean Tech, Connected Social Media, SmartEnergy


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CIIC:Selected anniversaries/October 12
From Wiki China org cn
1885: Qing government raised Taiwan from county to provincial status and appointed Liu Mingchuan as provincial governor as the Sino-French War (August 1884 – April 1885) brought Taiwan's strategic position off the southeast coast into focus.
1937: Founding of the New Fourth Army.
1998: China women's team won the 33rd Chess Olympiad held in the "Chess City" of Elista in Russia.
2001: Rice genome decoded.


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It all seems so long ago and far away now, and yet it was just a year or two ago. It was a cold and foggy Monday evening in Hollywood—one of those special Southern California nights that looks like London, feels like Alaska, and makes the world seem like one big movie set.
We were all gathered in the Troubador, a folk night club located on the border-line of Hollywood and Beverly Hills. Monday night was Hoot Night at the Troubador—the night when all the hundreds of aspiring, starving, talented musicians in Hollywood gathered together for a good old-fashioned community sing. For some months now, the young man who conducted these Monday night hoots was a quiet, talented performer by the name of Mike Nesmith.
Odd sort
He was an odd sort, actually. Tall, quiet, and very reserved. He hardly spoke to anyone—just moved noiselessly through the crowd, thinking his own thoughts and watching all the people. Quiet though he was off-stage, the moment he moved into that center spotlight—he came alive! It was immediately apparent to everyone present that he was something very special. His voice was better than that of many folk singers, and he always seemed to mean the lyrics he was singing. His fingers moved deftly over the strings of his guitar—quickly, expertly, gently; it was obvious he knew them well.
Silent Mike
This particular evening, several of us had gathered upstairs in a small dressing room to wait until the first act came off-stage. At first, there were just three of us in the room—a young singer-guitarist, another writer, and myself. We sat on chairs and pieces of ancient furniture, talking and laughing. It was an animated, friendly conversation, although we had only just met one another.
Suddenly, Mike walked into the room. He walked in quietly, and sat down in the corner with his guitar. He made no attempt to stop our conversation or even to join it; he just sat quietly thinking and watching.
Finally, unable to contain my curiosity about this strange young man any longer, I asked him his name. I got the distinct feeling that I had just asked a top-level, priority secret! I was even more determined now to bring him into our conversation, and besides—everyone else had stopped talking and begun watching Mike. For a while, I was almost the only one speaking—Mike answered only in monosyllabic sentences of three words each.
Childhood tales
Slowly, he began to trust me a little more and to be a little more open and friendly. I discovered very quickly that it wasn't shyness which had caused his initial silence—it was just that Mike was a very quiet, very pensive sort of person. I began asking him questions about his childhood, and suddenly I hit a responsive note. His eyes lit up and for the first time all evening, he became quite animated and almost excited as he began to relate a story from his younger years to us.
It had all taken place years before, some place in the South of Texas. As he spoke, some of the old Southern, Texas drawl returned and the three of us sat captivated, listening to the story.
There were some railroad tracks, Mike explained, which ran parallel to a river bed. It was a very strange thing about these particular railroad tracks, he recalled they were exceptionally straight. Most tracks began to curve along with the land after a very short time, but these tracks ran perfectly straight for miles and miles.
Practical joke
One evening, when Mike was in his mid-teens, he and three friends went out for an evening on the town. One of his friends got so tired as the four boys began walking home, that an idea occurred to Mike. Why not have a little bit of fun with their buddy?
The foursome headed out toward the railroad tracks, and found an old, abandoned car sitting just a short distance away from a crossroad on the tracks. Mike checked the car to be certain that it no longer belonged to anyone and that it was no longer in good working order. When he had satisfied himself of its uselessness, he and two of his friends pushed the car up to the cross-road, and then onto the tracks. Mike explained that the car was somehow wide enough that it fit just perfectly.
Then, the three boys helped their "now-very asleep buddy" into the car, sat him up straight and wished him a Bon Voyage. And with a giant shove, they sent the car whizzing down the railroad tracks, bound for Anyplace, USA. Mike laughed at the memories of that night's antics passed through his mind again, and then he explained that they never could figure out just why the car kept going. There was no motor to turn on and the tracks weren't on a downgrade. But they were perfectly straight, and that old car just kept whizzing along through the night.
Mike assured us that his friend never knew where he was or what happened the next morning when he finally awoke, miles away. But, he came home safe and sound feeling very confused about the night before!
Back to work
Downstairs, we could hear the audience applauding now, and we knew that it was time for Mike to go on and begin his own act, before he got the Hoot underway.
