text:
Macedonia (Roman province)
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The Roman province of Macedonia (Latin: Provincia Macedoniae, Greek: Επαρχία Μακεδονίας) was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon, the last Ancient King of Macedon in 148 BC, and after the four client republics ("tetrarchy") established by Rome in the region were dissolved. The province incorporated ancient Macedonia, with the addition of Epirus, Thessaly, and parts of Illyria, Paeonia and Thrace. This created a much larger administrative area, to which the name of 'Macedonia' was still applied.
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After the reforms of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, Epirus Vetus was split off, and sometime in the 4th century, the province of Macedonia itself was divided into Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north. These provinces were all subordinate to the Diocese of Macedonia, one of three dioceses which were included in the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, organized in 318. When the Prefecture was divided between the Western and Eastern Empires in 379, the Macedonian provinces were included in Eastern Illyricum. With the permanent division of the Empire in 395, Macedonia passed to the East, which would evolve into the Byzantine Empire.
Epirus Vetus[edit]
This section requires expansion. (September 2009) |
Epirus vetus or Old Epirus was a province in the Roman Empire that corresponded to the region of Epirus. Between 146 BC and 395, it was incorporated into the Roman province of Macedonia.The capital[2] of Epirus vetus was Nicopolis, a city founded by Octavian in memory of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
Epirus Nova[edit]
Epirus nova or New Epirus or Illyria Graeca[3][4][5] or Illyris proper was a province of the Roman Empire established by Diocletian (284-311) during his restructuring of provincial boundaries. The province, belonged to the Roman province of Macedonia.[6][7] Later it became a theme[8] of the Byzantine empire. Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus) was established as the capital of Epirus nova.[9] The region of Epirus Nova corresponded[10] to a part of Illyria that was now was "partly Hellenic and partly Hellenized".[11] The area was the line of division[12] between the provinces of Illyricum and Macedonia.The area suffered from terrible earthquakes.
The Ostrogoths led by Theodoric were stopped in Epirus nova by Sabinianus.[13] They entered in 479, where they remained until 482.[14]
Macedonia Prima[edit]
Macedonia Prima ("first Macedonia") was a province encompassing most of the kingdom of Macedonia, coinciding with most of the modern Greek region of Macedonia, and had Thessalonica as its capital.
Macedonia Salutaris[edit]
Also known as Macedonia Secunda ("second Macedonia") was a province encompassing partially Dardania and the whole of Paeonia, the second being most of the present-day Republic of Macedonia. The town of Stobi located to the junction of the Erigón and Axiós rivers, which was the former capital of Paeonia, arose later in the capital city of Macedonia Salutaris ("advantageous Macedonia").
The reign of Augustus began a long period of peace, prosperity and wealth for Macedonia, although its importance in the economic standing of the Roman world diminished when compared to its neighbor, Asia Minor.
The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor.
The improvement of the living conditions of the productive classes brought about an increase in the number artisans and craftspeople to the region. Stonemasons, miners, blacksmiths, etc. were employed in every kind of commercial activity and craft. Greek people were also widely employed as tutors, educators and doctors throughout the Roman world.
The export economy was based essentially on agriculture and livestock, while iron, copper, and gold along with such products as timber, resin, pitch, hemp, flax and fish were also exported. Another source of wealth was the kingdom's ports, such as Dion, Pella, Thessalonica, Cassandreia.[15]
Notable individuals[edit]
- Damon of Thessalonica 2nd century BC
Saints and Clerics[edit]
- Lydia of Thyatira, 1st century AD
- Aristarchus of Thessalonica, 1st century
- Epaphroditus, first bishop of Philippi
- Gaius, first Bishop of Thessalonica
- Onesimus, first bishop of Beroea
- Agathopous, deacon
- Theodulus, Lector
- Matrona of Thessalonica
- Agape, Chionia, and Irene(died 304)
- Saint Demetrius, patron saint of the city of Salonika, martyred in 306.
- Demophilus of Constantinople (died 386), Bishop, born in Thessalonica
- Craterus of Amphipolis (c. 100-30 BC) Rhapsode winner in Amphiarian games[16]
- Phaedrus of Pieria (c. 15 BC – c. 50 AD), fabulist
- Antipater of Thessalonica (late 1st century BC), epigrammatic poet and governor of the city
- Philippus of Thessalonica (late 1st century AD), epigrammatic poet and compiler of the Greek Anthology
- Archias, epigrammatist
- Antiphanes (late 1st century), epigrammatist
- Parmenio (late 1st century), epigrammatist
- Criton of Pieria, historian
- Polyaenus, (2nd century), military writer
- Stobaeus (5th century), anthologist of Greek authors
- Macedonius of Thessalonica (6th century), epigrammatist of Greek Anthology
- Athryilatus of Thasos
- Alexander of Pella
- Damian of Thessalonica
- Anthemius of Edessa
- Paul of Philippi
- Theodorus of Kato Kleines,Florina
- C. Iulius Nicetas of Lyke (Lyki) in Pella
- Aurelius Isidorus of Thessalonica
- Sextus Iulius Chariton of Amphipolis
- Servia of Thessalonica
- Pubicius Lalus and Publicius Hermias of Beroea
- Aelius Nicolaus of Edessa
- Aptus of Dion[17]
See also[edit]
- ^ A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, By Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, page 549
- ^ The visible past: Greek and Roman history from archaeology 1960-1990 by Michael Grant, 1990, ISBN 0-684-19124-5, page 98
- ^ The Loeb Editor's Notes, 28 Nova Epirus or Illyris Graeca
- ^ A new classical dictionary of Greek and Roman biography, mythology, and geography: partly based upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology by Sir William Smith,1851,page 392
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia - Durazzo
- ^ Handbook of Ancient Geography and History by Ptz Wilhelm, ISBN 1-113-19974-1, The (734) southern portion, or Illyria Graeca, belonged to the province of Macedonia.
- ^ Atlas of Classical History by R. Talbert, 1989, page 175: "... divided the diocese of Moesia into two, styled Thracia and Macedonia, the latter consisting of the provinces from Epirus Nova and Macedonia southward. But there is evidence that Constantine considered ..."
- ^ Encyclopedia of ancient Greece by Nigel Guy Wilson, 2006, ISBN 0-415-97334-1, page 246
- ^ Hendry, p. 299. The geography is entirely correct for Servius' time, since Diocletian's rearrangement of provincial boundaries included the creation of the province of Epirus Nova out of southern Illyricum with Dyrrachium (=Epidamnus) as its capital.
- ^ Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992,ISBN 0-631-19807-5,Page 210
- ^ Athanassakis, A.N. (1977), "N.G.L. Hammond, Migrations and Invasions in Greece and Adjacent Areas (review)", American Journal of Philology 99: 263–6, JSTOR 293653
- ^ Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas by Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, 1976, ISBN 0-8155-5047-2, page 54: The line of division between Illyricum and the Greek area Epirus nova
- ^ A history of the Ostrogoths by Thomas S. Burns,1991,ISBN 0-253-20600-6,page 63
- ^ Epirus Vetus: The Archaeology of a Late Antique Province (Duckworth Archaeology) by William Bowden, 2003, ISBN 0-7156-3116-0, 2003, page 196
- ^ Macedonia - Province of the Roman Empire
- ^ Amphiareion — c. 80-50 BC Epigraphical Database
- ^ *ref www.phl.uoc.gr/eulimene/eulimene03.pdf


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text:
Kaddish and Chatzi Kaddish
Concepts include: names/attributes of God, mitzvah, gender issues, and God as redeemer.
