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In physics and chemistry, heat is energy transferred from one body to another by thermal interactions.[1][2] The transfer of energy can occur in a variety of ways, among them conduction,[3] radiation,[4] and convection. Heat is not a property of a system or body, but instead is always associated with a process of some kind, and is synonymous with heat flow and heat transfer.
Heat flow from hotter to colder systems occurs spontaneously, and is always accompanied by an increase in entropy. In a heat engine, internal energy of bodies is harnessed to provide useful work. The second law of thermodynamics states the principle that heat cannot flow directly from cold to hot systems, but with the aid of a heat pump external work can be used to transport internal energy indirectly from a cold to a hot body.
Transfers of energy as heat are macroscopic processes. The origin and properties of heat can be understood through the statistical mechanics of microscopic constituents such as molecules and photons. For instance, heat flow can occur when the rapidly vibrating molecules in a high temperature body transfer some of their energy (by direct contact, radiation exchange, or other mechanisms) to the more slowly vibrating molecules in a lower temperature body.
The SI unit of heat is the joule. Heat can be measured by calorimetry,[5] or determined indirectly by calculations based on other quantities, relying for instance on the first law of thermodynamics. In calorimetry, the concepts of latent heat and of sensible heat are used. Latent heat produces changes of state without temperature change, while sensible heat produces temperature change.
Heat in physics is defined as energy transferred by thermal interactions. Heat flows spontaneously from hotter to colder systems. When two systems come into thermal contact, they exchange energy through the microscopic interactions of their particles. When the systems are at different temperatures, the result is a spontaneous net flow of energy that continues until the temperatures are equal. At that point the net flow of energy is zero, and the systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Spontaneous heat transfer is an irreversible process.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the internal energy of an isolated system is conserved. To change the internal energy of a system, energy must be transferred to or from the system. For a closed system, heat and work are the mechanisms by which energy can be transferred. For an open system, internal energy can be changed also by transfer of matter.[6] Work performed by a body is, by definition, an energy transfer from the body that is due to a change to external or mechanical parameters of the body, such as the volume, magnetization, and location of center of mass in a gravitational field.[7][8][9][10][11]
When energy is transferred to a body purely as heat, its internal energy increases. This additional energy is stored as kinetic and potential energy of the atoms and molecules in the body.[12] Heat itself is not stored within a body. Like work, it exists only as energy in transit from one body to another or between a body and its surroundings.
Microscopic origin of heat[edit]
Heat characterizes macroscopic systems and processes, but like other thermodynamic quantities it has a fundamental origin in statistical mechanics — the physics of the underlying microscopic degrees of freedom.
For example, within a range of temperature set by quantum effects, the temperature of a gas is proportional (via Boltzmann's constant kB) to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.[13] Heat transfer between a low and high temperature gas brought into contact arises due to the exchange of kinetic and potential energy in molecular collisions. As more and more molecules undergo collisions, their kinetic energy equilibrates to a distribution that corresponds to an intermediate temperature somewhere between the low and high initial temperatures of the two gases. An early and vague expression of this was by Francis Bacon.[14][15] Precise and detailed versions of it were developed in the nineteenth century.[16]
For solids, conduction of heat occurs through collective motions of microscopic particles, such as phonons, or through the motion of mobile particles like conduction band electrons.[17] As these excitations move around inside the solid and interact with it and each other, they transfer energy from higher to lower temperature regions, eventually leading to thermal equilibrium.
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the already established idea that heat has something to do with matter in motion. This was the same idea put forth by Sir Benjamin Thompson in 1798, who said he was only following up on the work of many others. One of Maxwell's recommended books was Heat as a Mode of Motion, by John Tyndall. Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat:
- It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics.
- It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically.
- It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a substance, e.g., mechanical work.
- Heat is one of the forms of energy.
From empirically based ideas of heat, and from other empirical observations, the notions of internal energy and of entropy can be derived, so as to lead to the recognition of the first and second laws of thermodynamics.[18] This was the way of the historical pioneers of thermodynamics.[19][20]
Transfers of energy between closed systems[edit]
Adiabatic transfer of energy as work between two bodies[edit]
A body can be connected to its surroundings by links that allow transfer of energy only as work, not as heat, because the body is adiabatically isolated. Such transfer can be of two pure kinds, volume work, and isochoric work. Volume work means that the initial volume and the final volume of the body are different, and that mechanical work is transferred through the forces that cause the changes in the deformation parameters. Isochoric work is done on the body by the surroundings when the initial and final volumes and all deformation parameters of the body are unchanged. For example, the surroundings can do work through a changing magnetic field that rotates a magnetic stirrer within the body. Another example is 'shaft work', in which an externally driven shaft rotates fan- or paddle-blades within the body. Another example is rubbing, considered as tangential motion of a wall that contains the body. Stirring and rubbing were the main forms of work in Joule's experiments.[21][22][23][24][25]
Transfers of energy as heat between two bodies[edit]
Referring to conduction, Partington writes: "If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a quantity of heat has passed from the hot body to the cold body."[26]
Referring to radiation, Maxwell writes: "In Radiation, the hotter body loses heat, and the colder body receives heat by means of a process occurring in some intervening medium which does not itself thereby become hot."[27]
Diathermal wall[edit]
In considering transfer of energy between two bodies, it is customary to allow the existence of a wall between them which is permeable only to heat. This allowance is a presupposition of thermodynamics.[28] Such a wall is called diathermal. It is usual for many theoretical discussions to allow that the wall itself has negligibly small internal energy. Then the only property of interest in the wall is that it allows conduction and radiation of heat between the two bodies of interest. While walls are readily found which are permeable only to heat, and impermeable to matter, it is very exceptional indeed to find walls which are permeable to matter but not to entropy. Such a rare exception is a wall penetrated by fine capillaries, which allow the passage of the superfluid of helium II but not of the normal fluid.[29] Transfer of energy as heat is uniquely defined only between closed systems, while for open systems, 'transfer of energy as heat through a wall that allows transfer of matter' is not uniquely defined; such a wall, however, does allow transfer of internal energy.[30][31][32]
It is sometimes allowed that the diathermal wall is substantial and has properties of its own including a temperature of its own, and it is considered that the wall is a body in its own right, but is still considered as a closed system not permitted to exchange matter. Then when there is thermal equilibrium between the two bodies of interest, there is also thermal equilibrium between each of them and the wall, and all three have the same temperature. Then from the viewpoint of states of thermal equilibrium, all diathermal walls are equivalent; this is proposed as a possible statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics.[33] If heat is considered with respect to diathermal walls, then, because all diathermal walls are equivalent, all heat is of the same kind.[34]
When the two bodies are initially separate and not connected by a substantial wall, and at different temperatures, and are then connected with the substantial wall as connecting medium, the properties and state of the wall need to be taken into account for the process of transfer of energy as heat. If the substantial wall contains fluid, and there is a gravitational field, then transfer of energy as heat between the two bodies of interest may involve convective circulation within the wall, with no transfer of matter into or out of the wall. In this sense, it can be said that convective circulation is a mechanism of transfer of energy as heat, but in this case, the transfer of energy as heat is complex, because of change of internal energy and temperature of the wall. Thermal convective circulation is always opposed by friction, and consequently occurs only above a threshold of thermal difference between source and destination of the transferred energy.[35] Thermal equilibrium between source and destination is therefore finally reached by a non-convective stage, of conduction and radiation. In discussions of thermodynamics, such a diathermal wall and process of transfer of energy as heat is not usually intended unless they are explicitly expressed.
Transfers of energy involving more than two bodies[edit]
Heat engine[edit]
In classical thermodynamics, a commonly considered model is the heat engine. It consists of four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A cyclic process leaves the working body in an unchanged state, and is envisaged as being repeated indefinitely often. Work transfers between the working body and the work reservoir are envisaged as reversible, and thus only one work reservoir is needed. But two thermal reservoirs are needed, because transfer of energy as heat is irreversible. A single cycle sees energy taken by the working body from the hot reservoir and sent to the two other reservoirs, the work reservoir and the cold reservoir. The hot reservoir always and only supplies energy and the cold reservoir always and only receives energy. The second law of thermodynamics requires that no cycle can occur in which no energy is received by the cold reservoir.
Convective transfer of energy[edit]
Convective transfer of energy involves three or more systems, which may be closed or open. A process of convection takes some finite amount of time, because it involves three steps at least. The simplest kind of convection has a hot reservoir, a cold reservoir, and a carrier body. In this simplest kind of convection, the carrier body exchanges heat successively with the respective thermal reservoirs. The second law of thermodynamics requires the carrier body to be initially colder than the hot reservoir and finally warmer than the cold reservoir. For convection in general, the transfers of energy can be of more general kinds. For example, for convection between open systems, the transfers may be more conveniently described in terms of internal energy, or of enthalpy, or of some other quantity of energy. Here a convenient model is described by internal energy. First, the carrier body increases its internal energy by taking internal energy from the source reservoir. Then it moves through space and carries its internal energy from the location of the source reservoir to that of the destination reservoir; this step is characteristic of convection, and is sometimes called advection. Then it decreases its internal energy by giving energy to the destination reservoir. Convection can transfer internal energy as latent heat, and can be from a source at a lower temperature to a destination at a higher one, work being provided to drive the transfer.
Notation and units[edit]
As a form of energy heat has the unit joule (J) in the International System of Units (SI). However, in many applied fields in engineering the British Thermal Unit (BTU) and the calorie are often used. The standard unit for the rate of heat transferred is the watt (W), defined as joules per second.
The total amount of energy transferred as heat is conventionally written as Q for algebraic purposes. Heat released by a system into its surroundings is by convention a negative quantity (Q < 0); when a system absorbs heat from its surroundings, it is positive (Q > 0). Heat transfer rate, or heat flow per unit time, is denoted by . This should not be confused with a time derivative of a function of state (which can also be written with the dot notation) since heat is not a function of state. Heat flux is defined as rate of heat transfer per unit cross-sectional area, resulting in the unit watts per square metre.
Estimation of quantity of heat[edit]
Quantity of heat transferred can measured by calorimetry, or determined through calculations based on other quantities.
Calorimetry is the empirical basis of the idea of quantity of heat transferred in a process. The transferred heat is measured by changes in a body of known properties, for example, temperature rise, change in volume or length, or phase change, such as melting of ice.[36][37]
A calculation of quantity of heat transferred can rely on a hypothetical quantity of energy transferred as adiabatic work and on the first law of thermodynamics. Such calculation is the primary approach of many theoretical studies of quantity of heat transferred.[28][38][39]
Internal energy and enthalpy[edit]
For a closed system (a system from which no matter can enter or exit), the first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy ΔU of the system is equal to the amount of heat Q supplied to the system minus the amount of work W done by system on its surroundings. [note 1]
The expressions 'Q' and 'W' represent amounts of energy but energy in different forms, heat and work. It is fundamental to the science of heat that conversion between heat (Q) and work (W) is never 100% efficient, so the ' = ' sign cannot have its usual mathematical meaning.
