text:
Next Message | Previous Message Next in Topic | Previous in Topic Next by Same Author | Previous by Same Author Chronologically | Most Recent First Proportional Font | Monospaced Font
Join or Leave AEJMC Reply | Post New Message Search Archives
text/plain (1182 lines)
This paper was presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication in San Antonio, Texas August 2005. If you have questions about this paper, please contact the author directly. If you have questions about the archives, email rakyat [ at ] eparker.org. For an explanation of the subject line, send email to [log in to unmask] with just the four words, "get help info aejmc," in the body (drop the ""). (Feb 2006) Thank you. Elliott Parker ==================================================================== Stories of Victims or Stories of Survivors? A Framing Analysis of the News Media Coverage of Burn Injuries by Nicole Elise Smith, Park Fellow Doctoral Student Stories of Victims or Stories of Survivors? A Framing Analysis of the News Media Coverage of Burn Injuries Abstract This study explored how the news media are telling the stories of burn injuries. The study was approached from the perspectives of framing theory and the social model of disability. In the analysis of U.S. print news coverage from 1990 and 2000, the research found that disabling language was prevalent and that media frames highlighted the sensational aspects of burn care and recovery in telling the stories of those who have sustained a burn injury. Stories of Victims or Stories of Survivors? A Framing Analysis of the News Media Coverage of Burn Injuries 6 The study of disability within the journalism and mass communication field is a relatively new area of interest. Scholars in our field are just beginning to examine the issues surrounding disability and how disability is included both within the news and entertainment media. Disability research is a diverse area, spanning disciplines from the social sciences to the medical field. There are multiple perspectives from which disability can be studied within the journalism and mass communication field. This research investigates the use of media frames in the news coverage of burn injuries. Agenda-setting theory purports that the media do not tell us what to think, but rather what to think about. Some researchers argue that as a second level of agenda-setting, how the media frames issues impacts the public agenda (McCombs and Bell, 1996). Under this second level, known as framing theory, research examines the "transmission of attribute salience" and "the role of the news media in the framing of issues and other objects in the public mind" (McCombs and Bell, 1996, p. 106). Additionally, this research is approached from the perspective of the social model of disability, which maintains that it is not the physical impairment, but rather the ways in which society responds to those with impairments, that is the cause of social exclusion and oppression (Oliver, 2004). The purpose of this study is to explore how the U.S. print news media frame the stories of those who have sustained a burn injury. In the United States alone, approximately 2.4 million burn injuries are reported per year (Burn Survivors Online, 2005). Approximately 650,000 of the injuries are treated by medical professionals while 75,000 are hospitalized (Burn Survivors Online). Of those hospitalized, 20,000 have major burns involving at least 25 percent of their total body surface (Burn Survivors Online). Between 8,000 and 12,000 patients with burn injuries die, and approximately one million sustain substantial or permanent impairment resulting from their burn injury (Burn Survivors Online). Burn injuries are second to motor vehicle accidents as the leading cause of accidental death in the United States (Burn Survivors Online). Academic research has done little in the way of framing studies of disability; therefore, more research, such as this study, is needed in our body of knowledge. The research will now turn to a review of the relevant literature. Literature Review Media Portrayals of Disability A substantial body of media disability research has focused on news media coverage and entertainment media portrayals of people with disabilities. Both are vital areas for researchers to pursue as previous research has continually indicated that the media, both news and entertainment, have considerable influence on the public's positive and negative stereotypes of minority groups (Greenberg & Brand, 1994; Lester & Ross, 2003). As the current study is interested in news media coverage of disability, the literature review will focus on that body of work. An area of analysis within media coverage of disability is the use of language used to describe people with disabilities. Patterson and Witten (1987) have defined disabling language as "language that (a) perpetuates myths and stereotypes about people with disabilities, (b) uses nouns instead of adjectives to describe people with disabilities, or (c) uses demeaning or outdated words or phrases in reference to persons with disabilities" (Lynch, Thuli, & Groombridge, 1994, p. 18). Beginning in the 1980s, the Associated Press, along with other journalism groups, campaigned for the use of people-first language such as "a person who uses a wheelchair" rather than "wheelchair-bound person" in an effort to change the use of demeaning terminology (Nelson, 2000, p. 188). This change in language shifts the focus to the person rather than to the physical impairment (Lynch et al., 1994). In a study examining public perceptions of people-first language, researchers found that the majority of respondents indicated some preference for people-first language (Lynch et al., 1994). Although about one-third of respondents could not detect a difference between the people-first and disability-first language, the researchers conclude that medical personnel, as guided by editorial and media practices, "have an obligation to promote in every way possible, including language use, that people with disabilities are not defined by the disability" (Lynch et al., 1994, p. 22). Additionally, researchers suggest that much more work is needed in this area (Lynch et al., 1994). Although limited in scope, news media content has previously been examined for the use of disabling language. In a comparison of newspapers in Canada and Israel, Auslander and Gold (1999) examined the nature of the terminology, the content of the article, and the article context. The researchers found that inappropriate terminology was prevalent in the press of both countries; however, more positive coverage was found in stories focusing on individual persons and children and stories of physical and social rights, such as mobility (Auslander & Gold). Davies (1994) concludes, "The way people are represented in language and the media can influence how they are perceived, and disabled people are often stereotyped in negative ways" (p. 15). In a descriptive study, Nelson (2000) showed how the media have had an instrumental role in both sustaining negative stereotypes and building a growing sense of community among those with disabilities. In Stage 1, The Dark Ages of Disability, negative portrayals of disability dominated media content; therefore, the media was largely responsible for perpetuating negative stereotypes (Nelson). After WWII, the media slowly realized that some societal groups were being denied their Constitutional rights, which led to the development of Stage 2, Awareness of Rights (Nelson). However, while the press was highlighting stories of abuses, television, which was becoming a rapidly dominant medium, was perpetuating negative stereotypes of people with disabilities (Nelson). In Stage 3, Mobilizing to Action, the media experienced a growing sense of the injustices suffered by those with disabilities, and the press began to play an instrumental role in bringing about public awareness of these injustices (Nelson). A major victory for those with disabilities was won in 1990 with the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Additionally, during this time period "movies and television began generally to show more realistic and sympathetic portrayals of those with disabilities" (Nelson, p. 186). Nelson attributed this change to the growing sense of community and self-awareness among people with disabilities that they were people first and that they were not defined by their disabilities (pg. 187). Another significant change occurring in the media, which is of particular importance to this study, was an effort to change the use of demeaning terminology (Nelson). As mentioned earlier, the media began to use descriptive phrases such as "a person who uses a wheelchair" rather than "wheelchair-bound person" (Nelson, p. 188). This change in terminology was regarded as affording a greater sense of dignity to those with disabilities (Nelson). Stage 4, The Revolution of Technological Community, which includes advances such as email, chat groups, and bulletin boards, has helped the disability community find enhanced means of communication that have led to a stronger sense of community (Nelson). Nelson concludes that "the notion of community has had a bonding effect on those with disabilities" and that "the media have been instrumental in bringing about changes in American society�both good and bad" (p. 192). This portion of the literature review has demonstrated the influential role that the media have both outside and within the disability community. From the outside, the media have the ability to influence audience stereotypes of people with disabilities. Although research is just beginning to examine disabling language, previous studies have indicated that inappropriate language is prevalent in the media. From within the disability community, Nelson demonstrated that a "growing sense of community among those with disabilities has been linked to the media" (p. 180). The literature review will now address the theoretical foundation for this research. Theoretical Foundation The Social Model of Disability The fundamental assumption of the social model of disability is the distinction between the terms disability and impairment. Disability has been defined as "the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from the mainstream of social activities" (Oliver, 1990, p. 11). Impairment, conversely, refers to some bodily defect that usually constitutes a "medically classified condition" (Barnes, Mercer, & Shakespeare, 1999, p. 7). Put another way, "It is society which disables physically impaired people. Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments, by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society" (UPIAS, 1976, p. 3). This model maintains that it is not the impairment, but rather the ways in which society responds to those with impairments, that is the cause of social exclusion (Oliver, 2004). One of the key aspects of the model is the switch in focus of what actually causes limitations for someone with an impairment (Oliver, 2004). While the medical model of disability focuses on the physical impairment as the limiting factor, the social model of disability focuses on the economic, environmental, and cultural barriers encountered by people with impairments (Oliver, 2004). Examples of these types of barriers include "inaccessible education systems, working environments, inadequate disability benefits, discriminatory health and social support services, inaccessible transport, houses and public buildings and amenities, and the devaluing of disabled people through negative images in the media�films, television, and newspapers" (Oliver, 2004, p. 21). A second key aspect of the model is that "it refuses to see specific problems in isolation from the totality of disabling environments" (Oliver, 2004, p. 20). For example, the problem of employment for someone with an impairment is not simply an issue of the job market; it encompasses transportation, education, and culture (Oliver, 2004). This aspect of the model illustrates how those with physical impairments have become a socially oppressed group (Barnes & Mercer, 2004). This type of social oppression can be equated to the social oppression of women, racial and ethnic minorities, and gays and lesbians (Barnes & Mercer, 2004). One of the criticisms of the social model of disability is that it focuses on the collective or public oppression, while it ignores the personal oppression of those with impairments (Oliver, 2004; Thomas, 1999). In an effort to address this criticism, Thomas (1999) proposed the social relational model of disability, which is an extension of the traditional social model. In Thomas' model, "disability is seen as a form of social oppression that operates at both the public and personal levels, affecting what people can do as well as who they can be" (Reeve, 2004, p. 83). The social relational model includes the economic, environmental, and cultural barriers; but, more important, it also includes the psycho-emotional aspects of oppression that can occur through imagery, cultural representations, and interactions with others (Reeve). To illustrate, a person in a wheelchair not only battles ongoing physical barriers, he or she also faces an ongoing battle with the reactions of others, such as being stared at or being interrogated, which can lead to internalized oppression (Reeve). This aspect of psycho-emotional oppression can be dependent on the noticeability of a physical impairment. A person who is unable to hide a visual impairment is likely to be labeled disabled by others, which can be a psycho-emotional aspect of oppression. Conversely, although someone who is able to physically hide an impairment may be less likely to be stared at by others, they are forever at risk that their impairment will be revealed, which can also be a psycho-emotional aspect of oppression (Thomas, Reeve). As such, although an impairment may not cause direct, physical disability, it is the reactions of others that can directly affect psycho-emotional well being and "indirectly restrict activity" (Reeve, p. 87). Given this understanding, the social relational model of disability addresses both the socio-structural barriers and the psycho-emotional barriers that lead to the oppression of someone with an impairment. The social model of disability maintains that it is the ways in which society responds to people with impairments, rather than the impairment itself that is the cause of social exclusion for people with disabilities (Oliver, 2004). The social relational model of disability, which extends the traditional social model, also includes the psycho-emotional aspects of oppression that can occur for people with disabilities (Reeve). One of the barriers encountered by those with impairments is the devaluing of people with disabilities through negative media images (Oliver, 2004). Given this understanding, this research study seeks to understand how the U.S. print news media are telling the stories of those who have sustained a burn injury. For this investigation, framing theory will be used to analyze the relevant news texts. Framing Theory According to some researchers, the theory of framing developed as a dimension of agenda-setting theory (McCombs & Reynolds, 2002; McCombs & Bell, 1996). Within agenda-setting, the media present issues as salient. Additionally, each of these issues, as presented by the media, varies in terms of attributes presented. As a second level of agenda-setting, the media framing of issues impacts the public agenda. Framing theory was first articulated in 1980 by Gitlin (McCombs & Bell). Gitlin (1980) studied how a television network portrayed a student political movement during the 1960s. Gitlin (1980) found that based on how the news media presented the scope of the problem, other proposals for dealing with the problem, and the level of detail of the tactical moves of activists and officials, the news media trivialized the student political movement. In further analysis of the impact of attribute salience, Entman (1993) suggests that frames have the ability to call attention to some aspects while obscuring other elements, which could lead audiences to have different reactions. Entman (1993) said, "To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described" (p. 52). Additionally, the theory assumes that frames are constructed through all aspects of news stories. Also according to Entman (1991), "By providing, repeating, and thereby reinforcing words and visual images that reference some ideas but not others, frames work to make some ideas more salient in the text, others less so�and others entirely invisible" (p. 7). In additional explanation of framing theory, Scheufele (2000) says that framing theory is based on "prospect theory," which is the assumption that "subtle changes in the wording of the description of a situation might affect how audience members interpret this situation" (p. 309). To clarify, he adds, "framing influences how audiences think about issues, not by making aspects of the issue more salient, but by invoking interpretive schemas that influence the interpretation of incoming information" (Scheufele, p. 309). What adds to this effect is that media frames created by journalists aren't necessarily conscious decisions. Instead, another assumption of the theory is that framing tends to be based on "subtle nuances in wording and syntax" that are most likely unintentional and, therefore, difficult for journalists to predict and control (Scheufele, p. 309). In summary, framing theory asserts that not only do the media present certain issues as salient; they also present those issues within the context of certain attributes. This attribute salience arises from all aspects of the news story, including overall narrative, word choice, images, and exclusions. Given the combination of these factors, the audience will then interpret the issues as important/unimportant based on the attribute salience. Additionally, the theory operates under the assumption that the presentation of frames within the news media may not always be intentional. Literature Review Summary and Research Questions Scholars have shown that the media have the power to create public stereotypes, both positive and negative, of people with disabilities. Given these findings, a framing study is a valid way to understand how the news media are presenting the stories of those with disabilities. More specifically, this research will use the social relational model of disability, which assumes that the psycho-emotional oppression of people with disabilities can occur through imagery and cultural representations, such as those in the news media, as a foundation for approaching a framing study of disability. The stories of people who have sustained a burn injury are particularly unique to investigate from the perspectives of framing theory and the social relational model of disability. Although there are many people that are left with physical impairments due to a burn injury, the majority of those who sustain a burn injury are left not with an impairment, but rather with physical scars. So although these scars may not cause physical impairments, there is a social stigmatization associated with having scars on one's body. In essence, many burn survivors simply become disabled based on the element of psycho-emotional oppression as shown by the social relational model of disability. This research explores how the U.S. print news media frame the