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Tuesday, April 17, 2007
i promise not to run around like a whacka tourist
i'll be down under for 2 weeks in july. sydney for a week's conference and then, 7 footloose days in alice springs, uluru and darwin, not necessarily in that order.
the last time i was in sydney, i totally didn't know where to head for great food and got lost trying to find the famed australian-melt-in-your-mouth steak. is it true? is it really droolworthy? please tell me it's not a myth.
also, is it a good time for the outback in july? what are the must see's and do's? besides the spectacular uluru of course. should i do the harley davidson or the 4WD trip? barbecued kangaroo or grilled croc? hugh or julian? decisions, decisions. but oh what fun.
whacka: australian for idiot
22 comments:
Well if you're gonna be in Sydney, give us a way to get in touch and organize a beer or three. I can recommend a great pub that brews its own beers and serves pizzas with both our national animals on top.
As for sights, well despite being an Aussie I've never been to Uluru. I would just ask that you respect the owners' wishes and not climb it.
You can contact me here:
http://www.rumble.net/contact/- AnonymousApril 17, 2007 9:29 AM
Did you know Hugh and Nicole Kidman are shooting Baz Luhrmann's "Australia" for about six months in a few weeks? From what I've read, it will be Sydney for two weeks starting April 29, then Bowen (substituting for Darwin) and perhaps Darwin from May 15-end of June, and then Kununurra and Western Australia July onward. Check out http://www.australiamovie.net and http://www.bazthegreat.co.uk for all sorts of info!
ReplyDelete Boyfriend and I took a 3 week trip up the coast from Sydney to Cairns, using a rented campervan. It was perfect for 2 people.
I'm not sure if a week is enough to see Uluru and Darwin - kind of far. But, do what you'd prefer doing, of course :-)
FYI: July will be chilly in the south. Mostly rainy, 15C or so.
One beautiful, gorgeous place is Fraiser Island. We took a mass trip (i.e. sharing a car with other people), but I'd recommend in hindsight renting a car just for yourself. Fraiser is about 2 days worth of time.
Cairns is gorgeous - specifically, Cape Tribulation national park. Really cool birds too (cassowaries, specifically).
Golden coast (Brisbane, Surfer's Paradise) is very, very touristy and commercial. However, Brisbane has a great Koala park (seeing koalas in the wild is unlikely).
My friends traveled to Uluru and Darwin - I think they flew out there, and rented a campervan.
And not sure about the steak... beef was very expensive there, as far as I remember. Going out in general, however, is cheap compared to North America.We went in May or last year, to most of those same areas. If you're doing Uluru, make sure you do the "Sounds of Silence" dinner. Also, don't do tours around that area, if you can rent a car and drive yourself, it's much better. While you're at uluru, make sure you also see Kata Tjuta, which is just about as impressive. There was a great little restaurant in Alice Springs - best meal of our trip came here, at the Bluegrass Restaurant in town, a neat little place which uses blackboards to display the menu and seems to be a mix of Greek, Mediterranean, Australian and Thai cuisine.
ReplyDeleteI am not sure if July is a good idea depending on where you come from.
In Asia, July is considered a cold month to visit Aussie, since it is their winter. However, Winter to them is nothing compared to those in USA. Temperature there seldom fall below 0 degree celcius. which is warm for winter by USA standards.- AnonymousApril 18, 2007 12:03 AM
We went in June 2000 and it was the best vacation we ever took.
Up near Darwin: In Kakadu, the must-do is the crack-of-dawn Billabong Cruise -- absolutely worth getting up hella early for. If you have time, you could drive down to Katherine (about 3 hrs south of Darwin) -- Katherine Gorge is absolutely beautiful (a good full-day mix of hiking, boating, and (no kididng) stopping for tea). The town is nice, and there are also some hot springs there -- pleasant way to spend some time.
In the Alice/Uluru area: if you want authentic outback, stop at the Curtin Springs station (much cheaper than staying at the overpriced Uluru park hotels). The Alice Springs Desert Park is pretty neat. I really liked the Royal Flying Doctor Service museum. Other than that, we liked just knocking around town.
Have a great trip! - AnonymousApril 18, 2007 5:31 AM
I am from Australia, though from the West! July is a nice time to visit Uluru. It is winter, so the nights can get very cold in a desert environment, but the days reach 20'C (about 60 - 65'F) mark which is still good weather! Later in the year you would find very hot temperatures, high 30'C - low 40'C (90 - 110 'F)and it wouldn't be as enjoyable. Oh, and I think you mean "whacko" tourist, not "whacka". Don't say whacka, people will think you are saying something else rude!
ReplyDelete - AnonymousApril 22, 2007 12:14 AM
The Sydney Morning Herald has a website so bloody awful it's almost unusable. However by clicking around I was able to find this page
On the right you will see a search box for finding restaurant reviews. Enter steak.
Top picks include
Prime reviewed twice in 2005: "The fillet cuts like mousse, tastes as dark and rich as chocolate, and will spoil you for other steakhouses forever. "
Bond Cafe: steak sandwich
Bayswater Brasserie: Kings Cross.