With a focus on decoding skills, Ramah (level) One introduces the shape of Hebrew letters, the right-to-left direction of Hebrew writing and familiarity with key Hebrew vocabulary words.
With a focus on Hebrew grammar, Ramah (level) 3 introduces the system and function of the Hebrew shorashim (roots), prefixes and suffixes. The main purpose is to prepare students to work independently on the subsequent Ramot (levels).
For Workbooks Ramah 1 and 2 Hebrew Helpers Kit Contains: 1 Alef Advancer (Hebrew learning tool) 5 Learning Strips for the Alef Advancer 1 Hebrew letter and vowel chart 32 Hebrew alef-bet flash cards 10 Hebrew vowel flash cards 4 "What's the Difference?" letter puzzles A five-year Hebrew curriculum for grades two through seven that is based on learning levels and not strictly by grades.
For more information, please see the Mitkadem website.


text:
I thought your coming was imminent every Saturday for three weeks before you arrived. One of those mornings, I woke up and everything seemed brighter and more beautiful. The light streaming in from the skylights. Your daddy's face. Everything seemed to shimmer. We went out for flowers and candles and snacks to celebrate your coming. But you did not arrive that day.
We set up an altar for your birth. On it, Sappho's wood Mother sculpture in the center, surrounded by a circle of stones for the eight directions. Also, the gold bracelet your grandparents gave you, the root chakra gemstone crown, the celestite I dedicated to you, a large rose quartz, the magical candle, and seeds blessed by Amma. The altar cloth came specially from Avalon for you.
Your halmoni came to New York for your birth. I knew I would want my mom with me when you arrived. For many weeks you hovered on the verge of being born, but you held on inside. So she tried to coax you out with some acupuncture needles. The room filled up with a new scent; she said she could smell baby. So we smelled you before we first touched you.
Then, early on an enchanted Sunday morning, bloody show and broken waters. A last hurrah for daddy and me. We waited for contractions, but at noon, everything was still quiet. Anna came over and we had more acupuncture. When she did the tree of life on my sacrum, I could feel your spirit coming in through the needles and filling my womb and your little body. It was so beautiful. I had a first, mild contraction as I was getting off the table. The three of us hung out and ate strawberries.
I asked daddy to start filling the birth pool. Really? he said. YES! I answered. He started kettles on the stove to boil and pumping up the tub. But he was right, we expected maybe we'd be doing this for twelve or more hours, and we didn't want to start too soon…
Kristen, our midwife, still hadn't replied to our texts and phone messages, so we tried her again at another (the right!) number. She picked up! How far apart are the contractions? We didn't know, so we hung up, and halmoni started keeping track.
7:20 - 2 mins
7:25 - 1 - 7:26
7:29 - 2 - 7:31
7:34 - 1 - 7:35
7:37 - 1 - 7:39
7:42 - 1 - 7:43
7:45 - 3 - 7:48
7:49 - 1 - 7:50
We called Kristen back!
Then, I felt you kick off my liver and jacknife yourself into a downward dive. You were so strong even then! So I wanted to push! But Kristen wasn't here yet, and we weren't ready to deliver you by ourselves. So I jumped into the pool instead, and instantly, I felt so good! Bliss.
It was getting dark, and the house felt quiet. Someone lit candles. I pushed and roared few times in the pool. The water was warm, all was perfect.
Then, Kristen came in. She was amazing. She came in quietly, like she was gliding, put her things down, came over to the pool. She did not make a sound. Everything and everyone was quiet. The whole house was hushed. She used the doppler to find your heart beat. It was so beautiful, strong, and steady in the silence. Still no words. She watched me push a couple times more. She felt for your head and she found it. Finally, I asked her how things looked. She said you would be born in a few minutes.
I panicked! I wasn't sure! Was I ready?! A baby!
It wasn't for a few whole minutes before I realized, too late! Here you are! And you're coming!
So I decided, and I pushed for real. Real hard. Daddy came into the pool. In between, I rested my head on his knee. It was so nice. But there was not enough space, so he got out. And then everything happened so fast. He went up to the room to dry off, but I shouted DAN! and he ran down, and so he was there when I pushed from everything I had, and still it wasn't enough, and even though I was out of breath to push with, I kept pushing from a dark place where I found my power lives, and ROARed, and I could feel your head passing through.
Do you want to touch your baby? Kristen asked. She guided my hand down, and I felt your sweet, soft, hairy head for the first time. It was the nicest thing I have ever touched.
I pushed more and more and more, pushing myself inside out and pushing all twenty and a half inches and seven pounds of miraculous you out into the water. Kristen said, Reach down and take your baby. And I did!
I swooped you up from between my legs and sat back and suddenly there you were on my chest. I held you close, and there we were in the birth pool, soaking in a soup full of warm water, amniotic fluid, blood, saliva, a little vomit, a little poop, but no pee. You were so alive and present and vocal and sweet. Your beauty broke my heart. Daddy's too.
You were just born, but somehow, you felt so old and powerful.
It was just after nine that night.


text:
Students with prior drawing experience will expand their visual vocabulary and hone technical skills in this intermediate level drawing class.
Taking a contemporary approach to the art of drawing, this class will focus on the artist's ability to create meaning and convey a concept.
Students will work with traditional drawing materials like graphite, colored pencils and ink as well as experiment with non-traditional drawing materials. This session is part of an eight-week course. For more information, call (412) 361-0873.


text:
Lead | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
metallic gray |
General properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Name, symbol, number | lead, Pb, 82 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pronunciation | /ˈlɛd/ LED | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Element category | post-transition metal | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Group, period, block | 14, 6, p | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight | 207.2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electron configuration | [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 |
History | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Middle Easterns (7000 BC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Physical properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Phase | solid | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Density (near r.t.) | 11.34 g·cm−3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Liquid density at m.p. | 10.66 g·cm−3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Melting point | 600.61 K, 327.46 °C, 621.43 °F | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Boiling point | 2022 K, 1749 °C, 3180 °F | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of fusion | 4.77 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 179.5 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 26.650 J·mol−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Atomic properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Oxidation states | 4, 3, 2, 1 (Amphoteric oxide) |
Electronegativity | 2.33 (Pauling scale) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ionization energies | 1st: 715.6 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2nd: 1450.5 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3rd: 3081.5 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Atomic radius | 175 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Covalent radius | 146±5 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Van der Waals radius | 202 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Miscellanea | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Crystal structure | face-centered cubic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Magnetic ordering | diamagnetic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electrical resistivity | (20 °C) 208 nΩ·m | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thermal conductivity | 35.3 W·m−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thermal expansion | (25 °C) 28.9 µm·m−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Speed of sound (thin rod) | (r.t.) (annealed) 1190 m·s−1 |
Young's modulus | 16 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Shear modulus | 5.6 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bulk modulus | 46 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Poisson ratio | 0.44 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mohs hardness | 1.5 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Brinell hardness | 5.0 HB = 38.3 MPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CAS registry number | 7439-92-1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Most stable isotopes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Main article: Isotopes of lead | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lead is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb (from Latin: plumbum) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft and malleable metal, which is regarded as a heavy metal and poor metal. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid.
Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys, and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the stable elements, although the next higher element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so long (much longer than the age of the universe) that it can be considered stable. Its four stable isotopes have 82 protons, a magic number in the nuclear shell model of atomic nuclei.
Lead, at certain contact degrees, is a poisonous substance to animals, including humans. It damages the nervous system and causes brain disorders. Excessive lead also causes blood disorders in mammals. Like the element mercury, another heavy metal, lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates both in soft tissues and the bones. Lead poisoning has been documented from ancient Rome, ancient Greece, and ancient China.
Lead is a bright and silvery metal with a very slight shade of blue in a dry atmosphere.[1] Upon contact with air, it begins to tarnish by forming a complex mixture of compounds depending on the conditions. The color of the compounds can vary. The tarnish layer can contain significant amounts of carbonates and hydroxycarbonates.[2][3] It has a few characteristic properties: high density, softness, ductility and malleability, poor electrical conductivity compared to other metals, high resistance to corrosion, and ability to react with organic chemicals.[1]
Various traces of other metals change its properties significantly: the addition of small amounts of antimony or copper to lead increases the alloy's hardness and improves corrosion resistance from sulfuric acid.[1] A few other metals also improve only hardness and fight metal fatigue, such as cadmium, tin, or tellurium; metals like sodium or calcium also have this ability, but they weaken the chemical stability.[1] Finally, zinc and bismuth simply impair the corrosion resistance (0.1% bismuth content is the industrial usage threshold).[1] In return, lead impurities mostly worsen the quality of industrial materials, although there are exceptions: for example, small amounts of lead improve the ductility of steel.[1]
Lead has only one common allotrope, which is face-centered cubic, with the lead–lead distance being 349 pm.[4] At 327.5 °C (621.5 °F),[5] lead melts; the melting point is above that of tin (232 °C, 449.5 °F),[5] but significantly below that of germanium (938 °C, 1721 °F).[6] The boiling point of lead is 1749 °C (3180 °F),[7] which is below those of both tin (2602 °C, 4716 °F)[5] and germanium (2833 °C, 5131 °F).[6] Densities increase down the group: the Ge and Sn values (5.23[8] and 7.29 g·cm−3,[9] respectively) are significantly below that of lead: 11.32 g·cm−3.[8]
A lead atom has 82 electrons, having an electronic configuration of [Xe]4f145d106s26p2. In its compounds, lead (unlike the other group 14 elements) most commonly loses its two and not four outermost electrons, becoming lead(II) ions, Pb2+. Such unusual behavior is rationalized by considering the inert pair effect, which occurs because of the stabilization of the 6s-orbital due to relativistic effects, which are stronger closer to the bottom of the periodic table.[10] Tin shows a weaker such effect: tin(II) is still a reducer.[10]
The figures for electrode potential show that lead is only slightly easier to oxidize than hydrogen. Lead thus can dissolve in acids, but this is often impossible due to specific problems (such as the formation of insoluble salts).[11] Powdered lead burns with a bluish-white flame. As with many metals, finely divided powdered lead exhibits pyrophoricity.[12] Toxic fumes are released when lead is burned.
Lead occurs naturally on Earth exclusively in the form of four isotopes: lead-204, -206, -207, and -208.[13] All four can be radioactive as the hypothetical alpha decay of any would be exothermic, but the lower half-life limit has been put only for lead-204: over 1.4×1017 years.[14] This effect is, however, so weak that natural lead poses no radiation hazard. Three isotopes are also found in three of the four major decay chains: lead-206, −207 and −208 are final decay products of uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232, respectively. Since the amounts of them in nature depend also on other elements' presence, the isotopic composition of natural lead varies by sample: in particular, the relative amount of lead-206 varies between 20.84% and 27.78%.[13]
Aside from the stable ones, thirty-four radioisotopes have been synthesized: they have mass numbers of 178–215.[14] Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope of lead, with a half-life of over 107 years. 47 nuclear isomers (long-lived excited nuclear states), corresponding to 24 lead isotopes, have been characterized. The most long-lived isomer is lead-204m2 (half-life of about 1.1 hours).[14]
Chemical reactivity
Lead is classified as a post-transition metal and is also a member of the carbon group. Lead only forms a protective oxide layer although finely powdered highly purified lead can ignite in air. Melted lead is oxidized in air to lead monoxide. All chalcogens oxidize lead upon heating.[15]
Fluorine does not oxidize cold lead. Hot lead can be oxidized, but the formation of a protective halide layer lowers the intensity of the reaction above 100 °C (210 °F). The reaction with chlorine is similar: thanks to the chloride layer, lead persistence against chlorine surpasses those of copper or steel up to 300 °C (570 °F).[15]
Water in the presence of oxygen attacks lead to start an accelerating reaction. The presence of carbonates or sulfates results in the formation of insoluble lead salts, which protect the metal from corrosion. So does carbon dioxide, as the insoluble lead carbonate is formed; however, an excess of the gas leads to the formation of the soluble bicarbonate; this makes the use of lead pipes dangerous.[11] Lead dissolves in organic acids (in the presence of oxygen) and concentrated (≥80%) sulfuric acid thanks to complexation; however, it is only weakly affected by hydrochloric acid and is stable against hydrofluoric acid, as the corresponding halides are weakly soluble. Lead also dissolves in quite concentrated alkalis (≥10%) because of the amphoteric character and solubility of plumbites.[11]
Lead compounds exist mainly in two main oxidation states, +2 and +4. The former is more common. Inorganic lead(IV) compounds are typically strong oxidants or exist only in highly acidic solutions.[10]
Oxides and sulfides
Three oxides are known: lead(II) oxide or lead monoxide (PbO), lead tetroxide (Pb3O4) (sometimes called "minium"), and lead dioxide (PbO2). The monoxide exists as two allotropes: α-PbO and β-PbO, both with layer structure and tetracoordinated lead. The alpha polymorph is red-colored and has the Pb–O distance of 230 pm; the beta polymorph is yellow-colored and has the Pb–O distance of 221 and 249 pm (due to asymmetry).[16] Both polymorphs can exist under standard conditions (beta with small (10−5 relative) impurities, such as Si, Ge, Mo, etc.). PbO reacts with acids to form salts, and with alkalis to give plumbites, [Pb(OH)3]− or [Pb(OH)4]2−.[17] The monoxide oxidizes in air to trilead tetroxide, which at 550 °C (1020 °F) degrades back into PbO.
The dioxide may be prepared by, for example, halogenization of lead(II) salts. Regardless the polymorph, it has a black-brown color. The alpha allotrope is rhombohedral, and the beta allotrope is tetragonal.[17] Both allotropes are black-brown in color and always contain some water, which cannot be removed, as heating also causes decomposition (to PbO and Pb3O4). The dioxide is a powerful oxidizer: it can oxidize hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It does not react with alkaline solution, but reacts with solid alkalis to give hydroxyplumbates, or with basic oxides to give plumbates.[17]
Reaction of lead salts with hydrogen sulfide yields lead monosulfide. The solid has the rocksalt-like simple cubic structure, which it keeps up to the melting point, 1114 °C (2037 °F). When heated in air, it oxidizes to the sulfate and then the monoxide.[18] Lead monosulfide is almost insoluble in water, weak acids, and (NH4)2S/(NH4)2S2 solution is the key for separation of lead from analytical groups I to III ions, tin, arsenic, and antimony. However, it dissolves in nitric and hydrochloric acids, to give elemental sulfur and hydrogen sulfide, respectively.[18] Upon heating under high pressures with sulfur, it gives the disulfide. In the compound, the lead atoms are linked octahedrally with the sulfur atoms.[19] It is also a semiconductor.[20] A mixture of the monoxide and the monosulfide when heated forms the metal.[21]
- 2 PbO + PbS → 3 Pb + SO2
Halides and other salts
Heating lead carbonate with hydrogen fluoride yields the hydrofluoride, which decomposes to the difluoride when it melts. This white crystalline powder is more soluble than the diiodide, but less than the dibromide and the dichloride.[22] The tetrafluoride, a yellow crystalline powder, is unstable.
