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State of Louisiana
État de Louisiane |
Nickname(s): Bayou State • Child of the Mississippi Creole State • Pelican State (official) Sportsman's Paradise • Sugar State |
Motto(s): Union, Justice and Confidence Union, justice, et confiance (French) Lunyon, Jistis, é Konfyans (Louisiana Creole) |
Official language(s) | None English (de facto) French (de facto) |
Demonym | Louisianan, Louisianais (French) Lwizyané(èz) (Creole) |
Capital | Baton Rouge | ||||
Largest city | New Orleans[1][2][3] | ||||
Largest metro | Greater New Orleans | ||||
Area | Ranked 31st in the U.S. | ||||
- Total | 51,843 sq mi (135,382 km2) |
- Width | 130 miles (210 km) | ||||
- Length | 379 miles (610 km) | ||||
- % water | 15 | ||||
- Latitude | 28° 56′ N to 33° 01′ N | ||||
- Longitude | 88° 49′ W to 94° 03′ W | ||||
Population | Ranked 25th in the U.S. | ||||
- Total | 4,601,893 (2012 est)[4] | ||||
- Density | 105/sq mi (40.5/km2) Ranked 24th in the U.S. |
Elevation | |||||
- Highest point | Driskill Mountain[5][6] 535 ft (163 m) |
- Mean | 100 ft (30 m) | ||||
- Lowest point | New Orleans[5][6] -8 ft (-2.5 m) |
Before statehood | Territory of Orleans | ||||
Admission to Union | April 30, 1812 (18th) | ||||
Governor | Bobby Jindal (R) | ||||
Lieutenant Governor | Jay Dardenne (R) | ||||
Legislature | State Legislature | ||||
- Upper house | State Senate | ||||
- Lower house | House of Representatives | ||||
U.S. Senators | Mary Landrieu (D) David Vitter (R) |
U.S. House delegation | 5 Republicans, 1 Democrat (list) | ||||
Time zone | Central: UTC-6/-5 | ||||
Abbreviations | LA US-LA | ||||
Website | louisiana.gov |
Louisiana (i/luːˌiːziˈænə/ or i/ˌluːziˈænə/; French: État de Louisiane, [lwizjan] ( listen); Louisiana Creole: Léta de la Lwizyàn) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local government's equivalent to counties. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, and the largest by land area is Cameron Parish.
Much of the state's lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh and swamp.[7] These contain a rich southern biota; typical examples include birds such as ibis and egrets. There are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a natural process in the landscape, and has produced extensive areas of longleaf pine forest and wet savannas. These support an exceptionally large number of plant species, including many species of orchids and carnivorous plants.[7]
Some Louisiana urban environments have a multicultural, multilingual heritage, being so strongly influenced by an admixture of 18th-century French, Spanish, Native American (Indian) and African cultures that they are considered to be somewhat exceptional in the U.S. Before the American purchase of the territory, the current Louisiana State had been both a Spanish and French colony. In addition, the pattern of development included importing numerous African slaves in the 18th century, with many from the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. In the post-Civil War environment, Anglo-Americans increased the pressure for Anglicization, and in 1915, English was made the only official language of the state.[8]
Contents |
Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643–1715. When René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane, meaning "Land of Louis".[9] Once part of the French Colonial Empire, the Louisiana Territory stretched from present-day Mobile Bay to just north of the present-day Canadian border, and included a small part of what is now southwestern Canada.
The Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened. Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south.[7] The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in areas such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago. The history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearing's Roadside Geology of Lousiana.[10]
The youngest parts of the state were formed during the last 7,500 years as successive deltas of the Mississippi River: the Maringouin, Teche, St. Bernard, Lafourche, the modern Mississippi, and now the Atchafalaya.[11] The sediments were carried from north to south by the Mississippi River.
In between the Tertiary rocks of the north, and the relatively new sediments along the coast, is a vast belt known as the Pleistocene Terraces. Their age and distribution can be largely related to the rise and fall of sea levels during past ice ages. In general, the northern terraces have had sufficient time for rivers to cut deep channels, while the newer terraces tend to be much flatter.[12]
Salt domes are also found in Louisiana. Their origin can be traced back to the early Gulf of Mexico, when the shallow ocean had high rates of evaporation. There are several hundred salt domes in the state; one of the most familiar is Avery Island.[13] Salt domes are important not only as a source of salt; they also serve as underground traps for oil and gas.[14]
Louisiana is bordered to the west by Texas; to the north by Arkansas; to the east by the state of Mississippi; and to the south by the Gulf of Mexico. The surface of the state may properly be divided into two parts, the uplands of the north, and the alluvial along the coast.
The alluvial region includes low swamp lands, coastal marshlands and beaches, and barrier islands that cover about 20,000 square miles (52,000 km2). This area lies principally along the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River, which traverses the state from north to south for a distance of about 600 miles (1,000 km) and empties into the Gulf of Mexico; the Red River; the Ouachita River and its branches; and other minor streams (some of which are called bayous). The breadth of the alluvial region along the Mississippi is from 10 to 60 miles (15 to 100 km), and along the other rivers, the alluvial region averages about 10 miles (15 km) across. The Mississippi River flows along a ridge formed by its own deposits (known as a levee), from which the lands decline toward a river beyond at an average fall of six feet per mile (3 m/km). The alluvial lands along other streams present similar features.
The higher and contiguous hill lands of the north and northwestern part of the state have an area of more than 25,000 square miles (65,000 km2). They consist of prairie and woodlands. The elevations above sea level range from 10 feet (3 m) at the coast and swamp lands to 50 and 60 feet (15–18 m) at the prairie and alluvial lands. In the uplands and hills, the elevations rise to Driskill Mountain, the highest point in the state at only 535 feet (163 m) above sea level.
Besides the navigable waterways already named, there are the Sabine (Sah-BEAN), forming the western boundary; and the Pearl, the eastern boundary; the Calcasieu (KAL-cah-shew), the Mermentau, the Vermilion, Bayou Teche, the Atchafalaya (a-CHAF-a-LI-a), the Boeuf (bEHf), Bayou Lafourche, the Courtableau River, Bayou D'Arbonne, the Macon River, the Tensas (TEN-saw), Amite River, the Tchefuncte (CHA-Funk-ta), the Tickfaw, the Natalbany River, and a number of other smaller streams, constituting a natural system of navigable waterways, aggregating over 4,000 miles (6,400 km) long.
The state also has political jurisdiction over the approximately 3-mile (4.8 km)-wide portion of subsea land of the inner continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico. Through a peculiarity of the political geography of the United States, this is substantially less than the 9-mile (14 km)-wide jurisdiction of nearby states Texas and Florida, which, like Louisiana, have extensive Gulf coastlines.[15]
The southern coast of Louisiana in the United States is among the fastest-disappearing areas in the world. This has largely resulted from human mismanagement of the coast (see Wetlands of Louisiana). At one time, the land was added to when spring floods from the Mississippi River added sediment and stimulated marsh growth; the land is now shrinking. There are multiple causes.[16] Artificial levees block spring flood water that would bring fresh water and sediment to marshes. Swamps have been extensively logged, leaving canals and ditches that allow saline water to move inland. Canals dug for the oil and gas industry also allow storms to move sea water inland, where it damages swamps and marshes. Rising sea waters have exacerbated the problem. Some researchers estimate that the state is losing a land mass equivalent to 30 football fields every day. There are many proposals to save coastal areas by reducing human damage, including restoring natural floods from the Mississippi. Without such restoration, coastal communities will continue to disappear.[17] And as the communities disappear, more and more people are leaving the region.[18] Since the coastal wetlands support an economically important coastal fishery, the loss of wetlands is adversely affecting this industry.
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Louisiana has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), perhaps the most "classic" example of a humid subtropical climate of all the Southcentral states. It has long, hot, humid summers and short, mild winters. The subtropical characteristics of the state are due in large part to the influence of the Gulf of Mexico, which at its farthest point is no more than 200 miles (320 km) away. Precipitation is frequent throughout the year, although the summer is slightly wetter than the rest of the year. There is a dip in precipitation in October. Southern Louisiana receives far more copious rainfall, especially during the winter months. Summers in Louisiana have high temperatures from mid-June to mid-September averaging 90 °F (32 °C) or more, and overnight lows averaging above 70 °F (22 °C). In the summer, the extreme maximum temperature is much warmer in the north than in the south, with temperatures near the Gulf of Mexico occasionally reaching 100 °F (38 °C), although temperatures above 95 °F (35 °C) are commonplace. In northern Louisiana, the temperatures reach above 105 °F (41 °C) in the summer.
Temperatures are generally mildly warm in the winter in the southern part of the state, with highs around New Orleans, Baton Rouge, the rest of south Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico averaging 66 °F (19 °C). The northern part of the state is mildly cool in the winter, with highs averaging 59 °F (15 °C). The overnight lows in the winter average well above freezing throughout the state, with 46 °F (8 °C) the average near the Gulf and an average low of 37 °F (3 °C) in the winter in the northern part of the state. Louisiana gets some cold fronts, which frequently drop the temperatures below 20 °F (−8 °C) in the northern part of the state, but almost never do so in the southern part of the state. Snow is not very common near the Gulf of Mexico, although residents in the northern parts of the state can expect one to three snowfalls per year, with the frequency increasing northwards. Louisiana's highest recorded temperature is 114 °F (46 °C) in Plain Dealing on August 10, 1936, while the coldest recorded temperature is −16 °F (−27 °C) at Minden on February 13, 1899.
