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1 2 Overview of the Linux Virtual File System 3 4 Original author: Richard Gooch <firstname.lastname@example.com> 5 6 Last updated on June 24, 2007. 7 8 Copyright (C) 1999 Richard Gooch 9 Copyright (C) 2005 Pekka Enberg 10 11 This file is released under the GPLv2. 12 13 14Introduction 15============ 16 17The Virtual File System (also known as the Virtual Filesystem Switch) 18is the software layer in the kernel that provides the filesystem 19interface to userspace programs. It also provides an abstraction 20within the kernel which allows different filesystem implementations to 21coexist. 22 23VFS system calls open(2), stat(2), read(2), write(2), chmod(2) and so 24on are called from a process context. Filesystem locking is described 25in the document Documentation/filesystems/Locking. 26 27 28Directory Entry Cache (dcache) 29------------------------------ 30 31The VFS implements the open(2), stat(2), chmod(2), and similar system 32calls. The pathname argument that is passed to them is used by the VFS 33to search through the directory entry cache (also known as the dentry 34cache or dcache). This provides a very fast look-up mechanism to 35translate a pathname (filename) into a specific dentry. Dentries live 36in RAM and are never saved to disc: they exist only for performance. 37 38The dentry cache is meant to be a view into your entire filespace. As 39most computers cannot fit all dentries in the RAM at the same time, 40some bits of the cache are missing. In order to resolve your pathname 41into a dentry, the VFS may have to resort to creating dentries along 42the way, and then loading the inode. This is done by looking up the 43inode. 44 45 46The Inode Object 47---------------- 48 49An individual dentry usually has a pointer to an inode. Inodes are 50filesystem objects such as regular files, directories, FIFOs and other 51beasts. They live either on the disc (for block device filesystems) 52or in the memory (for pseudo filesystems). Inodes that live on the 53disc are copied into the memory when required and changes to the inode 54are written back to disc. A single inode can be pointed to by multiple 55dentries (hard links, for example, do this). 56 57To look up an inode requires that the VFS calls the lookup() method of 58the parent directory inode. This method is installed by the specific 59filesystem implementation that the inode lives in. Once the VFS has 60the required dentry (and hence the inode), we can do all those boring 61things like open(2) the file, or stat(2) it to peek at the inode 62data. The stat(2) operation is fairly simple: once the VFS has the 63dentry, it peeks at the inode data and passes some of it back to 64userspace. 65 66 67The File Object 68--------------- 69 70Opening a file requires another operation: allocation of a file 71structure (this is the kernel-side implementation of file 72descriptors). The freshly allocated file structure is initialized with 73a pointer to the dentry and a set of file operation member functions. 74These are taken from the inode data. The open() file method is then 75called so the specific filesystem implementation can do its work. You 76can see that this is another switch performed by the VFS. The file 77structure is placed into the file descriptor table for the process. 78 79Reading, writing and closing files (and other assorted VFS operations) 80is done by using the userspace file descriptor to grab the appropriate 81file structure, and then calling the required file structure method to 82do whatever is required. For as long as the file is open, it keeps the 83dentry in use, which in turn means that the VFS inode is still in use. 84 85 86Registering and Mounting a Filesystem 87===================================== 88 89To register and unregister a filesystem, use the following API 90functions: 91 92 #include <linux/fs.h> 93 94 extern int register_filesystem(struct file_system_type *); 95 extern int unregister_filesystem(struct file_system_type *); 96 97The passed struct file_system_type describes your filesystem. When a 98request is made to mount a filesystem onto a directory in your namespace, 99the VFS will call the appropriate mount() method for the specific 100filesystem. New vfsmount referring to the tree returned by ->mount() 101will be attached to the mountpoint, so that when pathname resolution 102reaches the mountpoint it will jump into the root of that vfsmount. 103 104You can see all filesystems that are registered to the kernel in the 105file /proc/filesystems. 106 107 108struct file_system_type 109----------------------- 110 111This describes the filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.39, the following 112members are defined: 113 114struct file_system_type { 115 const char *name; 116 int fs_flags; 117 struct dentry *(*mount) (struct file_system_type *, int, 118 const char *, void *); 119 void (*kill_sb) (struct super_block *); 120 struct module *owner; 121 struct file_system_type * next; 122 struct list_head fs_supers; 123 struct lock_class_key s_lock_key; 124 struct lock_class_key s_umount_key; 125}; 126 127 name: the name of the filesystem type, such as "ext2", "iso9660", 128 "msdos" and so on 129 130 fs_flags: various flags (i.e. FS_REQUIRES_DEV, FS_NO_DCACHE, etc.) 131 132 mount: the method to call when a new instance of this 133 filesystem should be mounted 134 135 kill_sb: the method to call when an instance of this filesystem 136 should be shut down 137 138 owner: for internal VFS use: you should initialize this to THIS_MODULE in 139 most cases. 