BTW better hope it rains - the Prime Minister who until a few weeks ago was denying global warming - has now told us we will starve if there's no rain in the next 6 weeks.
Maybe you'll have to BYO water. - AnonymousApril 24, 2007 3:19 AM
If you are looking for a place for a fabulous steak try Ribs & Rumps on Manly Beach in Sydney http://www.ribsandrumps.com.au/menu.aspx The aged steaks are melt in your mouth good.
ReplyDelete - AnonymousApril 25, 2007 10:10 AM
Hey.. I'm from Sydney.. Just got home after a long ANZAC day at the pub playin' 2up and drinkin' beer. I'm from Sydney's Eastern Suburbs and there's plenty of good food and drink round here. Even the local supermarket can sell you a melt in the mouth steak.. As long as you have somewhere to cook it. Other than that, there's Kingsley's in Woolloomooloo for an expensive but delicious steak and plenty of pub grub that tastes great - The Rump or New York cut at the Grand National in Paddington (Over the bar) is excellent.. but basically, anywhere you go, the produce and meat, should be superb. Have fun.. hope you enjoy yourself. Pete.
ReplyDelete Oh! Jules! You are not coming to Perth, where Hugh spent much of his time studying theatre at WAAPA (Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts) and waiting at tables at some restaurant here whose name I can't remember.
http://www.yourrestaurants.com.au is a great place to suss out restaurants. If you are in Newtown (Sydney), go eat at Oscillates Wildly. Awesome, awesome food. Hope it's not too cold and rainy when you go!Jules, are you coming back this year or was the conference a one-off?
We go to one in Sydney each July, totally awesome.
Anyway, Melbourne's nice anytime and probably makes more sense in (our) winter: It's chilly, and the football in its element, consuming the city each week with irrational fervour and shouting.
Sydney's pretty nice though in July - consistently a few degrees warmer than Melbourne.
Make some time to visit the Rocks in Sydney, and make sure you enjoy Darling Harbour too: it's commercial but a nice space.- DanielJune 27, 2007 6:20 AM
I'm really surprised nobody has pointed this out yet, but the word is WANKER, not "whacka". It means something more like 'loser' than 'idiot', though its exact meaning refers to masturbation ("wanking"). See also 'tosser', same meaning.
Anyway, within Australia, Sydney is known for really amazing Thai food, like Longrain and Darley Street Thai. If you want really amazing steak, though, try Neil Perry's restaurant Rockpool - dry aged wagyu beef. That'll do the trick. :)
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HealthWise KnowledgeBase
Digital Rectal Examination (DRE)
Test Overview
A digital (finger) rectal examination is done to check for problems with organs or other structures in the pelvis and lower belly. During the examination, the doctor gently puts a lubricated, gloved finger of one hand into the Reference rectum Opens New Window. He or she may use the other hand to press on the lower belly or pelvic area.
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Transliteration shachah |
Pronunciation shä·khä'
(Key) | |
Part of Speech
verb |
Root Word (Etymology) A primitive root | |
TWOT Reference |
Printed from the Blue Letter Bible
Lexicon Results
Strong's H7812 - shachah
Outline of Biblical Usage
1) to bow down a) (Qal) to bow down b) (Hiphil) to depress (fig) c) (Hithpael) 1) to bow down, prostrate oneself a) before superior in homage b) before God in worship c) before false gods d) before angel
Authorized Version (KJV) Translation Count — Total: 172
Concordance Results Using KJV
Strong's H7812 - shachah
Learn More About Our Word Search Tools Strong's Number H7812 matches the Hebrew שָׁחָה (shachah), which occurs 13 times in 13 verses in 2Sa of the Hebrew concordance of the KJVPage 1 / 1 (2Sa 1:2 - 2Sa 24:20) (More Info)
Cite This Page: Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for shachah (Strong's 7812)". Blue Letter Bible. 1996-2013. 20 Jun 2013.
< http:// www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm? The English language concordance used by the Blue Letter Bible team started with the King James Version of the Bible, 1769 edition. We wrote a program to build the concordance files, indexing 790,881 words. We hope you enjoy the results! Blue Letter BibleLoading...
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North American Auto Mall advertises a variety of all years, makes and models of autos, trucks and transport trailers for sale by owner. In addition, we have Northwest Classic Auto Mall, which has offered advertising services for 1975 and older cars, trucks and project vehicles since 1999. Whether you're looking for a classic or muscle car, rat rod or race car, or a late model car or truck, we invite you to browse our listings of vehicles.
1948 Pontiac Torpedo Coupe Jaguar Emerald Green paint, Light grey leather interior, Balanced GM 350ci V8; GM Turbo 350 Automatic Transmission; GM 10 bolt rear end; Mustang II rack &... More


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Video Gallery
Great Spirit Bluff Falcons
Pets, Animals - Birds
5/17/13: Falcon News
Our first hatch of the season made an appearance at 5:43 a.m. It appears that we have a second hatch makings its way out of the shell around 8:15 a.m. Congratulations Michelle and Travis!