Louisiana is often affected by tropical cyclones and is very vulnerable to strikes by major hurricanes, particularly the lowlands around and in the New Orleans area. The unique geography of the region, with the many bayous, marshes and inlets, can result in water damage across a wide area from major hurricanes. The area is also prone to frequent thunderstorms, especially in the summer. The entire state averages over 60 days of thunderstorms a year, more than any other state except Florida. Louisiana averages 27 tornadoes annually. The entire state is vulnerable to a tornado strike, with the extreme southern portion of the state slightly less so than the rest of the state. Tornadoes are more common from January to March in the southern part of the state, and from February through March in the northern part of the state.[19]
Hurricanes since 1950[edit]
- August 28–29, 2012, Hurricane Isaac hits southeast Louisiana 7 years after Katrina (2005)
- September 1, 2008, Gustav made landfall along the coast near Cocodrie in southeastern Louisiana. As late as August 31 it had been projected by the National Hurricane Center that the hurricane would remain at Category 3 or above on September 1, but in the event the center of Gustav made landfall as a strong Category 2 hurricane (1 mph below Category 3), and dropped to Category 1 soon after.[20] As a result of NHC's forecasts, a massive evacuation of New Orleans took place after many residents having failed to leave for Katrina in 2005.[21] A significant number of deaths were caused by or attributed to Gustav.[22] Around 1.5 million people were without power in Louisiana on September 1.[23]
- September 24, 2005, Rita (Category 3 at landfall) struck southwestern Louisiana, flooding many parishes and cities along the coast, including Cameron Parish, Lake Charles, and other towns. The storm's winds weakened the damaged levees in New Orleans and caused renewed flooding in parts of the city.
- August 29, 2005, Katrina (Category 3 at landfall)[24] struck and devastated southeastern Louisiana, where it breached and undermined levees in New Orleans, causing 80% of the city to flood. Most people had been evacuated, but the majority of the population became homeless. The city was virtually closed until October. It is estimated that more than two million people in the Gulf region were displaced by the hurricane, and that more than 1,500 fatalities resulted in Louisiana alone. A public outcry criticized governments at the local, state, and federal levels, for lack of preparation and slowness of response. Louisiana residents relocated across the country for temporary housing, and many have not returned.
- Oct. 3, 2002, Lili (Category 1 at landfall)
- August 1992, Andrew (Category 3 at landfall) struck south-central Louisiana. It killed four people; knocked out power to nearly 150,000 citizens; and destroyed crops worth hundreds of millions of dollars.
- August 1969, Camille (Category 5) caused a 23.4 ft (7.1 m) storm surge and killed 250 people. Although Camille officially made landfall in Mississippi and the worst damage occurred there, it also had effects in Louisiana. New Orleans remained dry, with the exception of mild rain-generated flooding in the most low-lying areas.
- September 9, 1965, Betsy (Category 3 at landfall) came ashore in Louisiana, causing massive destruction as the first hurricane in history to cause one billion dollars in damage (over ten billion in inflation-adjusted USD). The storm hit New Orleans and flooded nearly 35% of the city (including the Lower 9th Ward, Gentilly, and parts of Mid-City). The death toll in the state was 76.
- June 1957, Audrey (Category 4) devastated southwest Louisiana, destroying or severely damaging 60–80 percent of the homes and businesses from Cameron to Grand Chenier. 40,000 people were left homeless and more than 300 people in the state died.
Geographic and statistical areas[edit]
Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (the equivalent of counties in most other states).[25]
New Orleans
360,740 -
Baton Rouge
230,139 -
200,975 -
138,481 -
122,130 -
Lake Charles
72,475 -
66,715 -
Bossier City
62,745 -
48,815 -
- List of parishes in Louisiana
- Louisiana census statistical areas
- Louisiana metropolitan areas
- List of cities, towns, and villages in Louisiana
- Louisiana locations by per capita income
Protected areas[edit]
Owing to its location and geology, the state has high biological diversity. Some vital areas, such as southwestern prairie, have experienced a loss in excess of 98 percent. The pine flatwoods are also at great risk, mostly from fire suppression and urban sprawl.[7] There is not yet a properly organized system of natural areas to represent and protect Louisiana's biological diversity. Such a system would consist of a protected system of core areas linked by biological corridors, such as Florida is planning.[26]
Louisiana contains a number of areas which are, in varying degrees, protected from human intervention.[27] In addition to National Park Service sites and areas and a United States National Forest, Louisiana operates a system of state parks, state historic sites, one state preservation area, one state forest, and many Wildlife Management Areas. The Nature Conservancy also owns and manages a set of natural areas.
One of Louisiana's largest natural areas is Kisatchie National Forest. It is some 600,000 acres in area, more than half of which is vital flatwoods vegetation, which supports many rare plant and animal species.[7] These include the Louisiana pine snake and Red-cockaded woodpecker. The system of protected cypress swamps around Lake Pontchartrain provides another large and important natural area, with southern wetland species including egrets, alligators, and sturgeon. At least 12 core areas would be needed to build a "protected areas system" for the state; these would range from southwestern prairies, to the Pearl River Floodplain in the east, to the Mississippi River alluvial swamps in the north.[7]
The Louisiana Natural and Scenic Rivers System provides a degree of protection for 48 rivers, streams and bayous in the state. It is administered by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries.
National Park Service[edit]
Historic or scenic areas managed, protected, or otherwise recognized by the National Park Service include:
- Cane River National Heritage Area near Natchitoches;
- Cane River Creole National Historical Park near Natchitoches;
- Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, headquartered in New Orleans, with units in St. Bernard Parish, Barataria (Crown Point), and Acadiana (Lafayette);
- Poverty Point National Monument at Epps, Louisiana; and
- Saline Bayou, a designated National Wild and Scenic River near Winn Parish in northern Louisiana.
US Forest Service[edit]
- Kisatchie National Forest is Louisiana's only national forest. It includes 600,000 acres in central and north Louisiana with large areas of flatwoods and longleaf pine forest.
State parks and recreational areas[edit]
Louisiana operates a system of 22 state parks, 17 state historic sites and one state preservation area.
In March 2011, Louisiana ranked as the second bottom "Worst" state (next to number 50 Kentucky), in the American State Litter Scorecard. The Pelican State suffers from an overall poor effectiveness and quality of its statewide public space cleanliness (primarily from roadway and adjacent litter/debris)--in state and related eradication standards.[28]
The Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development is the state government organization in charge of maintaining public transportation, roadways, bridges, canals, select levees, floodplain management, port facilities, commercial vehicles, and aviation which includes 69 airports.
Interstate highways[edit] |
United States highways[edit] |
The Intracoastal Waterway is an important means of transporting commercial goods such as petroleum and petroleum products, agricultural produce, building materials and manufactured goods.
In 2011, Louisiana ranked among the five deadliest states for debris/litter –caused vehicle accidents per total number of registered vehicles and population size. Figures derived from[29] the NTSHA show at least 25 persons in Louisiana were killed each year in motor vehicle collisions with non-fixed objects, including debris, dumped litter, animals and their carcasses.
Louisiana was inhabited by Native Americans for many millennia before the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century. During the Middle Archaic period, Louisiana was the site of the earliest mound complex in North America and one of the earliest dated, complex constructions in the Americas, the Watson Brake site near present-day Monroe. An 11-mound complex, it was built about 5400 BP (3500 BCE).[30] The Middle Archaic sites of Caney and Frenchman's Bend have also been securely dated to 5600-5000 BP, demonstrating that seasonal hunter-gatherers organized to build complex constructions in present-day northern Louisiana. The Hedgepeth Site in Lincoln Parish is more recent, dated to 5200-4500 BP.[31]
Nearly 2,000 years later, Poverty Point, the largest and best-known Late Archaic site in the state, was built. Modern-day Epps developed near it. The Poverty Point culture may have reached its peak around 1500 BCE, making it the first complex culture, and possibly the first tribal culture in North America.[32] It lasted until approximately 700 BCE.
The Poverty Point culture was followed by the Tchefuncte and Lake Cormorant cultures of the Tchula period, local manifestations of Early Woodland period. The Tchefuncte culture were the first people in Louisiana to make large amounts of pottery.[33] These cultures lasted until 200 CE. The Middle Woodland period starts in Louisiana with the Marksville culture in the southern and eastern part of the state[34] and the Fourche Maline culture in the northwestern part of the state. The Marksville culture takes its name from the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. These cultures were contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures of Ohio and Illinois, and participated in the Hopewell Exchange Network. Trade with peoples to the southwest brought the bow and arrow[35] The first burial mounds were built at this time.[36] Political power begins to be consolidated as the first platform mounds at ritual centers are constructed for the developing hereditary political and religious leadership.[36]
By 400 CE in the southern part of the state the Late Woodland period had begun with the Baytown culture. Population increased dramatically and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity. Many Coles Creek sites were erected over earlier Woodland period mortuary mounds. Scholars have speculated that emerging elites were symbolically and physically appropriating dead ancestors to emphasize and project their own authority.[37]
The Mississippian period in Louisiana was when Plaquemine and the Caddoan Mississippian cultures developed and extensive maize agriculture was adopted. The Plaquemine culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana began in 1200 CE and continued to about 1400 CE. Good examples of this culture are the Medora Site in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, and the Emerald Mound, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites in Mississippi.[38]
Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture represented by the primary settlement, the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. This group is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples.[39]
By 1000 CE in the northwestern part of the state, the Fourche Maline culture had evolved into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. The Caddoan Mississippians covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeast Texas, and northwest Louisiana. Archeological evidence has demonstrated that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present. The Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact were the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma of today.[40]
Many current place names in the state, including Atchafalaya, Natchitouches (now spelled Natchitoches), Caddo, Houma, Tangipahoa, and Avoyel (as Avoyelles), are transliterations of those used in various Native American languages.
