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The Quran (English pronunciation: /kɔrˈɑːn/[n 1] kor-AHN ; Arabic: القرآن al-qur'ān, IPA: [qurˈʔaːn],[n 2] literally meaning "the recitation", also transliterated Qur'an or Koran) is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله, Allah).[1] It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language.[2][3][4][5]
Muslims believe the Quran to be verbally revealed through angel Gabriel (Jibril) from God to Muhammad gradually over a period of approximately 23 years beginning on 22 December 609 CE,[6] when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632 CE, the year of his death.[1][7][8]
Muslims regard the Quran as the main miracle of Muhammad, the proof of his prophethood[9] and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam, regarded in Islam as the first prophet,[10] and continued with the Scrolls of Abraham (Suhuf Ibrahim),[11] the Tawrat (Torah or Pentateuch) of Moses,[12][13] the Zabur (Tehillim or Book of Psalms) of David,[14][15] and the Injil (Gospel) of Jesus.[16][17][18] The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in Jewish and Christian scriptures, summarizing some, dwelling at length on others and in some cases presenting alternative accounts and interpretations of events.[19][20][21] The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance, sometimes offering detailed accounts of specific historical events, and often emphasizing the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.[22][23] The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law.[24] During prayers, the Quran is only recited in Arabic.[25] Verse 15:9 states that Allah will personally protect the Quran from corruption.[26]
Etymology and meaning
The word qur'ān appears about 70 times in the Qur'an itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qara'a (قرأ), meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to "scripture reading" or "lesson". While most Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara'a itself.[27] In any case, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[1] An important meaning of the word is the "act of reciting", as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qur'ānahu)".[28]
In other verses, the word refers to "an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]". Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur'ān is recited, listen to it and keep silent".[29] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.[30]
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qur'ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb ('book'); āyah ('sign'); and sūrah ('scripture'). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the "revelation" (waḥy), that which has been "sent down" (tanzīl) at intervals.[31][32] Other related words are: dhikr, meaning 'remembrance', used to refer to the Qur'an in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ḥikmah, meaning 'wisdom', sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[27][33]
The Qur'an describes itself as "the discernment or the criterion between truth and falsehood" (al-furqān), "the mother book" (umm al-kitāb), "the guide" (hudá), "the wisdom" (ḥikmah), "the remembrance" (dhikr), and "the revelation" (tanzīl; something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).[34] Another term is al-kitāb ('the book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term muṣḥaf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Qur'anic manuscripts but is also used in the Qur'an to identify earlier revealed books.[1] Other transliterations of Quran include "al-Coran," "Coran," "Kuran," and "al-Qur'an."
Prophetic era
Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Ḥirā during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of twenty-three years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered a considerable number of the ṣaḥābah to recite the Qur'an and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. Companions who engaged in the recitation of the Qur'an were called qari'. Since most sahabah were unable to read or write, they were ordered to learn from the prisoners-of-war the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of sahabah gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Qur'an was recorded on tablets, bones and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shīʻah sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Qur'an did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632.[35][36][37]
Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)".[38] The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.[39]
In the Qur'anic verse 7:157[40] Muhammad is identified as "ummi" which is traditionally interpreted as illiterate but the meaning is rather more complex. The medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: firstly, the inability to read or write in general and secondly, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures however they gave priority to the first meaning. Besides Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning.[36][41]
Based on earlier transmitted reports, shortly after Muhammad's death in the year 632 CE, the first caliph Abu Bakr decided to collect the book in one volume. Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd ibn Thabit, collected the verses and produced several hand-written copies of the complete book. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives.[35][42] Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad's widow and Caliph Umar's daughter, was entrusted with that Quranic text.[43] In about 650 CE, when the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran, and as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, in order to preserve the sanctity of the text, ordered a committee to use Hafsa's text and prepare a standard copy of the text of Quran. Thus, within twenty years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.[44][35][45][46] The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.[36][37][47]
According to Shias and some Sunni scholars, ʻAli ibn Abi Talib compiled a complete version of the Quran immediately after Muhammad's death.[1] The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order.[48] Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran, but kept his own book.[35][49] Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including ibn Masud's and Ubayy ibn Kab's codex, none of which exist today.[44]
Qur'an most likely existed in scattered written form during the life of the Prophet, Muslim scholars believe that it was written as a complete text at the time of the Prophet's death.[50] The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance.[citation needed] Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.[51] Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.[52][53]
In 1972 in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsets, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again, a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material. The faint washed off underlying text, scriptio inferior, however is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, whilst the text written on top, scriptio superior, is believed to belong to Uthmanic time.[54] Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 AD with a 99% probability.[55][56]
Significance in Islam
Religious texts | |
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Torah | |
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Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance and direction for humanity and consider the text in its original Arabic to be the literal word of God,[57] revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of twenty-three years[7][8] and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity.[7][58] They also believe that the Quran has solutions to all the problems of humanity irrespective of how complex they may be and in what age they occur.
Wahy in Islamic and Quranic concept means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzūl (to come down). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down." It designates positive religion, the letter of the revelation dictated by the angel to the prophet. It means to cause this revelation to descend from the higher world. According to hadith, the verses were sent down in special circumstances known as asbab al-nuzul. However, in this view God himself is never the subject of coming down.[59]
The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained, an assertion that Muslims believe. The Quran – often referring to its own textual nature and reflecting constantly on its assertion of divine origin – is the most meta-textual, self-referential religious text.[citation needed] Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them.[60] The Quran refers to a written pre-text that records God's speech even before it was sent down.[61][62]
The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created was one of the crucial controversies among early Muslim theologians. Mu'tazilis believe it is created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians consider the Quran to be eternal and uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.[63]
Muslims maintain the present wording of the Quranic text corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: as the words of God, said to be delivered to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Quran, as the Quran itself maintains.
Therefore an Islamic philosopher introduces a prophetology to explain how the divine word passes into human expression. This leads to a kind of esoteric hermeneutics that seeks to comprehend the position of the prophet by mediating on the modality of his relationship not with his own time, but with the eternal source his message emanates from. This view contrasts with historical critique of western scholars who attempt to understand the prophet through his circumstances, education and type of genius.[64]
The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia declares the Quran and sunnah the sole constitutional law of the kingdom.
Muslims believe that the Quran is different from all other books in ways that are impossible for any other book to be, such that similar texts cannot be written by humans. These include both mundane and miraculous claims. The Quran itself challenges any who disagree with its divine origin to produce a text of a miraculous nature.[65]
Scholars of Islam believe that its poetic form is unique and of a fashion that cannot be written by humans. They also claim it contains accurate prophecy and that no other book does.[66][67][68][69][70]
In Islamic Art
The Qur'an also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Qur'anic arts of calligraphy and illumination.[1] The Qur'an is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qur'ans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery, and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.