He never said much, just picked up his guitar and quietly walked downstairs. As suddenly as he had come into our lives, he was gone and just as much a stranger.
I turned to the young singer who had worked with Mike on several of these Hoots and asked him if he knew anything about this strange young man. He laughed and explained that he really didn't. "No one seems to know too much about Mike," he said. "He just sorta comes and goes. He's always here on Monday night to lead the Hoots—that's his job—but he never says too much about himself. I can't figure him out, really—but I like him. And he's a great musician."
Downstairs, Mike was captivating the audience with his music the same way he had enchanted us with his words. The audience applauded warmly and enthusiastically and Mike responded with a quiet, gentle smile.
When he finished his act, he began the Hoot—it was loud, and fun, and lasted far into the night. And, then it was over. Candles were blown out, furniture moved back into place, and someone began to sweep the floor. Mike just picked up his guitar, buttoned his weather-worn jacket and disappeared through the door into the foggy night outside.


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WEIGHT: 67 kg
Bust: Small
One HOUR:140$
Overnight: +40$
Services: Massage professional, Fetish, Strap-ons, Toys, Face Sitting
Published: December 31, The Criminal Code created various offences concerning the use of brothels, living off the avails and communicating in public for the purpose of buying or selling sex. It is these offences which have been invalidated by the Supreme Court ruling, effective in one year.
No, sex trade workers will not be flocking to your neighbourhood any more than they already have. Does anyone think sex trade workers decide to get into the business after a thorough study of the criminal law and the legal risks of prosecution? They may not be in your neighbourhood but they are openly advertising in various publications and online. Check out Craigslist, for example. Prostitution was already legal and has been a thriving enterprise for a considerable period of time, as evidenced by the substantial advertising expenses incurred by the industry.
If we want to reduce the incidence of sex slaves and human trafficking, we need to put more resources into investigating and prosecuting those offences. But attempting to enforce a moral code by criminalizing prostitution, or the activities surrounding it, is a waste of resources. If society is serious about helping sex trade workers the best thing we could probably do is lighten up our hysterical — see Reefer Madness — drug laws. To the extent prostitutes trade sex for money to afford their drug habits, we need to fix our antiquated drug laws.
Ending the prohibition on drugs would bring prices down, thereby reducing the need to trade sex for money, or sex for drugs, as well as reduce the power of criminal gangs. When are we going to realize there is no real distinction between being in a drunken, alcoholic stupor and smoking crack cocaine?
Both are equally dumb but neither should be illegal. If you think about it, the same arguments used to strike down the prostitution-related laws could be used to strike down drug laws. Why should the vulnerable, those with drug addictions, people with disabilities, be forced to risk their safety by compelling them to deal with criminals to obtain the drugs they require? They have acknowledged the federal government may pass new laws on "where and how prostitution may be conducted", provided they comply with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.


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Have you ever said or heard something that was so funny you wanted to capture it? Here's a collection of quotes, phrases, and jokes. You can add your own strike a pose comment to the collection.
Here we strive to make the best quality strike-a-pose products. We get inspiration from the best quotes and create the designs on a advanced photoshop for your own custom believe. Whether your gift is for family or friends, you are sure to gain that extra edge with our strike a pose captions!
Strike a Pose With Funny Quotes and Captions for Instagram
Strike a pose in our all-new #StrikeAPose, featuring rainbow hands and the tagline "Live Life in Full Spectrum".
Strike a pose with us and make funny faces. Whatever your birthday, we're glad you're here. 🎂🎁
Strike a pose, we're in this together 🙅
Strike a pose! We've got the most dynamic collection of poses on the block. 😎
Strike a pose. Yup. Just like this. #squatitout
Strike a pose with our wild seductress.
Strike a pose, and stand out from the crowd. We've got the look you've been waiting for 😎
Strike a pose and strike out cancer with Major League Baseball's Breast Cancer Awareness games.
Be a hero, wipe the tears from her eyes! Then, wink and strike a pose. 😎
Ladies, gentlemen, and all the gender-neutral beings out there.
Celebrate life 👫, the universe 🌌, and everything 🌈.
Can't decide between a wine or scotch glass? Or do you have both and just can't choose? The solution is simple. Have both.
Strike a pose and get down with the #Squad.
Strike a pose and smile for your new profile picture!📸
Strike a pose and take your fitness routine to the next level with this summer's hottest yoga gear #thestruggleisreal
Strike a pose. Show us how the dogs are doing by tagging yourself in your favorite BarkPost photo. 🐶
Strike a pose for the before photo! Go ahead and make every workout worth it.