Exploration and colonization by Europeans[edit]
The first European explorers to visit Louisiana came in 1528 when a Spanish expedition led by Panfilo de Narváez located the mouth of the Mississippi River. In 1542, Hernando de Soto's expedition skirted to the north and west of the state (encountering Caddo and Tunica groups) and then followed the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico in 1543. Then Spanish interest in Louisiana lay dormant. In the late 17th century, French and French Canadian expeditions, which included sovereign, religious and commercial aims, established a foothold on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast. With its first settlements, France lay claim to a vast region of North America and set out to establish a commercial empire and French nation stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada.
In 1682, the French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle named the region Louisiana to honor France's King Louis XIV. The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (at what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi, near Biloxi), was founded by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, a French military officer from Canada, in 1699. By then the French had also built a small fort at the mouth of the Mississippi at a settlement they named La Balise (or La Balize), "seamark" in French. By 1721 they built a 62-foot (19 m) wooden lighthouse-type structure to guide ships on the river.[41]
The French colony of Louisiana originally claimed all the land on both sides of the Mississippi River and north to French territory in Canada. The following States were part of Louisiana: Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota.
The settlement of Natchitoches (along the Red River in present-day northwest Louisiana) was established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the Louisiana Purchase territory. The French settlement had two purposes: to establish trade with the Spanish in Texas, and to deter Spanish advances into Louisiana. Also, the northern terminus of the Old San Antonio Road was at Natchitoches. The settlement soon became a flourishing river port and crossroads, giving rise to vast cotton kingdoms along the river. Over time, planters developed large plantations and built fine homes in a growing town. This became a pattern repeated in New Orleans and other places.
Louisiana's French settlements contributed to further exploration and outposts, concentrated along the banks of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, from Louisiana to as far north as the region called the Illinois Country, around present-day St. Louis, Missouri. See also: French colonization of the Americas
Initially Mobile, Alabama, and Biloxi, Mississippi, functioned as the capital of the colony. Recognizing the importance of the Mississippi River to trade and military interests, France made New Orleans the seat of civilian and military authority in 1722. From then until the United States acquired the territory in the Louisiana Purchase on December 20, 1803, France and Spain traded control of the region's colonial empire.
In the 1720s, German immigrants settled along the Mississippi River in a region referred to as the German Coast.
France ceded most of its territory to the east of the Mississippi to Great Britain in the aftermath of Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War or French and Indian War, as it is known in North America. It retained the area around New Orleans and the parishes around Lake Pontchartrain. The rest of Louisiana became a colony of Spain after the Seven Years' War by the Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1763.
In 1765, during the period of Spanish rule, several thousand French-speaking refugees from the region of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, Canada) made their way to Louisiana after having been expelled from their homelands by the British during the French and Indian War. They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana. The Spanish, eager to gain more Catholic settlers, welcomed the Acadian refugees. Cajuns descend from these Acadian refugees.
Spanish Canary Islanders, called Isleños, emigrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown between 1778 and 1783.
In 1800, France's Napoleon Bonaparte reacquired Louisiana from Spain in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, an arrangement kept secret for two years.
Expansion of slavery[edit]
In 1709, French financier Antoine Crozat obtained a monopoly of commerce in the French dominion of Louisiana that extended from the Gulf of Mexico to what is now Illinois. "That concession allowed him to bring in a cargo of blacks from Africa every year," the British historian Hugh Thomas wrote.[42] Conditions were so harsh there were high mortality rates for colonists and slaves alike; the colony continued to import slaves.
The last Spanish governor of the Louisiana territory wrote that "Truly, it is impossible for lower Louisiana to get along without slaves" and with the use of slaves, the colony had been "making great strides toward prosperity and wealth."[43] When the United States made the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, it was soon accepted that enslaved Africans could be brought there as easily as they were brought to neighboring Mississippi, though it violated U.S. law to do so.[43] Despite demands by United States Rep. James Hillhouse and by the pamphleteer Thomas Paine to enforce existing federal law against slavery in the newly acquired territory,[43] slavery prevailed because it was the source of great profits and the lowest-cost labor.
Though Louisiana was, at the start of the 19th century, a small producer of sugar with a relatively small number of slaves, it soon became a big sugar producer. Forced slave labor was needed, said William C. C. Claiborne, Louisiana's first United States governor, because unforced white laborers "cannot be had in this unhealthy climate."[44] Hugh Thomas wrote that Claiborne was unable to enforce the abolition of trafficking in human beings where he was charged with doing so in Louisiana. As the Deep South was developed in the nineteenth century, many planters purchased slaves from the Upper South. Traders brought slaves to New Orleans for domestic sale; by 1840 New Orleans was the largest slave market in the country, the third largest city and one of the wealthiest.
The United States adapted Louisiana law by adding parts of US or southern state laws. Louisiana Black Code of 1806 made the cruel punishment of slaves a crime.[45]
Haitian migration and influence[edit]
Pierre Clément de Laussat (Governor of Louisiana, 1803): "Saint-Domingue was, of all our colonies in the Antilles, the one whose mentality and customs influenced Louisiana the most."[46]
Spanish control of Louisiana lasted from 1763 to 1800. In 1801, after Spain returned Louisiana to the French, the first successful slave revolt in history started, which would lead eventually to the founding of Haiti.[47]
Purchase by the United States[edit]
When the United States won its independence from Great Britain in 1783, one of its major concerns was having a European power on its western boundary, and the need for unrestricted access to the Mississippi River. As American settlers pushed west, they found that the Appalachian Mountains provided a barrier to shipping goods eastward. The easiest way to ship produce was to use a flatboat to float it down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to the port of New Orleans, from whence goods could be put on ocean-going vessels. The problem with this route was that the Spanish owned both sides of the Mississippi below Natchez. Napoleon's ambitions in Louisiana involved the creation of a new empire centered on the Caribbean sugar trade. By the terms of the Treaty of Amiens of 1800, Great Britain returned ownership of the islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe to the French. Napoleon looked upon Louisiana as a depot for these sugar islands, and as a buffer to U.S. settlement. In October 1801 he sent a large military force to conquer the important island of Santo Domingo and re-introduced slavery, which had been abolished in St. Domingue following a slave revolt there in 1792-3, and the legal and constitutional abolition of slavery in French colonies in 1794.
When the army led by Napoleon's brother-in-law Leclerc was defeated by the forces opposed to the re-enslavement of most of the population of St. Domingue, Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana.
Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States, was disturbed by Napoleon's plans to re-establish French colonies in America. With the possession of New Orleans, Napoleon could close the Mississippi to U.S. commerce at any time. Jefferson authorized Robert R. Livingston, U.S. Minister to France, to negotiate for the purchase of the City of New Orleans, portions of the east bank of the Mississippi, and free navigation of the river for U.S. commerce. Livingston was authorized to pay up to $2 million.
An official transfer of Louisiana to French ownership had not yet taken place, and Napoleon's deal with the Spanish was a poorly kept secret on the frontier. On October 18, 1802, however, Juan Ventura Morales, Acting Intendant of Louisiana, made public the intention of Spain to revoke the right of deposit at New Orleans for all cargo from the United States. The closure of this vital port to the United States caused anger and consternation. Commerce in the west was virtually blockaded. Historians believe that the revocation of the right of deposit was prompted by abuses by the Americans, particularly smuggling, and not by French intrigues as was believed at the time. President Jefferson ignored public pressure for war with France, and appointed James Monroe a special envoy to Napoleon, to assist in obtaining New Orleans for the United States. Jefferson also raised the authorized expenditure to $10 million.
However, on April 11, 1803, French Foreign Minister Talleyrand surprised Livingston by asking how much the United States was prepared to pay for the entirety of Louisiana, not just New Orleans and the surrounding area (as Livingston's instructions covered). Monroe agreed with Livingston that Napoleon might withdraw this offer at any time (leaving them with no ability to obtain the desired New Orleans area), and that approval from President Jefferson might take months, so Livingston and Monroe decided to open negotiations immediately. By April 30, they closed a deal for the purchase of the entire Louisiana territory of 828,000 square miles (2,100,000 km2) for 60 million Francs (approximately $15 million). Part of this sum was used to forgive debts owed by France to the United States. The payment was made in United States bonds, which Napoleon sold at face value to the Dutch firm of Hope and Company, and the British banking house of Baring, at a discount of 87½ per each $100 unit. As a result, France received only $8,831,250 in cash for Louisiana. Dutiful English banker Alexander Baring conferred with Marbois in Paris, shuttled to the United States to pick up the bonds, took them to Britain, and returned to France with the money – which Napoleon used to wage war against Baring's own country.
When news of the purchase reached the United States, Jefferson was surprised. He had authorized the expenditure of $10 million for a port city, and instead received treaties committing the government to spend $15 million on a land package which would double the size of the country. Jefferson's political opponents in the Federalist Party argued that the Louisiana purchase was a worthless desert,[citation needed] and that the Constitution did not provide for the acquisition of new land or negotiating treaties without the consent of the Senate. What really worried the opposition was the new states which would inevitably be carved from the Louisiana territory, strengthening Western and Southern interests in Congress, and further reducing the influence of New England Federalists in national affairs. President Jefferson was an enthusiastic supporter of westward expansion, and held firm in his support for the treaty. Despite Federalist objections, the U.S. Senate ratified the Louisiana treaty on October 20, 1803.