Typical glass and enamel mosque lamp with the Ayat an-Nur or "Verse of Light" (24:35)
The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. Chapter titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the surah. Generally, longer chapters appear earlier in the Quran, while the shorter ones appear later. The chapter arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each chapter except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God'. There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[71]
Each chapter is formed from several verses, known as ayat, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from chapter to chapter. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the Quran is 6236, however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.
In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The thirty juz' (plural ajzā') can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names and these names are the first few words by which the juz' starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.[1]
Muqatta'at or the Quranic initials are fourteen different letter combinations of 14 Arabic letters that appear in the beginning of 29 chapters of the Quran. The meanings of these initials remain unclear.
According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77430 words, 18994 unique words, 12183 stems, 3382 lemmas and 1685 roots.[72]
The Quranic content is concerned with the basic beliefs of Islam which include the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of the prophet's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and the nature of revelation. Historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.[73]
The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (2:20,29,255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (13:16, 50:38, etc.) All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.[36][73]
The Quran uses cosmological and contigency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe, is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?" (67:3) [48]
The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran.[36] It is estimated that around a full one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time.[44] There is a reference of the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and the belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "if you believe in God and the last day".[74] A number of chapters such as 44,56,75,78,81,101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some of the chapters indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of chapter 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."[48]
The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. According to Watt's description of the end time in the Quran: "The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment', 'the Last Day', 'the Day of Resurrection', or simply 'the Hour'. Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall, and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described. [...] The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. The Qur'an, however, does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God; when he wills he causes man to die, and when he wills he raises him to life again."[36]
Literary structure
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the chapters and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.[75]
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose, however, this description runs the risk of compromising the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is certainly more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme while found throughout the Quran is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan chapters, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in chapter 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.[44][76]
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[1] The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and presence of repetition.[77][78] Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression – its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase – is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.[79][80] Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device. A study by Behnam Sadeghi using natural language processing techniques asserts that the Qurʾān has one author.[81]
The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (tafsīr), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."[82]
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.[83] Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like ʻAli ibn Abi Talib, ʻAbdullah ibn Abbas, ʻAbdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kaʻb. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.[84]
Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansūkh).[85][86] Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Qur'an.[87]
Ja'far Kashfi defines ta'wīl as 'to lead back or to bring something back to its origin or archetype'. It is a science whose pivot is a spiritual direction and a divine inspiration, while the tafsir is the literal exegesis of the letter; its pivot is the canonical Islamic sciences.[88] Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse; rather it transpires through that meaning – a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality, which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and there is an actual significance a Quranic story refers to.[89][90]
According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like the Prophet and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except Allah"(3:7 ) remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.[90] As Corbin narrates from Shia sources, Ali himself gives this testimony:
"Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God, which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nāsikh (the verse that abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muḥkam (without ambiguity) and the mutashābih (ambiguous), the particular and the general..."[91]
According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger, and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.[90][92]
Therefore Sufi spiritual interpretations are usually accepted by Islamic scholars as authentic, as long as certain conditions are met.[93] In Sufi history, these interpretations were sometimes considered religious innovations (bid'ah), as Salafis believe today. However, ta'wil is extremely controversial even amongst Shia. For example, when Ayatollah Ruhallah Khomeini, the leader of Islamic revolution, gave some lectures about Surat al-Fātiḥah in December 1979 and January 1980, protests forced him to suspend them before he could continue beyond the first two verses of the surah.[94]
Levels of meaning
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.[95] For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:
"The Qur'an possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."[95]
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.[96] Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[97]
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ("interpretation" or "explanation"), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God.[1] In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.[98] Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.[48]
Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages.[48] The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the 7th century.[99] The first complete translation of the Quran was completed in 884 CE in Alwar (Sindh, India now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.[100] The first complete translation of Quran was into Persian during the reign of Samanids in the 9th century. Islamic tradition holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran.[48] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.[48] In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.[101]
Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).[102] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims.
As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "you".[103]
Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era.
The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647.
Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran.
Rules of recitation
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named Tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, and so on. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.[48]
In order to avoid incorrect articulation reciters who are not native speakers of Arabic language try to follow a training in countries such as Egypt or Saudi Arabia. The recitations of a few of Egyptian reciters were highly influential in the art of recitation. The region of Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah from Jakarta.[48]
There are two types of recitation: murattal is at a slower pace, used for study and practice. Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.[104]
Variant readings
Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the Arabic language by the end of the 9th century. The first Qur'anic manuscripts lacked these marks, therefore several recitations remains acceptable. The variation in readings of the text permitted by the nature of the defective vocalization led to an increase in the number of readings during the 10th century. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Qur'an. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra, and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Qur'an had been revealed in seven "aḥruf" (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d.796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, ʻĀṣim (Kufa, d. 745) and Nāfi (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Qur'an of Cairo (1924) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation.[44][105]
The variant readings of the Qur'an do not relate to any textual variation, instead, all of the readings pertain to differences in the vocalization of the same text.[44] According to Melchert, the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.[106]
Nasser categorizes various readings into various subtypes. Some of Nasser's categories are internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.[107]
Occasionally, early Qur'ans show more compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn ʻAmir of Damascus.[108] Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.[109]
Writing and printing
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-type script. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the 9th century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the 9th century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore chose simpler writing styles. From the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī, and on rarer occasions the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Spain the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.[44][110]
In the beginning the Quran did not have vocalization markings. The system of vocalization as we know it today seems to have been introduced towards the end of the 9th century. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of thirty parts or juz'. In terms of productivity the Ottoman copyists would provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods, and for aesthetic reasons.[111]
Short extracts from the Quran were printed as early as the 10th century in various parts of the Muslim world with a method known as wood-block printing. In this technique a page is carved in a wooden block, one block per page. A similar technique was widely used in China.[112] Arabic, where the script is joined up, is less easily adapted to movable-type printing, i.e., modern pre-digital printing, than European scripts, and in the Islamic world the printing of Arabic encountered strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars and the manuscript scribes (who risked losing work). Printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1729, initially even on penalty of death.[113][114] The first movable Arabic type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (1503−1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians.[115]
The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537/1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini.[116][117][118] Two more editions include those published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694 and by Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698. The latter edition included an accurate Latin translation. In 1787 in Saint Petersburg, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing of the Quran by a Muslim scholar named Mullah Osman Ismail. This was followed by editions from Kazan (1803), Tehran (1828) and finally Istanbul (1877). Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which became popular in Europe. This edition provided a large number of readers with access to a reliable text and was referred to for a long time thereafter, until the publication of an edition of the Quran in Cairo in 1924 which was the result of a long preparation process by scholars from al-Azhar university. This edition which standardized the orthography of the Quran is the basis of current editions of the Quran.[44][119]
Relationship with other literature
The Bible
" | It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).[120] | " |
The Quran speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and the Gospel) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.[121]
According to Sahih al-Bukhari, the Quran was recited among Levantines and Iraqis, and discussed by Christians and Jews before it was standardized.[122] Its language was similar to the Syriac language. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist, and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.[123] Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad, while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than the New Testament.[124] Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets.