stories of burn injuries in an effort to learn if the news media are contributing to the psycho-emotional oppression of people who have sustained a burn injury. Based on this understanding, the research questions for this study are: � Are the news media using disabling language (as defined by Patterson and Witten) in telling the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury? � What are the news media frames presented in the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury? � Are the news media frames used in telling the stories of burn injuries contributing to the psycho-emotional oppression of people who have sustained a burn injury? Method This study collected data through a qualitative, framing analysis of print media news stories. Since this study aimed to investigate a specific aspect of news media coverage�the language and the media frames used in the stories of those who have sustained a burn injury�it was not appropriate to use a random sample. This study, therefore, selected only those texts that were rich in the data appropriate to the study. Relevant texts were located through the Lexis-Nexis Academic database using "general news" and "major papers" as the source. The phrases "burn survivor" and "burn victim" were used as search parameters within the headlines, lead paragraphs, and terms. On face value, it may not appear than there is much difference between the phrases burn survivor and burn victim; however, within the fields of burn care and recovery and for those people who have sustained a burn injury, there is a considerable difference between the two terms.[1] According to Amy Acton, executive director of the Phoenix Society for Burn Survivors, there is a technical as well as a symbolic difference between the two terms (personal communication, March 4, 2005). In the technical sense, victim refers to a fatality. Survivor, on the other hand, refers to someone who has sustained injury, but is in the process of recovery (personal communication, March 4, 2005). On the symbolic level, victim refers to one who has given up or to one who has no control over his or her situation and is in a vulnerable place; survivor, conversely, signifies someone who has not just lived through their injury, but has reclaimed his or her life and is thriving despite the injury (personal communication, March 4, 2005). Using the search phrases "burn survivor" and "burn victim," all U.S. newspaper articles containing either of those phrases from the years 1990 and 2000 were located. In total, 77 articles were analyzed.[2] For 1990, a total of 11 articles were analyzed�two articles used the phrase "burn survivor," while nine articles used the phrase "burn victim." For 2000, there was a significant increase in the total number of articles located and analyzed. A total of 66 articles were analyzed�six articles used the phrase "burn survivor," while 60 articles used the phrase "burn victim." The rationale for choosing the two years for analysis stemmed from the 1990 passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act. As the Act was passed in 1990, and as was shown in the literature review that in the late 1980s news outlets were beginning to understand the importance of avoiding demeaning technology, 1990 will be used as the first baseline of data.[3] The rationale in then analyzing 2000 coverage was to compare the two time periods to understand if there was a difference in the language and media frames used in telling the stories of people who had sustained a burn injury in the ten years since the passage of the Act. Once the relevant news texts were located, I first analyzed the selected articles to determine if the news media were using disabling language as defined by Patterson and Witten in telling the stories of those who have sustained a burn injury. As discussed in the literature review, Patterson and Witten (1987) defined disabling language as "language that (a) perpetuates myths and stereotypes about people with disabilities, (b) uses nouns instead of adjectives to describe people with disabilities, or (c) uses demeaning or outdated words or phrases in reference to persons with disabilities" (Lynch et al., 1994, p. 18). After initial analysis for disabling language, I studied the texts using an in-depth, framing analysis. Previous researchers have approached framing analysis from a variety of perspectives. Gamson (1989) and Gamson and Modigliani (1989) assert that the media use specific framing devices�metaphors, exemplars, catchphrases, symbols, and visual cues�to tell stories. Iyengar (1991) has approached framing analysis from the perspective of thematic or episodic media coverage of news stories, while Entman (1993) described media framing as a four-part process in which the media (1) define problems, (2) diagnose causes, (3) make moral judgments, and (4) suggest remedies. For the framing analysis in this study, I analyzed the texts as based Entman's (1993) four-part process of media frames: (1) defining problems, (2) diagnosing causes, (3) making moral judgments, and (4) suggesting remedies. As with all qualitative data analysis, I looked for emerging themes and conclusions to arise from within the data.[4] The goal of the second part of the analysis was to understand how, in 1990 and 2000, the U.S. print media framed the stories of people who sustained a burn injury. Although all research has limitations, there are certain inherent limitations that will arise in qualitative work. First, this study does not intend to draw generalizable conclusions. That is not the goal of this study, nor does qualitative research lend itself to making generalizations. Additionally, as the data were analyzed by the researcher, there was a certain amount of personal bias that could have entered into the analysis process.[5] Conclusions, however, were drawn with the acknowledgement that they were based on the researcher's interpretation of the data. Despite these inherent limitations, considering the goal of the research, a qualitative approach based on framing analysis was an appropriate research design. Findings Disabling Language The first section of the research findings presents examples of media use of Patterson and Witten's three dimensions of disabling language in telling the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury. Again, Patterson and Witten (1987) defined disabling language as "language that (a) perpetuates myths and stereotypes about people with disabilities, (b) uses nouns instead of adjectives to describe people with disabilities, or (c) uses demeaning or outdated words or phrases in reference to persons with disabilities" (Lynch et al., 1994, p. 18). Language that perpetuates myths and stereotypes about people with disabilities could be interpreted in a variety of ways. Lester and Harris provide common examples[6] of media stereotypes: "African Americans are criminals. Latinos are gang members. Native Americans are alcoholics. Wheelchair-dependent individuals are helpless. Gays are effeminate. Lesbians wear their hair short. Older adults need constant care" (2002, p. 54). For this analysis, language that perpetuates myths and stereotypes about people who have sustained a burn injury included references to burn survivors as monsters, villains, or other beings warranting fear. In the analysis of articles, there were no direct statements of burn survivors as beings warranting of fear; however, associations were made and previous references were included. For example, one article said, "To others� Pollard is a monster, and it has nothing to do with the frightful scars that twisted his face into a painful distortion" (Bortnick & Hetchcock, 2000, p. A04). In this example, Pollard is not directly being called a monster, but the stereotype of burn survivors as monsters is clearly present. In another article, "The 18-year-old Texan� went through high school being called Freddie Krueger, the scarred slasher in the movie 'Friday the 13th'" (Sullivan, 2000, P. A19). Again, the text is not directly calling the person a villain, but it is restating�and thereby reaffirming�a previous stereotype to which this person was often subjected. For this study, the last two dimensions of Patterson and Witten's definition of disabling language�language that uses nouns instead of adjectives to describe people with disabilities or uses demeaning or outdated words or phrases in reference to persons with disabilities�were considered together. In looking just at the headlines of the articles under analysis, there were numerous uses of nouns instead of adjectives to describe people who sustained a burn injury. Examples follow: Bully's burn victim overcoming the odds (Frankel, 1990, p. 2A). Burn victim home after treatment (Moritsugu, 1990, p. 1). Painful, difficult recovery for burn victims (Gest & Fine, 2000, p. 30). Burn victim hospitalized in critical condition (Burn victim, 2000, p. 5B). Boyfriend was jealous, burn victim says; burning case expected to go to jury today (Darby, 2000, p. B2). Tiny burn victim fights to survive (Clark, 2000, p. B-1). For a week at camp, young burn victims' scars don't set them apart (Jansen, 2000, p. 01B). Burn victim soothes pain by sharing stories (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). In all of these headlines, the phrase "burn victim" was being used as a noun to represent the person who sustained a burn injury, thereby exemplifying the second dimension of Patterson and Witten's definition of disabling language. Additionally, as shown earlier, there are differing implications between the phrases "burn survivor" and "burn victim." While victim refers to someone who has given up or to one who has no control over his or her situation, survivor signifies someone who is reclaiming