A transfer ceremony was held in New Orleans on November 29, 1803. Since the Louisiana territory had never officially been turned over to the French, the Spanish took down their flag, and the French raised theirs. The following day, General James Wilkinson accepted possession of New Orleans for the United States. A similar ceremony was held in St. Louis on March 9, 1804, when a French tricolor was raised near the river, replacing the Spanish national flag. The following day, Captain Amos Stoddard of the First U.S. Artillery marched his troops into town and had the American flag run up the fort's flagpole. The Louisiana territory was officially transferred to the United States government, represented by Meriwether Lewis.
The Louisiana Territory, purchased for less than 3 cents an acre, doubled the size of the United States overnight, without a war or the loss of a single American life, and set a precedent for the purchase of territory. It opened the way for the eventual expansion of the United States across the continent to the Pacific.
Historical populations | |||
Census | Pop. | %± | |
1810 | 76,556 |
1820 | 153,407 | 100.4% | |
1830 | 215,739 | 40.6% | |
1840 | 352,411 | 63.4% | |
1850 | 517,762 | 46.9% | |
1860 | 708,002 | 36.7% | |
1870 | 726,915 | 2.7% | |
1880 | 939,946 | 29.3% | |
1890 | 1,118,588 | 19.0% | |
1900 | 1,381,625 | 23.5% | |
1910 | 1,656,388 | 19.9% | |
1920 | 1,798,509 | 8.6% | |
1930 | 2,101,593 | 16.9% | |
1940 | 2,363,516 | 12.5% | |
1950 | 2,683,516 | 13.5% | |
1960 | 3,257,022 | 21.4% | |
1970 | 3,641,306 | 11.8% | |
1980 | 4,205,900 | 15.5% | |
1990 | 4,219,973 | 0.3% | |
2000 | 4,468,976 | 5.9% | |
2010 | 4,533,372 | 1.4% | |
Est. 2012 | 4,601,893 | 1.5% | |
Source: 1910-2010[49] |
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Louisiana was 4,601,893 on July 1, 2012, a 1.5% increase since the 2010 United States Census.[4] The population density of the state is 104.9 people per square mile.[50]
The center of population of Louisiana is located in Pointe Coupee Parish, in the city of New Roads.[51]
According to the 2010 United States Census, 3.5% of the population aged 5 and older speak Spanish at home, and 3.4% speak French (including Cajun and Louisiana Creole).[52]
Racial and ancestral makeup[edit]
According to the 2010 US census, the population of Louisiana was:[53]
- White Americans – 62.6% (60.3% non-Hispanic white, 2.3% White Hispanic)
- Black or African American – 32.0%
- Asian – 1.5% (0.6% Vietnamese, 0.2% Chinese, 0.2% Indian, 0.1% Korean, 0.1% Filipino)
- Native American – 0.7%
- Multiracial American – 1.6%
- some other race - 1.6%
The major ancestry groups of Louisiana are African American (32.0%), French (16.8%), American (9.5%), German (8.3%), Irish (7.5%), English (6.6%), and Italian (4.8%).[54] Hispanic or Latino (of any race) made up 4.2% of the population.
As of 2011, 49.0% of Louisiana's population younger than age 1 were minorities(note: children born to white hispanics are counted as minority group).[55]
By race | White | Black | AIAN* | Asian | NHPI* |
2000 (total population) | 65.39% | 32.94% | 0.96% | 1.45% | 0.07% |
2000 (Hispanic only) | 2.09% | 0.28% | 0.06% | 0.03% | 0.01% |
2005 (total population) | 64.77% | 33.47% | 0.97% | 1.60% | 0.07% |
2005 (Hispanic only) | 2.52% | 0.27% | 0.06% | 0.03% | 0.01% |
Growth 2000–05 (total population) | 0.26% | 2.86% | 2.26% | 11.98% | 2.25% |
Growth 2000–05 (non-Hispanic only) | -0.47% | 2.89% | 2.47% | 12.11% | 3.93% |
Growth 2000–05 (Hispanic only) | 22.23% | -1.03% | -0.78% | 6.41% | -5.82% |
* AIAN is American Indian or Alaskan Native; NHPI is Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander |
The total gross state product in 2010 for Louisiana was US$213.6 billion, placing it 24th in the nation. Its per capita personal income is $30,952, ranking 41st in the United States.[56][57]
The state's principal agricultural products include seafood (it is the biggest producer of crawfish in the world, supplying approximately 90%), cotton, soybeans, cattle, sugarcane, poultry and eggs, dairy products, and rice. The seafood industry directly supports an estimated 16,000 jobs.[58] Industry generates chemical products, petroleum and coal products, processed foods and transportation equipment, and paper products. Tourism is an important element in the economy, especially in the New Orleans area.
The Port of South Louisiana, located on the Mississippi between New Orleans and Baton Rouge, is the largest volume shipping port in the Western Hemisphere and 4th largest in the world, as well as the largest bulk cargo port in the world.[59]
New Orleans, Shreveport, and Baton Rouge are home to a thriving film industry.[60] State financial incentives since 2002 and aggressive promotion have given Louisiana the nickname "Hollywood South". Because of its distinctive culture within the United States, only Alaska is Louisiana's rival in popularity as a setting for reality television programs.[61] In late 2007 and early 2008, a 300,000-square-foot (28,000 m2) film studio was scheduled to open in Tremé, with state-of-the-art production facilities, and a film training institute.[62] Tabasco sauce, which is marketed by one of the United States' biggest producers of hot sauce, the McIlhenny Company, originated on Avery Island.[63]
Louisiana has three personal income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6%. The sales tax rate is 4%: a 3.97% Louisiana sales tax and a .03% Louisiana Tourism Promotion District sales tax. Political subdivisions also levy their own sales tax in addition to the state fees. The state also has a use tax, which includes 4% to be distributed by the Department of Revenue to local governments. Property taxes are assessed and collected at the local level. Louisiana is a subsidized state, receiving $1.44 from the federal government for every dollar paid in.
Tourism and culture are major players in Louisiana's economy, earning an estimated $5.2 billion per year.[64] Louisiana also hosts many important cultural events, such as the World Cultural Economic Forum, which is held annually in the fall at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center.[65]
As of January 2010, the state's unemployment rate was 7.4%.[66] An African American is three times as likely as a white person to be unemployed in Louisiana.[67]
Federal subsidies and spending[edit]
Louisiana taxpayers receive more federal funding per dollar of federal taxes paid compared to the average state. Per dollar of federal tax collected in 2005, Louisiana citizens received approximately $1.78 in the way of federal spending. This ranks the state 4th highest nationally and represents a rise from 1995 when Louisiana received $1.35 per dollar of taxes in federal spending (ranked 7th nationally). Neighboring states and the amount of federal spending received per dollar of federal tax collected were: Texas ($0.94), Arkansas ($1.41), and Mississippi ($2.02). Federal spending in 2005 and subsequent years since has been exceptionally high due to the recovery from Hurricane Katrina. Tax Foundation.
Louisiana is rich in petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum and gas deposits are found in abundance both onshore and offshore in State-owned waters. In addition, vast petroleum and natural gas reserves are found offshore from Louisiana in the federally administered Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) in the Gulf of Mexico. According to the Energy Information Administration, the Gulf of Mexico OCS is the largest U.S. petroleum-producing region. Excluding the Gulf of Mexico OCS, Louisiana ranks fourth in petroleum production and is home to about 2 percent of total U.S. petroleum reserves. One third of the oil produced in the United States comes from offshore, and 80% of offshore production comes from deep water off Louisiana. The oil industry employs about 58,000 Louisiana residents and has created another 260,000 oil-related jobs, accounting for about 17% of all Louisiana jobs.[68]
Louisiana's natural gas reserves account for about 5 percent of the U.S. total. The recent discovery of the Haynesville Shale formation in parts of or all of Caddo, Bossier, Bienville, Sabine, De Soto, Red River, Sabine, and Natchitoches parishes have made it the world's fourth largest gas field with some wells initially producing over 25 million cubic feet of gas daily.[69] Louisiana was the first site of petroleum drilling over water in the world, on Caddo Lake in the northwest corner of the state. The petroleum and gas industry, as well as its subsidiary industries such as transport and refining, have dominated Louisiana's economy since the 1940s. Beginning in 1950, Louisiana was sued several times by the U.S. Interior Department, in efforts by the federal government to strip Louisiana of its submerged land property rights. These control vast stores of reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas.
When petroleum and gas boomed in the 1970s, so did Louisiana's economy. The Louisiana economy as well as its politics of the last half-century cannot be understood without thoroughly accounting for the influence of the petroleum and gas industries. Since the 1980s, these industries' headquarters have consolidated in Houston, but many of the jobs that operate or provide logistical support to the U.S. Gulf of Mexico crude-oil-and-gas industry remained in Louisiana as of 2010[update].
Law and government[edit]
In 1849, the state moved the capital from New Orleans to Baton Rouge. Donaldsonville, Opelousas, and Shreveport have briefly served as the seat of Louisiana state government. The Louisiana State Capitol and the Louisiana Governor's Mansion are both located in Baton Rouge.
The current Louisiana governor is Bobby Jindal, the first Indian American to be elected governor. The current U.S. senators are Mary Landrieu (Democrat) and David Vitter (Republican). Louisiana has six congressional districts and is represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by five Republicans and one Democrat. Louisiana had eight votes in the Electoral College for the 2012 election after losing one House seat due to stagnant population growth in the 2010 Census.