Similarities with Christian apocrypha
The Quran has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel.[125][126][127] One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.[128]
Arab writing
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.[48]
Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University state that:[129]
Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Quran was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.
The main areas in which the Qur'an exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Qur'an particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Qur'anic words, idioms, and expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Qur'an create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...
Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Quran in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers (ṣalāt). Those who have memorized the entire Quran earn the right to the title of ḥāfiẓ.[130]
The text of the Quran has become readily accessible over the internet, in Arabic as well as numerous translations in other languages. It can be downloaded and searched both word-by-word and with Boolean algebra. Photos of ancient manuscripts and illustrations of Quranic art can be witnessed. However, there are still limits to searching the Arabic text of the Quran.[48]
Critics reject the idea that the Quran is miraculously perfect and impossible to imitate (2:2, 17:88-89, 29:47, 28:49). The Jewish Encyclopedia, for example, writes: "The language of the Koran is held by the Mohammedans to be a peerless model of perfection. Critics, however, argue that peculiarities can be found in the text. For example, critics note that a sentence in which something is said concerning Allah is sometimes followed immediately by another in which Allah is the speaker (examples of this are suras xvi. 81, xxvii. 61, xxxi. 9, and xliii. 10.) Many peculiarities in the positions of words are due to the necessities of rhyme (lxix. 31, lxxiv. 3), while the use of many rare words and new forms may be traced to the same cause (comp. especially xix. 8, 9, 11, 16)."[131]
The author of the Apology of al-Kindy Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi claimed that the narratives in the Quran were "all jumbled together and intermingled" and that this was "an evidence that many different hands have been at work therein, and caused discrepancies, adding or cutting out whatever they liked or disliked".[132] Bell and Watt suggested that the variation in writing style throughout the Quran, which sometimes involves the use of rhyming, may have indicated revisions to the text during its compilation. They claimed that there were "abrupt changes in the length of verses; sudden changes of the dramatic situation, with changes of pronoun from singular to plural, from second to third person, and so on".[133] At the same time, however, they noted that "[i]f any great changes by way of addition, suppression or alteration had been made, controversy would almost certainly have arisen; but of that there is little trace." They also note that "Modern study of the Quran has not in fact raised any serious question of its authenticity. The style varies, but is almost unmistakable."[134]
In their book Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, Patricia Crone and Michael Cook challenge the traditional account of how the Qur'an was compiled, writing that "there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century."[135] They also question the accuracy of some of the Quran's historical accounts. For example, professor Gerd R. Puin's study of ancient Quran manuscripts led him to conclude that the Quran is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been present a hundred years before Muhammad.[135] It is generally acknowledged that the work of Crone and Cook was a fresh approach in its reconstruction of early Islamic history, but the theory has been almost universally rejected.[136] Van Ess has dismissed it stating that "a refutation is perhaps unnecessary since the authors make no effort to prove it in detail ... Where they are only giving a new interpretation of well-known facts, this is not decisive. But where the accepted facts are consciously put upside down, their approach is disastrous."[137]
Satanic verses
Some criticism of the Quran has revolved around what are known as the "Satanic Verses". Some early Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Al-lāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." The Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans. These histories then say that these 'Satanic Verses' were repudiated shortly afterward by Muhammad at the behest of Gabriel.[138] Academic scholars such as William Montgomery Watt and Alfred Guillaume argued for its authenticity based upon the implausibility of Muslims fabricating a story so unflattering to their prophet. Watt says that "the story is so strange that it must be true in essentials."[139] On the other hand, John Burton rejected the tradition. In an inverted culmination of Watt's approach, Burton argued for its fictitiousness based upon a demonstration of its actual utility to certain elements of the Muslim community – namely, those legal exegetes seeking an "occasion of revelation" for eradicatory modes of abrogation.[140]
Treatment and disposal of the book
Most Muslims treat paper copies of the Quran with reverence.[141] Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77–79: "That this is indeed a Quran most honourable, in a book well-guarded, which none shall touch but those who are clean", many scholars believe that a Muslim must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu') before touching a copy of the Quran, or mus'haf, although this view is not universal.
Defiling or dismembering copies of the Quran is considered Quran desecration. Pulping, recycling, or otherwise discarding worn-out copies of the text is forbidden. Worn-out, torn, or errant (for example, pages out of order) Qurans are left free to flow in a river, kept somewhere safe, burned, or buried in a remote location.[142]
See also
- ^[n 1] The English pronunciation varies: /kəˈrɑːn/, /kəˈræn/, /kɔrˈɑːn/, /kɔrˈæn/, /koʊˈrɑːn/, /koʊˈræn/;[143] especially with the spelling quran /kʊrˈɑːn/, /kʊrˈæn/;[144] especially in British English /kɒrˈɑːn/.[145][146]
- ^[n 2] The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [o] to [ʊ] to [u], while the second vowel varies from [æ] to [a] to [ɑ]. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˤˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn].
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur'ān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
- ^ Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
- ^ Nelson, K. (1985) The Art of Reciting the Quran, University of Texas Press, Austin
- ^ Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
- ^ Taji-Farouki, S. (ed.) (2004) Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Quran, Oxford University Press, Oxford
- ^ Chronology of Prophetic Events, Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
- ^ a b c Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
- ^ a b Quran 17:106
- ^ Peters (2003), pp. 12 and 13[full citation needed]
- ^ Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002). Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis. Continuum. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8264-4956-6.
- ^ Quran 87:18–19
- ^ Quran 3:3
- ^ Quran 5:44
- ^ Quran 4:163
- ^ Quran 17:55
- ^ Quran 5:46
- ^ Quran 5:110
- ^ Quran 57:27
- ^ Quran 3:84
- ^ Quran 4:136
- ^ "The Quran assumes the reader is familiar with the traditions of the ancestors since the age of the Patriarchs, not necessarily in the version of the 'Children of Israel' as described in the Bible but also in the version of the 'Children of Ismail' as recounted orally, interspersed with polytheist elements, at the time of Muhammad. The term jahiliya (ignorance), used to speak of the pre-Islamic epoch, does not imply that the Arabs were not familiar with their traditional roots but that their knowledge of ethical and spiritual values had been lost." Exegesis of Bible and Qur'an, H. Krausen. Webcitation.org[unreliable source]
- ^ Nasr (2003), p. 42[full citation needed]
- ^ Quran 2:67–76
- ^ Handbook of Islamic Marketing, Page 38, G. Rice - 2011
- ^ Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives - Page 193, Brian V Street - 2001
- ^ Islam and Indian Muslims - Page 21, Mir Sajjad Ali, Zainab Rahman - 2010
- ^ a b "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
- ^ Quran 75:17
- ^ Quran 7:204
- ^ See "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online and [Quran 9:111]
- ^ Quran 20:2 cf.