The work done by the system includes boundary work (when the system increases its volume against an external force, such as that exerted by a piston) and other work (e.g. shaft work performed by a compressor fan), which is called isochoric work:
In this Section we will neglect the "other-work" contribution.
The internal energy, U, is a state function. In cyclical processes, such as the operation of a heat engine, state functions return to their initial values after completing one cycle. Then the differential, or infinitesimal increment, for the internal energy in an infinitesimal process is an exact differential dU. The symbol for exact differentials is the lowercase letter d.
In contrast, neither of the infintestimal increments δQ nor δW in an infinitesimal process represents the state of the system. Thus, infinitesimal increments of heat and work are inexact differentials. The lowercase Greek letter delta, δ, is the symbol for inexact differentials. The integral of any inexact differential over the time it takes for a system to leave and return to the same thermodynamic state does not necessarily equal zero.
The second law of thermodynamics observes that if heat is supplied to a system in which no irreversible processes take place and which has a well-defined temperature T, the increment of heat δQ and the temperature T form the exact differential
and that S, the entropy of the working body, is a function of state. Likewise, with a well-defined pressure, P, behind the moving boundary, the work differential, δW, and the pressure, P, combine to form the exact differential
with V the volume of the system, which is a state variable. In general, for homogeneous systems,
Associated with this differential equation is that the internal energy may be considered to be a function U (S,V) of its natural variables S and V. The internal energy representation of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is written
If V is constant
and if P is constant
with H the enthalpy defined by
The enthalpy may be considered to be a function H (S,P) of its natural variables S and P. The enthalpy representation of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is written
The internal energy representation and the enthalpy representation are partial Legendre transforms of one another. They contain the same physical information, written in different ways.[42][43]
Chemical reactions[edit]
For a closed system in which a chemical reaction is of interest, the extent of reaction, denoted by ξ, states the degree of advancement of the reaction and is included as a further natural variable for internal energy and for enthalpy. This is written
In practice, chemists often use tables of a special but unnamed thermodynamic potential that is not the enthalpy expressed in its natural variables; instead they use the enthalpy expressed as a function of temperature instead of entropy. This special potential is related to the natural form of the enthalpy H (S,P,ξ) by another partial Legendre transform, that makes its natural variables T, P, and ξ. The special unnamed potential is still usually called the enthalpy. It can be written
This enthalpy is used to report the enthalpy change of reaction, also called the heat of reaction.[44][45]
Latent and sensible heat[edit]
In an 1847 lecture entitled On Matter, Living Force, and Heat, James Prescott Joule characterized the terms latent heat and sensible heat as components of heat each affecting distinct physical phenomena, namely the potential and kinetic energy of particles, respectively.[46] He described latent energy as the energy possessed via a distancing of particles where attraction was over a greater distance, i.e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy involving the motion of particles or what was known as a living force. At the time of Joule kinetic energy either held 'invisibly' internally or held 'visibly' externally was known as a living force.
Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a chemical substance or a thermodynamic system during a change of state that occurs without a change in temperature. Such a process may be a phase transition, such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.[47][48] The term was introduced around 1750 by Joseph Black as derived from the Latin latere (to lie hidden), characterizing its effect as not being directly measurable with a thermometer.
Sensible heat, in contrast to latent heat, is the heat exchanged by a thermodynamic system that has as its sole effect a change of temperature.[49] Sensible heat therefore only increases the thermal energy of a system.
Consequences of Black's distinction between sensible and latent heat are examined in the Wikipedia article on calorimetry.
Specific heat[edit]
Specific heat, also called specific heat capacity, is defined as the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or from one unit of mass (kilogram) or amount of substance (mole) to change the system temperature by one degree. Specific heat is a physical property, which means that it depends on the substance under consideration and its state as specified by its properties.
The specific heats of monatomic gases (e.g., helium) are nearly constant with temperature. Diatomic gases such as hydrogen display some temperature dependence, and triatomic gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) still more.
Rigorous mathematical definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat[edit]
It is sometimes convenient to have a very rigorous mathematically stated definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat. Such definition is customarily based on the work of Carathéodory (1909), referring to processes in a closed system, as follows.[28][50][51][52][53][54]
The internal energy UX of a body in an arbitrary state X can be determined by amounts of work adiabatically performed by the body on its surrounds when it starts from a reference state O, allowing that sometimes the amount of work is calculated by assuming that some adiabatic process is virtually though not actually reversible. Adiabatic work is defined in terms of adiabatic walls, which allow the frictionless performance of work but no other transfer, of energy or matter. In particular they do not allow the passage of energy as heat. According to Carathéodory (1909), passage of energy as heat is allowed, by walls which are "permeable only to heat".
For the definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat, it is customarily envisaged that an arbitrary state of interest Y is reached from state O by a process with two components, one adiabatic and the other not adiabatic. For convenience one may say that the adiabatic component was the sum of work done by the body through volume change through movement of the walls while the non-adiabatic partition was excluded, and of isochoric adiabatic work. Then the non-adiabatic component is a process of energy transfer through the wall that passes only heat, newly made accessible for the purpose of this transfer, from the surroundings to the body. The change in internal energy to reach the state Y from the state O is the difference of the two amounts of energy transferred.
Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define the quantity of energy transferred as heat, Q, to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state Y from the state O, as the change in internal energy, ΔUY, minus the amount of work, W, done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that Q = ΔUY − W.
In this definition, for the sake of mathematical rigour, the quantity of energy transferred as heat is not specified directly in terms of the non-adiabatic process. It is defined through knowledge of precisely two variables, the change of internal energy and the amount of adiabatic work done, for the combined process of change from the reference state O to the arbitrary state Y. It is important that this does not explicitly involve the amount of energy transferred in the non-adiabatic component of the combined process. It is assumed here that the amount of energy required to pass from state O to state Y, the change of internal energy, is known, independently of the combined process, by a determination through a purely adiabatic process, like that for the determination of the internal energy of state X above. The mathematical rigour that is prized in this definition is that there is one and only one kind of energy transfer admitted as fundamental: energy transferred as work. Energy transfer as heat is considered as a derived quantity. The uniqueness of work in this scheme is considered to provide purity of conception, which is considered as guaranteeing mathematical rigour. The conceptual purity of this definition, based on the concept of energy transferred as work as an ideal notion, relies on the idea that some frictionless and otherwise non-dissipative processes of energy transfer can be realized in physical actuality. The second law of thermodynamics, on the other hand, assures us that such processes are not found in nature.
Heat, temperature, and thermal equilibrium regarded as jointly primitive notions[edit]
Before the rigorous mathematical definition of heat based on Carathéodory's 1909 paper, recounted just above, historically, heat, temperature, and thermal equilibrium were presented in thermodynamics textbooks as jointly primitive notions.[55] Carathéodory introduced his 1909 paper thus: "The proposition that the discipline of thermodynamics can be justified without recourse to any hypothesis that cannot be verified experimentally must be regarded as one of the most noteworthy results of the research in thermodynamics that was accomplished during the last century." Referring to the "point of view adopted by most authors who were active in the last fifty years", Carathéodory wrote: "There exists a physical quantity called heat that is not identical with the mechanical quantities (mass, force, pressure, etc.) and whose variations can be determined by calorimetric measurements." James Serrin introduces an account of the theory of thermodynamics thus: "In the following section, we shall use the classical notions of heat, work, and hotness as primitive elements, ... That heat is an appropriate and natural primitive for thermodynamics was already accepted by Carnot. Its continued validity as a primitive element of thermodynamical structure is due to the fact that it synthesizes an essential physical concept, as well as to its successful use in recent work to unify different constitutive theories."[56][57] This traditional kind of presentation of the basis of thermodynamics includes ideas that may be summarized by the statement that heat transfer is purely due to spatial non-uniformity of temperature, and is by conduction and radiation, from hotter to colder bodies. It is sometimes proposed that this traditional kind of presentation necessarily rests on "circular reasoning"; against this proposal, there stands the rigorously logical mathematical development of the theory presented by Truesdell and Bharatha (1977).[58]
This alternative approach to the definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat differs in logical structure from that of Carathéodory, recounted just above.
This alternative approach admits calorimetry as a primary or direct way to measure quantity of energy transferred as heat. It relies on temperature as one of its primitive concepts, and used in calorimetry.[59] It is presupposed that enough processes exist physically to allow measurement of differences in internal energies. Such processes are not restricted to adiabatic transfers of energy as work. They include calorimetry, which is the commonest practical way of finding internal energy differences.[60] The needed temperature can be either empirical or absolute thermodynamic.
In contrast, the Carathéodory way recounted just above does not use calorimetry or temperature in its primary definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat. The Carathédory way regards calorimetry only as a secondary or indirect way of measuring quantity of energy transferred as heat. As recounted in more detail just above, the Carathéodory way regards quantity of energy transferred as heat in a process as primarily or directly defined as a residual quantity. It is calculated from the difference of the internal energies of the initial and final states of the system, and from the actual work done by the system during the process. That internal energy difference is supposed to have been measured in advance through processes of purely adiabatic transfer of energy as work, processes that take the system between the initial and final states. By the Carathéodory way it is presupposed as known from experiment that there actually physically exist enough such adiabatic processes, so that there need be no recourse to calorimetry for measurement of quantity of energy transferred as heat. This presupposition is essential but is explicitly labeled neither as a law of thermodynamics nor as an axiom of the Carathéodory way. In fact, the actual physical existence of such adiabatic processes is indeed mostly supposition, and those supposed processes have in most cases not been actually verified empirically to exist.[61]
In 1856, German physicist Rudolf Clausius defined the second fundamental theorem (the second law of thermodynamics) in the mechanical theory of heat (thermodynamics): "if two transformations which, without necessitating any other permanent change, can mutually replace one another, be called equivalent, then the generations of the quantity of heat Q from work at the temperature T, has the equivalence-value:"[62][63]
In 1865, he came to define the entropy symbolized by S, such that, due to the supply of the amount of heat Q at temperature T the entropy of the system is increased by
and thus, for small changes, quantities of heat δQ (an inexact differential) are defined as quantities of TdS, with dS an exact differential:
This equality is only valid for a closed system and if no irreversible processes take place inside the system while the heat δQ is applied. If, in contrast, irreversible processes are involved, e.g. some sort of friction, then there is entropy production and, instead of the above equation, one has
This is the second law of thermodynamics for closed systems.
Heat transfer in engineering[edit]
The discipline of heat transfer, typically considered an aspect of mechanical engineering and chemical engineering, deals with specific applied methods by which thermal energy in a system is generated, or converted, or transferred to another system. Although the definition of heat implicitly means the transfer of energy, the term heat transfer encompasses this traditional usage in many engineering disciplines and laymen language.