Civil law[edit]
The Louisiana political and legal structure has maintained several elements from the times of French and Spanish governance. One is the use of the term "parish" (from the French: paroisse) in place of "county" for administrative subdivision. Another is the legal system of civil law based on French, German and Spanish legal codes and ultimately Roman law—as opposed to English common law. Common law is "judge-made" law based on precedent, and is the basis of statutes in all other U.S. states. Louisiana's type of civil law system is what the majority of nations in the world use, especially in Europe and its former colonies, excluding those that derive from the British Empire. However, it is incorrect to equate the Louisiana Civil Code with the Napoleonic Code. Although the Napoleonic Code and Louisiana law draw from common legal roots, it was never in force in Louisiana, as it was enacted in 1804, after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. While the Louisiana Civil Code of 1808 has been continuously revised and updated since its enactment, it is still considered the controlling authority in the state. Differences still exist between Louisianan civil law and the common law found in the other U.S. states. While some of these differences have been bridged due to the strong influence of common law tradition,[70][dead link] it is important to note that the "civilian" tradition is still deeply rooted in most aspects of Louisiana private law. Thus property, contractual, business entities structure, much of civil procedure, and family law, as well as some aspects of criminal law, are still mostly based on traditional Roman legal thinking. Model Codes, such as the Uniform Commercial Code, which are adopted by most states within the union including Louisiana, are based on civilian thought, the essence being that it is deductive, as opposed to the common law which is inductive. In the civilian tradition the legislative body agrees a priori on the general principles to be followed. When a set of facts are brought before a judge, he deduces the court's ruling by comparing the facts of the individual case to the law.
In 1997, Louisiana became the first state to offer the option of a traditional marriage or a covenant marriage.[71] In a covenant marriage, the couple waives their right to a "no-fault" divorce after six months of separation, which is available in a traditional marriage. To divorce under a covenant marriage, a couple must demonstrate cause. Marriages between ascendants and descendants and marriages between collaterals within the fourth degree (i.e., siblings, aunt and nephew, uncle and niece, first cousins) are prohibited.[72] Same-sex marriages are prohibited.[73] Louisiana is a community property state.[74]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (April 2011) |
From 1898–1965, after Louisiana had effectively disfranchised African Americans and poor whites by provisions of a new constitution, it essentially was a one-party state dominated by elite white Democrats. The franchise for whites was expanded somewhat during the decades, but blacks remained essentially disfranchised until the Civil Rights Movement, culminating in passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In multiple acts of resistance, blacks left the segregation, violence and oppression of the state to seek better opportunities in northern and western industrial cities during the Great Migrations of 1910–1970, markedly reducing their proportion of population in Louisiana. Since the 1960s, when civil rights legislation was passed under President Lyndon Johnson to protect voting and civil rights, most African Americans in the state have affiliated with the Democratic Party. In the same years, many white conservatives have moved to support Republican Party candidates in national and gubernatorial elections. David Vitter is the first Republican in Louisiana to be popularly elected as a U.S. Senator. The previous Republican Senator, John S. Harris, who took office in 1868, was chosen by the state legislature.
Louisiana is unique among U.S. states in using a system for its state and local elections similar to that of modern France. All candidates, regardless of party affiliation, ran in a nonpartisan blanket primary (or "jungle primary") on Election Day. If no candidate had more than 50% of the vote, the two candidates with the highest vote total competed in a runoff election approximately one month later. This run-off did not take into account party identification; therefore, it was not uncommon for a Democrat to be in a runoff with a fellow Democrat or a Republican to be in a runoff with a fellow Republican. Congressional races have also been held under the jungle primary system. All other states (except Washington) use single-party primaries followed by a general election between party candidates, each conducted by either a plurality voting system or runoff voting, to elect Senators, Representatives, and statewide officials. Between 2008 and 2010, federal congressional elections were run under a closed primary system — limited to registered party members. However, upon the passage of House Bill 292, Louisiana once again adopted a nonpartisan blanket primary for its federal congressional elections.
Louisiana has six seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, five of which are currently held by Republicans and one by a Democrat. The state lost a House seat at the end of the 112th Congress due to stagnant population growth enumerated by the 2010 United States Census. Louisiana is not classified as a "swing state" for future presidential elections, as it regularly supports Republican candidates. The two Senators are Mary Landrieu (D) and David Vitter (R).
Law enforcement[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2008) |
Louisiana's statewide police force is the Louisiana State Police. It began in 1922 from the creation of the Highway Commission. In 1927 a second branch, the Bureau of Criminal Investigations, was formed. In 1932 the State Highway Patrol was authorized to carry weapons.
On July 28, 1936 the two branches were consolidated to form The Louisiana Department of State Police and its motto became "courtesy, loyalty, service". In 1942 this office was abolished and became a division of the Department of Public Safety called the Louisiana State Police. In 1988 the Criminal Investigation Bureau was reorganized.[75] Its troopers have statewide jurisdiction with power to enforce all laws of the state, including city and parish ordinances. Each year, they patrol over 12 million miles (20 million km) of roadway and arrest about 10,000 impaired drivers. The State Police are primarily a traffic enforcement agency, with other sections that delve into trucking safety, narcotics enforcement and gaming oversight.
The sheriff in each parish is the chief law enforcement officer in the parish. They are the keepers of the local parish prisons which house felony and misdemeanor prisoners. They are the primary criminal patrol and first responder agency in all matters criminal and civil. They are also the official tax collectors in each parish.
The sheriffs are responsible for general law enforcement in their respective parishes. Orleans Parish is an exception, as there the general law enforcement duties fall to the New Orleans Police Department. Prior to 2010, Orleans parish was the only parish to have two (2) Sheriff's Offices. Orleans Parish divided Sheriff's duties between criminal and civil, with a different elected sheriff overseeing each aspect. In 2006 a bill was passed which eventually consolidated the two sheriffs' departments into one parish Sheriff responsible for both civil and criminal matters.
Most parishes are governed by a Police Jury. Eighteen of the 64 parishes are governed under an alternative form of government under a Home Rule Charter. They oversee the parish budget and operate the parish maintenance services. This includes parish road maintenance and other rural services.
Louisiana had the highest murder rate of any state in 2010 (11.2 murders per 100,000) which marked the 22nd consecutive year (1989–2010) that Louisiana has posted the highest per-capita murder rate of any U.S. state. Louisiana is also the only state with an average per capita murder rate (14.5 per 100,000) at least twice as high as the U.S. average (6.9 per 100,000) during that period according to Bureau of Justice Statistics from FBI Uniform Crime Reports. The Chicago Tribune reports that Louisiana is the most corrupt state in the United States.[76]
According the Times Picayune, Louisiana is the prison capital of the world, because of its many for-profit/Sheriff owned prisons. Louisiana's incarceration rate is nearly five times Iran's, 13 times China's and 20 times Germany's.[77]
The judiciary of Louisiana is defined under the Constitution and law of Louisiana and is composed of the Louisiana Supreme Court, the Louisiana Circuit Courts of Appeal, the District Courts, the Justice of the Peace Courts, the Mayor's Courts, the City Courts, and the Parish Courts. The Chief Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court is the chief administrator of the judiciary, and its administration is aided by the Judiciary Commission of Louisiana, the Louisiana Attorney Disciplinary Board, and the Judicial Council of the Supreme Court of Louisiana.
National Guard[edit]
Louisiana has over 9,000 Soldiers in the Louisiana Army National Guard including both the 225th Engineer Brigade and the 256th Infantry Brigade. Both these units have seen overseas service in either Iraq, Afghanistan, or both. The Louisiana Air National Guard has over 2,000 airmen and its 159th Fighter Squadron has likewise seen overseas service in combat theaters. Training sites include Camp Beauregard near Pineville, LA, Camp Villerie near Slidell, LA, Camp Minden near Minden, LA, England Air Park (formerly England Air Force Base) near Alexandria, LA, Gillis Long Center near Carville, LA, and Jackson Barracks in New Orleans, LA.
Sports teams[edit]
Louisiana is nominally the least populous state with more than one major professional sports league franchise: the National Basketball Association's New Orleans Pelicans and the National Football League's Super Bowl XLIV Champions New Orleans Saints. Louisiana has a AAA Minor League baseball team, the New Orleans Zephyrs. The Zephyrs are currently affiliated with the Miami Marlins.
Louisiana has 11 collegiate NCAA Division I programs, a high number given its population. The state has no Division II teams and only one Division III team.
The State of Louisiana in 2010 produced the most NFL players per capita for the second year in a row.[78]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (June 2008) |
Louisiana is home to many, especially notable are the distinct culture of the Creoles and Cajuns.
Creole culture is a cultural amalgamation that takes a little from each of the French, Spanish, African, and Native American cultures.[79] The Creole culture is part of White Creoles' and Black Creoles' culture. Originally Créoles referred to native-born whites of French-Spanish descent. Later the term also referred to descendants of the white men's relationships with black women, many of whom were educated free people of color. Many of the wealthy white men had quasi-permanent relationships with women of color outside their marriages, and supported them as "placées". If a woman was enslaved at the beginning of the relationship, the man usually arranged for her manumission, as well as that of any of her children.
Creoles became associated with the New Orleans area, where the elaborated arrangements flourished. Most wealthy planters had houses in town as well as at their plantations. Popular belief that a Creole is a mixed Black / French person came from the "Haitian" connotation of an African French person. There were many immigrants from Haiti to New Orleans after the Revolution. Although a Black Creole is one type of Creole, it is not the only type, nor the original meaning of Creole. All of the respective cultures of the groups that settled in southern Louisiana have been combined to make one "New Orleans" culture. The creative combination of cultures from these groups, along with Native American culture, was called "Creole" Culture. It has continued as one of the dominant social, economic and political cultures of Louisiana, along with Cajun culture, well into the 20th century.