140 141 next: for internal VFS use: you should initialize this to NULL 142 143 s_lock_key, s_umount_key: lockdep-specific 144 145The mount() method has the following arguments: 146 147 struct file_system_type *fs_type: describes the filesystem, partly initialized 148 by the specific filesystem code 149 150 int flags: mount flags 151 152 const char *dev_name: the device name we are mounting. 153 154 void *data: arbitrary mount options, usually comes as an ASCII 155 string (see "Mount Options" section) 156 157The mount() method must return the root dentry of the tree requested by 158caller. An active reference to its superblock must be grabbed and the 159superblock must be locked. On failure it should return ERR_PTR(error). 160 161The arguments match those of mount(2) and their interpretation 162depends on filesystem type. E.g. for block filesystems, dev_name is 163interpreted as block device name, that device is opened and if it 164contains a suitable filesystem image the method creates and initializes 165struct super_block accordingly, returning its root dentry to caller. 166 167->mount() may choose to return a subtree of existing filesystem - it 168doesn't have to create a new one. The main result from the caller's 169point of view is a reference to dentry at the root of (sub)tree to 170be attached; creation of new superblock is a common side effect. 171 172The most interesting member of the superblock structure that the 173mount() method fills in is the "s_op" field. This is a pointer to 174a "struct super_operations" which describes the next level of the 175filesystem implementation. 176 177Usually, a filesystem uses one of the generic mount() implementations 178and provides a fill_super() callback instead. The generic variants are: 179 180 mount_bdev: mount a filesystem residing on a block device 181 182 mount_nodev: mount a filesystem that is not backed by a device 183 184 mount_single: mount a filesystem which shares the instance between 185 all mounts 186 187A fill_super() callback implementation has the following arguments: 188 189 struct super_block *sb: the superblock structure. The callback 190 must initialize this properly. 191 192 void *data: arbitrary mount options, usually comes as an ASCII 193 string (see "Mount Options" section) 194 195 int silent: whether or not to be silent on error 196 197 198The Superblock Object 199===================== 200 201A superblock object represents a mounted filesystem. 202 203 204struct super_operations 205----------------------- 206 207This describes how the VFS can manipulate the superblock of your 208filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.22, the following members are defined: 209 210struct super_operations { 211 struct inode *(*alloc_inode)(struct super_block *sb); 212 void (*destroy_inode)(struct inode *); 213 214 void (*dirty_inode) (struct inode *, int flags); 215 int (*write_inode) (struct inode *, int); 216 void (*drop_inode) (struct inode *); 217 void (*delete_inode) (struct inode *); 218 void (*put_super) (struct super_block *); 219 int (*sync_fs)(struct super_block *sb, int wait); 220 int (*freeze_fs) (struct super_block *); 221 int (*unfreeze_fs) (struct super_block *); 222 int (*statfs) (struct dentry *, struct kstatfs *); 223 int (*remount_fs) (struct super_block *, int *, char *); 224 void (*clear_inode) (struct inode *); 225 void (*umount_begin) (struct super_block *); 226 227 int (*show_options)(struct seq_file *, struct dentry *); 228 229 ssize_t (*quota_read)(struct super_block *, int, char *, size_t, loff_t); 230 ssize_t (*quota_write)(struct super_block *, int, const char *, size_t, loff_t); 231 int (*nr_cached_objects)(struct super_block *); 232 void (*free_cached_objects)(struct super_block *, int); 233}; 234 235All methods are called without any locks being held, unless otherwise 236noted. This means that most methods can block safely. All methods are 237only called from a process context (i.e. not from an interrupt handler 238or bottom half). 239 240 alloc_inode: this method is called by inode_alloc() to allocate memory 241 for struct inode and initialize it. If this function is not 242 defined, a simple 'struct inode' is allocated. Normally 243 alloc_inode will be used to allocate a larger structure which 244 contains a 'struct inode' embedded within it. 245 246 destroy_inode: this method is called by destroy_inode() to release 247 resources allocated for struct inode. It is only required if 248 ->alloc_inode was defined and simply undoes anything done by 249 ->alloc_inode. 250 251 dirty_inode: this method is called by the VFS to mark an inode dirty. 