Heat transfer includes the mechanisms of heat conduction, thermal radiation, and mass transfer.
In engineering, the term convective heat transfer is used to describe the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. From the thermodynamic point of view, heat flows into a fluid by diffusion to increase its energy, the fluid then transfers (advects) this increased internal energy (not heat) from one location to another, and this is then followed by a second thermal interaction which transfers heat to a second body or system, again by diffusion. This entire process is often regarded as an additional mechanism of heat transfer, although technically, "heat transfer" and thus heating and cooling occurs only on either end of such a conductive flow, but not as a result of flow. Thus, conduction can be said to "transfer" heat only as a net result of the process, but may not do so at every time within the complicated convective process.
Although distinct physical laws may describe the behavior of each of these methods, real systems often exhibit a complicated combination which are often described by a variety of complex mathematical methods.
Practical applications[edit]
In accordance with the first law for closed systems, energy transferred as heat enters one body and leaves another, changing the internal energies of each. Transfer, between bodies, of energy as work is a complementary way of changing internal energies. Though it is not logically rigorous from the viewpoint of strict physical concepts, a common form of words that expresses this is to say that heat and work are interconvertible.
Heat engines operate by converting heat flow from a high temperature reservoir to a low temperature reservoir into work. One example are steam engines, where the high temperature reservoir is steam generated by boiling water. The flow of heat from the hot steam to water is converted into mechanical work via a turbine or piston. Heat engines achieve high efficiency when the difference between initial and final temperature is high.
Heat pumps, by contrast, use work to cause thermal energy to flow from low to high temperature, the opposite direction heat would flow spontaneously. An example is a refrigerator or air conditioner, where electric power is used to cool a low temperature system (the interior of the refrigerator) while heating a higher temperature environment (the exterior). High efficiency is achieved when the temperature difference is small.
Usage of words[edit]
The strictly defined physical term 'quantity of energy transferred as heat' has a resonance with the ordinary language noun 'heat' and the ordinary language verb 'heat'. This can lead to confusion if ordinary language is muddled with strictly defined physical language. In the strict terminology of physics, heat is defined as a word that refers to a process, not to a state of a system. In ordinary language one can speak of a process that increases the temperature of a body as 'heating' it, ignoring the nature of the process, which could be one of adiabatic transfer of energy as work. But in strict physical terms, a process is admitted as heating only when what is meant is transfer of energy as heat. Such a process does not necessarily increase the temperature of the heated body, which may instead change its phase, for example by melting. In the strict physical sense, heat cannot be 'produced', because the usage 'production of heat' misleadingly seems to refer to a state variable. Thus, it would be physically improper to speak of 'heat production by friction', or of 'heating by adiabatic compression on descent of an air parcel' or of 'heat production by chemical reaction'; instead, proper physical usage speaks of conversion of kinetic energy of bulk flow, or of potential energy of bulk matter,[64] or of chemical potential energy, into internal energy, and of transfer of energy as heat. Occasionally a present-day author, especially when referring to history, writes of "adiabatic heating", though this is a contradiction in terms of present day physics.[65] Historically, before the concept of internal energy became clear over the period 1850 to 1869, physicists spoke of "heat production" where nowadays one speaks of conversion of other forms of energy into internal energy.[66]
See also[edit]
- ^ An alternate sign convention (followed by IUPAC) for the work is to consider the work performed on the system by its surroundings. This is the convention adopted by many modern textbooks of physical chemistry, such as those by Peter Atkins and Ira Levine, but many textbooks on physics define work as work done by the system.
- ^ Reif, F. (1965), pp. 67, 73.
- ^ Kittel, C. Kroemer, H. (1980). Thermal Physics, second edition, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, ISBN 0-7167-1088-9, p. 227.
- ^ Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967), p. 8.
- ^ Planck. M. (1914). The Theory of Heat Radiation, a translation by Masius, M. of the second German edition, P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia.
- ^ Maxwell 1871, Chapter III.
- ^ Kondepudi, D. (2008), p. 59.
- ^ Planck, M. (1927), p. 4.
- ^ Crawford, F.H. (1963). Heat, Thermodynamics, and Statistical Physics, Rupert Hart-Davis, Harcourt, Brace & World, p. 98.
- ^ Reif, F. (1965), p. 73.
- ^ Gislason, E.A., Craig, N.C. (2005). Cementing the foundations of thermodynamics: Comparison of system-based and surroundings-based definitions of heat and work, J. Chem. Thermodynamics, 37: 954–966.
- ^ Anacleto, J., Ferreira, J.M. (2008). Surroundings-based and system-based heat and work definitions: Which one is most suitable?, J. Chem. Thermodynamics, 40: 134–135.
- ^ Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., Abbot, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0073104450.
- ^ Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1939/1965). Statistical Thermodynamics. A version of Statistical Mechanics for Students of Physics and Chemistry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, pp. 70, 255.
- ^ Bacon, F. (1620). Novum Organum Scientiarum, translated by Devey, J., P.F. Collier & Son, New York, 1902.
- ^ Partington, J.R. (1949), page 131.
- ^ Partington, J.R. (1949), pages 132–136.
- ^ Kittel, C. (1953/1980). Introduction to Solid State Physics, (first edition 1953), fifth edition 1980, John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-49024-5, Chapters 4, 5.
- ^ Planck, M. (1903).
- ^ Partington, J.R. (1949).
- ^ Truesdell, C. (1980), page 15.
- ^ Planck, M. (1923/1927), p. 8.
- ^ Buchdahl H.A. (1966), pp. 6–7.
- ^ Wilson, A.H. (1957), p. 7.
- ^ Reif, F. (1965), p. 72.
- ^ Münster, A. (1970), p. 45.
- ^ Partington, J.R. (1949), p. 118.
- ^ Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. 10.
- ^ a b c C. Carathéodory (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen 67: 355–386. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. A mostly reliable translation is to be found at Kestin, J. (1976). The Second Law of Thermodynamics, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg PA.
- ^ Tisza, L. (1966), pp. 139–140.
- ^ Fitts, D.D. (1962). Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics. Phenomenological Theory of Irreversible Processes in Fluid Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 28.
- ^ Münster, A. (1970), pp. 50–51.
- ^ Denbigh, K. (1954/1971). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium. With Applications in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, third edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 22–23.
- ^ Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. 57.
- ^ Chandrasekhar, S. (1961). Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK.
- ^ Maxwell J.C. (1872), p. 54.
- ^ Planck (1927), Chapter 3.
- ^ Bryan, G.H. (1907), p. 47.
- ^ Callen, H.B. (1985), Section 1-8.
- ^ Callen, H.B., (1985), Section 2-3, pp. 40–42.
- ^ a b Adkins, C.J. (1983), p. 101.
- ^ a b Callen, H.B. (1985), p. 147.
- ^ Adkins, C.J. (1983), pp. 100–104.
- ^ Prigogine, I.; Defay, R. (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. translated by D.H. Everett. Longmans, Green & Co., London, Section 2-6, pp. 29–31.
- ^ Callen, H.B., (1985), Section 5-3, pp. 146–148, Section 6-6, pp. 173–179.
- ^ J. P. Joule (1884), The Scientific Paper of James Prescott Joule, The Physical Society of London, p. 274, "Heat must therefore consist of either living force or of attraction through space. In the former case we can conceive the constituent particles of heated bodies to be, either in whole or in part, in a state of motion. In the latter we may suppose the particles to be removed by the process of heating, so as to exert attraction through greater space. I am inclined to believe that both of these hypotheses will be found to hold good,—that in some instances, particularly in the case of sensible heat, or such as is indicated by the thermometer, heat will be found to consist in the living force of the particles of the bodies in which it is induced; whilst in others, particularly in the case of latent heat, the phenomena are produced by the separation of particle from particle, so as to cause them to attract one another through a greater space.", Lecture on Matter, Living Force, and Heat. May 5 and 12, 1847
- ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
- ^ Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-4616-8.
- ^ Ritter, Michael E. (2006). "The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography".
- ^ Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983).
- ^ Münster, A. (1970).
- ^ Pippard, A.B. (1957).
- ^ Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1939).
- ^ Buchdahl, H.A. (1966).
- ^ Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (1999). The physics and mathematics of the second law of thermodynamics, Physics Reports, 314: 1–96, p. 10.
- ^ Serrin, J. (1986). Chapter 1, 'An Outline of Thermodynamical Structure', pages 3-32, in New Perspectives in Thermodynamics, edited by J. Serrin, Springer, Berlin, ISBN 3-540-15931-2, p. 5 .
- ^ Owen, D.R. (1984), pp. 43–45.
- ^ Truesdell, C., Bharatha, S. (1977). The Concepts and Logic of Classical Thermodynamics as a Theory of Heat Engines, Rigorously Constructed upon the Foundation Laid by S. Carnot and F. Reech, Springer, New York, ISBN 0-387-07971-8.
- ^ Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. v.
- ^ Atkins, P., de Paula, J. (1978/2010). Physical Chemistry, (first edition 1978), ninth edition 2010, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 978-0-19-954337-3, p. 54.
- ^ Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 15.
- ^ Published in Poggendoff's Annalen, Dec. 1854, vol. xciii. p. 481; translated in the Journal de Mathematiques, vol. xx. Paris, 1855, and in the Philosophical Magazine, August 1856, s. 4. vol. xii, p. 81
- ^ Clausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat –with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies. London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.
- ^ Iribarne, J.V., Godson, W.L. (1973/1989). Atmospheric thermodynamics, second edition, reprinted 1989, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, ISBN 90-277-1296-4, p. 136.
- ^ Bailyn, M. (1994), Part D, pp. 50–56.
- ^ For example, Clausius, R. (1857). Über die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 100: 353–380. Translated as On the nature of the motion which we call heat, Phil. Mag. series 4, 14: 108–128.
- Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, (1st edition 1968), third edition 1983, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 0-521-25445-0.
- Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
- Beattie, J.A., Oppenheim, I. (1979). Principles of Thermodynamics, Elsevier, Amsterdam, ISBN 0–444–41806–7.
- Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig.
- Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics, Cambridge University Press, London.
- Callen, H.B. (1960/1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-86256-8.
- Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1939/1965). Statistical Thermodynamics. A version of Statistical Mechanics for Students of Physics and Chemistry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.
- Guggenheim, E.A. (1967) [1949], Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists (fifth ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
- Haase, R. (1971). Survey of Fundamental Laws, chapter 1 of Thermodynamics, pages 1–97 of volume 1, ed. W. Jost, of Physical Chemistry. An Advanced Treatise, ed. H. Eyring, D. Henderson, W. Jost, Academic Press, New York, lcn 73–117081.
- Kondepudi, D. (2008), Introduction to Modern Thermodynamics, Chichester UK: Wiley, ISBN 978–0–470–01598–8.
- Kondepudi, D., Prigogine, I. (1998). Modern Thermodynamics: From Heat Engines to Dissipative Structures, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, ISBN 0–471–97393–9.
- Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Theory of Heat (first ed.), London: Longmans, Green and Co.
- Münster, A. (1970), Classical Thermodynamics, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London, ISBN 0-471-62430-6.
- Owen, D.R. (1984). A First Course in the Mathematical Foundations of Thermodynamics, Springer, New York, ISBN 0-387-90897-8.
- Partington, J.R. (1949), An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry., volume 1, Fundamental Principles. The Properties of Gases, London: Longmans, Green and Co.
- Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966). Elements of Classical Thermodynamics for Advanced Students of Physics, original publication 1957, reprint 1966, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.
- Planck, M., (1897/1903). Treatise on Thermodynamics, translated by A. Ogg, first English edition, Longmans, Green and Co., London.
- Planck, M., (1923/1927). Treatise on Thermodynamics, translated by A. Ogg, third English edition, Longmans, Green and Co., London.
- Reif, F. (1965). Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. New York: McGraw-Hll, Inc.
- Tisza, L. (1966). Generalized Thermodynamics, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge MA.
- Truesdell, C. (1980). The Tragicomical History of Thermodynamics 1822-1854, Springer, New York, ISBN 0–387–90403–4.
- Wilson, A.H. (1957). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, London.
External links[edit]
- Heat on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins - Article about extremely high temperature generated by scientists (Foxnews.com)
- Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer - ChE Online Resources
- An Introduction to the Quantitative Definition and Analysis of Heat written for High School Students