his or her life and is thriving despite the injury. Consider the following example from an article about a program called "Scared Straight," which is a rehabilitation program for teenagers who have been caught starting fires. The program's sessions included talks from burn survivors and prison visits with the intent of steering at-risk youth from a life of crime. The article said: "At this particular class, three burn victims have come to talk about their injuries. One is a teenager who was injured and later jailed after a pipe bomb he was playing with exploded. Another is a young woman whose face was scarred when a fire flashed through her home. The third is [a man], who doesn't look like a burn victim with his clean-shaven head and cowboy buckle. But then he takes off his shirt" (Ensslin, 2000, p. 5A). The paragraph opens by calling these three volunteers burn victims�the connotation being that they have led a life of suffering. Yet the article clearly demonstrates that these three individuals used their personal tragedy as a means of helping to prevent future tragedy. Given this, survivor seems to be a more accurate term. In consideration of this example, and as based on the third dimension of Patterson and Witten's definition of disabling language, the prevalent use of the phrase "burn victim" in the analyzed articles exemplifies the use of demeaning and outdated language. Media Frames in the Stories of Burn Survivors The second section of the research findings presents examples from the text analysis of the selected articles as based on Entman's (1993) four-part process of media framing in telling the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury. Entman (1993) described media framing as a four-part process in which the media (1) define problems, (2) diagnose causes, (3) make moral judgments, and (4) suggest remedies. (1) Defining Problems In defining the problem of a burn injury, the analyzed texts focused on the gruesome aspects of the injury itself, the medical treatment, and the potential for lasting physical disfigurement of a burn injury. In the analyzed texts of the stories of burn survivors, the media tended to focus on the gruesome aspects and pain of a burn injury�both of which can be sensational aspects. For example, "� his face was melted away by sulfuric acid�" (Bortnick & Hetchcock, 2000, p. A04). In the story of a plant explosion, the gruesome aspects and trauma of burn injuries were highlighted. After escaping the plant, one survivor was quoted as saying: "'A couple of guys I know on the response team came up to me. I told them, don't touch me. Don't touch me.' One guy said, 'Man, let me get your gloves off.' I said, 'Man, that ain't my gloves. That's my skin'" (Rendon, 2000, p A1). In another article: Mathis was 12 and at a sleepover when his friend's mother sent the boys outside for the night so she could entertain. The boys built a camp fire, and as his buddy bent to spark the dying embers with gasoline, whoosh. When the fire ignited his pants, Mathis stood and ran, a human candle. He remembers a blanket being thrown on him, he remembers falling into the drainage ditch as the icy water rushed past, his left arm swelling like an obscene balloon. Pop. The skin on his arms, chest and face melted, the rawest blister opening as all skin fell away (Sullivan, 2000, p. A19). In another article, a 10-year-old boy recalled first returning to consciousness after his burn injury: 'The first thing I remember was tremendous pain. The next thing I remember I was lying in bed and my mom told me I didn't have any feet anymore. I didn't believe her because I had phantom pain and it felt as though I still had feet,' Caper said. There still were nerves that once had connected to his hands and feet. Those nerves told the brain he still had extremities, but he didn't (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). In regard to medical care, the texts mentioned two aspects of the medical care of someone who has sustained a bury injury: the first is the life-sustaining physical medical care, while the second, yet no less important, is the psychological medical care for someone who is adjusting to and learning to cope with a future life with a physical disfigurement and often an impairment, such as a loss of limb. While psychological medical care was mentioned and will be addressed in a later section of the findings, it was rare, and certainly second to stories of physical medical care. The media also seemed to focus on the immediate physical care as it presented a more sensational story than long-term, psychological care. The description of the daily routine of caring for burn patients in one article said, "The students�all sedated and on pain medication�are placed on steel stretchers and hosed down. Their burns are cleansed, and loose, dead tissue is removed. The skin removal, a meticulous and painful process called debridement, is necessary to prevent infection" (Gest & Fine, 2000, p. 30). In a more graphic media description of debridement, Joel [an 8-year-old burn survivor who is referring to the burn care for him and his brother, Caper] said the worst pain of all was when they were hosed with salt water. While Caper was so injured he had to lie on a special bed, Joel was able to stand upright in a 5-foot-high tank while the salt-water solution was sprayed on him. 'That hurts. Very, very bad,' Joel said. Some of the burned skin same off, some of it hung there in tatters. Their grandmother sat by their beds and cut off the hanging skin with scissors (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). In a story about a 7-month-old girl who was submersed and held in hot water by her mother's boyfriend, the media highlighted the traumatic injury and recovery the baby had endured. The article said: [The doctor] said that in third degree burns as deep as Elsa's, the skin is like 'a giant culture medium. Her wounds would soon become grossly infected.' For any chance at life, almost all her skin has to be removed. Even the unburned patch on her scalp has been removed and transplanted to cover her chest. In 10 days, her scalp skin will grown back, only to be taken off to cover another area of her body, and again and again until al of her body is covered with her own skin (Clark, 2000, p. B-1). Once the burned skin has been removed and the new skin has been grafted in place, the physical care and pain does not end for burn survivors. An article about a survivor of a plant explosion explained: [A burn survivor] described his therapy sessions as 'like bending your finger as far back as you can the other way until you're ready to scream, and then hold it. They don't do it to each finger; they do every joint. Almost everybody goes out of there crying. You go out of there in tears.' The biggest misconception about being discharged from the hospital is that some people think you're cured. '[For a burn survivor] when you get out of this place you're just getting started' (Rendon, 2000, p A1). Another article addressed the pain associated with the physical rehabilitation following skin grafting. The article said, "Candi will have to go to [the hospital] three times a week for physical therapy. [Her mother] already administers physical therapy to her daughter three times a day, which is painful for the child. 'She screams,' her mother said" (Moritsugu, 1990, p. 1). In addition to physical rehabilitation, burn survivors must also wear pressure garments for months, or maybe even years, depending on the extent of the injury. The media highlighted the restrictive nature of these garments. For example, "He was swathed in an elastic pressure garment covering all but his toes and fingertips for all but one hour a day for a year, and he was unable to straighten his arms for two years" (Fenning, 1990, p. 1). Another article said, "Candi's face, pressed behind a plastic mask, shows evidence of the skin grafts that cover most of her body. She wears the mask and a tight stocking-like body suit nearly 24 hours a day" (Moritsugu, 1990, p. 1). In regard to psychological medical care, it was rare for an article to mention psychological treatment for burn survivors. Although it was a brief article, one article did focus on psychological aspects; however, the article also emphasized the physical trauma and potential for disfigurement. The article began: Burns can scar a victim's body for life. They can also scar the mind and spirit. 'Burns can be extremely painful and extremely disfiguring,' said Dr. Thomas Esposito, a trauma surgeon. 'They cause a great deal of problems with patients' self-image. There may be a loss of ears, noses, fingers, toes. Once the burn is treated, the cosmetic results from skin grafts sometimes leave burn victims with a patchwork-quiltlike appearance on various parts of their bodies, both from the donor sites and the graft sites,' he said. Esposito said burn patients need medical help for pain and disfigurement, and they also need psychological support from their families and friends (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 25). Additionally, the analyzed texts emphasized the lasting, physical disfigurements and impairments that can accompany a burn injury�often another sensational aspect. For example: "'Would you like to look like this?' Romero said, holding up his pale hand. The fingers curl and point in different directions. 'Playing with matches is the worst thing you can do,' Romero said. 