Strike a pose with a glass of wine and stay happy 🥂 ❤
Don't just look good—strike a pose.
Laughter is the sport of kings.
You are fabulous and there is nothing anyone can do about it. 👭👯
Symmetry isn't everything, but it helps.
strike a pose and take a crazy picture with you holding one of our products!
Strike a pose and strike a conversation with a stranger. Who knows what's going to happen next? 👭💃
Strike a pose with these cookies. It's the most fun you'll have all day.
Strike a pose, make an ice-cold #Cocktail, and dance like nobody's watching. ☕😎
Strike a pose with us this #internationalphotoday! Show us your favorite #selfie and tag it with #strivectinspire.
Strike a pose. Don't be afraid to just stand there and look cool.
Strike a pose with us! Tag us, and #TakeABreak for your chance to win a trip to Bora Bora. 😜
Let's be real. We were all thinking about it. 😂 #CatsAndBalls
Always keep the camera ready because you never know where a great photo op will present itself. #KeepTheCameraReady
planting a kiss just landed me on the cover of Vogue Magazine 😘
Don't just take a photo, make it an affirmation.
Life's a catwalk and the rest of us are just walking, #wishuwerehere
Strike a pose, strike a pose. Make your Monday great with this super groovy shot from @kellywearstler 🎥: @billyhoule
Strike a pose! We're here to celebrate all shapes, sizes, ages, and colors.
Strike a pose! Here's to a year of living for the light and chasing down our wildest dreams. Cheers! 🍾
Strike a pose—you one-of-a-kind gorgeous baby. Gotta be you.
Strike a pose because it's time to show off your best profile pic. #selfiegoals
Don't just #smile. strike a pose!
me, me, me & my so much better looking than you girlfriend 💪😎
Up for a challenge? Tag someone who's up for it. 😏 #thestruggleisreal
Can you be more 90s than this shirt? #betterthanyourhighschoolreunion
Didn't I tell you the camera adds 10 pounds?
Empowering people to express their personal style, one outfit at a time.
Strike a pose with funny, lighthearted content that gets people's attention and makes them want to follow your brand.
Strike a pose, selfie game on point 👸🏼
Strike a pose and have your picture taken like you're in a fashion magazine on this #NationalSelfieDay
Strike a pose this summer, because every day is a photo op. 💃🏻
Strike a pose in the year's most fun, flirty, and fabulous bikini💗
Strike a pose, strike a pose. If you've got it, flaunt it. 😉❤
I don't know what you mean, "celebrity? I'm just your girl next door…" 😉
Give your model a style to work with.📸😎
We've got everything you need to be the best-dressed person in the room
Strike a pose with funny dog photos on Instagram! 😂
Strike a pose. Put on your best face. The city's calling. So step out in style and show us how you
Strike a pose in the fierce fashions of Project Runway All-Stars.
Strike a pose. Hold it. 😎
Strike a pose with our favorite fashion bloggers who practically live outside in the summertime.
Strike a pose with the newest addition to our hair care line @haskus_haircare #HASKATY #happyhair
Strike a pose and forget you ever had a bad day. 😎
Strike a pose. Be bold with this summer nail art ✨
Make it a point to sweat every day—even if it's just in front of the mirror dancing like this guy is. 👣
Look at you, all up in the Gallery walls.
The five most important poses in yoga.
Movie Reviews Striking Poses Quotes
By day, mild-mannered reviewer. By night, movie star. 👱😎
Strike a pose with our pre-fall collection 💁🏼
We've had a crazy few weeks, but we got you! Check out our movie reviews and see what they're #Crazy4! 😎
This weekend, kick back and enjoy a flick.
This is a movie for the summer of 2017, about relationships that are becoming increasingly important. Things like tech, romance, and pop culture.
This weekend, get ready for a super fun Spider-Man spinoff that's totally different from the origin story. 🕸 😎
Slammin' on the floor like my name was He-man, And I had rubber man's hair.
Cut the cord. Watch with us. 📺 @sinemia_official
It doesn't get better than this.
Strike a pose. These summer movie reviews don't require you to be a critic, just a fan. 🎬
We've got the most stylish and sophisticated movie reviews around. Check them out at www.decider.com
I'm no movie critic, but I know what I like. 🎭
Gather your squad for a movie night and discover the latest releases. #TheEyesMovie
These summer blockbusters are killer. 👉🏻
An electrifying new rom-com about finding your own individuality and true love in the city that never sleeps. 🎥🎬
I don't know what kind of magic they're using in Hollywood right now, but it's pretty clear who is running this world. 😎
She was never just a girl from the Bronx. She was always, first and foremost, an Amazon.