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It was over a decade ago that Electric, the Californian brand that means premium sunglasses, snow goggles and accessories, first sparked into life. That iconic Electric volt logo is now globally recognised and defines Electric as a brand and all the sunglasses, goggles and accessories that it's attached to.
But what other logo could there be for a brand named Electric? Founded in San Clemente, CA in January 2000, Kip Arnette, Bruce Beach and Mike Carter set about building a brand that they could be proud of while having fun. It was their original mission and still holds today.
Electric is also proud to introduce its Rider Inspired Design Series, where lovers of all things snow and surf and sun will find patterns, embellishments and colours unique to the Electric team of professional riders. If you love and know all things Electric, you'll love this collection of uniquely personal goggles.
There's more. Surf legends Luke Egan, Matt Hoy, Dave Rastovich, and Ozzie Wright have been Electric since the start, so too have snow legends Peter Line and Axel Pauporte. Snowboard X-Games Gold Medalists Andreas Wiig, Jamie Anderson, and freestyle skier Tanner Rainville lead the snow team. Skateboarder and Jackass Bam Margera made Electric a household name and NASCAR superstar Kyle "Rowdy" Busch has been with Electric since he was NASCAR Rookie of the Year in 2005.
The first Electric sunglasses and goggles were shown to the world at the SIA Snow Show in Las Vegas in 2000; the first three sunglasses came in July and the snow goggles the week before Christmas. The story of Electric had started.
Over the last decade Electric has produced some of the most unique and innovative designs in the sunglasses and snow goggle market. Electric's high voltage sunglasses styles are team inspired and reflect the attitude and personalities of today's youth culture. Electric snow goggles are world-renowned for their high level of quality and unmatched performance in the snow.
That's why the Electric pro team is so strong. Bringing the team together to design goggles is a compliment to a group of riders who have done so much together.
In January 2008 Electric was acquired by Volcom, officially making Electric part of the Volcom family. Today Electric is a global leader in eyewear and operates as a stand-alone brand, with full support from Volcom to maximize the full potential of the Electric brand.