4/25/13: Falcon News
Michelle laid four eggs this season with the last arriving on April 15, 2013. We are starting hatch watch on May 15. We often count 33 days after the third egg to estimate hatch, but larger clutches and cold weather can delay hatch a little bit.
The Raptor Resource Project is partnering with the Mississippi Valley Conservancy to preserve bluffland for peregrines, eagles and other wildlife species. You can help MVC protect additional critical habitat by making a tax-deductible charitable contribution to MVC today.
About the Falcons: Blogs, photos, and video
RRP Blog: Peregrine Falcon FAQ
RRP Blog: Michelle, Travis, and Peregrine Questions
Diagrams of the Nest Box
RRP Facebook Page: News about the GSB falcons and other birds
RRP Forum - Chat about the Great Spirit Bluff Falcons
GSBDweller's Photobucket
First feeding 5/3/12
03/29/2012 Michelle Lays 3rd Egg at 6:54 p.m. (around 3:58 into the video)
About the GSB Project
The Raptor Resource Project installed a nest box here after falcons tried nesting on a ledge that was accessible to raccoon. The box was adopted by a pair of falcons in 2005. Young falcons have fledged here every year since. Great Spirit Bluff is owned by the Howe family. Jonathon Howe, son of John and Susan, is a member of Boy Scout Troop 479 in Eden Prairie, MN. He needed a project to advance to Eagle rank and was interested in working with falcons. Jonathon and his father designed and built four special nestboxes with lids that flip up and cover the box. These boxes have two wonderful features: they are accessible from the top, which means we don't have to lean over a roof to get the babies and (when open) they keep young falcons from jumping out. Human banders and young falcons are safer as a result.
Jonathon also helped plan the deployment of the camera here. He and troop members and friends pulled the cable to the edge of the cliff, dug the cable trench, and buried the cable. We are very pleased with the results.
Here is a link to a Wisconsin Public Radio podcast/mp3 about the project. Eagle Scout Helps Develop Falcon Cam
When will the falcons lay eggs?
They will most likely lay in late March or early April. 2012 incubation began 3/29
How long does it take the eggs to hatch?
The eggs should start hatching 33-34 days after the third egg is laid.
When and who bands the young falcons?
Falcons are banded around 3 weeks of age. Bob Anderson and his team will rappel down the bluff to collect the eyasses for banding.
When do the young falcons start flying?
They will fledge at roughly 40 days of age.
How can I tell the male and female apart?
In general, female peregrines are about 30% larger than the males. In our nest, we have also noted some distinguishing markings. Michelle has a small amount of white feathers just above her beak, her head is more broad, and she has a bull horns marking in the white feathers on the side of her neck. Travis has all dark feathering above his beak, a smaller rounder head, and a brighter yellow beak.
How old are the pair and how long have they been nesting here?
Travis is 9 years old. Michelle is 7 years old. All we know for sure is that they are here this year, but could have been coming to this site as far back as 2007. The last previous recorded band reading on a different female (Katrinka) at this nest was in 2006.
2011 Great Spirit Bluff Banding Event
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To the Surry Arts Council and other organizers and volunteers for taking time to recognize someone as influential to old-time music as local native Tommy Jarrell. Each year, the arts council as well as others in the old-time community come together to highlight the music Jarrell made so famous, bringing attention to this area.
To all those who volunteered and donated to the Shepherd's House annual fundraiser last weekend. Through the efforts of individuals and businesses, about $50,000 was raised to help the Shepherd's House operate and continue to serve the homeless of the area and get them back on their feet.
To the North Carolina Cooperative Extension service and the Cana Rescue Squad. Both entities hosted free CPR training for members of the community during the past week to make sure people have the life-saving skills needed in the case of an emergency medical situation, because every second counts when someone is losing oxygen.


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Home > Mutual Funds > The Gabelli Global Utility & Income Trust Objective
Objective Fund Details Price & Performance Dividend & Tax Info The Gabelli Global Utility & Income TrustPrintable Factsheet | Recent Quarterly Report | Recent Annual Report |
The Gabelli Global Utility & Income Trust, is a non-diversified, closed-end management investment company whose investment objective is to seek a consistent level of after-tax total return for its investors with an emphasis currently on tax-advantaged dividend income under current tax law.
Under normal market conditions, the Fund invests at least 80% of its assets in equity securities of domestic and foreign companies involved in the utilities industry and other industries that are expected to periodically pay dividends. Companies in the utilities industry are those companies involved to a substantial extent (i.e., at least 50% of the assets, gross income or net profits of a company is committed to or derived from) in providing (i) products, services or equipment for the generation or distribution of electricity, gas or water, (ii) infrastructure operations such as airports, toll roads and municipal services and (iii) telecommunications services such as telephone, telegraph, satellite, cable, microwave, radiotelephone, mobile communication and cellular, paging, electronic mail, videotext, voice communications, data communications and internet. Under normal market conditions, at least 50% of the Fund's assets will consist of equity securities of domestic and foreign companies involved to a substantial extent in the utilities industry. In making stock selections, the Fund's investment adviser looks for companies that have proven dividend records and sound financial structures. Investors should consider the investment objectives, risks, sales charges and expense of the fund carefully before investing. The prospectus contains more complete information about this and other matters. The prospectus should be read carefully before investing.