You don't know strength until you've walked a mile in her stilettos.
What are you going to do about it?
Strike a pose and get a bag of our delicious chips. 😘😍
Movie reviews are a celebration of the fun, the best & worst moments of the year.
Expectation: the #1 killer of cinema-going. Expect great things from me and you may be disappointed.
You know you're a movie buff when you can do this to the letter on command. 😮
You won't regret booking a ticket for this one, laugh out loud funny.
This daring fashion flick will get you in touch with your inner style diva 🙋🏻
Sometimes we need an escape, and with A Star Is Born, Bradley Cooper's directorial debut, you can indulge in pure musical fantasy.
Make a statement with your style.
Look ma, no hands! A star is born 🌟 #raiseyourglass
We're feeling majorly sassy this weekend, so we took some time to work on our best #WerkFace 😎
Stretch yourself, and don't be afraid to fall, sometimes change is good.
Ever since #harrypotter,#lordoftherings, and #starwars, I've been waiting for the next series to blow my mind. I am blown away by #daenerystargaryen 👸🏻
The critics' consensus is in and they're gushing: You'll find yourself floored by Kong: Skull Island.
A review for a movie about a woman that must choose between love and royalty. 👑👸🏻
This movie is a masterpiece about the explosive bonds of friendship between women and how we overcome our differences. #GirlSquad
Feel the #fierceness in this week's movie reviews 💪🏻 🔥 🌟
No spoilers here—but this 🎥 🍿 🍹 🍻 is worth the price of admission.
So ready to see this visual feast in theaters 🎥👀
The chilling return of Michael Myers in Halloween 2018.
This is me waiting for you to take my call.
Bring out your inner campfire s'more. 🎭
When you find out your life is an episode of a sitcom, and the world is just waiting for you to say the wrong thing. 🙈☺
Wish you were here. 😈😜😛☀❤
Strike a Pose Photobooth Quotes
Strike a pose at the coolest party of the summer: Strike a Pose Photo Booth at the Soho House in NYC.
Strike a pose! We're thrilled to be launching our photobooth nationwide this summer.
Strike a pose with our photo booth at your next event 📸 🎉
Strike a pose in our photo booth, grab a drink and a bite, and check out some of the newest artists at our art show. #prettylittlethingstour
Strike a pose with us! We'll come to you, or the location of your choice to capture the best moments of your wedding 🌸❤ #photobooth
Strike a pose! We'd love to see your photos from our photobooth. 😎
Strike a #Pose and snap it up before we sell out!!
Strike a pose, and show us what you got!
Strike a pose 📸 today at your favorite spot to enjoy some coffee ☕ with friends. Smile, Have Fun, & Enjoy the Moment.
Strike a sweet pose! But don't worry if you just can't carry off the perfect pose, we'll make sure everyone looks great 📸 📝
Make your best face. We're gonna capture it forever.
Strike a pose with the hottest Photobooth in town!
Strike a pose at your next party. Your guests will be blown away by the quality and creativity of our photo booth.
Strike a pose, because we're bringing photobooth fun to you. 📷
Strike a #photobooth pose for best friends, lovers, and 👏🏼💕👏🏼👑.
Strike a pose at our booth to score a free 8×10 photo print!
Strike a pose at your next party with us.
Strike a pose at your next party.
Strike a pose at your BFF's place this weekend.
Strike a pose, I'm gonna capture this moment.
Strike a pose in our photobooth and show off how you look in our clothing. Just for kicks, send it to us: firstname.lastname@example.com
Strike a pose in our photobooth, take home your commemorative print, and get the fancy feeling of Instagram without even having to post.
Strike a Pose! Our photobooth can create all kinds of smiles.
Get dolled up and strike a pose…at our monthly photobooth event!
Strike a pose, people. We're gonna dress you up and take your picture (for free!).
Strike a pose and show us your best 📷 📸 #strikeapose
Strike a pose, it's your moment to shine. We always want to be a place that brings out your best. Show us how you do it!
Strike a pose! Let us make you look your best for every important moment in life.
Strike a pose! The party is happening around you. This is no ordinary photobooth—this strikes a pose photobooth with your friends, your outfit, and your attitude. ☕🍹
Strike a pose—take over the #StrikeAPose photobooth to capture your next event!