- ^ Quran 25:32 cf.
- ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."
- ^ Abbas Jaffer, Masuma Jaffer (2009). Quranic Sciences. ICAS press. pp. 11–15. ISBN 1-904063-30-6.
- ^ a b c d *Tabatabaee, 1988, chapter 5[full citation needed]
- ^ a b c d e f Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt) (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'an. Univ. Press. pp. 31–51. ISBN 0852241712.
- ^ a b P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis (1970). The Cambridge history of Islam (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780521291354.
- ^ Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. "Allah's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam online, Muhammad article
- ^ "Qur'an verse 7:157".
- ^ Günther, Sebastian (2002). "Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Qur'an and Qur'anic Exegesis". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 4 (1): 1–26.
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60:201
- ^ http://www.quran.net/quran/PreservationOfTheQuran.htm
- ^ a b c d e f g h Rippin, Andrew, et al. (2006). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an ([2a reimpr.] ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978140511752-4.
- see section Poetry and Language by Navid Kermani, p.107-120.
- For eschatology, see Discovering (final destination) by Christopher Buck, p.30.
- For writing and printing, see section Written Transmission by François Déroche, p.172-187.
- For literary structure, see section Language by Mustansir Mir, p.93.
- For the history of compilation see Introduction by Tamara Sonn p.5-6
- For recitation, see Recitation by Anna M. Gade p.481-493
- ^ Mohamad K. Yusuff, Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an
- ^ The Koran; A Very Short Introduction, Michael Cook. Oxford University Press, pp. 117–124
- ^ F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32639-7.
- For God in the Quran (Allah), see Allah by Zeki Saritoprak, p.33-40.
- For eschatology, see Eschatology by Zeki Saritoprak, p.194-199.
- For searching the arabic text on the internet and writing, see Cyberspace and the Qur'an by Andrew Rippin, p.159-163.
- For calligraphy, see by Calligraphy and the Qur'an by Oliver Leaman, p 130-135.
- For translation, see Translation and the Qur'an by Afnan Fatani, p.657-669.
- For recitation, see Art and the Qur'an by Tamara Sonn, p.71-81 and Reading by Stefan Wild, p.532-535.
- ^ See:
- Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in San'a
- The Qur'an as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 978-90-04-10344-3
- ^ Esack, Farid (2005). The Qur'an: A User's Guide. Oxford England: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 9781851683543.
- ^ For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text" in McAuliffe, J. D. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 52.
- ^ Arthur Jeffery and St. Clair-Tisdal et al,Edited by Ibn Warraq, Summarised by Sharon Morad, Leeds. "The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book". Retrieved 2011-03-15.
- ^ *F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that the Quran is the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
- ^ "'The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation' 3rd Biannual SOAS Conference, October 16–17, 2003". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 6 (1): 143–145. April 2004. doi:10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143.
- ^ Bergmann, Uwe; Sadeghi, Behnam (September 2010). "The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet". Arabica 57 (4): 343–436. doi:10.1163/157005810X504518.
- ^ Sadeghi, Behnam; Goudarzi, Mohsen (March 2012). "Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān". Der Islam 87 (1-2): 1–129. doi:10.1515/islam-2011-0025.
- ^ Quran 2:23–4
- ^ Watton, Victor, (1993), A student's approach to world religions:Islam, Hodder & Stoughton, pg 1. ISBN 978-0-340-58795-9
- ^ See:
- Corbin (1993), p.12[full citation needed]
- Wild (1996), pp. 137, 138, 141 and 147[full citation needed]
- Quran 2:97
- Quran 17:105
- ^ Jenssen, H., "Arabic Language" in McAuliffe et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān, vol. 1 (Brill, 2001), pp. 127-135.
- ^ Wild (1996), pp. 140
- ^ Quran 43:3
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.10
- ^ Corbin (1993), pp .10 and 11
- ^ [Quran 17:88]
- ^ [Quran 2:23]
- ^ [Quran 10:38]
- ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an – Miracles
- ^ Ahmad Dallal, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Qur'an and science
- ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an – Byzantines
- ^ See:
- "Kur`an, al-", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- Allen (2000) p. 53
- ^ Dukes, Kais. "RE: Number of Unique Words in the Quran". www.mail-archive.com. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
- ^ a b Saeed, Abdullah (2008). The Qur'an : an introduction. London: Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 9780415421249.
- ^ Haleem, Muhammad Abdel (2005). Understanding the Qur'an : themes and style. I.B. Tauris. p. 82. ISBN 9781860646508.
- ^ Issa Boullata, "Literary Structure of Quran," Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān, vol.3 p.192, 204
- ^ Jewishencyclopedia.com – Körner, Moses B. Eliezer
- ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order.... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive, and very difficult to read." Approaches to the Asian Classics, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65
- ^ Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21
- ^ Michael Sells, Approaching the Qur'ān (White Cloud Press, 1999)
- ^ Norman O. Brown, "The Apocalypse of Islam." Social Text 3:8 (1983–1984)
- ^ Sadeghi, Behnam (1 January 2011). "The Chronology of the Qurān: A Stylometric Research Program". Arabica 58 (3): 210–299. doi:10.1163/157005810X529692.
- ^ Preface of Al'-Mizan, reference is to Allameh Tabatabaei[dead link]
- ^ Quran 2:151
- ^ Tafseer Al-Mizan[dead link]
- ^ How can there be abrogation in the Quran?
- ^ Are the verses of the Qur'an Abrogated and/or Substituted?
- ^ Islahi, Amin Ahsan. "Abrogation in the Qur'ān". Renaissance Journal. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.9
- ^ Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, The Principles of Interpretation of the Quran[dead link]
- ^ a b c Tabataba'I, Tafsir Al-Mizan, Topic: Decisive and Ambiguous verses and "ta'wil"[dead link]
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.46
- ما نَزلت على رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم آية من القرآن إلاّ أقرأنيها وأملاها عليَّ فكتبتها بخطي ، وعلمني تأويلها وتفسيرها، وناسخها ومنسوخها ، ومحكمها ومتشابهها ، وخاصّها وعامّها ، ودعا الله لي أن يعطيني فهمها وحفظها فما نسيتُ آية من كتاب الله تعالى ولا علماً أملاه عليَّ وكتبته منذ دعا الله لي بما دعا ، وما ترك رسول الله علماً علّمه الله من حلال ولا حرام ، ولا أمرٍ ولا نهي كان أو يكون.. إلاّ علّمنيه وحفظته، ولم أنسَ حرفاً واحداً منه
- ^ Tabatabaee (1988), pp. 37–45
- ^ Sufi Tafsir and Isma'ili Ta'wil
- ^ Algar, Hamid (June 2003), The Fusion of the Gnostic and the Political in the Personality and Life of Imam Khomeini (R.A.)