'Everything in your life will change'" (Ensslin, 2000, p. 5A). In another example: "Despite being severely disfigured by a fire that burned away his nose, lips, eyelids and fused his hands into fingerless stumps, 4-year-old Jimmy Rosales has an indomitable spirit. The little Nicaraguan boy� recently told his father he was happy, saying, 'Daddy, when I get new hands, I'll be able to grab things again'" (Molina & Weber, 2000, p.5). Although the above des describe Rosales as having an indomitable spirit, the framing exemplifies the boy's physical disfigurement. Additionally, one is left wondering what happened to that spirit when the 4-year-old learned that there is no medical technology capable of giving him back the hands he once had. The analyzed media texts also highlighted the social isolation and taunting that burn survivors may be subjected to as a result of the lasting physical effects of a burn injury�aspects that can also lead to sensational media language: When she daydreams, 12-year-old Latoya Eskridge has only flickering memories of the day an electrical fire engulfed a room in her home, severely burning much of her body. Ten years later, however, the rough scar tissue blanketing her face and body serve as an unwavering reminder of the fire�often eliciting stares and finger-pointing from strangers and other children who have never before encountered a burn victim (Jansen, 2000, p. 01B). In regard to attending a camp specifically for children who are burn survivors, the article quoted Latoya as saying, "'Here, I'm not just the kid with all the scars,' said Latoya, who also lost all the fingers on her left hand in the fire, 'I'm special in a good way when I'm at camp'" (Jansen, 2000, p. 01B). In another example: "John landed in a gas puddle [after a car accident]. He has grown up a patchwork boy of square skin grafts, ragged burn scars and surgical incisions made to stretch his pale scarred skin. John starts a new middle school in the fall and doesn't know how he feels about that. 'It will depend on how many people hate me,' [John said]" (Sullivan, 2000, P. A19). A further section of the same article related the story of another young burn survivor: "When they left the house, his mother would cover his ruined skin with her coat. She didn't send him to school, and eventually overwhelmed, she left�. kids called him crispy critter and butt face, because of the skin grafts�" (Sullivan, 2000, P. A19). The above examples show how the media defined the problem of a burn injury. In defining the problem, the media often used sensational language to frame the issue as one of pain and gore in regard to the injury itself, the medical treatment, and the lasting effects. (2) Diagnosing Causes Although burn injuries happen to individuals from all socio-economic and ethnic backgrounds, in framing the stories of burn survivors, the media tended to emphasize poverty or minority status as the foundation for a burn injury to occur. For example, Jimmy [Rosales] was injured by a fire in his native Nicaragua that killed his 2-year-old brother. The family has been homeless since then� Beatriz DeLopez, who is president of Central American relief, has been working with the Rosales family and other needy children in the region to get them help from the United States. DeLopez and her organization are trying to raise money to help build a new house for the Rosales family so Jimmy will have a stable home� (Molina & Weber, 2000, p.5). Another article about two brothers who both sustained massive burn injuries said: The day their odyssey of pain began was April 19, 1990. It was Easter vacation, and there was nothing to do for a couple of young boys living with their mother in the projects of Galesburg [Illinois]. Caper went across the road to the junkyard and poked around a bit, then went home. Joel wanted to go there, too. First Caper said no, he'd get in trouble. But an hour later he was bored again and agreed to take his 8-year-old brother back with him (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). After detailing the accident and the boys' recovery, the article added: "Their mother, who eventually had six children by three fathers, couldn't manage looking after her injured sons. They wound up in separate foster homes" (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). Another article led with the death of two people, "Alexandria police say that a woman and a man who burned to death Feb. 11 were homeless and were apparently living in a makeshift shelter� The two were intoxicated when they died... A small shack they had apparently built was damaged by fire" (1 Burn Victim Idenitifed, 1990, p. D8). In addition to highlighting low socio-economic status, the media also associated low socio-economic status with violence against women and children as a cause of burn injuries. For example: The seventh-grader has been at Children's [hospital] with severe burns on her face, head and hands since Aug. 31. She was sent home from school early that day with head lice, and the neighbor who cared for her while her parents worked treated it by washing Stephanie's hair with gasoline. The neighbor told investigators she rinsed out the gasoline, but a gas stove later ignited the fumes. Prosecutors are considering whether to file charges against the neighbor. The [girl's family] have no medical insurance; a fund has been set up to help cover the family's expenses (Burn victim to be treated in Boston, 2000, p. B-03). In an article about a 7-month-old girl who was submersed and held in hot water by her mother's boyfriend, the media highlighted the low socio economic status of the family as well as the violence against the child. The article said, "Waiting outside the burn unit, Elsa's mother is trying to understand how this could have happened. She had left the baby with her boyfriend to run an errand, and when she returned she found Elsa 'red and just lying there on the couch.' The baby's father is in prison" (Clark, 2000, p. B-1). Another article said: David Aupont, the 12-year-old Brooklyn, N.Y., boy witnesses say was set on fire for refusing to smoke crack, is recovering from life-threatening burns as money and good wishes continue to pour in. Witnesses say David was walking to school March 7 when a 13-year-old bully ordered him to smoke crack. When David refused, the bully, who has been charged in juvenile court, dragged him into a garage, tied his hands behind his back, beat him with a bat, threw gas on him and set him on fire (Frankel, 1990, p.2A). The lead in the story of a criminal trial against a man who lit his girlfriend on fire said, "Before he soaked her with gasoline ad set her ablaze, Raymond Shaw issued a chilling warning to his girlfriend. 'If I can't have you, no one else will" (Darby, 2000, p. B2). The article later added that the woman was a single mother and that the couple had a history of domestic abuse. In diagnosing causes, these examples highlight the media's framing of the cause of burn injuries as lower socio-economic or minority status. Additionally, media frames related lower socio-economic or minority status with either child or domestic abuse as the foundation for a burn injury to occur. (3) Making Moral Judgments Sadly, many burn survivors are children. The primary causes of burn injuries to children are accidents or intentional physical abuse. In the case of accidental burns, there were instances of the media making moral judgments by placing blame on the children themselves, as illustrated in this lead: "Caper Brown was 10, and he was bored. So he walked across the street to a junkyard and did dumb stuff, so dumb it triggered a fire that cost him his arms, his legs, his ears, his lower lip and very nearly his life" (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 24). The lead of another article also placed blame on the child: "The 3-year-old girl was burned over 90 percent of her body May 15 after she set her bed on fire with a cigarette lighter" (Moritsugu, 1990, p. 1). In two articles about burn camps an element of blame was also placed on young burn survivors. An article about a burn camp in the Pacific Northwest said, "This is summer camp for burn survivors, for the kids who ran when their clothes caught fire and for those who couldn't escape� when the bed, or the nylon blanket or the bathwater burned them" (Sullivan, 2000, p. A19). Another article about a Texas burn camp said, "[Margery] was different. When she was 4 years old, she caught her pajamas on fire playing with matches and burned 30 percent of her body. Her scars are a legacy of pain" (Griffin, 1990, p. 4). The previous examples illustrate how the media made moral judgments in regard to burn injuries. In the case of accidental burn injuries involving children, the analyzed articles framed the issue by placing blame on the children themselves, thereby making moral judgments about burn injuries and people who sustain burn injuries. (4) Suggesting Remedies In the articles analyzed, the media did not emphasize remedies in regard to burn injuries. Although prevention was mentioned occasionally, it was not a standard for all articles. Other remedies, such as psychological care and medical research, were included, but they also did not receive a strong media focus. Overall, however, psychological care and medical research were framed as remedies. The articles about burn camps for children were the primary articles in which the psychological needs of burn survivors were addressed. A 1990 article focused on the importance of burn camps and the efforts of one burn survivor to begin a camp in Florida. The article included a quote from the survivor, "'It's so important that children have a place to go where they can feel normal,' Ms. Pierson said" (Griffin, 1990, p. 4). A brief article about a fundraiser for sending kids to burn camp said, "The camp provides an opportunity for youngsters to interact with other burn victims and to cope with public reaction to burn scars" (Firefighter team to play, 2000, p. B3). Another article about burn camp said, "the camp was designed as a haven for young burn victims struggling with both growing pains and the stigma of their physical injuries" (Jansen, 2000, p. 01B). An additional brief article about another burn camp said, "The camp tries to help kids with the social and emotional scars that severe burns can create" (Camp for soothing, 2000, p. 1B). In regard to medical research, a January 2000 study in the Journal of the American Medical Association received attention in only two newspapers: USA Today and The Times-Picayune. The study, which investigated the quality of life for children who had sustained a massive burn injury, was based on interviews with 80 burn survivors, who had sustained burns to at least 70 percent of their body as children. While the USA Today article was about 1,000 words, the Times-Picayune article was only about 200 words. Both articles mentioned that the study was prompted due to ethical concerns about quality of life given that technological advancements now allow doctors to save most children who are severely burned. The USA Today article quoted Robert Sheridan, one of the study's coordinators as saying, "'We wanted to make sure we were doing the right thing in saving these children'" (Villalva, 2000, p. 8D). The Times-Picayune article said: Technology has now enabled doctors to save children burned over more than 70 percent of their bodies, raising ethical concerns about the life these children may lead. 