252 253 write_inode: this method is called when the VFS needs to write an 254 inode to disc. The second parameter indicates whether the write 255 should be synchronous or not, not all filesystems check this flag. 256 257 drop_inode: called when the last access to the inode is dropped, 258 with the inode->i_lock spinlock held. 259 260 This method should be either NULL (normal UNIX filesystem 261 semantics) or "generic_delete_inode" (for filesystems that do not 262 want to cache inodes - causing "delete_inode" to always be 263 called regardless of the value of i_nlink) 264 265 The "generic_delete_inode()" behavior is equivalent to the 266 old practice of using "force_delete" in the put_inode() case, 267 but does not have the races that the "force_delete()" approach 268 had. 269 270 delete_inode: called when the VFS wants to delete an inode 271 272 put_super: called when the VFS wishes to free the superblock 273 (i.e. unmount). This is called with the superblock lock held 274 275 sync_fs: called when VFS is writing out all dirty data associated with 276 a superblock. The second parameter indicates whether the method 277 should wait until the write out has been completed. Optional. 278 279 freeze_fs: called when VFS is locking a filesystem and 280 forcing it into a consistent state. This method is currently 281 used by the Logical Volume Manager (LVM). 282 283 unfreeze_fs: called when VFS is unlocking a filesystem and making it writable 284 again. 285 286 statfs: called when the VFS needs to get filesystem statistics. 287 288 remount_fs: called when the filesystem is remounted. This is called 289 with the kernel lock held 290 291 clear_inode: called then the VFS clears the inode. Optional 292 293 umount_begin: called when the VFS is unmounting a filesystem. 294 295 show_options: called by the VFS to show mount options for 296 /proc/<pid>/mounts. (see "Mount Options" section) 297 298 quota_read: called by the VFS to read from filesystem quota file. 299 300 quota_write: called by the VFS to write to filesystem quota file. 301 302 nr_cached_objects: called by the sb cache shrinking function for the 303 filesystem to return the number of freeable cached objects it contains. 304 Optional. 305 306 free_cache_objects: called by the sb cache shrinking function for the 307 filesystem to scan the number of objects indicated to try to free them. 308 Optional, but any filesystem implementing this method needs to also 309 implement ->nr_cached_objects for it to be called correctly. 310 311 We can't do anything with any errors that the filesystem might 312 encountered, hence the void return type. This will never be called if 313 the VM is trying to reclaim under GFP_NOFS conditions, hence this 314 method does not need to handle that situation itself. 315 316 Implementations must include conditional reschedule calls inside any 317 scanning loop that is done. This allows the VFS to determine 318 appropriate scan batch sizes without having to worry about whether 319 implementations will cause holdoff problems due to large scan batch 320 sizes. 321 322Whoever sets up the inode is responsible for filling in the "i_op" field. This 323is a pointer to a "struct inode_operations" which describes the methods that 324can be performed on individual inodes. 325 326 327The Inode Object 328================ 329 330An inode object represents an object within the filesystem. 331 332 333struct inode_operations 334----------------------- 335 336This describes how the VFS can manipulate an inode in your 337filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.22, the following members are defined: 338 339struct inode_operations { 340 int (*create) (struct inode *,struct dentry *, umode_t, bool); 341 struct dentry * (*lookup) (struct inode *,struct dentry *, unsigned int); 342 int (*link) (struct dentry *,struct inode *,struct dentry *); 343 int (*unlink) (struct inode *,struct dentry *); 344 int (*symlink) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,const char *); 345 int (*mkdir) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,umode_t); 346 int (*rmdir) (struct inode *,struct dentry *); 347 int (*mknod) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,umode_t,dev_t); 348 int (*rename) (struct inode *, struct dentry *, 349 struct inode *, struct dentry *); 350 int (*readlink) (struct dentry *, char __user *,int); 351 void * (*follow_link) (struct dentry *, struct nameidata *); 352 void (*put_link) (struct dentry *, struct nameidata *, void *); 353 void (*truncate) (struct inode *); 354 int (*permission) (struct inode *, int); 355 int (*get_acl)(struct inode *, int); 356 int (*setattr) (struct dentry *, struct iattr *); 357 int (*getattr) (struct vfsmount *mnt, struct dentry *, struct kstat *); 358 int (*setxattr) (struct dentry *, const char *,const void *,size_t,int); 359 ssize_t (*getxattr) (struct dentry *, const char *, void *, size_t); 360 ssize_t (*listxattr) (struct dentry *, char *, size_t); 361 int (*removexattr) (struct dentry *, const char *); 362 void (*update_time)(struct inode *, struct timespec *, int); 363 int (*atomic_open)(struct inode *, struct dentry *, 364 struct file *, unsigned open_flag, 365 umode_t create_mode, int *opened); 366}; 367 368Again, all methods are called without any locks being held, unless 369otherwise noted. 