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60. | skunk | ||
To do something sneakily without anyone noticing. To slip something through unobtrusively and unofficially. We're going to have to skunk this, 'cause if anyone finds out we're doing it, there'll be hell to pay.
1. | skunk | ||
cross breed of Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica. Sativa is the more traditionally smoked outdoor-grown variety which occurs naturally in places like Colombia, Mexico, Thailand and Africa; Indica is a shorter, bushier variety found in Afghanistan. Unlike pure Sativa, the high it gives is slightly heavy, lassitudinous and mongy. damn, this skunk is some evil shit, where can I get some?
2. | skunk | ||
Skunks are mammals best known for their ability to secrete a liquid with a strong, foul-smelling odor. General appearance ranges from species to species, from black-and-white to brown or cream colored. Skunks are omnivorous, eating both plant and animal material and changing their diet as the seasons change. They are crepuscular and are solitary animals when not breeding. The most notorious feature of skunks is their anal scent glands, which they can use as a defensive weapon. Skunks have two glands, one on either side of the anus. These glands produce a mixture of sulfur-containing chemicals, which have a highly offensive smell that has been described as a combination of the odors of rotten eggs, garlic and burnt rubber. Muscles located next to the scent glands allow them to spray with a high degree of accuracy, as far as 2 to 5 meters (7 to 15 ft). Vet: a skunk is an animal.
The weedheads who all submitted definitions for the word skunk on Urban Dictionary: wtf u talking about, i never heard of no animal called a skunk, i want some chron son... Vet: you need to get a job |
3. | Skunk | ||
Strong Weed. Ridiculously strong. Usually grown outdoors. It is a guaranteed fucking-up. This is the kind of weed that leaves you sitting there giggling for twenty minutes, your legs numb, your mind completely bricked, and your hands so twitchy you keep spilling the bongwater all over the floor.
It is not advisable to drive while ripped to such a degree. Or go to work. You will be pegged very quickly as being quite high. You'll probably be looked at suspiciously from then on. In fact, it's best to just stay at home and lay about all day, lest you giggle too hard and shit yourself in a supermarket. Where Jesus peed, this is what grew out of the ground. #1:"What's up with you man? You're giggling like that weird motherfucker from Alice-In-Fucking-Wonderland."
#2:"F-f-f-f-fuck if I know. Strong shit. Real strong. F-f-f-uck man. Everything man. Everything. Holy shit. It's Everything man." #1:"Wha-? You're tripping. Hard. You better not go to work." #2: -giggles hysterically- #1:"I think it's time you lay off the skunk there, champ. You can't even fucking talk right man. " |
4. | skunk | ||
One of the strongest types of weed out there. It's known to keep people high for over 10 hours. Smells like shit. "You sure this blunt isn't laced with f*cking crack dood?!?"
"No no no, that's just SKUNK!" |
5. | Skunk | ||
Dutch cultivated hybride Cannabis plant that is a cross mix between Cannabis Sativa and Indica. It has the high and flavor of the Sativa combined with the fast growing and blooming of the Indica.
The plant was cultivated and stabilized in the late 70's and was a mix of Afghan Indica, Acapulco Gold, Mexican Sativa and Colombian Gold Sativa It has become a sort of his own with all kinds of varieties (White Widow, Haze, Northern Light, Orange Bud, etc, etc.) and is cultivated for weed consumption. The weed of these plants can reach THC-quantities from 8% up to more than 20% depending on the variety that is used. This is due to breeding and selction. "...I don't smoke blunt
It sees the indo with skunk, I might as well get drunk...." Who got some gangsta shit? - Snoop Doggy Dogg |
6. | skunk | ||
1: A cute, but stinky animal that can spray a stinky fluid out from under it's big tail. If the fluid comes in contact with you, you will be stinky and smelly just like a skunk. 2: A word for a loved girlfriend or spouse. 3. A special kind of weed that's a hybrid of other plants 4: A despicable person. 5: A name for a stinky person 1: Me: Awww, what an adorable skunk!
*skunk sprays me* Me: *holding my nose* P.U.!!!!! I SMELL LIKE A STINKY SKUNK NOW! 2. I love you, stinky. 3. Tom: This is some good skunk right here. John: Yeah, it's very, ummmm, good. *John passes out* Tom: Lightwieght 4: George Bush is a skunk. 5: I'm a skunk. :) |
7. | skunk | ||
A very potent strand of marijuana. A hybrid of sativa and indica One hit and your ripped, mayne!!!! In the words of the mighty thizz, mac dre
"I'm at the liquor store gettin more blunts to the skunk" |


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There's alot of times i like to come to this site and go to chat,just to be able to talk to others,not always about addiction,but about anything and everything in general.I'm really getting annoyed though because it seems like everytime i do go to chat lately it's run more like a meeting,someone has taken over and is running the show and it's called an "impromptu" meeting....sometimes i don't even get a chance to say anything at all.There's also been times i've been in a crisis and haven't got a chance to say anything either and i'm really starting to lose total interest in this site altogether.