Other dihalides are obtained upon heating lead(II) salts with the halides of other metals; lead dihalides precipitate to give white orthorhombic crystals (diiodide forms yellow hexagonal crystals). They can also be obtained by direct reaction of their constituent elements at temperature exceeding melting points of dihalides. Their solubility increases with temperature; adding more halides first decreases the solubility, but then increases due to complexation, with the maximum coordination number being 6. The complexation depends on halide ion numbers, atomic number of the alkali metal, the halide of which is added, temperature and solution ionic strength.[23] The tetrachloride is obtained upon dissolving the dioxide in hydrochloric acid; to prevent the exothermic decomposition, it is kept under concentrated sulfuric acid. The tetrabromide may not, and the tetraiodide definitely does not exist.[24] The diastatide has also been prepared.[25]
The metal is not attacked by sulfuric or hydrochloric acids. It dissolves in nitric acid with the evolution of nitric oxide gas to form dissolved Pb(NO3)2.[22] It is a well-soluble solid in water; it is thus a key to receive the precipitates of halides, sulfate, chromate, carbonate, and basic carbonate Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2 salts of lead.[26] |
The best-known compounds are the two simplest plumbane derivatives: tetramethyllead (TML) and tetraethyllead (TEL). The homologs of these, as well as hexaethyldilead (HEDL), are of lesser stability. The tetralkyl derivatives contain lead(IV), where the Pb–C bonds are covalent. They thus resemble typical organic compounds.[27]
Lead readily forms an equimolar alloy with sodium metal that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds of lead such as tetraethyllead.[28] The Pb–C bond energies in TML and TEL are only 167 and 145 kJ/mol; the compounds thus decompose upon heating, with first signs of TEL composition seen at 100 °C (210 °F). The pyrolysis yields of elemental lead and alkyl radicals; their interreaction causes the synthesis of HEDL.[27] TML and TEL also decompose upon sunlight or UV light.[29] In presence of chlorine, the alkyls begin to be replaced with chlorides; the R2PbCl2 in the presence of HCl (a by-product of the previous reaction) leads to the complete mineralization to give PbCl2. Reaction with bromine follows the same principle.[29]
Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread, easy to extract and easy to work with. It is highly malleable as well as easy to smelt. Metallic lead beads dating back to 6400 BCE have been found in Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey.[31] In the early Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic.[32]
The largest preindustrial producer of lead was the Roman economy, with an estimated annual output of 80,000 tonnes, which was typically won as a by-product of extensive silver smelting.[30][33][34]Roman mining activities occurred in Central Europe, Roman Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor and Hispania which alone accounted for 40% of world production.[30]
Roman lead pipes often bore the insignia of Roman emperors (see Roman lead pipe inscriptions). Lead plumbing in the Latin West may have been continued beyond the age of Theoderic the Great into the medieval period.[35] Many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centers. The Romans also used lead in molten form to secure iron pins that held together large limestone blocks in certain monumental buildings.[36] In alchemy, lead was thought to be the oldest metal and was associated with the planet Saturn. Alchemists accordingly used Saturn's symbol (the scythe, ♄) to refer to lead.[37]
Up to the 17th century, tin was often not distinguished from lead: lead was called plumbum nigrum (literally, "black lead"), while tin was called plumbum candidum (literally, "bright lead").[38] Their inherence through history can also be seen in other languages: the word "olovo" means lead in Czech, but in Russian it ("олово") means tin.[39] Lead's symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum for soft metals; the English words "plumbing", "plumber", "plumb", and "plumb-bob" also derive from this Latin root.[40]
Lead production in the US commenced as early as the late 1600s by Indians in the The Southeast Missouri Lead District, commonly called the Lead Belt, is a lead mining district in the southeastern part of Missouri. Significant among Missouri's lead mining concerns in the district was the Desloge Family and Desloge Consolidated Lead Company in Desloge, Missouri and Bonne Terre – having been active in lead trading, mining and lead smelting from 1823 in Potosi to 1929.
Metallic lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead by weight. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4).[41]
Ore processing
Most ores contain less than 10% lead, and ores containing as little as 3% lead can be economically exploited. Ores are crushed and concentrated by froth flotation typically to 70% or more. Sulfide ores are roasted, producing primarily lead oxide and a mixture of sulfates and silicates of lead and other metals contained in the ore.[42] Lead oxide from the roasting process is reduced in a coke-fired blast furnace to the metal.[43] Additional layers separate in the process and float to the top of the metallic lead. These are slag (silicates containing 1.5% lead), matte (sulfides containing 15% lead), and speiss (arsenides of iron and copper). These wastes contain concentrations of copper, zinc, cadmium, and bismuth that can be recovered economically, as can their content of unreduced lead.[42]
Metallic lead that results from the roasting and blast furnace processes still contains significant contaminants of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. The melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air, steam, and sulfur, which oxidizes the contaminants except silver, gold, and bismuth. The oxidized contaminants are removed by drossing, where they float to the top and are skimmed off.[42][44] Since lead ores contain significant concentrations of silver, the smelted metal also is commonly contaminated with silver. Metallic silver as well as gold is removed and recovered economically by means of the Parkes process.[21][42][44] Desilvered lead is freed of bismuth according to the Betterton-Kroll process by treating it with metallic calcium and magnesium, which forms a bismuth dross that can be skimmed off.[42][44] Very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically by means of the Betts process. The process uses anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead in an electrolyte of silica fluoride.[42][44]
Production and recycling
Production and consumption of lead is increasing worldwide. Total annual production is about 8 million tonnes; about half is produced from recycled scrap. The top lead producing countries, as of 2008, are Australia, China, USA, Peru, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, Morocco, South Africa and North Korea.[45] Australia, China and the United States account for more than half of primary production.[46] In 2010[update], 9.6 million tonnes of lead were produced, of which 4.1 million tonnes came from mining.[47]
At current use rates, the supply of lead is estimated to run out in 42 years.[48] Environmental analyst Lester Brown has suggested lead could run out within 18 years based on an extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[49] This may need to be reviewed to take account of renewed interest in recycling, and rapid progress in fuel cell technology. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of lead in use in society is 8 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (20–150 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (1–4 kg per capita).[50]
Elemental form
Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. The term comes from the Roman stylus, called the penicillus, a small brush used for painting.[51] When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite being used was named plumbago (lit. act for lead, or lead mockup).[52][53]
Lead is used in applications where its low melting point, ductility and high density are advantageous. The low melting point makes casting of lead easy, and therefore small arms ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical equipment. It is also inexpensive and denser than other common metals.[54]
Because of its high density and resistance from corrosion, lead is used for the ballast keel of sailboats.[55] Its high density allows it to counterbalance the heeling effect of wind on the sails while at the same time occupying a small volume and thus offering the least underwater resistance. For the same reason it is used in scuba diving weight belts to counteract the diver's natural buoyancy and that of his equipment.[56] It does not have the weight-to-volume ratio of many heavy metals, but its low cost increases its use in these and other applications.