- ^ a b Corbin (1993), p.7
- ^ Tabatabaee, Tafsir Al-Mizan[dead link]
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.13
- ^ Aslan, Reza (20 November 2008). "How To Read the Quran". Slate. Retrieved 21 November 2008.
- ^ An-Nawawi, Al-Majmu', (Cairo, Matba'at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380.
- ^ Monthlycrescent.com
- ^ "More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran". Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review. 12 August 2010
- ^ Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2002. p. 42.
- ^ "Surah 3 – Read Quran Online". Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- ^ Nelson, Kristina (2001). The art of reciting the Qur'an (New ed.). Cairo [u.a.]: American Univ. in Cairo Press. ISBN 9774245946.
- ^ Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings". Studia Islamica (91): 5–22.
- ^ Melchert, Christopher (2008). "The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 10 (2): 73–87.
- ^ Hekmat Nasser, Shady (2012). The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 9004240810.
- ^ Dutton, Yasin (2001). "An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 3 (2): 71–89.
- ^ Rabb, Intisar (2006). "Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies 8 (2): 88–127.
- ^ Peter G. Riddell, Tony Street, Anthony Hearle Johns, Islam: essays on scripture, thought, and society : a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns, pp. 170–174, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5, ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5
- ^ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134–136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
- ^ Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg
- ^ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134-136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
- ^ Watson 1968, p. 435; Clogg 1979, p. 67
- ^ Krek 1979, p. 203
- ^ First Printed Edition of the Qur'an
- ^ The First Printed Complete Arabic Quran
- ^ East Meets West In Venice: The First-Ever Printed Arabic Edition Of Quran
- ^ The Qur'an in Manuscript and Print. "The Qur'anic Script". Retrieved 2007-06-05.
- ^ 3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل
- ^ Quran 2:285
- ^ USC.edu[dead link]
- ^ Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), Abraham's children: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in conversation, by. T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55 - 66.
- ^ Esposito, John L. The Future of Islam. Oxford University Press US, 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-516521-0 p. 40
- ^ Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an by Signey Griffith, p.112, in The Qur'ān in its historical context, Gabriel Said Reynolds, ed. Psychology Press, 2008
- ^ Qur'an-Bible Comparison: A Topical Study of the Two Most Influential and Respectful Books in Western and Middle Eastern Civilizations by Ami Ben-Chanan, p. 197–198, Trafford Publishing, 2011
- ^ New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1967, the Catholic University of America, Washington DC, Vol. VII, p.677
- ^ "On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran" by Ibn Rawandi, found in What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text, and Commentary, Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, ed. ISBN 978-1-57392-945-5
- ^ Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir, Literature and the Quran, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 3, pp. 213, 216
- ^ Kugle (2006), p.47; Esposito (2000a), p.275.
- ^ "Koran". From the Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
- ^ Quoted in A. Rippin, Muslims: their religious beliefs and practices: Volume 1, London, 1991, p.26
- ^ R. Bell & W.M. Watt, An introduction to the Quran, Edinburgh, 1977, p.93
- ^ Bell's introduction to the Qur'ān By Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, p. 51: Google preview
- ^ a b Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in Toby Lester (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". The Atlantic Monthly.
- ^ David Waines, Introduction to Islam, Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-42929-3, pp 273-274
- ^ van Ess, "The Making Of Islam", Times Literary Supplement, Sep 8 1978, p. 998
- ^ "The Life of Muhammad", Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume (translator), 2002, p.166 ISBN 0-19-636033-1
- ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
- ^ John Burton (1970). "Those Are the High-Flying Cranes". Journal of Semitic Studies 15: 246-264.
- ^ Mahfouz (2006), p.35
- ^ Afghan Quran-burning protests: What's the right way to dispose of a Quran? - Slate Magazine
- ^ dictionary.reference.com: koran
- ^ dictionary.reference.com: quran
- ^ Cambridge dictionary: koran
- ^ Cambridge dictionary: quran
- Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5.
- Allen, Roger (2000). An Introduction to Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77657-8.
- Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2.
- Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8.
- Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34711-4.
- Mahfouz, Tarek (2006). Speak Arabic Instantly. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-84728-900-1.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- Peters, Francis E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12373-8.
- Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1988). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7103-0266-3.
- Wild, Stefan (1996). The Qu'ran as Text. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09300-3.
Further reading
Recent translations
- M. A. S. Abdel Haleem (2008). The Qur'an (Reissue ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199535957.
- Khalidi, Tarif (2009). The Qur'an: A New Translation. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-310588-6.
Introductory texts
- Robinson, Neal, Discovering the Qur'an, Georgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58901-024-6
- Sells, Michael, Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations, White Cloud Press, Book & CD edition (November 15, 1999). ISBN 978-1-883991-26-5
- Bell, Richard; William Montgomery Watt (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'ān. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0597-2.
- Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5.
Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir)
- Al-Tabari, Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan ta'wīl al-Qur'ān, Cairo 1955–69, transl. J. Cooper (ed.), The Commentary on the Qur'ān, Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-19-920142-6
Topical studies
- Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur'an, Traditions, and Interpretation, Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (June 1, 1996), ISBN 978-0-19-511148-4
- Gibson, Dan (2011). Qur'anic Geography: A Survey and Evaluation of the Geographical References in the Qur'an with Suggested Solutions for Various Problems and Issues. Independent Scholars Press, Canada. ISBN 978-0-9733642-8-6.
- McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (1991). Qur'ānic Christians : an analysis of classical and modern exegesis. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36470-6.
- Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide [especially in comparative Qur'anic and Biblical exegesis]. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-978-0-06-143828-8
Literary criticism
- M. M. Al-Azami (2003). The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments (First ed.). UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 1-872531-65-2.
- Gunter Luling (2003). A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (580 Seiten, lieferbar per Seepost). ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8.
- Luxenberg, Christoph (2004). The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran, Berlin, Verlag Hans Schiler, 1 May 2007. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8.
- Puin, Gerd R.. "Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in Sana'a," in The Qurʾan as Text, ed. Stefan Wild, E. J. Brill 1996, pp. 107–111.
- Wansbrough, John. Quranic Studies, Oxford University Press, 1977
- Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Jane Dammen McAuliffe et al. (eds.) (1st ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. 2001–2006. ISBN 978-90-04-11465-4.
- The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Oliver Leaman et al. (eds.) (1st ed.). Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978-0-415-77529-8.
- The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Muzaffar Iqbal et al. (eds.) (1st ed.). Center for Islamic Sciences. 2013-01. ISBN 978-1-926620-00-8.