Strike a pose for your chance to win a photobooth package!
Strike a pose at your next event with us. We'll set up our photobooth and make the magic happen.
Strike a pose! We're giving away free photobooths at the beach this summer. Follow our account to enter.
strike a pose It's that time of year again – Sweet sixteen! If you're looking for fun photo booth ideas for this milestone birthday, you need to look no further.
Strike a pose. We'll capture the moment in all its glory and send you your photo right away.
Strike a pose! Friends don't let friends miss out on all the fun.
Strike a pose! We'll get you 2 copies of your favorite shot 😀
Strike a pose and be the star of your own show.
Strike a pose, show the world how you live your life.
Strike a pose and take a photo in our #strikethepose photobooth! We're having a big giveaway to celebrate! 🎉🎈
Strike a #strikeapose for this photo booth. Highlight your best moves and strike a pose with @Strike_a_pose!
Strike a pose! Let our photobooth do the rest, so you can get those great party photos you deserve.
Strike a pose with us! Take a striking photo at our photobooth that's like no other.
Strike a pose this summer at our photo booth! We have lots of props and custom backdrops. Book your event today.
Strike a pose!! We turn your pics into cool retro photos at the booth.
Strike a pose 📸 at your next party!
Strike a pose with your friends. Take control of the camera, click away, and share your day with us.
Strike a pose. We're here to capture every moment of you #likeaboss
Strike a pose. And smile. And we'll make sure the rest is picture-perfect.
Strike a pose! Give us the GIFT of your presence at the wedding.
Strike a pose, tell us how you feel, and share your story.
I caught you singing in the mirror. I hope your reflexes are faster than your shame reflex.
Striking a Pose for Posterity Quotes
Strike a pose, strike a pose…like you just don't care.
Strike a pose for the camera and show off your most creative self.
Strike A Pose. We're ready for our photoshoot.
Strike a pose. And make a caption, you two. 😘😍
Make a toast, strike a pose. This weekend we're all about capturing your style with #PrettyLittleSeries 😉
Be seen. The new Galaxy Note9 has a dedicated camera button so you can take photos faster than ever before.
Post great stuff #InstaWednesdays.
No filters. No post-production. No excuses.
Strike a pose. We're watching you.
Strike a pose, 'cause you're a Nike girl. Yes, you are.
Strike a pose for the sun ☀👀##
Strike a pose, people! 📸: maria_mash_photography
Strike a pose! We want to see how you style our latest collection with your fave pieces from previous seasons. Tag your photos #COOLMADEWGS.
Strike a pose, see the view. Take a photo with InstaPic and share your adventure.
We'd never post a photo if we didn't like the way we look. So here's a look at one of our favorite styles of this season.
Stay tuned for our next #modelmove photo! 😉
Sultry doesn't begin to describe this sassy state of being I'm in.
Make the most of this moment, always.
Turns out the best seat in the house is wherever you are right now.
Strike a pose this weekend.
Strike a pose for the #moodboardcam.
Strike a pose. Stay crispy. Be you. #likeagirl
Strike a pose and get your photo taken at the #1 place for photos in the world.
Strike a pose whenever and wherever you're inspired – it's your time to shine. 💫✨
Strike a pose. These boots were made for it.
Strike a pose. I'm taking your photo 📸🏢
Hey gorgeous. Post this picture, and get it today before it's gone.
We here at UncommonGoods believe in documenting every moment of your life. #docuforlife
Your wardrobe is only limited by your imagination. Choose something bright or striking today and own the room.
Strike a pose! Make memories to last a lifetime.
Strike a pose to celebrate summer. Show us how you #summereverything.
strike a pose and show the world what you're made of, today.
Strike a pose! Go bold with your official portrait by the best professional photographer — you.
Strike a pose. Capturing the perfect picture has never been this easy.
Strike a pose. We've got a slim trimming waistband that will make you want to break out the bikinis and show off your figure.
Strike a pose. Don't forget to tag us in your best #mcmselfie 📸: @mcmpose
can we just take a selfie already? 🙂
Make a memory, not a scene.
Free People Strike a Pose Dress Quotes
Strike a pose in the sun. Free People strike a pose dress, only at Urban Outfitters.
Bold prints, bold colors. Bolder statements. The Free People Struck a Pose Dress 😎
Strike a pose in our new Kendall Dress, named after the most fashionable woman on the planet.
Strike a pose in this essential dress that works as hard as you do.
Strike a pose in our long sleeve dip-dyed dress this fall.