Cajun Culture. The ancestors of Cajuns came from west central France to the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada, known as Acadia. When the British won the French and Indian War, the British forcibly separated families and evicted them because of their long-stated political neutrality. Most captured Acadians were placed in internment camps in England and the New England colonies for 10 to 30 years. Many of those who escaped the British remained in French Canada. Once freed by England, many scattered, some to France, Canada, Mexico, or the Falkland Islands. The majority found refuge in south Louisiana centered in the region around Lafayette and the LaFourche Bayou country. Until the 1970s, Cajuns were often considered lower-class citizens, with the term "Cajun" being somewhat derogatory. Once flush with oil and gas riches, Cajun culture, food, music, and their infectious "joie de vivre" lifestyle quickly gained international acclaim.
A third distinct culture in Louisiana is that of the Isleños, who are descendants of Spanish Canary Islanders who migrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown beginning in the mid-1770s. They settled in four main settlements, but many relocated to what is modern-day St. Bernard Parish, where the majority of the Isleño population is still concentrated. An annual festival called Fiesta celebrates the heritage of the Isleños. St Bernard Parish has an Isleños museum, cemetery and church, as well as many street names with Spanish words and Spanish surnames from this heritage. Isleño identity is an active concern in the New Orleans suburbs of St. Bernard Parish, LA. Some members of the Isleño community still speak Spanish – with their own Canary Islander accent. Numerous Isleño identity clubs and organizations, and many members of Isleños society keep contact with the Canary Islands of Spain.
Louisiana has a unique linguistic culture, owing to its French and Spanish heritage. According to the 2000 census, among persons five years old and older,[80] 90.8% of Louisiana residents speak only English (99% total speak English) and 4.7% speak French at home (7% total speak French). Other minority languages are Spanish, which is spoken by 2.5% of the population; Vietnamese, by 0.6%; and German, by 0.2%. Although state law recognizes the usage of English and French in certain circumstances, the Louisiana State Constitution does not declare any "de jure official language or languages".[81] Currently the "de facto administrative languages" of the Louisiana State Government are English and French.
There are several unique dialects of French, Creole, and English spoken in Louisiana. There are two unique dialects of the French language: Cajun French (predominant after the Great Upheaval of Acadians from Canada) and Colonial French. For the Creole language, there is Louisiana Creole French. There are also two unique dialects of the English language: Cajun English, a French-influenced variety of English, and what is informally known as Yat, which resembles the New York City dialect, particularly that of historical Brooklyn, as both accents were influenced by large communities of immigrant Irish and Italian, but the Yat dialect was also influenced by French and Spanish.
Colonial French was the predominant language of Louisiana during the French colonial period and was spoken primarily by the white settlers; the black/creole population spoke mostly creole. Cajun French was only introduced in Louisiana after the Great Upheaval of Acadians from Canada during 1710-1763. The Cajun people and culture (hence the Cajun language as well) did not appear immediately but was rather a slow evolution from the original Acadian culture with influences from local cultures. English and its associated dialects became predominant only after the Louisiana Purchase and even then it still retained some French influences as seen with Cajun English. Cajun French and Colonial French have somewhat merged since English took over.
Renewed interest in the French language in Louisiana has led to the establishment of Canadian-modeled French immersion schools as well as bilingual signage in the historic French neighborhoods of New Orleans and Lafayette. Organizations such as CODOFIL promote the French language in the state.
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 1,382,603; Southern Baptist Convention with 868,587; and the United Methodist Church with 160,153.[82]
Like other Southern states, the population of Louisiana is also made up of numerous Protestant denominations, comprising 60% of the state's adult population. Protestants are concentrated in the northern and central parts of the state and in the northern tier of the Florida Parishes. Because of French and Spanish heritage, whose descendants are Cajun and French Creole, and later Irish, Italian, Portuguese and German immigrants, there is a majority Roman Catholic population, particularly in the southern part of the state.[83]
Since French Creoles were the first settlers, planters and leaders of the territory, they have traditionally been well represented in politics. For instance, most of the early governors were French Creole Catholics.[84] Because Catholics constitute a majority of Louisiana's population, Catholics have continued to be influential in state politics. As of 2008[update] both Senators and the Governor were Catholic. The high proportion and influence of the Catholic population makes Louisiana distinct among Southern states.[85]
Current religious affiliations of the people of Louisiana:
- Christian: 90%
- Protestant: 60%
- Evangelical Protestant 31%[86]
- Historically black Protestant: 20%[86]
- Mainline Protestant 9%[86]
- Roman Catholic: 28%[86]
- Other Christian: 2%
- Protestant: 60%
- Other Religions: 2%
- Non-religious (unaffiliated): 8%
Jewish communities exist in the state's larger cities, notably Baton Rouge and New Orleans.[87] The most significant of these is the Jewish community of the New Orleans area, with a pre-Katrina population of about 12,000. The presence of a significant Jewish community well established by the early 20th century also made Louisiana unusual among Southern states, although South Carolina and Virginia also had influential populations in some of their major cities from the 18th and 19th centuries. Prominent Jews in Louisiana's political leadership have included Whig (later Democrat) Judah P. Benjamin (1811–1884), who represented Louisiana in the U.S. Senate prior to the American Civil War and then became the Confederate Secretary of State; Democrat Adolph Meyer (1842–1908), Confederate Army officer who represented the state in the U.S. House from 1891 until his death in 1908; Republican Secretary of State Jay Dardenne (1954–), and Republican (Democrat prior to 2011) Attorney General Buddy Caldwell (1946–).
See also[edit]
- Outline of Louisiana – organized list of topics about Louisiana
- Index of Louisiana-related articles
- ^ New Orleans a 'ghost town' after thousands flee Gustav: mayor August 31, 2008.
- ^ "Expert: N.O. population at 273,000". WWL-TV. August 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-14.
- ^ "Relocation". Connecting U.S. Cities. May 3, 2007.
- ^ a b "Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012" (CSV). 2012 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. December 2012. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
- ^ a b "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
- ^ a b Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
- ^ a b c d e f Keddy, Paul A. (2008). Water, Earth, Fire: Louisiana's Natural Heritage. Philadelphia: Xlibris. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-4363-6234-4.
- ^ Alexander B. Murphy, "Placing Louisiana in the Francophone World: Opportunities and Challenges", first published in Atlantic Studies, Volume 5, Issue 3, 2008; Special Issue: New Orleans in the Atlantic World, II, p. 11, accessed 7 April 2013
- ^ Baker, Lea Flowers. "Louisiana Purchase". Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture. Retrieved 2010-09-18.
- ^ Spearing, D. (1995). Roadside Geology of Louisiana. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, MT. 225 pp. 5-19
- ^ Coleman, J. M., Roberts, H. H., and Stone, G. W. (1998). "Mississippi River Delta: an overview", Journal of Coastal Research, 14, 698–716.
- ^ Holland, W.C. 1944. "Physiographic divisions of the Quarternary lowlands of Louisiana", Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Sciences VIII: 10-24.
- ^ Kniffen, F.B. and Hilliard, S.B. 1988. Louisiana: Its Land and People. Revised edition. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge. p. 66-68.
- ^ Spearing (1995), Roadside Geology]], pp. 19-30
- ^ Rivet, Ryan (Summer 2008). "Petroleum Dynamite". Tulanian (Tulane University): 20–27. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
- ^ Keddy, Paul (2010). Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-51940-3.
- ^ Boesch, D. F., Josselyn, M. N., Mehta, A. J., Morris, J. T., Nuttle, W. K., Simenstad, C. A., and Swift, D. P. J. (1994). "Scientific assessment of coastal wetland loss, restoration and management in Louisiana", Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 20.
- ^ Tidwell, Michael. Bayou Farewell: The Rich Life and Tragic Death of Louisiana's Cajun Coast. Vintage Departures: New York, 2003 ISBN 978-0-375-42076-4.
- ^ NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006.
- ^ Hurricane Gustav makes landfall, weakens to Category 1 storm Fox News, September 2, 2008.
- ^ Mandatory evacuations to begin Sunday morning in New Orleans CNN, August 31, 2008.
- ^ "Sixteen deaths connected to Gustav". KTBS. Associated Press. 2008-09-03. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Rowland, Michael (2008-09-02). "Louisiana cleans up after Gustav". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Stewart, Stacy (August 23, 2005). "Tropical Depression Twelve, Discussion No. 1, 5:00 p.m. EDT". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
- ^ Native Americans from the Handbook of Texas Online
- ^ Florida Greenways Commission. 1994. Report to the Governor. Creating a statewide greenways system: For people ... for wildlife ... for Florida. Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, FL.
- ^ Lester, G. D., S.G. Sorensen, P. L. Faulkner, C. S. Reid and I. E. Maxit. 2005. Louisiana Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Baton Rouge, LA
- ^ S. Spacek, 2011 American State Litter Scorecard: New Rankings for an Increasingly Environmentally Concerned Populace.