More than half of the US lead production (at least 1.15 million tonnes in 2000) is used for automobiles, mostly as electrodes in the lead–acid battery, used extensively as a car battery.[57]
- PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO2−
4 + 2e– → PbSO4 + 2 H2O
Lead is used as electrodes in the process of electrolysis. It is used in solder for electronics, although this usage is being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally hazardous waste, and in high voltage power cables as sheathing material to prevent water diffusion into insulation. Lead is one of three metals used in the Oddy test for museum materials, helping detect organic acids, aldehydes, and acidic gases. It is also used as shielding from radiation (e.g., in X-ray rooms).[60] Molten lead is used as a coolant (e.g., for lead cooled fast reactors).[61]
Lead is added to brass to reduce machine tool wear. In the form of strips, or tape, lead is used for the customization of tennis rackets. Tennis rackets of the past sometimes had lead added to them by the manufacturer to increase weight.[62] It is also used to form glazing bars for stained glass or other multi-lit windows. The practice has become less common, not for danger but for stylistic reasons. Lead, or sheet-lead, is used as a sound deadening layer in some areas in wall, floor and ceiling design in sound studios where levels of airborne and mechanically produced sound are targeted for reduction or virtual elimination.[63][64] It is the traditional base metal of organ pipes, mixed with varying amounts of tin to control the tone of the pipe.[65][66]
Lead has many uses in the construction industry (e.g., lead sheets are used as architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashing, gutters and gutter joints, and on roof parapets). Detailed lead moldings are used as decorative motifs used to fix lead sheet. Lead is still widely used in statues and sculptures. Lead is often used to balance the wheels of a car; this use is being phased out in favor of other materials for environmental reasons. Owing to its half-life of 22.20 years, the radioactive isotope 210Pb is used for dating material from marine sediment cores by radiometric methods.[67][68][69]
Lead compounds are used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes, notably in the colors red and yellow.[70] Lead is frequently used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic, which coats electrical cords.[71][72]
Lead is used in some candles to treat the wick to ensure a longer, more even burn. Because of the dangers, European and North American manufacturers use more expensive alternatives such as zinc.[73][74]Lead glass is composed of 12–28% lead oxide. It changes the optical characteristics of the glass and reduces the transmission of radiation.[75]
Some artists using oil-based paints continue to use lead carbonate white, citing its properties in comparison with the alternatives. Tetra-ethyl lead is used as an anti-knock additive for aviation fuel in piston-driven aircraft. Lead-based semiconductors, such as lead telluride, lead selenide and lead antimonide are finding applications in photovoltaic (solar energy) cells and infrared detectors.[76]
Lead, in either pure form or alloyed with tin, or antimony is the traditional material for bullets and shot in firearms use.
Former applications
Lead pigments were used in lead paint for white as well as yellow, orange, and red. Most uses have been discontinued due of the dangers of lead poisoning. Beginning April 22, 2010, US federal law requires that contractors performing renovation, repair, and painting projects that disturb more than six square feet of paint in homes, child care facilities, and schools built before 1978 must be certified and trained to follow specific work practices to prevent lead contamination. Lead chromate is still in industrial use. Lead carbonate (white) is the traditional pigment for the priming medium for oil painting, but it has been largely displaced by the zinc and titanium oxide pigments. It was also quickly replaced in water-based painting mediums. Lead carbonate white was used by the Japanese geisha and in the West for face-whitening make-up, which was detrimental to health.[77][78][79]
Lead was the principal component of the alloy used in hot metal typesetting. It was used for plumbing (hence the name) as well as a preservative for food and drink in Ancient Rome. Until the early 1970s, lead was used for joining cast iron water pipes and used as a material for small diameter water pipes.[80]
Tetraethyllead was used in leaded fuels to reduce engine knocking, but this practice has been phased out across many countries of the world in efforts to reduce toxic pollution that affected humans and the environment.[81][82][83][84]
Lead was used to make bullets for slings. Lead was used for shotgun pellets in the US until about 1992 when it was outlawed (for waterfowl hunting only) and replaced by non-toxic shot, primarily steel pellets. In the Netherlands, the use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting was banned in 1993, which caused a large drop in lead emission, from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes in 1995, two years after the ban.[85]
Lead was a component of the paint used on children's toys – now restricted in the United States and across Europe (ROHS Directive). Lead was used in car body filler, which was used in many custom cars in the 1940s–60s. Hence the term Leadsled. Lead is a superconductor with a transition temperature of 7.2 K, and therefore IBM tried to make a Josephson effect computer out of a lead alloy.[86]
Lead was also used in pesticides before the 1950s, when fruit orchards were treated especially against the codling moth.[87] A lead cylinder attached to a long line was used by sailors for the vital navigational task of determining water depth by heaving the lead at regular intervals. A soft tallow insert at its base allowed the nature of the sea bed to be determined, further aiding position finding.[88]
Health effects
Lead is a highly poisonous metal (regardless if inhaled or swallowed), affecting almost every organ and system in the body. The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system, both in adults and children. Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system.[89] Long-term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO2) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. It may also cause weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can severely damage the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure have shown to reduce fertility in males.[90] Lead also damages nervous connections (especially in young children) and cause blood and brain disorders. Lead poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead; but may also occur after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint.[91] It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to have adverse effects on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and the immune system.[92] The component limit of lead (1.0 μg/g) is a test benchmark for pharmaceuticals, representing the maximum daily intake an individual should have. However, even at this low level, a prolonged intake can be hazardous to human beings.[93][94] The treatment for lead poisoning consists of dimercaprol and succimer.[95]
"Fire diamond" for lead granules |
The concern about lead's role in cognitive deficits in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been linked to learning disabilities).[96] Most cases of adult elevated blood lead levels are workplace-related.[97] High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls.[98] Lead has been shown many times to permanently reduce the cognitive capacity of children at extremely low levels of exposure.[99]
During the 20th century, the use of lead in paint pigments was sharply reduced because of the danger of lead poisoning, especially to children.[100][101] By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. Lead use is being further curtailed by the European Union's RoHS directive.[102] Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware,[103] vinyl[104] (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and Chinese brass. Older houses may still contain substantial amounts of lead paint.[104] White lead paint has been withdrawn from sale in industrialized countries, but the yellow lead chromate is still in use. Old paint should not be stripped by sanding, as this produces inhalable dust.[105]
Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acidic drinks, such as fruit juices, have leached lead ions out of the glaze.[106] It has been suggested that what was known as "Devon colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple juice in the manufacture of cider. Lead is considered to be particularly harmful for women's ability to reproduce. Lead(II) acetate (also known as sugar of lead) was used in the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine, and some consider this a plausible explanation for the dementia of many Roman emperors, and, that chronic lead poisoning contributed to the empire's gradual decline. (see Decline of the Roman Empire#Lead poisoning)[107]
Biochemistry of poisoning
In the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the final step in heme synthesis. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and subsequent microcytic anemia.[108] At lower levels, it acts as a calcium analog, interfering with ion channels during nerve conduction. This is one of the mechanisms by which it interferes with cognition. Acute lead poisoning is treated using disodium calcium edetate: the calcium chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetracetic acid (EDTA). This chelating agent has a greater affinity for lead than for calcium and so the lead chelate is formed by exchange. This is then excreted in the urine leaving behind harmless calcium.[109] According to the Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry, a small amount of ingested lead (1%) will store itself in bones, and the rest will be excreted by an adult through urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure. However, only about 32% of lead will be excreted by a child.[110]
Exposure to lead and lead chemicals can occur through inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. Most exposure occurs through ingestion or inhalation; in the U.S. the skin exposure is unlikely as leaded gasoline additives are no longer used. Lead exposure is a global issue as lead mining and lead smelting are common in many countries. Most countries have stopped using lead-containing gasoline by 2007.[111] Lead exposure mostly occurs through ingestion. Lead paint is the major source of lead exposure for children. As lead paint deteriorates, it peels, is pulverized into dust and then enters the body through hand-to-mouth contact or through contaminated food, water or alcohol. Ingesting certain home remedy medicines may also expose people to lead or lead compounds.[111] Lead can be ingested through fruits and vegetables contaminated by high levels of lead in the soils they were grown in. Soil is contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in pipes, lead paint and residual emissions from leaded gasoline that was used before the Environment Protection Agency issue the regulation around 1980.[112] The use of lead for water pipes is problematic in areas with soft or (and) acidic water. Hard water forms insoluble layers in the pipes while soft and acidic water dissolves the lead pipes.[113] Inhalation is the second major pathway of exposure, especially for workers in lead-related occupations. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body, the rate is 20–70% for ingested lead; children absorb more than adults.[111] Dermal exposure may be significant for a narrow category of people working with organic lead compounds, but is of little concern for general population. The rate of skin absorption is also low for inorganic lead.[111]
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- ^ Marino, P. E.; Landrigan, P. J.; Graef, J.; Nussbaum, A.; Bayan, G.; Boch, K.; Boch, S. (1990). "A case report of lead paint poisoning during renovation of a Victorian farmhouse". American Journal of Public Health 80 (10): 1183–1185. doi:10.2105/AJPH.80.10.1183. PMC 1404824. PMID 2119148.
- ^ "CPG Sec. 545.450 Pottery (Ceramics); Import and Domestic – Lead Contamination". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2010-02-02.
- ^ Angier, Natalie (August 21, 2007). "The Pernicious Allure of Lead". New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
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- ^ Laurence, D. R. (1966). Clinical Pharmacology(Third Edition).
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- ^ a b c d "Case Studies in Environmental Medicine Lead (Pb) Toxicity: How are People Exposed to Lead?". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06.
- ^ "Information for the Community Lead Toxicity". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
- ^ Moore, Michael R. (1977). "Lead in drinking water in soft water areas—health hazards". Science of the Total Environment 7 (2): 109–15. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(77)90002-X. PMID 841299.
- Lide, D. R., ed. (2004). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (84th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0484-2.
- Polyanskiy, N. G. (1986). Fillipova, N. A, ed. Аналитическая химия элементов: Свинец [Analytical Chemistry of the Elements: Lead] (in Russian). Nauka.
Further reading
- Keisch, B.; Feller, R. L.; Levine, A. S.; Edwards, R. R. (1967). "Dating and Authenticating Works of Art by Measurement of Natural Alpha Emitters". Science 155 (3767): 1238–1242. Bibcode:1967Sci...155.1238K. doi:10.1126/science.155.3767.1238. PMID 17847535.
- Keisch, B (1968). "Dating Works of Art Through their Natural Radioactivity: Improvements and Applications". Science 160 (3826): 413–415. Bibcode:1968Sci...160..413K. doi:10.1126/science.160.3826.413. PMID 17740234.
- Keisch, B (1968). "Discriminating Radioactivity Measurements of Lead: New Tool for Authentication". Curator 11 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1111/j.2151-6952.1968.tb00884.x.
- Casas, Jose S.; Sordo, Jose, eds. (2006). Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental Impacts and Health Effects. Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-52945-4.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lead |
Look up lead in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Lead at the Open Directory Project
- Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Lead
- Lead at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
- Lead-Free Wheels
- National Lead Free Wheel Weight Initiative| Waste Minimization|Wastes|US EPA
- CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Lead
Periodic table | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | ||||||||||||||||
1 | H | He | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2 | Li | Be | B | C | N | O | F | Ne | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
3 | Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
4 | K | Ca | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr | |||||||||||||||
5 | Rb | Sr | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe | |||||||||||||||
6 | Cs | Ba | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn | |
7 | Fr | Ra | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr | Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Cn | Uut | Fl | Uup | Lv | Uus | Uuo | |
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text:
Pentagon Memorial TV special: A Nation Remembers
Gary Sinise hosts the official documentary of the Pentagon Memorial documentary.
Buy the DVD | Download broadcast schedule
Site Dedicated to Pentagon's Sept. 11 Victims
Article - Friday, June 16, 2006Sgt. Sara Wood, USA
American Forces Press Service
Source: US Department of Defense
Remarks by Secretary Rumsfeld at the Groundbreaking Ceremony for the Pentagon Memorial for Victims in the Sept. 11 Terror Attack
Press Release - Friday, June 16, 2006U.S. Department of Defense
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Public Affairs)
Ground Broken for Pentagon 9-11 Memorial
Article - Thursday, June 15, 2006MARGARET HAIR
Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service
Groundbreaking Ceremony for Pentagon Memorial Draws families
Article - Thursday, June 15, 2006The Associated Press
Groundbreaking For 9/11 Memorial at Pentagon Set
Article - Tuesday, June 6, 2006Timothy Dwyer
Washington Post
CVS Offers Postcards for the Pentagon Memorial
Press Release - Monday, May 1, 2006Pentagon Memorial Fund, Inc.
Airline Ride Across America Sets Out from L.A. to D.C.
Press Release - Sunday, April 2, 2006Pentagon Memorial Fund, Inc.
National Geographic Pledges to Remember Beloved Employees
Article - Sunday, April 2, 2006In April the National Geographic Society pledged $300,000 to the Pentagon Memorial Fund in memory of two employees killed on Flight 77 in the attack on the Pentagon the morning of September 11, 2001. James Joe Ferguson, 39, was the Director of Geography Outreach for the National Geographic Society and had been working for National Geographic for almost 15 years. Ann Judge, 49, was the Manager of the National Geographic Travel Office, where she had been employed for over twenty years.