'It has been argued that the results are so dismal that these children should be allowed to die with dignity,' doctors from Shriners Burn Hospital for Children and Harvard Medical School in Boston wrote" (Young burn victims succeed, 2000, p. C08). Although each article reported slightly different statistics from the study, they both reported the same overall conclusion. The brief Times-Picayune article ended with a quote from the study: "'These data show that treatment of massively burned children is not routinely followed by poor quality of life'" (Young burn victims succeed, 2000, p. C08). The USA Today article, which included much greater detail and also included quotes from young burn survivors, indicated that the research study concluded that "survivors of massive burns can have a good life despite cosmetic and functional impairments" (Villalva, 2000, p. 8D). Unlike the Times-Picayune article, the USA Today article also mentioned that there are people who are "concerned that many people will be mislead by the study's conclusions" and that "'there are those survivors who will fall through the cracks'" (Villalva, 2000, p. 8D). Additionally, the USA Today article included preliminary results from another medical study that agreed that "most burn survivors do relatively well" (Villalva, 2000, p. 8D). However, the study also found that, "Preliminary results indicate that the degree of the loss and trauma will affect a person's recovery: The more devastating the injury, the less favorable the outcome will be" (Villalva, 2000, p. 8D). The USA Today article also included a sidebar listing Web sites and books available to help burn survivors cope with loss and grief. In all articles analyzed in both 1990 and 2000, this was the only mention of such resources. Suggesting remedies did not receive media emphasis in the analyzed articles. Psychological care did emerge as a media frame, but, as was mentioned previously, it received far less focus than did physical medical care. And although a medical study was released in 2000 that could have implications for burn recovery and care, it was only mentioned in two articles. Additionally, the remedy that emerged from the media frames in those two articles essentially said that people who have been severely burned do not necessarily have a poorer quality of life; therefore, the lasting physical disfigurement associated with a burn injury is, after all, not a real problem. The findings presented in this research paper came from the text analysis of the 1990 and 2000 print media stories of those who had sustained a burn injury. The findings presented examples of media use of Patterson and Witten's three dimensions of disabling language. Additionally, the findings section presented examples of the media's frames in defining the problem, diagnosing causes, making moral judgments, and suggesting remedies in the news stories of people who have sustained a burn injury. Analysis As previous research has indicated that the news media have both the ability to influence public stereotypes of people with disabilities and that the news media can contribute to the psycho-emotional oppression of those with disabilities, this research explored how the news media are telling the stories of burn injuries. The research first asked: Are the news media using disabling language, as defined by Patterson and Witten, in telling the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury? The results of the study indicated that in both 1990 and 2000 the U.S. print news media used disabling language in telling the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury. Consider the following news lead: "Burns can scar a victim's body for life. They can also scar the mind and spirit" (Rotzoll, 2000, p. 25). In this example, the outdated and demeaning term victim is being used despite the fact that the sentence is referring to people who have survived a burn injury. It seems that the lead could have read, "Burns can scar a person's body for life." This simple change in language creates a sentence that is not only more accurate, but also less psychologically demeaning. After initial text analysis for disabling language, the analysis turned to Entman's (1993) four-part media framing process in which the media (1) define problems, (2) diagnose causes, (3) make moral judgments, and (4) suggest remedies. This part of the analysis answered the research question: What are the news media frames presented in the stories of people who have sustained a burn injury? In considering Entman's guidelines for framing analysis, there were no significant differences in the media frames between the 1990 and 2000 articles.[7] In defining the problem, the analysis found that the media placed particular emphasis on the gruesome aspects and pain as well as the lasting physical disfigurement of a burn injury. While the media did mention psychological medial care, a much greater emphasis was placed on the graphic details of the physical medical care involved in treating a person who has sustained a burn injury. In the media diagnoses of the causes of burn injuries, explosions, fires, and car accidents were mentioned; however, in framing the stories of burn survivors, the media tended to emphasize lower socio-economic or minority status as the underlying cause for someone who sustained a burn injury. Additionally, media frames linked lower socio-economic or minority status with violence against women and children as underlying causes for burn injuries. What was most evident in regard to moral judgment were the instances of the media placing blame on the young children who sustained a burn injury. Granted, there is an age at which a child should know that fire can be dangerous; however, there were analyzed articles made references to children under the age of five starting fires or lighting themselves on fire. One could argue that in no way does a 3-year-old who has access to a lighter understand the possible repercussions of playing with that lighter. The media did not emphasize remedies in regard to burn injuries; although psychological care and medical research were framed as possible remedies. Finally, the research asked: Are the news media frames used in telling the stories of burn injuries contributing to the psycho-emotional oppression of people who have sustained a burn injury? This research argues that it is not physical impairments that are disabling most burn survivors today. Instead, the disabling limitation facing burn survivors is the public stigma associated with having a burn injury and that the news media frames used in telling the stories of burn survivors are reinforcing the public stigma, thereby contributing to the psycho-emotional oppression of people who have sustained a burn injury. Consider the following example: "Nearly 70 young burn victims, ages 7 to 17, roam the camp's grounds, enthusiastically taking on a laundry list of activities found at a typical summer camp. Even those with amputated limbs or fingers can go canoeing, launch water-balloon wars, learn karate, ride horseback, splash around in the water or ascend a 40-foot climbing wall and a high ropes course. 'We don't have any limitations here,' [the camp co-director] said. 'Whatever it is, we'll work around it'" (Jansen, 2000, p. 01B). This example is indicative of disabling language through media use of the phrase burn victim. The article in this example is about the perseverance of young survivors, who, in addition to having endured insurmountable physical trauma and pain, are learning to live life as a person with a lasting physical disfigurement. Yet the article refers to them as victims. Considering the implications of the social relational model of disability, it is disabling language such as this as well as media frames that emphasize the sensational aspects of burn injuries that create psycho-emotional oppression. Additionally, the findings of this study have implications for burn survivor advocacy groups. The study's findings indicate that either these advocacy groups are not getting their messages of survival to the media or that the media is not responding to these messages. As such, burn survivor advocacy groups should consider conducting an evaluation of their media materials and media relations practices. Additionally, future research could consider how the media are responding to the messages of other medical or survivor advocacy groups. Of all 77 articles analyzed, only one article emphasized the difference in the phrases burn survivor and burn victim. What is even more interesting about this finding was that it was a 1990 rather than a 2000 article. The article said: "Ms. Pierson is a burn survivor herself. She stresses the word survivor. 