- ^ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
- ^ Amélie A. Walker, "Earliest Mound Site", Archaeology Magazine, Volume 51 Number 1, January/February 1998
- ^ Robert W. Preucel, Stephen A. Mrozowski, Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism, John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 177
- ^ Jon L. Gibson, PhD, "Poverty Point: The First Complex Mississippi Culture", 2001, Delta Blues, accessed 26 October 2009
- ^ "The Tchefuncte Site Summary". Retrieved 2009-06-01.[dead link]
- ^ "Louisiana Prehistory-Marksville, Troyville-Coles Creek, and Caddo". Retrieved 2010-02-04.[dead link]
- ^ "OAS-Oklahomas Past". Retrieved 2010-02-06.
- ^ a b "Tejas-Caddo Ancestors-Woodland Cultures". Retrieved 2010-02-06.
- ^ Kidder, Tristram (1998). R. Barry Lewis, Charles Stout, ed. Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0947-0.
- ^ "Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period". Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ "The Plaquemine Culture, A.D 1000". Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ "Tejas-Caddo Fundamentals-Caddoan Languages and Peoples". Retrieved 2010-02-04.
- ^ David Roth, "Louisiana Hurricane History: 18th century (1722–1800)", Tropical Weather – National Weather Service – Lake Charles, LA, 2003, accessed May 7, 2008[dead link]
- ^ The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 by Hugh Thomas. 1997: Simon and Schuster. p. 242-43
- ^ a b c Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870, Simon and Schuster, 1997, p. 548.
- ^ The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 by Hugh Thomas. 1997: Simon and Schuster. p. 549.
- ^ "The law of slavery > Master-slave legal relationships". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Sieur de Bienville accessed 22 July 2012
- ^ "The Slave Rebellion of 1791". Library of Congress Country Studies.
- ^ Saving New Orleans, Smithsonian magazine, August 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
- ^ Resident Population Data. "Resident Population Data - 2010 Census". 2010.census.gov. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
- ^ 2010 Census Data. "2010 Census Data - 2010 Census". 2010.census.gov. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
- ^ "Population and Population Centers by State – 2000". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&prodType=table
- ^ http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22000.html
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP02&prodType=table
- ^ Exner, Rich (June 3, 2012). "Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot". The Plain Dealer.
- ^ US Government Revenue
- ^ "Katrina Effect: LA Tops Nation in Income Growth". 2theadvocate.com. 2007.
- ^ "Louisiana's already-declining seafood industry could be wiped out". MiamiHerald.com. May 15, 2010.
- ^ [1] linked from [2], accessed September 28, 2006
- ^ Troeh, Eve (1 February 2007). "Louisiana to be Southern Filmmaking Capital?". VOA News (Voice of America). Retrieved 25 December 2008.
- ^ Robertson, Campbell (2013-05-16). "Seeking Fame in the Bayou? Get Real". The New York Times. pp. A13. Retrieved 2013-05-16.
- ^ New Jersey Local Jobs – NJ.com
- ^ Shevory, Kristina. "The Fiery Family," New York Times, March 31, 2007, p. B1.
- ^ Economy
- ^ World Culture Economic Forum
- ^ Bls.gov; Local Area Unemployment Statistics
- ^ "State Unemployment Trends by Race, Ethnicity and Gender" (PDF).
- ^ "Despite BP oil spill, Louisiana still loves Big Oil". CSMonitor.com. May 24, 2010.
- ^ "EIA State Energy Profiles: Louisiana". 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
- ^ Kinsella, Norman (1997). "A Civil Law to Common Law Dictionary" (PDF). KinsellaLaw.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-12. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
- ^ "Covenant Marriage - Pros and Cons". Marriage.about.com. 2012-01-01. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
- ^ http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=111053
- ^ http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=111041
- ^ http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=109401
- ^ Retrieved 2009-10-30.
- ^ Witt, Howard (March 27, 2009). "Most corrupt state: Louisiana ranked higher than Illinois". Chicago Tribune.
- ^ Louisiana is the world's prison capital
- ^ Woodland Hills High School in Pittsburgh has most NFL players; California leads states; Houston leads hometowns
- ^ French Creole Heritage
- ^ Statistics of languages spoken in Louisiana [3] Retrieved on June 18, 2008.
- ^ Louisiana State Constitution of 1974 [4] Retrieved on June 18, 2008.
- ^ "The Association of Religion Data Archives | Maps & Reports". Thearda.com. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
- ^ For Louisiana's position in a larger religious context, see Bible Belt.
- ^ "Louisiana". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
- ^ Other Southern states—such as Maryland and Texas—have longstanding indigenous Catholic populations, and Florida's largely Catholic population of Cuban emigres has been influential since the 1960s. Yet, Louisiana is still unusual or exceptional in its extent of aboriginal Catholic settlement and influence. Among states in the Deep South (discounting Florida's Panhandle and much of Texas) the historic role of Catholicism in Louisiana is unparalleled and unique. Among the states of the Union, Louisiana's unique use of the term parish (French la parouche or "la paroisse") for county is rooted in the pre-statehood role of Catholic church parishes in the administration of government.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life
- ^ Isaacs, Ronald H. The Jewish Information Source Book: A Dictionary and Almanac, Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1993. p. 202.
- The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slaves in Louisiana's Cane World, 1820–1860 by Richard Follett Louisiana State University Press 2007. ISBN 978-0-8071-3247-0
- The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 by Hugh Thomas. 1997: Simon and Schuster. p. 548.
- Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World by David Brion Davis 2006: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533944-4
- Yiannopoulos, A.N., The Civil Codes of Louisiana (reprinted from Civil Law System: Louisiana and Comparative law, A Coursebook: Texts, Cases and Materials, 3d Edition; similar to version in preface to Louisiana Civil Code, ed. by Yiannopoulos)
- Rodolfo Batiza, The Louisiana Civil Code of 1808: Its Actual Sources and Present Relevance, 46 TUL. L. REV. 4 (1971); Rodolfo Batiza, Sources of the Civil Code of 1808, Facts and Speculation: A Rejoinder, 46 TUL. L. REV. 628 (1972); Robert A. Pascal, Sources of the Digest of 1808: A Reply to Professor Batiza, 46 TUL. L. REV. 603 (1972); Joseph M. Sweeney, Tournament of Scholars Over the Sources of the Civil Code of 1808,46 TUL. L. REV. 585 (1972).
- The standard history of the state, though only through the Civil War, is Charles Gayarré's History of Louisiana (various editions, culminating in 1866, 4 vols., with a posthumous and further expanded edition in 1885).
- A number of accounts by 17th and 18th century French explorers: Jean-Bernard Bossu, François-Marie Perrin du Lac, Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Dumont (as published by Fr. Mascrier), Fr. Louis Hennepin, Lahontan, Louis Narcisse Baudry des Lozières, Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, and Laval. In this group, the explorer Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz may be the first historian of Louisiana with his Histoire de la Louisiane (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols., London, 1763)
- François Xavier Martin's History of Louisiana (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827–1829, later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882) is the first scholarly treatment of the subject, along with François Barbé-Marbois' Histoire de la Louisiane et de la cession de colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis (Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830).
- Alcée Fortier's A History of Louisiana (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) is the most recent of the large-scale scholarly histories of the state.
- The official works of Albert Phelps and Grace King and the publications of the Louisiana Historical Society and several works on the history of New Orleans (q.v.), among them those by Henry Rightor and John Smith Kendall provide background.
External links[edit]
Find more about Louisiana at Wikipedia's sister projects | |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary | |
Media from Commons | |
Learning resources from Wikiversity | |
News stories from Wikinews | |
Quotations from Wikiquote | |
Source texts from Wikisource | |
Textbooks from Wikibooks | |
Travel information from Wikivoyage |
- Louisiana at the Open Directory Project
- Louisiana Geographic Information Center
- Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities
- Louisiana Weather and Tides
- Geology links
- Geology
- Generalized Geologic Map of Louisiana, 2008
- Generalized Geology of Louisiana (text to Generalized Geologic Map of Louisiana)
- Loess Map of Louisiana
- Other Louisiana Geological Maps
- Louisiana Geofacts
- Government
- Official State of Louisiana website
- Louisiana State Databases – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Louisiana state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.
- Census Statistics on Louisiana
- U.S. government
- Energy Profile for Louisiana
- USDA Louisiana Statistical Facts
- USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Louisiana
- 1st district: Steve Scalise – Website
- 2nd district: Cedric Richmond – Website & Campaign Website
- 3rd district: Jeff Landry – Website
- 4th district: John C. Fleming –
- 5th district: Rodney Alexander – Website
- 6th district: Bill Cassidy
- 7th district: Charles Boustany – Website
- News media
- The Times-Picayune major Louisiana newspaper
- WWL-TV Louisiana television station
- Ecoregions
- Soil surveys
- Tourism
- Official site of Louisiana tourism
- Official site of the New Orleans Convention & Tourism Bureau
- Official site of New Orleans Plantation Country tourism
- Geographic data related to Louisiana at OpenStreetMap
Oklahoma | Arkansas | ||
Texas | Mississippi | |||
Gulf of Mexico | Atlantic Ocean |
Preceded by Ohio |
List of U.S. states by date of statehood Admitted on April 30, 1812 (18th) |
Succeeded by Indiana |


text:
Oaker Farm Cottages
Special Offers
- Short breaks: show availability and prices for visits of less than a week.
- If The Old Dairy is full there may be a reduction for just 2 people in Losehill or Winhill Cottages, please ask.
Search availability for Oaker Farm Cottages and book online
Book through Visit Peak District | JUN 22-28 |
29-5 |
13-19 |
20-26 |
27-2 |
Price Per |
X | X | X | X | X | X | £395 | unit | ||
X | X | X | X | X | X | X | unit | ||
X | X | X | X | X | X | X | unit |
Availability updated on 20 Jun 13 at 11:14
Oaker Farm
Lose Hill Lane, off Edale Road
Hope Valley
Contact Details
Tel 01433 621955
We are proud to invite you to Oaker Farm Cottages. The cottages have been lovingly converted from farm barns and a dairy, and nestle at the foot of Lose Hill amidst our own well maintained farmland.