Daughters Bereft by Mothers Lost on Sept. 11
Article - Tuesday, September 10, 2002By Jordan Lite WEnews correspondent |
A year after the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, motherless daughters are just beginning to puzzle out how to define themselves with no mother to help them sort out what kind of woman they wish to become. |
NEW YORK (WOMENSENEWS)--For a while, Imani Dorsey's mother came to her in dreams |


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Just Adventure News : |
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6 NOV 2007 at 5:14am | |
MikekellyPrivate DetectivePosts : 618 Joined: 25 JUN 2004 Status : Offline | WOW! I didn't think they made adventure games like this one anymore. Move over Syberia and The Longest Journey, there is a new game in town! This game is still a traditional point-and-click adventure. What makes it the best then? For one, the story is completely believable and yet still very imaginative. For me, I have not played a game this good since Dreamfall - and this one came out of the blue while Dreamfall was an anticipated continuation of the story started in "A Longest Journey". It has been a very long time since I enjoyed playing an adsventure game as much as I have enjoyed this one. The graphics are splendid with great attention to detail and animation. The game is also quite long - 20 hours of play at least. I like the fact that you can change clothes and roam around in the game too. There was a time when games like this cost $69.99 - this one is only $29.99 and comes on a DVD. I cannot recommend this game enough. This is one game I will be replaying many, many times! |
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19 NOV 2007 at 1:13am | |
fahmyIntergalactic JanitorPosts : 18 Joined: 12 OCT 2006 Status : Online | I just finished playing Culpa Innata, and it was a pleasure! Well, aside from the crashes and freezes of course. But even those did not affect my 'addiction' to this game! *semi-spoilers*: I heard a lot about this game, so I had very high expectations - which is usually not a good thing. However, the game slowly captures you in its atmosphere and tightly knit story...the plausible future and the imaginative designs and locations. Graphically I realized this game was going to be different as soon as I entered the metro station...the way the camera moved and the wide open spaces were new to me. The showcase officially started at that point. The designs of the future, and the society of the future - it's like taking a peak into a very possible future indeed (which does echo the present we live in as well). The idea of an investigation is always appealing for me...couple this with a great story and you're definitely hooked. *total spoilers*: The high point was just being there! The future, of course. The Renovators added the anticipated diversion in the story - in style. The characters were memorable and developed. Attention to detail is what makes this game high believable and engaging. I can't think of a certain downside to this game really...but it did become too repetitive to only meet one friend at the same place for the vast majority of the evenings - a little variation in location and different friends could have added that little extra punch needed here. There is of course the similarity with The Longest Journey when you think about the two opposing societies existing side by side in secret. But really, this is just being a little too picky and nothing really disappointed me about this game. Well, except perhaps that Joshua computer where I had to see a walkthrough. I mean I even tried to type in '2' players for that Tic Tac Toe game and it didn't work....give me a break! Highly recommended and memorable game. Awaiting the inevitable sequel! |
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20 NOV 2007 at 12:26pm | |
ukpetdSpace CadetPosts : 176 Joined: 27 JUL 2007 Status : Online | Culpa Innata Review This is a traditional point and click adventure in the detective genre. Set in a future earth scenario, the main protagonist is a woman peace officer, Phoenix Wallis, who is trying to solve a murder mystery. You play in 3rd person with Phoenix as your avatar. The game is installed entirely on hard disk, so no disk is required in the DVD drive after installation. Low points Profane language, Mature rating. The bad language is unnecessary. The sexual content, however, is within context. Main character has the responses of a 14 year old. This was a serious off-putter for me. For instance, no professional security officer would ask for a warrant on the grounds that they didnt like the suspect. This happened time after time within the game, even when hard evidence was available. Technical problems have been reported, you are advised to download and install the latest patch before playing. Technical requirements of game i.e. 512 Mb ram, 128 Mb graphics card DirectX 9c compatible, 3.5 Gb hard disk space, 800MHz pentium III or Athlon XP1600, DVD drive. Thats a pretty high spec for a point and click title. I ran this game on an Athlon 1.2 MHz machine. Apart from occasional pixillated graphics the game played fine. Multiple endings mentioned on box boil down to succeed or fail to solve the case. There is a lot of conversation, which is broken up into smaller chunks by the game. This didnt bother me, but I know some folks wont like this sort of aspect. Dynamic camera implementation simply means that in some scenes the camera rotates continually round. Clever, but not very useful. Not all the threads within the game are fully wrapped up by the finish. This could imply a sequel, but I suspect this aspect just got overlooked. High points Facial animations are realistic and lifelike. If you read subtitles then this is not such a great step forward. There are many locations (40) and a detailed environment There is a degree of non-linearity. Marks are awarded when the game is ended, thus conferring a degree of replay value. Its of 25+ hours duration which is reasonable value. Intuitive, mouse driven controls work well. Clothing of main character can be changed. No advantage in plot, but can be fun. Story keeps you involved. Graphics are good, but not outstanding. Sound imbalance between introduction sound and within game sound levels meant sound had to be adjusted on entering and quitting the game. Otherwise sounds were well done. Puzzles are a mix of inventory and manipulative. Mostly on the easy side and mostly well clued. Pixel hunting has been kept to a minimum. Within game diary provides hints. Acting was reasonable. The facial animation, for which this game acts as a showcase, is innovative. Clothing changing is also a novelty. Provided your machine meets the specs and the subject matter doesnt bother you, then this is a competent mystery worth playing. Online reviews seem to indicate this as an exceptionally ground-breaking title. I am not entirely convinced. Final score 4/5 |
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3 DEC 2007 at 1:56am | |
SherryahIntergalactic JanitorPosts : 7 Joined: 18 NOV 2007 Status : Online | I just wanted to say that I just finished Culpa Innata and enjoyed it from beginning to end. I loved the non linear way of being able to have a choice to go to more then one place at a time. I enjoyed the diary giving clues. I enjoyed having different clothes to be able to wear. I enjoyed the plot and storyline. The facial expressions and voices of characters were great. The graphics were very interesting and colorful. I even liked the sexual inuendo's mentioned but nothing was offensive and it went along with the storyline. i look forward to the sequel of Culpa innata and will be the first in line to buy it. I cannot recommend a game more highly, I vote for it as adventure game of the year. The only suggestion I have is to have a option to bypass puzzles if we cannot solve it. I enjoy getting a glimpse of what the writer of the game thinks the future will be like. One suggestion though, make sure you download the 2 patches and you should have no problem with crashes. If you have problems Momentum really does care about their customers and will strive to help you, especially Gaterlaw. I hope other adventure games will follow the lead of Culpa innata. As a woman, I enjoyed playing a woman character. Thank you Momentum for a great game! happy gaming to all Sherryah Life is like an adventure game without a walkthrough or any hints. keep trying you will make it. |
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19 AUG 2008 at 2:20pm | |
Lucien21Guild MasterPosts : 4876 Joined: 9 JUL 2003 Location: 0 Status : Offline | Culpa Innata Lots of decent things to say about this very enjoyable slice of adventuring. Presumably based on "A Brave New World" it sees you play a Peace Officer in the World Union, a utopian future where only the beautiful and bright live perfect lives of no crime and lots of sex with multiple partners. (sounds boring - apart from the sex of course). A murder of a citizean has occurred in a rougue state and you have to investigate. So lots of running around talking to all his friends and business associates. You are pretty free to talk to most people and will do on many occassions (lots of dialogue in this one) The non-linearity was refreshing, but not without it's drawbacks. I occassionally steamed ahead with one branch of the story and have to talk to the same person 3 days running to catch up. There was a fair amount of freedom with socialising, going to the gym etc all woven into the murder investigation. Locations that could only be accessed at night and a constantly moving timeline meant that some days you got nothing done and others were really busy. The puzzles were mostly dialogue based, but there was a lot of computer work analysing images, decrypting codes as well as the usual logic and inventory puzzles. Mostly they were a lot of fun, but one or two felt out of place (The wooden wall puzzle in one of the clubs for instance). The graphics were fine in the close ups with good lip synch, but movement was hilariously bad (esp during one chase sequence). Interface worked well although it was a bit slow and fiddley for inventory items, The Diary worked really well with red items showing what still needed doing and the map interface was vital. Dialogue was spotty with most of the character having good voice work, but some dodgy dialogue slips in now and again. Dialogue was also refreshingly adult in nature and I don't mean gratuitoulsy, but discussions of sex were frequent. I did thing they overdid the friend Susan parts as all you basically did was go over the conversations you already listened to and then did it all again with your superior when reporting (felt like duplication to me). Overall a very good adventure if you like the Longest Journey school of games (ie lots of dialogue), a decent plot although one strand wasn't fully realised and it sets the game up for a sequel. I had a blast. 8/10 Dear Diary, My teenage angst bullsh*t now has a bodycount. |
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21 AUG 2008 at 7:42pm | |
KewalakaSpace CadetPosts : 130 Joined: 3 SEP 2004 Status : Online | I did not enjoy this game at all. I see no point in giving me multiple question choices than not letting me ask them all. Nothing happens but the "day" is over and of off Phoenix goes to gossip. There is a sequel in the works which sounds to be even worse. &&[url=http://gametz.com/user/stuartj.html]My GameTZ page[/url] |
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7 NOV 2008 at 7:50am | |
Adventure boyIntergalactic JanitorPosts : 5 Joined: 7 NOV 2008 Status : Online | Everyone is saying how good Culpa Innata is but it was pretty average. Are these the same people that are saying games like Black Mirror and Art of Murder are below average?? Are drugs that easy to come by because alot of people are using them. |
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By: John Schiumo
Michelle Del Guercio has a love-hate relationship with trash. She hates that it exists, but loves to collect it.