'We're not victims, we're survivors,' she said. 'We've been to hell and back and made it. We survived the flames'" (Griffin, 1990, p. 4). It seems only right that the media should reflect this distinction in telling the stories of those who have not only faced the flames but survived the flames. References 1 burn victim identified. (1990, February 22). The Washington Post, p. D8. Auslander, G. K. & Gold, N. (1999). Disability terminology in the media: a comparison of newspaper reports in Canada and Israel. Social Science & Medicine, 48(10), 1395. Barnes, C. & Mercer, G. (Eds.). (2004). Implementing the Social Model of Disability: Theory and Research. Leeds, England: The Disability Press. Barnes, C., Mercer, G., & Shakespeare, T. (1999). Exploring Disability: A Sociological Introduction. Leeds, England: The Disability Press. Bortnick, B. & Hethcock, B. (2000, January 30). Burn victim seen as hero, monster. The Times-Picayune, p. A04. Burn Survivors Online. Accessed multiple times between January 2005 and March 2005 (http://www. burnsurvivorsonline.com/statistics/). Burn victim to be treated in Boston. (2000, September 9). The Denver Post, p. B-03. Camp for soothing burn victims' scars. (2000, June 8). St. Petersburg Times, p. 1B. Clark, C. (2000, June 30). Tiny burn victim fights to survive. The San Diego-Union Tribune, p. B-1. Darby, J. (2000, January 27). Boyfriend was jealous, burn victim says; burning case expected to go to jury today. The Times-Picayune, p. B2. Davies, T. (1994). Disabled by society? Sociology Review, 3(4), 15-19. Ensslin, J. C. (2000, May 22). Kids find the truth about fire hurts, burn victim spreads word to children who have been caught starting blazes. Denver Rocky Mountain News, p. 5A. Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: contrasts in narratives of the KAL and Iran Air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51-58. Fenning, E. T. (1990, May 7). Alive and helping others. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. 1. Firefighter team to play in a tourney for charity. (2000, August 17). The Seattle Times, p. B3. Frankel, B. (1990, May 16). Bully's burn victim overcoming the odds. USA Today, p. 2A. Gamson, W. A. (1989). News as framing. American Behavioral Scientist, 33, 157-61. Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1-37. Gest, E. & Fine, M. J. (2000, January 21). Painful, difficult recovery for burn victims. Daily News, p. 30. Gitlin, T. (1980). The Whole World is Watching. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Greenberg, B. S. & Brand, J. S. (1994). Minorities and the mass media: 1970s to 1990s. In Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillman (Eds.), Media Effects: Advanced in Theory and Research (pp. 273-314). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Griffin, L. (1990, June 13). Working to help others to play Camp lets burn survivors 'just be kids.' St. Petersburg Times, p. 4. Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Jansen, C. (2000, August 17). Just one of the Kids; For a week at camp, your burn victims' scars don't set them apart. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, p. 01B. Lester, P.M. & Ross, S. D. (Eds.). (2003). Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media. Westport, CT: Prager Paperback. Lester, P.M. & Harris, S. D. (2002). Visual Journalism: A Guide for New Media Professionals. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Life Span Institute. Accessed multiple times between February 2005 and March 2005 (http http://www.lsi.ku.edu/lsi/index.htm). Lynch, R. T., Thuli, K., & Groombridge, L. (1994). Person-first disability language: a pilot analysis of public perceptions. The Journal of Rehabilitation, 60(2), 18-22. McCombs, M. and Bell, T. (1996). The agenda-setting role of mass communication. In Michael B. Salwen and Don W. Stacks (Eds.), An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research (pp. 93-110). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. McCombs, M and Reynolds, A. (2002). News influence on our pictures of the world. In Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 1-18). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Molina, E. & Weber, D. (2000, July 28). Local hospital offers hope to young urn victim. The Boston Herald, p. 5. Moritsugu, K. (1990, August 3). Burn victim home after treatment. St. Petersburg Times, p. 1. Nelson, J. A. (2000). The media role in building the disability community. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 15(3), 180-193. Oliver, M. (1990). The Politics of Disablement. London: Macmillan. Oliver, M. (2004). The social model in action: If I had a hammer. In Colin Barnes and Geof Mercer (Eds.), Implementing the Social Model of Disability: Theory and Research (pp. 18-31). Leeds, England: The Disability Press. Personal Communication. Amy Acton, Executive Director of the Phoenix Society. March 4, 2005. Patterson, J.B. & Witten, B.J. (1987). Disabling language and attitudes toward persons with disabilities. Rehabilitation Psychology, 32(4), 245-248. Reeve, D. (2004). Psycho-emotional dimensions of disability and the social model. In Colin Barnes and Geof Mercer (Eds.), Implementing the Social Model of Disability: Theory and Research (pp. 83-100). Leeds, England: The Disability Press. Rendon, R. (2000, June 26). Surviving an inferno; Days full of pain for burn victims of Phillips explosion. The Houston Chronicle, p. A1. Rotzoll, B. W. (2000, October 10). Burn victim soothes pain by sharing story. Chicago Sun-Times, p. 24. Rotzoll, B. W. (2000, October 10). Scars not just on surface. Chicago Sun-Times, p. 25. Scheufele, D. A. (2000). Agenda-setting, priming, and framing revisited: Another look at cognitive effects of political communication. Mass Communication & Society, 3(2&3), 297-316. Sullivan, J. (2000, July 16). Spirits rising: Children find respite from fright, stares and ostracism in a shared camaraderie at Camp Phoenix, where they can be themselves among others also scarred by fire. The Sunday Oregonian, p. A19. Thomas, C. (1999). Female Forms: Experiencing and Understanding Disability. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. UPIAS. (1976). Fundamental Principles of Disability. London: Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation. Villalva, M. (2000, January 31). Surviving severe burns care, family support are salves for rebuilding lives. USA Today, p. 8D. Young burn victims succeed. (2000, January 24). The Times-Picayune, p. C08. [1] In 2001, The Research and Training Center for Independent Living, a national organization designed to address advocacy, services, and interventions that enhance independent living for people with disabilities, published the sixth edition of its guidelines for the media and others who write and report about people with disabilities. These guidelines "explain preferred terminology and offer suggestions for appropriate ways to describe people with disabilities based on input from more than 100 national disability organizations" (Life Span Institute). These guidelines have been reviewed and endorsed by media and disability experts across the country and portions of the guidelines are included in the Associated Press Stylebook (Life Span Institute). Although these guidelines provide terminology for a variety of disease and disabilities, no terminology guidance is provided for anything relating to burn injuries. [2] Although more than 77 articles were located initially, not all articles used the phrase burn survivor or burn victim in reference to the stories of those who had sustained a burn injury. Additionally, some articles were found to be duplicates, and only articles from print media sources within the U.S. were used. [3] Although the Americans with Disabilities Act does not have any specific provisions for the use of terminology, the passage of the Act marks a distinct time period in which the government and the media were becoming succinctly aware of the rights of those with disabilities. [4] As a form of quality assurance, a hard copy of all articles was kept as well as the analysis notes. [5] This particular topic is of personal interest to me as I am active member of the burn survivor community. Although this research is of personal interest to me, academic research has done little in the way of framing studies of disability; therefore, more research such as this is needed in our body of knowledge. [6] Several of the examples Lester and Harris site are provided here, not to lend credence to these stereotypes as truth, but to provide examples of the types of media stereotypes in question. [7] The only notable difference between the 1990 and 2000 articles was the sheer difference in the volume of articles written between the two time periods. While Lexis-Nexis located only 11 relevant articles in 1990 using either burn survivor or burn victim as search phrases, 66 articles were located in 2000. This clearly indicates a stronger focus by the news media on burn injuries in the year 2000.
Back to: Top of Message | Previous Page | Main AEJMC Page


text:
Philadelphia, PA Metro >
Kulpsville >
Hotels >
1735 Sumneytown Pike, Kulpsville, PA 19443
Sign in with Facebook Sign in with Facebook to see what your friends are up to!
Get the Citysearch Mobile app so you can spend less time searching for great places, and more time enjoying them.