subset: commoncrawl


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Darien Businesses to Like on Facebook
Show your support for local businesses by finding them on Facebook. We list a bunch, but you can add more we missed!
There are a lot of benefits to liking local businesses on Facebook. Besides telling your friends and neighbors your favorite places in town, you can get to know those places more through their Facebook page and sometimes be the first to hear about special deals.
So below, we're listing (in alphabetic order) some Facebook pages for local businesses that we found. Did we miss one? Add the name of the business and a link to the Facebook page in the comments below.
Oh, and while you're at it—LIKE Darien Patch on Facebook!
Find Them On Facebook
Liz Huskey
7:45 am on Friday, November 16, 2012
Family K9 Dog Training
Dr. Grace Castro
1:48 pm on Monday, November 19, 2012
Goers Dental Care
Andrew Blumenfeld
8:26 am on Friday, November 23, 2012
DuPage Star Technology
Deb Connelly
11:29 am on Tuesday, February 19, 2013
ADC Engraving & Gifts


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Bulls coach mixing things up with Rose out of the lineup
(MCT) — CHICAGO — Throughout his two-plus seasons as Bulls coach, it's a tossup whether Tom Thibodeau's least favorite media topic is injuries, playing time or playing rotations.
Getting dental work might rank higher.
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Mesalands Community College's women were named reserve champions and the men's team won four championship titles during their fifth annual rodeo.
Mesalands held their annual Grand Canyon Region rodeo last weekend at the Quay County Rodeo Arena.
The women scored 385 points and the men's team earned titles in bull riding, bareback riding, and in team roping.
David Gonzalez of Chihuahua, Mexico, was not only excited about clinching his first championship title in bull riding last weekend, but excited because his parents were there to share in his excitement.
"I think it was a good rodeo. I have no words to explain how it felt to have my family from Mexico there at the rodeo. I'm just so happy." Gonzalez said.
Gonzales finished with an average of 147 points. Teammates Kody Decker from Viola, Kan., and Cody Heffernan from Singleton, Australia, took sixth place in bull riding with 72 points.
Fellow Mesalands competitor Edmiles Harvey of Tsaile, Ariz., won another Bareback Riding Championship title. Harvey led in the first go-round with 67 points and finished the average with 67 points.
Teammates Chaz Kananen from Roy, Mont., and Daniel Robertson from Huntland, Tenn., brought home the Team Roping Championship title finishing the average in 18.3 seconds. The men had one of their best rodeos in team roping last weekend. Luis Delgado from Chihuahua, Mexico, and Preston McCullar from New Mexico Highlands University finished the average in second place at 20.4 seconds.
The Womens Team took second place at the rodeo. Macy Fuller of Clarkston, Wash., took second in the average, finishing at 16.6 seconds in goat tying, close behind the title winner with 16.3 seconds. Betty Pack of Aztec, finished the average in 5.1 seconds taking second in breakaway roping and Shelby Rita of Sunset Beach, Hawaii, came in fifth place with 3.1 seconds.
"We had four girls place, which is the most we've had all year. Our Womens Team is truly coming together," said C.J. Aragon, Mesalands coach. "We had a good turnout at the rodeo, good community support."
On Saturday, Aragon and Mildred Lovato, president of Mesalands, presented Roger Walters, National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association (NIRA) Commissioner with a gift to show their appreciation for him attending Mesalands' Rodeo.
Walters oversees 142 colleges nationwide with intercollegiate rodeo programs and 50 independent colleges.
"Coach Aragon's attitude, work ethic, his ability to communicate with others, and his concern for his student athletes says a lot about the integrity of this program. You don't get a coach better than that," Walters said.
Kindergartners from Tucumcari Elementary School led the crowd in the Pledge of Allegiance on Friday and Saturday. They also participated in a dance with the college's new mascot "Stampede."
"How amazing it was to see so many athletes and supporters at the Mesalands Rodeo last weekend," Lovato said. "Thanks to the Tucumcari Rotary Club for the wonderful job they did at the concession and thanks to the Tucumcari kindergartners for their help at the rodeo. They made this event very special."
Other individual standings at the Mesalands Rodeo :
Omar Ramirez/Jacob Rounds: Fifth, Team Roping
Morgan McVay/Victor Ugalde (NSMU): Sixth, Team Roping


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MLB Players Poll: Revealing Results about PEDs, Gay Teammates and more
ATHLON EXCLUSIVE: Our off-the-record baseball player survey -
21 Amazing MLB Stats for the Week
Highlighting the most important, intriguing and bizarre stats in baseball. -
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Teams change stadium names and nicknames all of the time. But what about the players? -
2013 MLB Power Rankings: June 18
A look at the best and worst baseball teams in the league.
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Crowd at Vigil for Late Officer Vows to be 'Collier Strong'
More than 1,000 residents and police officers from across the state packed Wilmington Town Common for a candlelight vigil in honor of slain MIT Police Officer Sean Collier.
On Saturday night, residents said goodbye to one of their own and police officers from across the state saluted the bravery of a member of the thin blue line who made the ultimate sacrifice. Slain Massachusetts Institute of Technology Police Officer Sean Collier's body was brought down Church Street past thousands who lined the street surrounding Wilmington Town Common and waved American flags as a part of an emotional goodbye. Collier, a Wilmington native and Somerville resident, was honored during a candlelight vigil following the procession. Members of the Collier family attended the event, and sobbed at times as their loved one was recalled. "(Sean) is such an amazing man. A better man than I will ever be. And he was taken from us too …
In this Article:
9:08 am on Tuesday, April 23, 2013
I agree with Darlene..........does it matter what he was responding to??? He was executed by 2 psychos while performing his duties as an MIT police officer.....   more ›


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The Best Grilling & BBQ Articles on the Web
This recipe can easily be doubled. Just be sure to make the mimosas in 2 batches. For best results, chill melon overnight.
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Women's Board Annual Events
The Women's Board of the Field Museum hosts an array of events throughout the year. The Women In Science Fellowship Luncheon raises funds for the Women In Science Fellowship, the annual Gala celebrates the opening of an exciting new exhibition at The Field Museum, and the Children's Holiday Celebration celebrates the holiday season with the children of Chicago.
The Annual Women In Science Fellowship Luncheon will take place on Wednesday, May 1, 2013! Click here for more information about The Chicago Legacy: From Burnham to Daley...Make No Little Plans.
Save the date for the 2013 Gala taking place on Saturday, October 26, 2013.
The Children's Holiday Celebration welcomes the winter holiday season with crafts, entertertainment, a Museum scavenger hunt and more! Save the date for Thursday, December 5, 2013.
Plan your visit
Open every day except Christmas. 9am - 5pm
1400 S Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605


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Millett Hall
Summer Camps


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I am on a FIRST robotics team and would like to start welding our robot frame. Which welding setup should I use? The welder should be relatively easy to learn to use. High school students will be using it. We will need to weld aluminum and steel. The setup needs to be affordable. Thank you for your time.
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Thread: Welder For FIRST Robot
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02-18-2013, 09:53 AM #1Junior Member
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Welder For FIRST Robot
02-18-2013, 10:12 AM #2Senior Member
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Welding Aluminum is not quite so easy as steel, nor is the equipment cheap. You could try a MIG welder with a spoolgun. At minimum you'd need something like the Hobart Handler 190/spoolgun combo that runs about $850. Better yet would be a 210. You would need two different gasses, one for steel and one for Aluminum. Units of this size would be OK for 1/8" Aluminum. Don't count on welding thick stuff. Do you have access to 240 volt power?
You might be better off finding a sponsor locally who can help you and provide access to equipment.
Are you a team mentor? I did that for about 5 years for Team 975. Interesting times.