All cottages offer exceptional views across stunning countryside, possibly the most idyllic and peacefully sited cottages in the Peak District, the perfect place to experience the ever changing landscape.
We enjoy a delightfully tranquil and stunning position which is home to abundant wildlife, plants and birds, the perfect place to unwind having left the stresses of everyday life behind.
The area offers a great deal to see and do; climbing, horse riding, sight seeing, bird watching, and excellent walking with many routes straight from the door.
The cottages are owner managed to a very high standard guaranteeing comfort and cleanliness.
We have spent many years making Oaker Farm into what we feel is a little haven, and we know that you will enjoy it as much as we do.
For further details see
Wood burning stoves in Losehill and Winhill Cottages. Children welcome from any age.
see location on Google maps. Map reference: SK 165850 Lat: 53.36161 Long: -1.75352
From Sheffield, take the A625 then A6187 to Hope. In Hope turn right opposite the church on to Edale Road. Pass the Cheshire Cheese Pub and then take a left fork on to a narrow lane in between two cottages. Oaker Farm cottages are at the end of the lane.
Nearest railway station is Hope on the Manchester to Sheffield line.
- Garden
- Private parking
- Dogs/pets NOT accepted
- WiFi or internet access
- Laundry facilities
- Linen provided
- Children welcome
- Cots available
- High chairs available
- Freezer
- Dishwasher
- Microwave cooker
- Washing machine
- Ironing facilities
- Drying facilities
- Hairdryer
- Television
- DVD player
- CD player
- Radio
- Central heating
- Real log/coal fires
Wood burning stoves in Losehill and Winhill Cottages. Children welcome from any age.
Self-assessed accessibility details
- Drop-off point for guests outside entrance
- Surface of the car park and pathway leading to entrance:
- Gravel
- Route from the parking area to the entrance:
- Steps and no ramp
- Steps to the main entrance:
- 2Number of steps to entrance
- Entrance is well lit
- Good contrast between the floor and walls
- Seating available in kitchen
Bed/ Bathrooms
- Bathrooms available with:
- Bath with shower
- Service dogs not accepted:
- Guest information available in large print (14pt and over)

subset: commoncrawl


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There's a whole galaxy of terminology that you should know about when it comes to education technology. From PLNs to Blended Learning to Synchronous Online Learning... it can get overwhelming. Via Gust MEES, Christine Heine, R.Conrath, Ed.D., Juergen Wagner, Dr. Laura Sheneman, Dennis T OConnor, James Funk, Official AndreasCY, Nikos Amanatidis
Patricia Christian's curator insight,
February 3, 8:14 PM
This is a nice visual summary of terms in education technology.
Roberto Ivan Ramirez's curator insight,
May 7, 8:10 PM
Implementos tecnológicos móviles y mezcla de entornos presenciales y virtuales para potencializar el aprendizaje, van a requerir de estrategias eficaces pedagógicas variadas y diversas para cada caso y situación concreta educativa. Delete the scoop?
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Right now you're looking at a website. Okay you're actually looking at a computer which is displaying a website. Stop being so picky. So what actually goes into the creation of a website? Into the actual running of the Internet itself? I'm not talking about the people wfriting the content or designing web pages, etc. I'm talking about the hardware that it takes to keep your favorite sites and LOLcats humming right along on the Internet superhighway. Thanks to an infographic by Broadband Choices, it's now easier to understand the mess system behind each website. Enjoy! Via Gust MEES Delete the scoop?
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All-Delco Boys Soccer Player of the Year: Marple Newtown calls Ryan's number (With Video)
MARPLE — There was a running joke this season within the Marple Newtown camp.
For a team that featured as potent a goal scorer as Tommy Ryan, no one among the Tigers was willing to don the team's No. 10 kit. In soccer communities globally, it's a number reserved for the skilled scorer who finds the back of the net most often.
So why did Ryan pick No. 16 instead? Cue the Miss America-appropriate answer.
"Between all of us, we just decided that no one should wear No. 10," said Ryan, a senior midfielder. "I think we all decided we'd be a team, we'd be equal and that no one was above anyone else."
In the end, Ryan stood above everyone else.
Everyone on his team … and everyone in the county.
Having demonstrated marked improvement from his junior to senior seasons, having developed into Delaware County's most difficult mark, having taken a downtrodden program to its historical apex, Ryan's candidacy for Daily Times' boys soccer Player of the Year became most apparent.
An all-state selection and the runnerup in the Central League's Most Valuable Player voting, Ryan is joined on the 2010 All-Delco team by: goalkeeper Drew Rote (Marple Newtown); defenders Christian Martin (Strath Haven), Nate Arronson (The Haverford School) and Tommy DeJohn (Upper Darby); midfielders Mike Superdock (Radnor), Joe Raymond (Strath Haven), Milton Rico Becerra (Episcopal Academy) and Alex Martyn (Penncrest); and forwards Andrew Miller (Academy Park) and Ryan Myers (Strath Haven).
The All-Delco team is constructed by the Daily Times after consultation with county coaches. Continued...
Only Rico Becerra and Superdock are two-time selections. And Arronson, a junior, is the only All-Delco representative who has a shot to repeat next season.
If not for incurring a season-ending injury, there's a good chance Max Kurtman could have become the Daily Times' first repeat Player of the Year since 2004-05, when Strath Haven's Karl Reddick took top honors in consecutive seasons.
The Haverford School's senior goalkeeper, Kurtzman broke his left kneecap in the Fords' fifth match of the season. A University of Pennsylvania commit, Kurtzman previously has held a spot within the United States national team's U-17 pool.
But this season belonged to Ryan, who evolved into Delaware County's top goal producer, registering 12 goals and 17 assists. Considering that Marple Newtown logged 36 goals this season — and Ryan had a foot on 29 of them — shows Ryan's talent. Typically, he fought through double- and triple-teams to get any touches at all.
But that only represents half of Ryan's development. The other half was internal.
An underclassman with a penchant for hanging his head, Ryan matured into a senior who carried his team emotionally … and carried the Tigers into the District One Class AAA playoffs for the first time in school history.
"Without Tommy, we're a typical Marple team – a lot of coulda, woulda, shoulda," said Marple Newtown coach Charlie Dodds. "Maybe we would've had four, five wins. We had a lot of talent and, without Tommy, we wouldn't have had someone to pull it together.
"He went from an immature soccer player who knew he was good to a mature player who made the rest of the players around him even better. That's why we got where we got."
Despite making playoffs and advancing to the second round, Marple Newtown finished fourth in the Central League standings.
A younger version of Tommy Ryan would have focused on the latter. He had a way of training his sights on the one thing that didn't go his way, rather than the four or five that did. Continued...
Perhaps more important than his athletic progression was Ryan's ability to stay positive this season. Ryan and Dodds held a conversation on this topic more than once in the preseason.
"Mr. Dodds told me this year, 'If we're going to succeed, you have to be a leader,'" Ryan said. "He'd tell me, 'If you get down, the other guys are going to follow your lead — and we can't have that.' So I took it in, accepted it and played my hardest every game."
That he did.
A natural midfielder, Ryan became a threat all over the field — even stepping into the Tigers' central defense when their everyday centerback picked up a foul or two.
It was Ryan's right foot that instilled fear in coaches all over the county. And it was Ryan's right foot that got the Tigers into the second round of the District One playoffs.
The Tigers never had even cracked the bracket prior to this year, let alone won a playoff game.
So when Ryan went right on Neshaminy keeper Austin Brotman Oct. 25, it was his goal in the penalty-kick stage that sent Marple Newtown into the next round of the playoffs.
Ryan remembers it this way.
"I don't even know what happened to me after that goal," Ryan said. "We had more than 100 fans out there and they all stormed the field when we won. I remember getting hit, getting knocked over, getting picked up and pushed and everything.
"It was the highlight of my year." Continued...
Ryan has not decided upon his college destination, having narrowed his choices to either Saint Joseph's or West Chester. No matter where he ends up, Ryan knows he's leaving the Marple Newtown program in a better place than where he found it.
"When we came in, we were lucky to get a couple of wins," he said. "But we all thought, 'Let's get to the playoffs,' so we all started believing in each other. We worked together as a team.
"I don't know where we're leaving the program, but I hope we're leaving it in a place where, come next year, the kids will be ready for the playoffs again."
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Jeff Wolfe has been an avid runner for years, including running cross country in high school and college, though he's not as fast now as he once was. This blog is designed for high school runners, and their coaches and parents in Delaware County.
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Let the good times roll! Kenmore Lanes, a state-of-the-art bowling facility with a warm and fuzzy staff hosts daily open sessions for serious rollers, or for first timers who need gutter guards. For just $20, you and up to five guests will save $34 on an open session. With all that dough saved, why not visit their signature bar and restaurant for some alley grub? Get off the couch and polish your Mama's ball she gave you that's collecting dust in the attic ... it's game time.
Located just minutes from downtown Buffalo, Kenmore Lanes has hosted guests from birthday party goers to gaggles of people at corporate events. Big Daddy's Pro Shop ain't too shabby either: get your gear serviced by Brian, and get your game on during Moonlight Bowling Sessions on Fridays and Saturdays!
$20 for two hours of open bowling and shoe rental for up to 6
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