Get it Now

subset: commoncrawl


text:
2009 Flashy Chesnut RPSI Gelding
2009 Chesnut Gelding with 4 white socks and a blaze. Very fancy to look at. Also an extreamly nice mover. Very tall (about 16h) as a 2 year old, will be 16+hands. Been handled daily. He has nice ground manners. Will pick up all 4 feet and stan ... more
For Sale: $6,000
Ad Updated 5/25/2012 3:49:48 AM
Annabell Very Fancy Dressage Mare
Very Fancy Dressage Mare Nicely started showing great potential with Freedom and regularity of gaits. ... more
For Sale: Private Treaty
Ad Updated 5/25/2012 3:49:42 AM
Very Fancy Friesian Sport Horse Mare
Beautiful Bay Freisian Sport Horse Fancy Gaits Mare ... more
Ad Updated 5/25/2012 3:49:50 AM
2004 Irish Sport Horse Mare For Sale
Extreamly fancy Irish sport horse. Working in Dressage and jumping. Working in First level but has an automatic lead change. Jet black, 16.2 hands. Irish Draught Sire is FEI famous Braveheart. Thoroughbred Dam Citta De Amor. Please call Mary at ... more
Ad Updated 5/25/2012 3:47:41 AM
Fantastic Dutch Gelding
My Valentine is a very fancy Dutch Gelding. He is suitable for jumping at level 5. He would also look very nice in the hunter ring. He is located in Richmond Texas. For more details and breeding offers please contact: Mary Goldberg - 281-344-0828 ... more
Sold/Listed at: $24,000
Ad Updated 7/5/2008 3:50:40 AM
Lovely son of the fantastic stallion Valentino
See more photos at: http://groups.msn.com/Nemoforsale/shoebox.msnw Wonderful dutch colt Priced to sell at $5,000.00 ... more
Sold/Listed at: $4,000
Ad Updated 4/15/2007 9:49:37 AM
Fantastic jumping schoolmaster!
Registered Appendix, 16 hands, Riley is an enthusiastic jumper with great form! He has excellent ground manners, and has a very nice work ethic. He loves quiet riders who let him do his job - take advantage of his skill! ... more
Sold/Listed at: $3,000
Ad Updated 9/25/2005 4:38:38 PM
http://spaces.msn.com/creekcolonyranch/photos/ http://groups.msn.com/Vanessaforsale/shoebox.msnw?Page=Last HERD REDUCTION! ALL REASONABLE OFFERS CONSIDERED! MUST SELL TO MAKE ROOM FOR SPRING BABIES! Elegant mover, soft and easy temperment with exc ... more
Sold/Listed at: $20,000
Ad Updated 4/15/2007 10:17:23 AM
See more photos at: http://groups.msn.com/Winsomeforsale/shoebox.msnw?Page=Last HERD REDUCTION! ALL REASONABLE OFFERS CONSIDERED Elegant mover, soft and easy temperment with excellent ground manners. 16'2 and growing fast!Well established ground-wo ... more
Sold/Listed at: $12,000
Ad Updated 5/5/2010 8:31:17 AM
Very Fancy Dutch Gelding Show Jumper Or Hunter
"If you are looking for a show jumper that can take you to the top. Valentino is a beautiful gelding with a lot of Power over the jumps. He has been shown with good results up to level 5 jumper. He could also make a a nice hunter. You can contact ... more
Ad Updated 7/5/2008 11:44:24 AM
See more photos at: New Pictures http://spaces.msn.com/creekcolonyranch/photos/ http://groups.msn.com/Victoriaforsale/shoebox.msnw?Page=Last REDUCING HERD! PRICE REDUCED! ALL REASONABLE OFFERS CONSIDERED! Elegant mover, soft and easy temperment wit ... more
Ad Updated 4/15/2007 10:17:51 AM
SEE MORE PHOTOS AT: http://groups.msn.com/PORSCHEFORSALE/shoebox.msnw?Page=Last FANTASTIC HUNTER JUMPER PROSPECT! LOVELY HANNOVERIAN /TRAKEHNER CROSS MARE WITH OUTSTANDING FORM OVER FENCES! ... more
Ad Updated 9/25/2005 4:40:15 PM


text:
Login | Join
Interviews Featured Content
All Interviews Articles
Lessons RSS
Lessons Featured Content
All Lessons Articles
Gear RSS
Gear Featured Content
All Gear Articles
Girls Featured Content
All Girls Articles
War at the Warfield, Still Reigning and, for the first time ever, 1995's Live Intrusion will be made available on DVD.
Former Celtic Frost frontman Tom Gabriel Warrior's new band is touring in support of debut Eparistera Daimones.
The psychedelic country artist will be hitting the road this fall in support of his latest record, Black Ribbons.
The '99-00 New Year's Eve show features the original Mule lineup, blues legend Little Milton and the Black Crowes' Audley Freed.
The Swedish extreme progressive metal band will release In Live Concert at the Royal Albert Hall on September 21.
This reissue celebrates the 20th anniversary of Pantera's major label debut, and will include a previously unreleased song.
Vocalist Stephen Pearcy was recently forced to cancel a string of dates to undergo emergency hernia surgery.
'Couldn't Stand the Weather: Legacy Edition' commemorates the 20th anniversary year of the passing of legendary guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan.
The Megadeth mastermind will also be travelling across the U.S. signing copies of his upcoming book, Mustaine: A Heavy Metal Memoir.
In a statement issued on his Facebook page, Waters revealed that Gilmour will join him to play the Pink Floyd classic "Comfortably Numb."
Buy it now! Now on the iPad


text:
Spring Bloom Flared Shirt Dress
White Lies
Machine Gun Stretch Trousers
Kitted Out
Safari Chair
A cute pair of shorts will show off this season's most beautiful blouses. Denim cut-offs give silky tops a sports-luxe feel and high-waisted shorts are a must for fans of city tailoring. Cue a heatwave in distressed and embroidered styles paired with a simplemarl sweater.
Metalika Shorts £75.00
Bonser Checked Shorts £65.00
Indigo Python Shorts £65.00
Angelique Shorts £50.00


text:
- Share
Who is the author of "A Communication to My Friends"? |
Richard Wagner (German composer) is the author of "A Communication to My Friends" |
Dive Deeper
Richard Wagner (German composer)
German dramatic composer and theorist whose operas and music had a revolutionary influence on the course of Western music, either by extension of his discoveries or reaction against them. Among his major...


text:
HEALTH CARE: RN/LPN - NEW GRADS WELCOME Private Duty Nursing F/T Night Shifts, P/T Day Night Shifts Tumwater/Yel More info |
CUSTOMER SERVICE: F/T MAINTENANCE POSITION $10/hr with benefits. Must live onsite have flexible hours. Experience pre More info |
MANAGEMENT: Faculty Accounting / Business Management, Grays Harbor College. Full-Time, Tenure Track. For more in More info |
HEALTH CARE: DIETICIAN Part-time Dietitian needed for Pediatric Clinic to run a weight management clinic. Competi More info |
HEALTH CARE: Part-time Dietitian needed for Pediatric Clinic to run a weight management clinic. Competitive wage More info |
ACCOUNTING: REIMBURSEMENT ACCOUNT SPECIALIST Excellent communication and public relations skills, great computer More info |
EDUCATION: Watershed Coordinator and Lead Entity Coordinator, Grays Harbor College. Full-Time, Exempt. For more More info |
HEALTH CARE: Olympics West a premier provider of Assisted Living and Retirement services is currently recruiting More info |
MANAGEMENT: NOW HIRING Income Audit Manager Minimum three years of accounting/auditing experience in Casino or h More info |
HEALTH CARE: Roo-Lan Healthcare Center Long Term Care Facility Now Accepting Applications for Registered Nurse - More info |