Academic journals
- Journal of Qur'anic Studies / Majallat al-dirāsāt al-Qurʹānīyah. School of Oriental and African Studies. 1999–present. ISSN 1465-3591.
- Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies. Medina, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex. 2006–present.
External links
Find more about Quran at Wikipedia's sister projects | |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary | |
Media from Commons | |
Learning resources from Wikiversity | |
News stories from Wikinews | |
Quotations from Wikiquote | |
Source texts from Wikisource | |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
Qur'an browsers and translations
- Quran.com
- Al-Quran.info
- Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator
- Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)
Word-for-word analysis
- Quranic Arabic Corpus, shows syntax and morphology for each word.
- Word for Word English Translation – emuslim.com
Other resources
- Quran at the Open Directory Project
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text:
On the 14th November 2010, in an historic decision, the Government of Israel decided to bring the last remnants of the Falash Mura from Ethiopia to Israel. The task of bringing these 7,846 olim was given to the Jewish Agency, which set up the Ethiopian Project.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
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1. | Wanda Sykes | ||
A very talented and very funny stand up comic! She established herself early as bold, sassy, blunt and occasionally rude. She always has blunt, honest and funny commentary on current events and politics. It's always a good time when Wanda Sykes is on the Tonight Show. She has a lot of good funny observations about dumbass Republicans and even playful criticism for Democrats. She also made an appearance at the 2009 Washington Correspondents' Dinner, where she made some good comments about Rush Limbaugh's stupidity.
Wanda Sykes:often controversial, always very funny! |
2. | Wanda Sykes | ||
A great stand-up comic who performed at the White House correspondents dinner in 2009 Wanda Sykes on Rush Limbaugh:
"Rush says he wants Obama to fail, thats the same as saying he wants America to fail, that's like treason, it's the same thing al-Qaeda is saying, I think Rush was the 20th hijacker, but he was strung out on oxycontin and missed his flight." |
3. | wanda sykes | ||
A black female comedian with absolutely nothing relevant, interesting, or even funny to say. She makes up for an utter lack of personality and flair by adding an enormous amount of stereotypical black woman sass. Many white people, particularly Comedy Central executives, believe that this affected sass amounts to something, and laugh like morons whenever she says something.
Recently, after many failed entertainment ventures, she has attempted to leech off of the success of Dave Chappelle by trying to pass herself off as 'edgy' and shouting things like 'I'm Wanda Sykes, damnit!", a ridiculously pathetic attempt to copy the Rick James catchphrase. When the hell will you stupid honkies ever learn? WANDA SYKES IS NOT FUNNY.
4. | Wanda Sykes | ||
An obnoxious, rude, and irritating black woman who appeared on Celebrity Poker. Wanda Sykes masked her "ignorance of poker" by using a steady stream of non-funny jokes to irritate everyone (as usual). Man, I was hoping Jerome Bettis would clothesline Wanda Sykes so her paint-peeling voice would cease to exist.
5. | Wanda Sykes | ||
A non-funny comedian who thinks she can do and say whatever she wants to everybody because she's "black ya'll!" "OUTTA MAH WAY FOO IM BLACK AND I SAY YOUR DUMB!" - Wanda Sykes
6. | Wanda Sykes | ||
a typically sassy and unfunny black woman "comedian" who's popularity came out of nowhere and is shoved in America's face for no apparent reason. Wanda Sykes is irritating and not funny whatsoever.
7. | Wanda Sykes | ||
A big mouthed, screaming, yelling, no talent, annoying bitch that got rich by perpetuating a stereotype of a big black, fat, ugly, loud and obnoxius black woman. For some reason white people think she is what comedy needs right now and still play her show. Sometimes, I just wish I had a gun. immma wanda sykes AND imma very very funni blak perosn. IM WANDA SYKES BITCH


text:
Another fantastic one Ewa
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Originally Posted by Gloria Another fantastic one Ewa Thank you GLOFRIA)
I'll Remember You!!!
I'm sorry - GLORIA((
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The beat of a Taylor Swift song fills the practice room as the Techie Tweens work on Penelope, a small Lego robot. It's clear that these girls just want to have fun.
The all-girl Lego robotics team paired that fun-loving nature with a passion for science and technology to win first place at the Raleigh Regional competition Dec. 1. The team will head to the state championship in Greensboro next month.
The nine Techie Tweens, made up of students from Holly Grove Middle, Fuquay-Varina Middle and Ballentine Elementary, never expected the big win.
Team coaches Shawn and Jennifer Edmondson said the announcement was quite a shock for the entire team. The girls had worked very hard since August and as about 12 awards were announced at Southeast Raleigh Magnet High School to round out the regional competition, the girls simply hoped to be recognized for their efforts.
"Their shoulders continued to hunch a little more," Jennifer said as more and more groups were called. "I really think it was a big surprise to the girls and to us."
In its second year, the Techie Tweens group took the theme of "senior solutions" from the FIRST LEGO League and used Lego Minestorm kits to build a clean, elegant design that was the envy of many other groups.
"The girls' design is super reliable," Shawn said. "It works almost every time."
The FIRST LEGO League participants used the theme to examine problems that affect senior citizens and may make it difficult for them to remain engaged and independent members of their community, according to Christa Adcock Ward of Ballentine Elementary.
The Techie Tweens got started last year at Ballentine Elementary. There were 11 kids wanting to participate after last year and only 10 can be on a team. So, the Edmondsons invited all of the girls from last year's team.
All but one girl was able to participate in the team, leaving open a spot for the Edmondsons' third grade daughter who couldn't be on the team last year because of her age, but learned a lot.
The girls participated in a multi-pronged contest, including a research project and a challenge table where their robot had three chances and two and a half minutes to overcome 15 obstacles.
"The projects these kids come up with are all over the map," Shawn said.
Teams are graded on their research, engineering and robot design and core values.
Shawn said core values is one area where the girls thrive. They recognize each others' strengths and all pitch in when there are weaknesses.
Looking forward to the state competition, Shawn and Jennifer said the girls are looking at it as an opportunity to celebrate their hard work throughout the year. They're all really excited and plan to trade pins with other teams as they meet new people and make friends at the statewide level.
"Our team is so excited to be going to the state competition and going as regional champions makes it even more exciting. This is the farthest we have been," Techie Tween member Erin Stone said. "I get to be with a great group of girls. We are a family. We work well together, whether it is at practice, in front of the judges doing our presentation or working with Penelope in front of hundreds of people. And we have a great time doing it."
The FIRST LEGO League involves 20,000 teams of kids in 70 countries across the world, 300 of which are in North Carolina. Only 60 of those teams advanced to the state competition at N.C. A&T State University in Greensboro. Events are for children from ages 9 to 14.