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Los Angeles Lakers teammates Kobe Bryant and Pau Gasol will face off when the United States takes on Spain for the gold medal on Sunday. While both aspire to take home a gold for their respective countries, on Friday both were also thinking about Dwight Howard, the Orlando Magic center who was traded to the Lakers. Gasol said the move will give the Lakers a huge boost. "It puts us in a position of trying to win the championship and going after it," he said. "There's going to be expectations of being a very strong and powerful team, and we like that." Bryant was even more exuberant, proclaiming that the Lakers are "locked and loaded to bring back the title." He spoke with Howard on Friday morning, and interrupted his pursuit of a gold medal to talk about the years to come in Los Angeles. "I'll probably play two or three more years. Then the team is his," Bryant said. "I'm excited for the franchise because now they have a player that can carry the franchise well after I'm gone. This should be his and he should want to accept that challenge." — Jon Krawczynski — Twitter http://twitter.com/APKrawczynski and Tim Reynolds — Twitter http://www.twitter.com/ByTimReynolds ___ EDITOR'S NOTE — "Eyes on London" shows you the Olympics through the eyes of Associated Press journalists across the 2012 Olympic city and around the world. Follow them on Twitter where available with the handles listed after each item.
Aug. 11 12:40 AM EDT


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The Community of Disc Golfers and About All Things Disc Golf
Really straight flying, long gliding disc. Real understable. I think it makes a good long range putter. Like throwing a hubcap though.
I haven't thrown it yet but all evidence points to . . . . . . .Aero.
Sounds like a great disc.
Welcome to
Posted by Buddy Thornton on April 29, 2013 at 3:23pm — 1 Comment
Posted by Alan Barker on April 24, 2013 at 2:30pm
Posted by Alan Barker on March 29, 2013 at 11:27pm
Posted by Alan Barker on February 14, 2013 at 1:29pm — 1 Comment
Posted by neal swaney on February 6, 2013 at 10:28am — 1 Comment
© 2013 Created by Terry "the Pirate" Calhoun.


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Irene Ryan Pics
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On to another week of things I love. Sorry it has been a few weeks since the last one. I have finally settled in to my new home for the summer, started working, and (of course) did some baking. I also want to give a shout out to The Peche and Snappy Service Cafe for awarding me with this awesome towel for BHF11PP!
Don't forget to keep an eye out for some new recipes coming soon!
But for now, enjoy some of my most recent favorites.
1. Mini Rhubarb Upside Down Cakes from Teenie Cakes – Upside down cakes are perfect for summer because they don't need any topping and allow you to use whatever fruit is in season. I recently made a pineapple upside down cake, but these rhubarb cakes are calling my name!
2. Rhubarb Tart with Strawberry Whipped Cream from I (heart) Baking! — This one hit home for me. I recently made something similar, but this sounds so amazing. And the photos are beautiful. I want to try and make this tart with the rhubarb sliced long ways instead of little chunks. So cute!
3. Mini Gooey Chocolate Cakes from Bread and Milk and Blackberries — Who doesn't love a good chocolate recipe? Nothing is more like home then a good chocolate cake. This one is Swedish. It is partially baked and more brownie like according to her post. Also, in her pictures she topped them with some frosting and berries making this a must try dessert.
4. Thai Banana Fritters from Tes at Home – Have you ever had something that was crunchy, sweet, hot, and fruity? I don't have anything that immediatly comes to mind but that is essentially what you get from a banana fritter. Tes also mentioned pairing these wonderful treats with some vanilla ice cream. Doesn't that sound amazing?
5. Strawberry Raspberry Rhubarb Pie from The Baker Chick — Another rhubarb recipe that caught my eye. I love that she made her pie a little different with the addition of raspberries. The tartness of the rhubarb and raspberries must pair perfectly with the sweetness of the strawberries. And her pie was bright and beautiful, great for a summer party!


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Cornwell Tools introduces the 4-pc. Screwdriver Set, No. CSD4S. These tools offer blasted tips to provide better grip and prevent chrome peel. A hex bolster allows use of wrench for greater torque. The bi-material handle provides a comfortable, non-slip grip and a high-polish, chrome-plated finish offers corrosion protection. This set includes the following tools:
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Up in the Air / Down to Earth
Martin Cohen -
Publication Date:
April 2010 -
Report Number:
Is there a more deflating pronouncement to hear from your boss than "I'm going to start incorporating humor in my staff meetings?" It's time to nod knowingly, practice your fixed smile, and prepare for a more prolonged run-up than usual to the productive part of your meetings. A Mid-market Conversation Starter.


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A collection of news and information related to Burberry Prorsum published by this site and its partners.
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Olivia Palermo in white at Fashion Week
One of the best parts of fashion weeks, season after season, is Olivia Palermo. She's not a designer or movie star, but she supplies an endless amount of sartorial eye candy. The reality TV personality attends all the hottest shows in outfits that are...Tags: Kohl's, London Fashion Week, Giorgio Armani S.P.A., Academy Awards, Tibi
Who inspires your fashion choices?
It's high season for celebrity fashion watching. "Who are you wearing?" rang out (endlessly) from the red carpet at the recent Golden Globe Awards, and there's more to come in February with the Oscars. This focus on which TV and film stars are wearing...Tags: Givenchy, Gossip Girl (tv program), Entertainment, Kim Kardashian, Ryan Seacrest
Fashion News: Milan Men's Fashion Week begins with 'Gossip' guys
All The RageTeri Hatcher and voice coach Eric Vetro were among the VIP guests enjoying opening night at the Hollywood Bowl. Men's Fashion Week got underway in Milan. Margherita Missoni wed. And more fashion headlines.... -
Frugal Fashion: 'The Amazing Spider-Man' star Emma Stone
All The RageActress Emma Stone is on quite a roll. This month's Vogue cover girl and star of the upcoming film "The Amazing Spider-Man," slated to open Friday, is on a w press tour for the new action flick. As she travels from city to city she's been been popping... -
Rebel Rebel
Ever the tough guy, even Marlon Brando would have been delighted by the new unexpectedly feminine direction being taken this summer and fall by that staple of macho menswear, the biker jacket. The mercurial actor, who died in 2004, became an eternal...Tags: Marlon Brando, Unrest, Conflicts and War, Balmain, Bill Daley, Civil Unrest
Frugal Fashion: Cara Delevingne's cocktail dress with an edge
All The RageModel Cara Delevingne may be a relative newcomer to the fashion industry, but the 19-year-old is fast becoming one to watch. At the Harper's Bazaar Women of the Year Awards in London, Delevingne looked divine in a sparkly gold Burberry dress, black... -
Frugal Fashion: I don't know how Sarah Jessica Parker does it
All The RageAfter "Sex and the City," Sarah Jessica Parker and Carrie Bradshaw both became fashion icons. Viewers tuned in every week to watch what the frenetic, shoe-obsessed Bradshaw would wear next and in the real world, the paparazzi snapped pictures of...... -
Five trends in women's fashion this fall
Los Angeles Times Fashion CriticDistilling dozens of designer collections isn't easy. But after a month-long cavalcade of fashion weeks in the style capitals of Paris, Milan, London and New York, here goes — our picks for the fall-winter 2011 season's top five trends. Caped...Tags: Entertainment, Jason Wu, Thakoon Panichgul, Los Angeles Times, Fendi
Milan Fashion Week: Burberry Prorsum sends a raft of raffia down the runway
All The RageThe runway at Burberry was a hurricane of handcrafted detail -- from the crocheted raffia caps all the way down to the cork-soled leather loafers with raffia contrasts, if there was an opportunity to make something look hand-hewn (wood toggle...... -
Your morning fashion and beauty report: London Fashion Week begins, MAC and Lady Gaga collaborate and Captain Jack Sparrow inspires OPI
All The RageOn the heels of New York Fashion Week (which ended Thursday), the style world turns to London, where showings of designers' fall-winter 2011 women's collections are starting up. Among the expected highlights: On Monday afternoon, Burberry Prorsum will... -
London Fashion Week: Burberry gets sentimental over Jean Shrimpton
All The RageFor the fall Burberry Prorsum show, designer Christoper Bailey got sentimental over British fashion model Jean Shrimpton, symbol of the 1960s youthquake, according to show notes. He sent out models in mod, cow-print flat caps, round sunglasses,...
Feb 26, 2013
|Story| Los Angeles Times
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|Column| Chicago Tribune
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| Los Angeles Times
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|Story| Chicago Tribune
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| Los Angeles Times
Original site for Burberry Prorsum topic gallery.


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L.E. Wilson Chamber Type Seater Die 6.5mm-284 Norma (6.5mm-284 Winchester)
Product #: 961549
L.E. Wilson #:
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Product Information
The L.E. Wilson Chamber Type Seater Die is noted for precise accuracy. Both the bullet and case are firmly held in perfect alignment as the bullet is seated in the case. Hand-die design for use with a mallet or an arbor press. Not for use on a conventional press.
Technical Information
Material: Steel
Die Type: Bullet Seating Die
Die positively controls both bullet and cartridge case alignment.
Bullet is pushed into the case mouth by a close-fitting bullet seating stem.
This die works in an Arbor or hand press only.
Technical Information
Material: Steel
Die Type: Bullet Seating Die
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The statements and opinions expressed within Customer Reviews reflect each author's personal perspective and do not imply endorsement by MidwayUSA, its Employees or any other organization. Customers should in no way infer that MidwayUSA has validated review information as safe, accurate or appropriate.
NOTE: Prices, specifications and availability are subject to change
without notice.
We reserve the right to correct typographic, photographic and/or descriptive errors.
We reserve the right to correct typographic, photographic and/or descriptive errors.