We have scheduled meeting times every day,i think that's plenty.I don't think it's right for people to act like chairs during non-meeting times and control who gets to talk and who doesn't and to make it formal......it's called chat for a reason,just like it's called a meeting for a reason.
Sorry if this offends anyone,but i feel i have the right to voice my opinion.


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Bob Shiles
Staff writer
LUMBERTON — The Robeson County Board of Commissioners on Monday will get an update on the renovations and construction work taking place at the county's former Social Services building on Caton Road.
Last September, the commissioners gave the go-ahead for renovations and repair work to be done to the newest part of the former DSS building, a two-story addition built in 1989. The building is actually seven buildings cobbled together — built between 1921 and 1989 — and encompassing anarea of about 52,000 square feet.
The county has been planning for some time to renovate the facility and use it for a "one-stop shop" to serve county residents. Plans for the facility include using it to provide office space for the county's Planning and Zoning, Inspections and Environmental Health departments. Also, plans call for locating a GIS mapping technician in the building.
The departments moving into the building are currently in different locations, requiring those needing information or services from more than one department to travel to different sites.
The former DSS building has been vacant since April 2011, when Social Services moved into its new $17.5 million building on N.C. 711 just west of the Health Department. The former DSS building had not met state space requirements for a number of years.
In other business, the commissioners on Monday will:
— Hear a presentation about Robeson Emergency Mobile Specialists, a new emergency mobile repair organization. REMS provides preventive maintenance and repair services of emergency mobile equipment.
— Consider a resolution requesting the county to regulate zoning within Proctorville.
— Consider HVAC replacement at the Robeson County jail.
— Consider a non-emergency franchise contract that will allow Southeastern Regional Medical Center to transport patients to and from hospital facilities — as well as transport discharged patients — when MED1 is unable to provide transport.
— Hold a public hearing on a request to amend a conditional-use permit issued in July 2007 allowing the establishment of a winery/vineyard in Smith's Township. The purpose of the amendment is to include a community center on the property and to extend the hours of the winery's operation.
The meeting begins at 6 p.m. in the commissioners room of the county administrative building on North Elm Street.
Reach staff writer Bob Shiles at 910-272-6117 or email@example.com.


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Nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapons |
Background |
Nuclear-armed states |
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission ("atomic") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10,000,000 tons of TNT.[1]
A modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons (1.1 million tonnes) of TNT.[2] Thus, even a small nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control have been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut.
Only two nuclear weapons have been used in the course of warfare, both by the United States near the end of World War II. On 6 August 1945, a uranium gun-type fission bomb code-named "Little Boy" was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, on 9 August, a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb code-named "Fat Man" was exploded over Nagasaki, Japan. These two bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 people—mostly civilians—from acute injuries sustained from the explosions.[3] The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender, and their ethical status, remain the subject of scholarly and popular debate.
Since the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstrations. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and that acknowledge possessing such weapons—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. In addition, Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, though it does not acknowledge having them.[4][5][6] One state, South Africa, fabricated nuclear weapons in the past, but as its apartheid regime was coming to an end it disassembled its arsenal, acceded to the NPT and accepted full-scope international safeguards.[7]
The Federation of American Scientists estimates there are more than 17,000 nuclear warheads in the world as of 2012, with around 4,300 of them considered "operational", ready for use.[4]
Contents |
There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.
Fission weapons
All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs). This has long been noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons.
In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is assembled into a supercritical mass—the amount of material needed to start an exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compressing a sub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the "implosion" method). The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the latter approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium.
A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton of TNT, to upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT.[8]
All fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such are a serious form of radioactive contamination if not fully contained. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout.
The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Less commonly used has been uranium-233. Neptunium-237 and a number of isotopes of americium may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and even their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of scientific dispute.[9]
Fusion weapons
The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). All such weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a majority, of their energy from fission. This is because a fission weapon is required as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions, and the fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.[10]
Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, France and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. (Whether India has detonated a "true", multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.)[11] All thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it is more efficient.
Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium, deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium. Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium.[8]
Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described above, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield, in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive force. The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated—the Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 million tons (50 megatons) of TNT—was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements.[12]
Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons.
Other types
There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb.
Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation; such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination.
Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, since they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon," and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment."[13]
Most variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size.[8]
Antimatter, which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge, was once considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons.[14] A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible.[15] However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself.[16]
Weapons delivery
Nuclear weapons delivery—the technology and systems used to bring a nuclear weapon to its target—is an important aspect of nuclear weapons relating both to nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy. Additionally, development and maintenance of delivery options is among the most resource-intensive aspects of a nuclear weapons program: according to one estimate, deployment costs accounted for 57% of the total financial resources spent by the United States in relation to nuclear weapons since 1940.[17]
Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in the two nuclear weapons used in warfare, was as a gravity bomb, dropped from bomber aircraft. This is usually the first method that countries developed, as it does not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon and weapon miniaturization requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time.