The other Ballentine Elementary team, the Burning Bricks also head to the state level of competition. The group took home the "gracious professionalism" award at the local qualifier in Cary in November and followed up their performance with a perfect score on the project component at regionals, earning them "best research." The team is under the direction of Ballentine AIG teacher Sonia Clark and is coached by volunteer Jen Mahlum.
Also headed to the faceoff at the state level is the Ninja Bots out of Wake Christian Academy. The rookie group, made up of six sixth graders from the school, placed 13th out of 36 teams in the qualifier in November. They placed 13th out of 37 teams at the regional competition as well.
Ninja Bots Coach Geoff Erb said the team took a well-deserved week off after the regional tournament, and now are looking forward to showing off their skills at the state level. The team assembled last year with Erb and another adult leader helping the students learn to program a robot, but they didn't compete.
Now, the team continues to tweak its robot and work on teamwork.
"The kids all know each other and have fun together," Erb said. "I've really seen them grow together as a team since we started, and they have learned how to work with each other rather than try to talk over one another.
"We also have some very strong parental involvement and great volunteers to help mentor the kids."
Contact Kelly Griffith at email@example.com or 919-552-5675.


text:
Translate Website | Traducir Sitio Web
Translate Website | Traducir Sitio Web
Identity theft is someone taking personal information like your name, Social Security number or account number and using it for unlawful purpose. Everyday people, business owners, well-known celebrities, and children are prey to it. In California, all forms of identity theft are crimes (Penal Code section 530.5 et. seq.).
Identity thieves do many things in a victim's name. They open new credit accounts, take out auto loans, enjoy medical services (and make insurance claims), and even commit crimes and generate criminal records. The breakdown of identity theft types for 2011:
The third type, new account and non-account identity theft, can be hardest to resolve. Victims of new account fraud may spend hundreds of hours and thousands of dollars clearing up their records and their lives.
Identity theft does not discriminate. There were 11.6 million U.S. adult victims in 2011. That represents 4.9% of U.S. adults, including over a million Californians. Identity theft is also expensive. The total cost of identity theft in 2011 was $18 billion. The average victim spent $354 and 12 hours to resolve the problem and clear up records.
Victims come in all ages, and the impact of the crime varies by age group. Victims over 65 tend to experience less severe forms. This group paid the least, $41 on average, and had to spend the least time resolving it, eight hours. The crime also varies by household income. Those with higher incomes are more likely to be victimized: 7.7% for households with incomes of $150,000 or more. This contrasts with only 3.3% among households with incomes below $15,000. On the other hand, the impact on victims is greater among lower-income households. Victims in the highest-income households had average costs of $82 and 7 hours. Those in the lowest-income group had average costs of $898 and 29 hours.
Note: The statistics cited are from the Javelin Strategy & Research "2012 Identity Fraud Report," released in February 2012.
This Google™ translation feature is provided for informational purposes only.
The Office of the Attorney General is unable to guarantee the accuracy of this translation and is therefore not liable for any inaccurate information resulting from the translation application tool.
Please consult with a translator for accuracy if you are relying on the translation or are using this site for official business.
If you have any questions please contact:Bilingual Services Program at (916) 324-5482
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text: Our Mission Statement - Working together to foster environmental awareness and responsibility by successfully promoting and coordinating opportunities for neighbourhood and community pride in Brampton, through our Adopt-A-Park and 3Rs Educational Programs. The Brampton Clean City Committee is a committee of City Council made up of concerned citizens who volunteer their time and effort in promoting environmental awareness and a clean community. The Committee meets on the 4th Wednesday of each month at 7 p.m. in the Council Committee Room, 4th floor at City Hall.


text:
'FINANCIAL repression" - the predicament of no-risk, no-return - is helping to perk up interest in alternative investments, particularly strategies that can take advantage of trends and sharp volatility shifts, says Permal chairman and chief executive Isaac Souede.
This, he adds, is creating distortions in markets that investors can take advantage of - particularly if you have a long-term view and are willing to give up some liquidity for a long-term potential gain.
Permal is among the world's largest fund of hedge fund groups, with assets under management of about US$20 billion.
Says Mr Souede: "Financial repression links to why what we do is becoming popular. It means if you take no risk, you earn no money from a long perspective... If I can make 4 to 5 per cent with a high degree of conviction and very little odds of a large drawdown, say through a macro strategy, that sounds appealing."
Hedge Fund Research data shows that monies continue to be allocated into hedge funds this year, thanks to investor appetite for strategies that are not highly correlated with equity markets. In the second quarter, investors allocated US$4 billion in net new capital to hedge funds, bringing net inflows in the first half to US$20 billion. This is despite most strategies' underperformance relative to conventional markets. In the year-to-date, the HFRI Fund Weighted Composite Index returned around 1.8 per cent, compared with the S&P 500's 9 per cent. Most of the recent inflows into Permal, says Mr Souede, has come from institutions.
Permal, he says, is "pro-US equity" and also "reasonably bullish" about China. Those two countries are virtually the main engines of global growth, reflecting a "G2 world''. In particular, growth in Asia and the emerging markets is now closely linked to China.
"Assuming a resolution of the fiscal cliff, we're pro-US equity especially (stocks) that have yields that are interesting and can continue to grow their yields. Sooner or later there will be a reallocation to equity from fixed income," he says.
Some 60 per cent of stocks in the S&P500 now yield more than 10-year Treasuries, where yields are now just under 1.5 per cent.
The bright spots in the US include a manufacturing "renaissance" and a recovery in the housing sector. In manufacturing, US labour rates have become competitive. This is expected to improve unemployment numbers particularly among those without college degrees. Banking has also strengthened.
China, he says, has extended bear markets and short bull markets. "When it's going to be a bull market, you need to be there to take advantage of it, but you need to be protected for the long term."
Mr Souede expects the Chinese government to launch a stimulus package of US$2 trillion, which is likely to be channelled into consumption and the environment.
He believes the last decade's bull market in sovereign bonds is unlikely to be repeated, unless the investment outlook worsens markedly. "If you tell me that the US will be in recession, China in a hard landing, then that asset class will win again. But it will be a very sad world."
Permal's fixed income exposure is currently half in credits and half in non-credits. "In the high yield area, assuming we don't have a global recession, and we're in a world of financial repression, you are still paid for the risk you take."
The group at the moment is "lightly invested" in emerging debt due to inflation concerns, but that may soon change. The last few months have seen a sell-off in some emerging currencies, such as the Brazilian real and Indian rupee.
"For us there is finally an opportunity in local currency debt because there is less currency risk ... We may well increase exposure to those instruments because you can win on currency and yields are attractive."