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So… uh… what's it REALLY like to own a Tesla?
We can answer that question, 'cause we happen to know someone who actually has one of those fabulous cars.
He'll give us the straight scoop on Thursday, May 9th.
What else?
Treasurer Bill Starr will tell us how much money is in the kitty.
And we're working on a guest interview, but we haven't gotten a commitment yet.
Interesting stuff — only at the Houston Electric Auto Association's May Meeting!


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Ludwig "Luke" Stern
Date de décès : 1er juillet 2012
At the Queen Elizabeth Hospital on Sunday, July 1, 2012, Ludwig "Luke" Stern of Stratford, age 66 years. Beloved husband of Muriel (nee Lawrence); dear father of Krista Torraville (Gary) and Jodi Kristel (Anthony); Loving Opa to Nathan, Hannah, Olivia, and Samantha; brother of Henry (Evelyn) and Hanni Eason (John). Lovingly remembered by his special nephew Stephen Stern (Christine) and his special niece Lesley Anthony (William); son-in-law of Berkley Lawrence (Elfreda, deceased). Luke is fondly remembered by his loving family members and many dear friends in Newfoundland and throughout Canada, U.S.A. and Germany. A special thank you to his co-workers and friends at Cavendish Farms. Predeceased by his parents Heinrich and Elisabeth (Bender) Stern. Resting at Belvedere Funeral Home from where the funeral service will be held in the funeral home chapel, Thursday at 11 a.m. Visiting hours on Wednesday from 2 to 4 and 7 to 9 p.m. Memorial donations may be made to the P.E.I. Cancer Treatment Centre of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. A memorial service will be held in Mt. Pearl at a later date. www.belvederefh.com


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Welcome to Pan's Community Daily Index. You need to be registered to Pan Historia in order to post.
Add this post to your bookmarks?
The RED CARPET SOCIETY is hosting its SEXY SANTA CONTEST
Enter Your Sexy (or you could always win with a SILLY) Santa Picture and
1st Prize= 3 Pannies 2nd Prize=2 Pannies 3rd Prize=1 Panny
Santa baby, slip a sable under the tree, for me I've been an awful good girl Santa baby, and hurry down the chimney tonight
Santa baby, an out-of-space convertible too, light blue I'll wait up for you dear Santa baby, and hurry down the chimney tonight
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We make hiring Party Bands in Auburn ME a snap!
Browse and book the perfect Auburn Party Band for your wedding, corporate event or private party on Gig Salad, the event planner's booking destination.
Hire Party Bands
near Auburn, ME
Browse all Auburn Bands & Groups or try another location
Results 1-15 of 255
Browse and compare 255 Auburn Party Bands (and those who serve Auburn, Maine)
30 miles from Auburn
Cover Band / Party Band Auburn
From Portsmouth, NH to Portland, Maine and near by areas you'll find Rock Bottom Classic Rock Dance Band. Rock Bottom is a Classic Rock Dance Band of four superb musicians with three very strong lead singers. They combine their voices to produce rich…
27 miles from Auburn
Rock Band / Party Band Auburn
A Massive Exit show will make you feel like you are 16 years old, driving 87 miles an hour in your Dad's convertible. These four young yet experienced musicians have already played many festivals, parties, and clubs throughout Maine, with shows spanning…
30 miles from Auburn
Steely Dan Tribute Band / Party Band Auburn
The only world class tribute to Steely Dan with a Donald Fagen and a Walter Becker look-a-like as members. Full musician line-up covering all the classics and new material. View the Deely Stan web site for a preview of our performances. Festivals, private…
36 miles from Auburn
Wedding Band / Party Band Auburn
Wavelength is one of the finest wedding bands in New England. Based in Maine, this versatile 5-piece group plays everything from an elegant ceremony, cocktail hour and formal dinner to an unforgettable dance party. From wedding standards, light jazz,…
46 miles from Auburn
Steel Drum Band / Party Band Auburn
The sweet and vigorous sound of steel pan music appeals to a wide variety of audiences, and all age groups. Our performances provide a special atmosphere for school events, weddings, fairs, multicultural events... anywhere people gather for fun and dance.…
99 miles from Auburn
One Man Band / Party Band Auburn
A one-man band that performs 50s-60s oldies and more, Just Harry is ideal for boomer generation anniversaries, birthday parties, retirement parties, and reunions. A multi-instrumentalist, performing live I play guitar and sing along with my-own recorded…
122 miles from Auburn
Party Band
High-energy dance band, covering all of your favorite R&B, Funk, Motown, Dance songs. Our mission is to provide you with a top notch, non stop entertainment that will leave you asking for more. DM Band is available for all of your special events…
122 miles from Auburn
Dueling Pianos / Party Band
This is not your typical piano act...unless you are used to pianos playing high energy request driven rock and roll that you have seen in dueling piano clubs across the country. We can provide you with one or two pianists who will make your function/event/bar/party…
miles from Auburn
Wedding Band / Party Band
Groove Authority plays everything... R&B, Motown, Funk, Soul, Disco, as well as Top 40 and Classic Rock and Pop, Hip Hop, Swing, Jazz and Reggae. If you are looking for a band that's fun and entertaining and versatile in a small, affordable package,…
127 miles from Auburn
Wedding Band / Party Band
Cover Story Entertainment is an all Berklee Graduate Band providing New England with the best live entertainment there is to offer. We are one of the very few bands not associated with an agency therefore saving our brides money and allowing our organization…
127 miles from Auburn
Jazz Band / Party Band
Great music can be a rare commodity, yet sets the tone for any event. Upbeat Jazz/George Farrell Group performs a wide variety of music, ranging from traditional to contemporary jazz, fusion and smooth jazz. Let us set the perfect tone for your event!
127 miles from Auburn
Soul Band / Party Band
Soulphonic - the very best there is! When you absolutely, positively got to get every mother, father, sister, brother, cousin, friend, and neighbor in the room up on their feet and dancing, accept no substitutes. We are an 8-piece soul band playing soul…
127 miles from Auburn
Dance Band / Party Band
Intense City is Boston's Hot New Dance Cover Show band. Our mision Statement is to provide great entertainment for all ages. We believe that every event is a celebration. The Intense City Band is available for all occassions.
143 miles from Auburn
A Cappella Singing Group / Party Band
Pro 5 piece male acappella group, available for venues and events of all sizes. Experienced in National Venues, Corporate Events, Concerts, Dinner Theatre, Weddings, Private Functions.
172 miles from Auburn
Big Band / Party Band
We are a 12 pc Big Band that gets the dance floor moving with swing, rock, soul and funk! For more than 2 decades Stage Door Canteen has brought energy and elegance to weddings and functions in New England. The band has traveled from Maine to New Jersey…


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CURRENT EUROPEAN CRUISES UPDATE Click here to read more details!
Award-winning river cruise line AmaWaterways continues to lead the industry with a fleet of 15 custom-designed vessels in Europe, Russia, Vietnam, Cambodia and Africa. With innovative ship designs, spacious and stylish staterooms, premium amenities, exceptional cuisine and impeccable service, AmaWaterways sets new standards in river cruising every year. Read More...
AmaWaterways offers several exciting new itineraries in 2013, exploring the Seine in France and the Douro in Portugal. Whether you join us on the great waterways of Europe and Russia, the Chobe River in Africa, or the exotic Mekong River in Vietnam and Cambodia, you will have the trip of a lifetime with an AmaWaterways river cruise vacation. Close
Meet the people who shaped the modern day river cruising.
Find out what makes AmaWaterways river cruises so special.
Are you ready for your next adventure? Uncover the possiblilites.


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Dennis DiPrete, PE
Chris Duhamel, PE, PLS
Len Bradley, PE
Greg Guglielmo, AICP, LEED AP
Kevin Morin, PE
Peter Wagenaar, PLS
Mike Gavitt, PLS
Eric Prive, PE
Audie Osgood, PE
Nicole Reilly, PE
Brian W. Timm, PE
Karen King
Chris Ready
It takes a great team of people to make a great project. This includes building a stellar working relationship between DiPrete Engineering, our clients, and other project consultants.
We believe that you must have quality personnel that can efficiently work together in a cohesive team environment. The firm employs professional, technical, and support personnel whose primary focus is to work with our clients to meet the needs of their project.