With the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers, allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification. This method may still be considered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61.[8]
More preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted onto a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. While even short range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success.
More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful missile defense. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult.[8]
Tactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar was also tested at one time by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.[8]
Nuclear strategy
Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon.
Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on submarines or rail cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track and other times this means protecting them by burying them in hardened bunkers.
Other components of nuclear strategies have included using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or implementation of civil defense measures (using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack).
Note that weapons designed to threaten large populations, or to generally deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Weapons designed for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons.
There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.
Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of the state were at stake.
Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, and they are said to have done this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.[18] Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument.[19][20]
The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction may not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation, there is no fixed nation or fixed military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001 attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War.[21] In 1996, the United States adopted a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction.[22]
Governance, control, and law
Because of the immense military power they can confer, the political control of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as they have existed; in most countries the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the head of government or head of state.[23]
In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust was preventing the United States and the Soviet Union from making ground towards international arms control agreements. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held in July 1957.
By the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, while the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation.
Weapons of mass destruction |
By type |
By country |
Proliferation |
Treaties |
In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations to encourage development of peaceful applications for nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty,[24] which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country.[25] The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.[24]
Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, and New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives[26] of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.
Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established amongst the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.
In the middle of 1996, the International Court of Justice, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law, including the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions, the UN Charter, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In view of the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.[27]
Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated casus belli for the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered not to be the case as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had bombed a nuclear reactor being constructed in Osirak, Iraq, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel bombed another reactor being constructed in Syria.
Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated.
Beginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuing through the 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". The nuclear weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as "decorative" and without force.[28]
Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.
Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen,[29] who were in office during the Cold War period, have recently been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Sam Nunn, and William Perry. In January 2010, Lawrence M. Krauss stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day, rid the world of nuclear weapons".[30]
In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the Global Zero movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague.[31] A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.[32]
Others have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia.[33][34] Professor Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at the end of World War II.[35] In the July 2012 issue of Foreign Affairs Waltz took issue with the view of most U.S., European, and Israeli, commentators and policymakers that a nuclear-armed Iran would be unacceptable. Instead Waltz argues that it would probably be the best possible outcome, as it would restore stability to the Middle East by balancing Israel's regional monopoly on nuclear weapons.[36]
Professor John Mueller of Ohio State University, the author of Atomic Obsession,[37] has also dismissed the need to interfere with Iran's nuclear program and expressed that arms control measures are counterproductive.[38] During a 2010 lecture at the University of Missouri, which was broadcast by C-Span, Dr. Mueller has also argued that the threat from nuclear weapons, by terrorists and governments alike, has been exaggerated, both in the popular media and by officials.[39]
United Nations
The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part of the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.[40]
Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially land mines and small arms, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.
Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in Japan's surrender and the U.S.'s ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally controversial.
Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon.[41] One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated tuna led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric nuclear testing, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries".[41]
Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons".[42]
In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament took place at Easter 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[43][44] The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.[42]
In 1959, a letter in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston.[45] In 1962, Linus Pauling won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread.[46]
In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years.[41][47] A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American fears of nuclear war in the 1980s.[48]
Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent at least $8.52 trillion in present day terms[49] on nuclear weapons development. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. $534 billion in present day terms was spent on nuclear waste management and environmental remediation.[50]
Non-weapons uses
Apart from their use as weapons, nuclear explosives have been tested and used for various non-military uses, and proposed, but not used for large-scale earth moving. When long term health and clean-up costs were included, there was no economic advantage over conventional explosives.[51]
Synthetic elements, such as einsteinium and fermium, created by neutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclear explosions, were discovered in the aftermath of the first thermonuclear bomb test. In 2008 the worldwide presence of new isotopes from atmospheric testing beginning in the 1950s was developed into a reliable way of detecting art forgeries, as all paintings created after that period may contain traces of caesium-137 and strontium-90, isotopes that did not exist in nature before 1945.[52]
Nuclear explosives have also been seriously studied as potential propulsion mechanisms for space travel (see Project Orion) and for asteroid deflection.
See also
- History of nuclear weapons
- Los Alamos National Laboratory
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- Nuclear and radiation accidents, including nuclear weapons accidents
- Military strategy
- Weapon of mass destruction
More technical details
- Effects of nuclear explosions
- Intercontinental ballistic missile
- Neutron bomb
- Nuclear bombs and health
- Nuclear weapon yield
Popular culture
Proliferation and politics
- Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean
- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
- International Court of Justice advisory opinion on legality of nuclear weapons
- List of states with nuclear weapons
- List of nuclear weapons
- Nth Country Experiment
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom
- The Letters of last resort (United Kingdom)
- Nuclear weapons and Russia
- Nuclear weapons and the United States
- Paranuclear
- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
- Three Non-Nuclear Principles, of Japan
- ^ See Trinity (nuclear test) and Ivy Mike.