Gold is also a theme in Permal portfolios, but mainly through equities where valuations are more attractive than physical gold. A thousand dollars, says Mr Souede, will buy two-thirds of an ounce of gold. "If you bought blue-chip gold companies such as Barrick Gold and Newmont Mining, doing the math on the US$1,000, you'd have about two ounces of gold. If you then went to smaller exploration companies, you'd have four ounces. That doesn't mean the arbitrage closes immediately, but over time it's pretty clear where you want to be."
Some gold companies, such as Barrick, are also paying a dividend of between 2 and 3 per cent, unlike physical gold that offers no yield. "Bullion is now in a trading range. If you believe that in the medium term of 18 to 24 months, the powers that be in the Federal Reserve and the ECB prefer inflation to deflation, you could see gold resuming its upward rise ... Bullion at this point needs to see inflation because dollar strength is not good for it."
Exposure to Asian equity, at the moment, is obtained through China, which is seen as pivotal to Asia's fortunes. "If I'm wrong and China has a hard landing, all of Asia won't grow ... Most countries in Asia (except India) are in the glide path of a pro-growth policy ... which is very positive for equities. But the harbinger of all that is China. By September we can be more directional. Right now, China works or it doesn't work."
On Europe, he believes, the challenge is to contain the crisis. "If Europe stays on a glide path of zero growth for the next five years, US and China will be fine ... As long as Europe doesn't become cataclysmic and create a global financial issue, then it can be at least cauterised. Europe is a very long-term, trial-and-error solution. The key is for the US and China not to implode."


text:
Air Jordan "Rainbow" Pack
After weeks of slow unveilings the entire Air Jordan "Rainbow" Pack has now been revealed. Courtesy of BrokeOnJordans we present you a look at the entire series highlighted by solid uppers and white contrasts. Every two pairs feature a new color 1-23 including the 2009, 2010 and 2011. Check out the pics and let us know your thoughts on the collection.


text:
By Judy Ogutu
The High Court has stopped The National Alliance Party ( TNA) from presenting its nominee to the Independent Electoral Boundaries Commission for the Kajiado North by-election.
Justice Alfred Mabeya issued the orders on Friday after a candidate, Francis Gitau Parsimei, went to court seeking to stop the nomination of Moses ole Sekuda. He named Mr Sekuda and the IEBC as interested parties.
Sakuda won with 16,130 votes to defeat Parsimei, who came second with 1,677. Joseph Manje who had, however, dropped out of the race came third with 19 votes.
The seat fell vacant following the death of Internal Security Minister George Saitoti on June 10 following a helicopter crash. The crash also killed Saitoti's assistant minister Orwa Ojode and four others. The by-election is set for September 17.
It is to be held alongside that of Kangema and Ndhiwa in Central and Nyanza provinces.
None members
On Friday, Parsimei told Justice Mabeya that the exercise was not conducted in a transparent manner because most of those who voted for Sekuda were not TNA members.
He also argued he was denied an opportunity to participate in the nomination as there was "blatant contravention of the Political Parties Act and the Constitution."
Justice Mabeya ruled that pending the hearing and determination of the petition, IEBC should not receive Sekuda's nomination papers. Parsimei, through his lawyer Rose Mbanya, had further argued the exercise was a mockery of the electoral process.


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This blog is created primarily to discover and discuss effective business models that work online this very moment, and today I'll review membership sites. "Membership sites" is definitely one of the buzz phrases in the marketing world this year. And it definitely deserves a closer look.
Usually membership scripts of such quality cost $1000 and up. But you can actually have this plug-in for much less. I would recommend you to get an unlimited license. It costs only a little more than the license for 1 blog. With 1 blog license you're limiting yourself, and you probably will want to create at least a few memberships as soon as possible.
Now click this link and grab your license before the price is substantially increased: Building Membership Site with Wordpress
If you like this business model but would like to learn more before diving in this arena, take a look at Membership BluePrint. They cover in details how to create membership sites, manage them, monetize different membership areas, improve retention rates, test the offers, etc.
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Art in a Sacred Place
Homecoming/Revival services
Community Bible Study
Twenty years ago a storm came through and knocked a lot of fruit off the trees at Gross' Orchard in Bedford.
That fruit was usable, but could not be sold. That, according to Ronnie Gross, is when they learned about the Society of St. Andrew in Big Island, and were able to coordinate the gleaning of the fruit at the Gross' Farm. That partnership has been ongoing for the past two decades, including last week during the Commonwealth Day of Gleaning.
VBS at Staunton Baptist Vacation Bible School @ Staunton Baptist Church. June 25-29, 9 a.m. to noon. Children 4 years old through sixth grade are invited to attend for a fun filled time of learning "Amazing Wonders Aviation." Info: 540-297-6753.
Mt. Zion United Methodist- homecoming and revival
Revival services The congregation of Calvary Baptist Church will hold revival services beginning on Sunday, June 24 at 9:45 a.m. and 11 a.m. and nightly at 7 p.m. Sunday.-Wednesday, June 27 with Dr. Jim Sumpter, pastor/evangelist.
VBS Amazing Wonders
Mary Virginia Woodford Spradlin, 94, of Altavista, died Monday, May 21, 2012 in Virginia Baptist Hospital. She was born Nov. 23, 1917 in Bedford County, a daughter of the late Ella Catherine Wood Woodford and Joel Shepherd Woodford. She was the last of thirteen children surviving. Mary was a member of Ephesus United Methodist Church. She was employed at Rubatex Corp. for over 20 years. In addition to her parents, Mary was preceded in death by her husband, John Aubrey Spradlin.
Cinema Church
EastLake Community Church announces the second summer of Cinema Church. Join in a different approach to church every Sunday at 10 a.m. at the WestLake Cinema. The summer kick off is scheduled for Memorial Day Weekend, May 27. For more information call the main campus at 540-297-0966 or visit the Web at www.eastlake-church.com.
Copyright © 2013
The Bedford Bulletin is your source for local news, sports, events, and information in Bedford County and Bedford, VA and the surrounding area.


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This is, without doubt, one of my favorite places to stay in the West of Ireland. We have stayed on different occasions in the past ten years and have booked rooms both in the main house and in one of the self-catering cottages (lovely conversions from the old stables) in the back- perfect for families. Susan Kellett is a gracious... More
- Also Known As:
- Enniscoe And Historic Hotel
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- Enniscoe offers elegant guest house accommodation in the midst of a vibrant country estate. Located in County Mayo in the west of Ireland, Enniscoe enjoys outstanding views of the spectacular wild and unspoiled landscape this region is renowned for - enjoy its open peaceful spaces and its friendly, welcoming people. The combination of charming guest accommodation, spectacular scenery and the wide range of country-style outdoor activities make historic Enniscoe an ideal holiday destination at any time of year. ... more less


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Local time: ▪ Maps & Directions
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American Cuisine
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Light Dishes & Drinks
+1 506 388 6948 (Toll Number)
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