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Power Line Installation to Cause Temporary Lane Closures on I-30
By: KARK 4 News
Updated: November 29, 2012
The work will be located at the Saline River and will require Entergy crews to pull power lines across the traffic lanes on Interstate 30.
All lanes in each direction will be closed for 15 minute intervals beginning at 8:30 a.m. on Sunday, Dec. 2, weather permitting.
Crews anticipate having to close the lanes a total of three times throughout the day. Arkansas State Police will be on location to coordinate traffic.
Motorists should consider an alternate route and exercise caution when approaching and traveling through all highway work zones


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If you've been a fan of Mariah Carey then you know when she links up with the "brothers" the track will be CRAZY!! MiMi went on Twitter Saturday to share the news with her fans;
"So I can finally announce to you that my new single is coming out early August!" tweeted Mariah. "It's called TRIUMPHANT (Get 'Em) ft. Rick Ross & Meek Mill."
Carey says she wrote TRIUMPHANT when she was going through a difficult time & it helped her get through it. Word on the street is that the track was written and produced by Carey, as well as Jermaine Dupri and Brian Michael Cox, who also worked on the singer's hits "Shake It Off" and "Don't Forget About Us."
I can definitely go for a track from Mc! Stay tuned to Addicted2Candi for more info on Mariah Carey's new single!
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Recent Posts
LISTEN: Fabolous Ft. 2 Chainz "When I Feel Like It" (NEW MUSIC)
05/30/2013 •
2 Chainz is popping up on everyone's track, today Fabolous released a track called "When I feel Like It" ft the hair weave killer!! First listen I'm not a fan, however don't let my opinion shape your's. Listen and share your thoughts!! Loso's Way 2: The Rise To Power soon come. P.s he's def on some Scorpio ish, bcos we don't move unless we feel like it! lol!!
Foxy Brown Denies Rumors About Jay-Z Giving Her An STD, Molestation & Being A 'Tranny Chaser'
I'm sure you all heard about the foolish rumors that hit the net a couple of weeks ago, stating foxy brown spilled the tea on Jay and a source ran with the story to the blogs!! See I didn't post that mess, bcos I can't do ratchet gossip ( no shade to anyone that does) without zero proof. So now FB speaks on the rumors. See below.
Foxy Brown is FURIOUS over reports she trashed Jay-Z ... telling TMZ she NEVER referred to Hova as a gonorrhea-infected "tranny chaser" ... and now she's threatening to sue.
Brown is referencing reports which say Foxy recently went to a baby shower and started dishing about Jay-Z's sex life to one of the guests -- saying he secretly engages in gay sex ... and that she lost her virginity to him when she was 15 and he was 27.
There's more ... including allegations of a robbery, sex tape and STDs.
But Foxy says the report is complete BS, telling TMZ ... "The atrociousness of this story sickened me to my stomach. Any and everyone involved will be contacted by my attorney."
Foxy says, "In all my years in the music industry, these are the most disgusting and disrespectful allegations I've ever experienced. This fictitious story ... with NO audio, visual or written interview, clearly was concocted with malicious intent."
"Jay has only been wonderful to me and my family, a great friend throughout all the years I've known him and we had nothing but great success as a team."
She continues, "Beyonce, his wife, has always been gracious and sweet to me ... I will NOT let any undercover hater create discord and disrespect my name and reputation."
"This disrespect will NOT be tolerated."
Oh. and I know people are going to think Jay-z sent them dogs after her and made her release this statement...smh. I believe she released this statement bcos it was NEVER said. These "Sources" will lie and run with anything just for a few coins. TUH!!
Same Girl New Hair: Christina Milian Goes RED (DOPE or NOPE?)
R&B singer Christina Milian was spotted by the razzi mafia rocking her new red hair color!! I love it!! CM is a gorgeous girl but her style can be a hit or miss, but this look right here is DOPE!! The dude in the picture is her boo music producer Jas Prince. Are you feeling her new hair color?
AWWWWW: Kim Kardashian's Baby Shower Invitation Revealed!!
Ok so I sooooooo Love these invites!! TMZ thinks that they are over the top, hey come on its a celebration, go BIGGGG!!
The invite to Kim Kardashian's June 2nd bash -- sent to a guest close to Kanye West -- arrived as a fully functional music box, complete with a spinning ballerina ... dancing to a lullaby version of Kanye's "Hey Mama."
Not only is the invite playing the baby daddy's tune, but the ballerina bears a striking resemblance to Kim herself -- just in case anyone forgets who this party is REALLY celebrating.
According to the invites, Kris Jenner, Shelli Azoff (wife of uber-manager Irving Azoff), Kourtney and Khloe Kardashian are hosting the party. Recommended attire ... garden chic. We think that's rich people speak for casual.
Listen to lullaby verizon of Ye's "Hey Mama" below:


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Freeholder Mirabella: Tested Once Again, Union County Looks Forward to 2013
Union County Freeholder looks ahead to new year.
Between the global economic meltdown of 2008 and a series of natural disasters culminating in Hurricane Sandy, Union County has seen its share of crises over the past four years. We have also been touched by the sorrows borne by communities not so very far away; here in New Jersey, the devastation of shore towns by the storm, and in Newtown, Connecticut, a human tragedy from which no real recovery is ever possible. While our hearts and minds reach out in sympathy, we can also look inward and prepare ourselves for the challenges ahead. And as this year comes to a close, there is cause for renewed hope in the future. One cause for optimism has been the growth of new relationships all across the spectrum of our community. In this regard, …
2:24 pm on Thursday, February 28, 2013
Wow...I hope taxpayers aren't footing the bill for this Freeloader's food bill! That'll put any county into the red. Why do so many local, county and state politicians look just like this guy?   more ›


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"We have confirmed through Cobb County Police that the remains found near I75 in Cobb County are that of Norris Milton Dove age 51 of 218 Forrest Ave Calhoun Ga," said Lt. Tony Pyle.
Dove was reported missing on Aug. 11, 2009 by family members, and has not been seen or heard from since that date. According to family members, Dove had a history of leaving home for extended periods and saying with different family members and friends across the state.
A cause of death has not been determined at this time.


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I need to cut back my giant Cyperus papyrus. The center is bare because I always cut out the dead stocks. The rhizomes are growing outward from the center. Some are now growing into the patio.
I need to cut these back and would like to replant them. Is all the rhizome above ground? If not how deep do I dig to get enough root to transplant?
When I replant how deep should I plant it since it looks like it's growing on the surface? If I don't plant it deep what's to keep it from falling over? :oops:


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Cellar/Tasting Notes "The 2008 Barolo Vigna Marenca boasts a center of bright red berries that is surprisingly supple and elegant. Sweet red cherries, freshly cut flowers, spices and mint take shape in the glass as the 2008 shows off a refined, high-toned register that is rarely found in this wine. The 2008 boasts..
Cellar/Tasting Notes The wine was aged 12-15 months,partly in medium-toasted French barriques and partly in 2nd year old barrels of 25hl. The result is a deep garnet gem whose rich bouquet recalls licorice, red berries. Brushwood, violets cinnamon and cloves confirmed on a full, well balanced pallet, showing complex..
Cellar/Tasting Notes "The 2004 Barbaresco S. Stefanetto (from vines in Treiso) is a firm, yet generous wine endowed with notable purity and depth in its dark, sensual fruit. Truffles, worn-in leather, spices and menthol round out this harmonious, beautifully balanced Barbaresco. Though undeniably attractive today, the..
Cellar/Tasting Notes "Though rich, this is also beefy, with black cherry, broth and tobacco notes. The tannins are firm, but there's plenty of flesh and ripe fruit for balance. Fine length."
Cellar/Tasting Notes "Good saturated deep red. The most pristine of these Barolos to this point, offering aromas of black cherry, blackberry, licorice, mocha and menthol. Sweet, ripe black cherry fruit is complicated but not overwhelmed by a hint of leather, with sound acidity giving clarity and energy to the wine's..
Cellar/Tasting Notes "Elio Altare is among the most important producers of the La Morra area of Barolo and this non-cru wine shows his talents. There are smoky notes of roasted hazelnut and chocolate that frame lively aromas of cassis and red currants. Theres great depth and delicacy here and the wine boasts polished..
Cellar/Tasting Notes "...lots of fresh black truffle and berry character. Full bodied, with an impressive amount of ripe fruit...Long and chewy finish."
Cellar/Tasting Notes "Beautiful raspberry, cherry and black currant flavors are backed by firm, dusty tannins in this harmonious, fresh red. Floral and tobacco notes add dimension as this cruises to a long, lingering finish."
Cellar/Tasting Notes "The 2007 Barolo Costa Grimaldi is fabulously rich, dense and well-balanced in this vintage. The Costa Grimaldi is made from a parcel of the Via Nuova vineyard in Barolo at 350 meters above sea level with a sheltered south-east exposure that provides respite in warmer years. This shows tons of..
Cellar/Tasting Notes "The 2003 Barolo Vigna del Gris reveals super-ripe aromatics followed by perfumed, sweet red fruits. Medium in body, this floral, delicate Barolo possesses outstanding length..."