"The eureka moment was when I was working in the photo department as a freelancer in the photo department at the New Yorker and I was late for a meeting because I was searching through the trash," she says. "I thought to myself after that, 'if I am late for a meeting because I am picking through the trash, I am in the wrong place and doing the wrong thing with my life.'"
Michelle grew up going to garage sales and happily wearing hand-me-downs. When her son went off to school, she realized the thrifty culture she was used to wasn't so popular among younger generations.
"You just go look in the cafeteria at lunch time and you want to cry," she says. "Why do we have to use 850,000, close to 1 million styrofoam trays every day in the schools?"
So, in 2005, Michelle created Skraptacular, a nonprofit organization in Washington Heights that raises "eco-awareness" through art projects made from refuse.
"Most kids love to use their hands and make things and we are just taking that road to teach the more important lessons of reduce, reuse, rethink and recycle," she says.
"If it affects 10 percent of children with a lasting impression, they will continue to use that throughout their lives," says community member Michael Anzalone. "One life affects another and affects another."
Through the EcoFest program in Fort Tryon Park, that effect is already being passed along.
"Because if we don't, probably going to be no water for us to drink, no water for our supersoakers, no water to swim in," says Skraptacular student Luke Hoppa.
"People approach me all the time, especially parents, and say 'I cannot throw anything away anymore,'" Del Guercio says. "My kids are hyper-vigilant because of you, because of Skraptacular. So I don't know if they are thanking me or not but it is making a difference."
So, for motivating the next generation to help the planet, Michelle Del Guercio is our New Yorker of the Week.
For more information, go to skraptacular.org.
If you'd like to nominate someone to be NY1's New Yorker of the Week, send an email describing their qualifications to email@example.com or mail a letter to:
NY1 NewsNew Yorker of the Week75 Ninth Avenue, 6th FloorNew York, NY 10011


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Ontario Regional Injury Data Report releasedThe OIPRC has released the Ontario Regional Injury Data Report, presenting the counts and rates of injury related emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths by cause of injury for all Ontario health regions, as well as evidence-based practice recommendations for the top injury types in each region.
The OIPRC is pleased to announce an exciting new communications venue for IP practitioners, an email list called IP Chat. This listserv will be a new forum for discussions and questions among interested Ontario practitioners relating to injury prevention. You may wish to use this forum to pose questions of colleagues or to share information . To join, send an email to email@example.com.
Concussion toolkit now availableParachute has launched a web-based tool kit on concussions, designed to create the conditions for active and safer play for hockey, football, rugby, soccer, baseball, ringette and lacrosse in Canada.
The Ontario Injury Prevention Resource Centre (OIPRC) helps injury prevention professionals reduce injury in Ontario.We do this through:
- coordination
- knowledge translation and interpretation
- knowledge exchange and communication
- leadership
- capacity-building
- system planning
See our website for more details on our services, training, publications, and online resources.
Ontario Road Safety Annual Report released
Research bulletin released on driver distraction and hands-free texting
Your opinions on concussion could win you an iPad
The Relationship between the Determinants of Health, Injuries, and Mental Health
May 27, 2013
Travelodge Ottawa
Population health programs that promote mental health across the lifespan will be highlighted. The day will also make the case and build connections between mental health and injury prevention.
Canadian Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion Conference
November 5 - November 7, 2013
Hilton Bonaventure, Montreal
The theme is Evidence to Action: Prevent Injury and Violence Now! Presented by Parachute and the Canadian Red Cross.


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AlbertP wrote:There is only a little improvement in 2.6.39.
Some laptops are NOT affected by the 2.6.38 power bug. That's the only reason why z06gal can get normal battery life. And my HP Pavilion dv6730ed also has normal battery life after a BIOS update.
Interesting (about doing a BIOS update)....i have a 2 1/2 year old Toshiba Laptop and never tried to update the BIOS...going to their site, there appears to be at least 2 updates for my particular model...Are there any risks in doing these kind of updates? If there are two (posted on different dates) would you do both or the last one shown? Any tips about this? thanks


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Delores J. (Greenlee) Newberry, 76, of Point Pleasant, went home to be with her Lord on Friday morning, February 8, 2013, with her family by her side. Delores was a retired cook in Mason County Schools, where she worked at North Point Elementary School for over 26 years. She was also a member of the Krebs Chapel Church.
Delores was born on April 2, 1936, in Mason County, a daughter to the late Howard and Bessie (Marshall) Greenlee. In addition to her parents, she was preceded in death by two brothers and two sisters.
Delores is survived by her husband, Robert Junior Newberry; daughters and sons-in-law, Darla and Gary Walbrown, Linda and Marty Roush, Sharon and Carl Morris, all of Point Pleasant and Karen and Tim Harper, of Gallipolis Ferry; grandchildren, Kevin Casto, Lurinda Gardner, Chris and Andrew Walbrown, Zach and Anna Jo Morris and Timmy and Tisha Harper; great-grandchildren, Bentley, Drake, Lucrysta and Skyla; sisters and brothers-in-law, Dorothy and Jim McCoy, of Huntington and Rosie and Tom McCoy, of Lesage; and several nieces and nephews.
Delores's life will be remembered at noon on Tuesday, February 12, 2013, at the Crow-Hussell Funeral Home, with Rev. Mike Lambert officiating. Burial will follow in Creston Cemetery, in Leon. Visitation was held from 6-9 p.m. on Monday evening, February 11, 2013, at the funeral home.
Delores's care has been entrusted to Crow-Hussell Funeral Home.
You may use the online registry at: crowhussellfh.com.


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May '12
If you want to go out for a long distance walks in Britain, you can march along The South Downs Way, which is a well-defined route, with spectacular views of the sea and the Weald. There is good access to all parts of the route by road and public transport, accommodation is plentiful throughout. Some [...]