Strike a pose with our must-have dresses.
Strike a pose, you know you want to 😉
She's a free spirit, in a dress designed to make her feel as free as she is.
Strike a pose in this easy to wear dress 📸: @freepeople
Strike a pose. Fall in love with the free people falls edit. Shop the collection now at freepeople.com ☀🍂
Strike a pose in this free people dress.
Strike a pose. Live your life in free-people dresses.
Strike a pose in our most empowering dress yet, featuring a plunging neckline with sheer detailing and a high waist.
Strike a pose, we're in free people! 💃🏼😎
Strike A Pose With Our Summer Essentials
Strike a pose. We're bringing back the glamour with a modern twist.
Dress up and turn up with our most-wanted maxi dresses—dreamy, pretty, and free.
we are going to make you look good.
Show off your free spirit, or bring it out in others. 😜
We want to be your antidote to boring. ✔
Be the answer to the question that's been asked but has not yet been answered: what will you do with your life?
Strike a pose in the Free People Strike a Pose Dress.
Strike a pose in Free People's dreamy new maxi dress. If your heart skips a beat when you see the sunrise over the ocean, this one is for you.
Strike a pose & exude whole lotta confidence in our limited-edition Free People Scarf Tie Dress.
The coolest thing about fashion is that it's always changing. The coolest thing about free people dresses is that they're always cool. Find your perfect fit with our size chart.
Creating outfits from the soul since '92.
We're free, wild, and fiercely feminine.
Personality, not perfection. The dress that's all the while on a wild adventure.


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Lala Kent and Randall Emmett are still finding a way to grow their family despite their wedding being postponed.
The "Vanderpump Rules" star, 29, and "The Irishman" producer, 49, are currently "working" on conceiving their first child together, Emmett told Us Weekly.
"We are on the Flo app," he said. "We are on the apps. Lala, whatever day it is, she comes in, she says, 'Give me a baby!' and then I hop right to it."
He joked that the reality star is the "boss" and is taking the reigns on their sex life while he struggles to remember when she ovulates.
"We have our normal course of being together, and then the moment comes, and she's just like, 'It's Friday at 3 o'clock. You are not going anywhere,'" he said. "So yes, we are working on it. It is only a matter of time."
Emmett popped the question to Kent in September 2018 while celebrating her birthday in Cabo San Lucas.
The couple was set to tie the knot in April but was forced to postpone their nuptials to July due to the coronavirus pandemic. They have not yet exchanged vows.
This will be Emmett's second marriage. He was previously married to "You" star Ambyr Childers, and they share two young daughters, London and Rylee.


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In 2000, Sowers Action organized the first "Challenging 12 Hours", a charity marathon event with an aim to promoting education in rural regions. Since then, it has become one of the biggest annual trail events in Hong Kong.
Over 40,000 participants have took part in this event in the past 23 years, and the total fund raised was over HK$53 million. In the virtual run last year, there were over 598 participants raising over HK$270,000 as education donation.


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How to decrease Search Engine Visibility With Saket Wahi
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In order to participate in the GunBroker Member forums, you must be logged in with your GunBroker.com account. Click the sign-in button at the top right of the forums page to get connected.
First bow kill
Kodiakk Member Posts: 5,582
edited October 2012 in Bow Hunting and Target Archery
She was about 35 yards away. When I hit her she started bleeding like you turned on a faucet. She walked about ten yards and then laid down. Her head was bobbing and I knew the loss of blood was affecting her bad. Shot her once more time just to try and end it faster. Public land kill of course.
bambambam Member Posts: 4,810 ✭✭✭Can't be that.[8D]
Mobuck Member Posts: 12,958 ✭✭✭✭Guess I'm not the only one to start bowhunting "later in life". Congrats on the doe.
I donated the first two to the food pantry but we put the 3rd in the freezer yesterday. Definately a different butchering experience vs all the damage done by bullets.
Chief Shaway Member, Moderator Posts: 6,111 ******Congrats!
edgecam Member Posts: 3,280Nice deer congrats


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- Art
- >
- Art for the home
- >
- Landscapes
- >
- White Gum Trees
White Gum Trees
per item
1 available
A landscape painting in response to the patterns and textures found in the environment, an aerial perspective highlighting this. Bold and full of colour, a little outback world created from the original abstract pattern first put down, decorated with a scattering of little white gum trees and other vegetation.
Artwork info:
♥ acrylic paint on canvas
♥ thick edge canvas with black sides
♥ measures 102x102cm
♥ ready to hang