- ^ Specifically the US B83 nuclear bomb, with a yield of up to 1.2 megatons.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions #1". Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2007. "total number of deaths is not known precisely ... acute (within two to four months) deaths ... Hiroshima ... 90,000-166,000 ... Nagasaki ... 60,000-80,000"
- ^ a b "Federation of American Scientists: Status of World Nuclear Forces". Fas.org. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
- ^ "Nuclear Weapons – Israel". Fas.org. Jan 8, 2007. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
- ^ See also Mordechai Vanunu
- ^ "Nuclear Weapons – South Africa". Fas.org. May 29, 2000. Retrieved 2011-04-07.
- ^ a b c d e f The best overall printed sources on nuclear weapons design are: Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. San Antonio, TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck. Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995.
- ^ David Albright and Kimberly Kramer (2005-08-22). "Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns". Institute for Science and International Security. Retrieved 2011-10-13.
- ^ Carey Sublette, Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4.5.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons, accessed 10 May 2011.
- ^ On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test, see Carey Sublette, What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?.
- ^ Sublette, Carey. "The Nuclear Weapon Archive". Retrieved 2007-03-07.
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy, Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-8) (January 1, 2002), accessed November 20, 2011.
- ^ Page discussing the possibility of using antimatter as a trigger for a thermonuclear explosion
- ^ Paper discussing the number of antiprotons required to ignite a thermonuclear weapon.
- ^ "Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons: Program was touted publicly, then came official gag order"
- ^ Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. See also Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996, an excerpt from the book.
- ^ Creveld, Martin Van (2000). "Technology and War II:Postmodern War?". In Charles Townshend. The Oxford History of Modern War. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. p. 349. ISBN 0-19-285373-2.
- ^ Kenneth Waltz, "More May Be Better," in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, eds., The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Norton, 1995).
- ^ Kenneth Waltz, "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better," Adelphi Papers, no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981).
- ^ See, for example: Feldman, Noah. "Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age," New York Times Magazine (29 October 2006).
- ^ Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young, "Senseless policy", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November/December 1998, page 4. Fetched from URL on 18 April 2011.
- ^ In the United States, the President and the Secretary of Defense, acting as the National Command Authority, must jointly authorize the use of nuclear weapons.
- ^ a b Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). "Status of Signature and Ratification". Accessed 27 May 2010. Of the "Annex 2" states whose ratification of the CTBT is required before it enters into force, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not signed the Treaty.
- ^ Richelson, Jeffrey. Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. New York: Norton, 2006.
- ^ The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance, Fact Sheet, Arms Control Association.
- ^ Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law International Committee of the Red Cross
- ^ Gusterson, Hugh, "Finding Article VI" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (8 January 2007).
- ^ Jim Hoagland (October 6, 2011). "Nuclear energy after Fukushima". Washington Post.
- ^ Lawrence M. Krauss. The Doomsday Clock Still Ticks, Scientific American, January 2010, p. 26.
- ^ Obama Prague Speech On Nuclear Weapons
- ^ CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons
- ^ http://www.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/ESCCONTROLCHAPTER1.pdf
- ^ http://krepon.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/2911/the-stability-instability-paradox
- ^ https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/waltz1.htm Kenneth Waltz, "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May be Better,"
- ^ Waltz, Kenneth (July/August 2012). "Why Iran Should Get the Bomb: Nuclear Balancing Would Mean Stability". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
- ^ http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/InternationalSecurityStrategicSt/?view=usa&ci=9780195381368
- ^ http://bloggingheads.tv/videos/2333 From 19:00 to 26:00 minutes
- ^ http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/AtomicO: John Mueller, "Atomic Obsession"
- ^ Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform (A/51/950)
- ^ a b c Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 54-55.
- ^ a b Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, pp. 96–97.
- ^ A brief history of CND
- ^ "Early defections in march to Aldermaston". Guardian Unlimited. 1958-04-05.
- ^ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 93.
- ^ Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192.
- ^ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 98.
- ^ Spencer Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), chapters 16 and 19.
- ^ Staff. Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2012. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved March 31, 2013.
- ^ Brookings Institution, "Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940-1996", at http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/figure1.htm
- ^ "Q&A with Scott Kirsch: Digging with bombs". Usnews.com. Retrieved 2010-11-25.
- ^ "Can past nuclear explosions help detect forgeries?". Theartnewspaper.com. Retrieved 2010-11-25.
- Bethe, Hans Albrecht. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1
- DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 (Two volumes, both accessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by Alexander DeVolpi: Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy available on [1].
- Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Available online (PDF).
- NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear). Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996
- Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988
- Hansen, Chuck. The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995. [2]
- Holloway, David. Stalin and the Bomb. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-300-06056-4
- The Manhattan Engineer District, "The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" (1946)
- Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (Smyth Report – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons)
- The Effects of Nuclear War. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979.
- Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-82414-0
- Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0-684-81378-5
- Weart, Spencer R. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-674-62836-5
- Weart, Spencer R. The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-674-05233-1
External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Nuclear weapon |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nuclear weapons |
Wikinews has news related to: |
- Current World Nuclear Arsenals has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.
- Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources and an informative FAQ.
- The Federation of American Scientists provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects
- Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues—contains many resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources.
- Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology—Provided by New Scientist.
- Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Nuclear weapons
- Video archive of US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing at sonicbomb.com
- The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States)—located in Albuquerque, New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum
- Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources
- The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb at AtomicArchive.com
- Los Alamos National Laboratory: History (U.S. nuclear history)
- Race for the Superbomb, PBS website on the history of the H-bomb
- U.S. nuclear test photographs from the DOE Nevada Site Office
- U.S. nuclear test film clips from the DOE Nevada Site Office
- Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.


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Yemen is nowadays considered as a "risky" country, according to the French Ministry for European and Foreign affairs. For the past 15 years, more than 200 abductions of foreigners were reported on this territory. Today, Dibeh Fakhr, spokesman of the ICRC, declared that from the present time "no contact was established between the abductors nor our employee".
This sad event reminds us the three humanitarian workers from the French NGO Triangle Génération humanitaire, freed last November, as they had been detained for more than 6 months. On the occasion of our Afterwork, organized on the 8th of March 2012, Patrick Verbruggen, co-director of the NGO, told the audience about the means that could be used in such a situation.
As Pierre Micheletti, former director of Doctors of the World, recalled it in Le Quotidien du Médecin at the same period: "Whereas the humanitarian space is shrinking, [NGOs] have to clarify their position to prevent any hotchpotch between their commitment and the foreign policies run by their country". The question of humanitarian actors' safety has become essential.
Let's remember that for the very year 2008, 260 humanitarian actors were abducted, severely injured or killed. The year 2011 confirmed this state of things: more than 200 were victims of violence of all kinds. It is not rare that NGOs withdraw their workers from a country that has become too dangerous. It happened to Doctors of the World in the late 1990s in Sudan, for a few months, and to Doctors without Borders in 2004 in Afghanistan.
This last abduction brings to 6 the number of French people currently detained all over the world. The Red Helmets Foundation holds to express its support to the family and colleagues of the ICRC agent, and do not forget about the other hostages : Denis Allex, officer in the General direction for external security, captive in Somalia since July 2009 ; Pierre Legrand, Daniel Larribe, Thierry Dol and Marc Furrer detained since September 2010 in the Sahel desert.
You can find all the stories told during the humanitarian Afterwork of the Red Helmets Foundation on the video below :


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(NewsUSA) - One of the simplest things you can do for your health is to get enough sleep, say experts. Unfortunately, many Americans have difficulty sleeping, making this seem like a simple task, but it can be anything but simple.
According to the National Sleep Foundation, the average American sleeps about six hours and 55 minutes per night during the week, and 15 percent of adults sleep less than six hours per night.
"Lack of sleep can take a significant toll on your overall health and interfere with some of your daily activities," said Dr. Michael Thorpy, director of the Sleep-Wake Disorders Center at the Montefiore Medical Center in New York.
Almost everybody has trouble sleeping now and then, but many Americans experience significant problems getting to sleep or continually wake up in the middle of the night.
Such problems may be clinical symptoms of insomnia. According to the National Sleep Foundation, if you have trouble falling asleep at night, or staying asleep, or you wake up in the morning feeling unrefreshed, you may be suffering from insomnia.
Insomnia can affect people in different ways. Some sufferers have trouble initially getting to sleep, while others wake up in the middle of the night and have difficulty falling back asleep.
To help you get better sleep, Dr. Thorpy suggests these simple tips:
* Set and stick to a sleep schedule. Establish a regular bedtime and wake time.
* Set aside time at night to "wind down." Spend some quiet time before bedtime. Such activities as watching TV, using the computer or working right before bedtime, or in the bedroom, can make it harder to fall asleep.
* Avoid caffeine and alcohol before bed.


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WynterHawk wrote:This is a great thread I'm glad I found it My two cents worth is about what I learned from the Triad in Gwers 16. It took an weight off me that I did not even know I had.
I have a habit of diving into a new subject and trying to read and learn everything there is. Usually this is just impossible especially as I have a wide range of interests. So I end up feeling guilty that I did not finish learning everything there was to know about my subject. The Triad "There are three foundations of wisdom: discretion in learning, memory in retaining and eloquence in telling." has shown me that there is nothing wrong about being selective about what I choose to delve deeply into and that it is OK to investigate anything that interests me without having to learn everything there is to know about it. What a relief, I can relax and study what I wish for as long as I want and to what depth I want to explore. To be realistic I will probably never know all there is to know about any one subject BUT I can know, remember and speak with knowledge about a few select subjects. So for me yes it is important to "know your stuff" but it is also important to choose my stuff.
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LEGO® Creator Propeller Adventures (7292)
7 - 12 years. Soar through the clouds in this stunning twin propeller airplane! 3 models in 1 can rebuild into a sleek jet, a hovercraft with 2 turning fans, or a verticle take-off aircraft using instructions on Creator.LEGO®.com! Features include rotating propellers, moveable landing gear, and two powerful engines. 241 pieces.
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