370 371 create: called by the open(2) and creat(2) system calls. Only 372 required if you want to support regular files. The dentry you 373 get should not have an inode (i.e. it should be a negative 374 dentry). Here you will probably call d_instantiate() with the 375 dentry and the newly created inode 376 377 lookup: called when the VFS needs to look up an inode in a parent 378 directory. The name to look for is found in the dentry. This 379 method must call d_add() to insert the found inode into the 380 dentry. The "i_count" field in the inode structure should be 381 incremented. If the named inode does not exist a NULL inode 382 should be inserted into the dentry (this is called a negative 383 dentry). Returning an error code from this routine must only 384 be done on a real error, otherwise creating inodes with system 385 calls like create(2), mknod(2), mkdir(2) and so on will fail. 386 If you wish to overload the dentry methods then you should 387 initialise the "d_dop" field in the dentry; this is a pointer 388 to a struct "dentry_operations". 389 This method is called with the directory inode semaphore held 390 391 link: called by the link(2) system call. Only required if you want 392 to support hard links. You will probably need to call 393 d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method 394 395 unlink: called by the unlink(2) system call. Only required if you 396 want to support deleting inodes 397 398 symlink: called by the symlink(2) system call. Only required if you 399 want to support symlinks. You will probably need to call 400 d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method 401 402 mkdir: called by the mkdir(2) system call. Only required if you want 403 to support creating subdirectories. You will probably need to 404 call d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method 405 406 rmdir: called by the rmdir(2) system call. Only required if you want 407 to support deleting subdirectories 408 409 mknod: called by the mknod(2) system call to create a device (char, 410 block) inode or a named pipe (FIFO) or socket. Only required 411 if you want to support creating these types of inodes. You 412 will probably need to call d_instantiate() just as you would 413 in the create() method 414 415 rename: called by the rename(2) system call to rename the object to 416 have the parent and name given by the second inode and dentry. 417 418 readlink: called by the readlink(2) system call. Only required if 419 you want to support reading symbolic links 420 421 follow_link: called by the VFS to follow a symbolic link to the 422 inode it points to. Only required if you want to support 423 symbolic links. This method returns a void pointer cookie 424 that is passed to put_link(). 425 426 put_link: called by the VFS to release resources allocated by 427 follow_link(). The cookie returned by follow_link() is passed 428 to this method as the last parameter. It is used by 429 filesystems such as NFS where page cache is not stable 430 (i.e. page that was installed when the symbolic link walk 431 started might not be in the page cache at the end of the 432 walk). 433 434 truncate: Deprecated. This will not be called if ->setsize is defined. 435 Called by the VFS to change the size of a file. The 436 i_size field of the inode is set to the desired size by the 437 VFS before this method is called. This method is called by 438 the truncate(2) system call and related functionality. 439 440 Note: ->truncate and vmtruncate are deprecated. Do not add new 441 instances/calls of these. Filesystems should be converted to do their 442 truncate sequence via ->setattr(). 443 444 permission: called by the VFS to check for access rights on a POSIX-like 445 filesystem. 446 447 May be called in rcu-walk mode (mask & MAY_NOT_BLOCK). If in rcu-walk 448 mode, the filesystem must check the permission without blocking or 449 storing to the inode. 450 451 If a situation is encountered that rcu-walk cannot handle, return 452 -ECHILD and it will be called again in ref-walk mode. 453 454 setattr: called by the VFS to set attributes for a file. This method 455 is called by chmod(2) and related system calls. 456 457 getattr: called by the VFS to get attributes of a file. This method 458 is called by stat(2) and related system calls. 459 460 setxattr: called by the VFS to set an extended attribute for a file. 461 Extended attribute is a name:value pair associated with an 462 inode. This method is called by setxattr(2) system call. 463 464 getxattr: called by the VFS to retrieve the value of an extended 465 attribute name. This method is called by getxattr(2) function 466 call. 467 468 listxattr: called by the VFS to list all extended attributes for a 469 given file. This method is called by listxattr(2) system call. 470 471 removexattr: called by the VFS to remove an extended attribute from 472 a file. This method is called by removexattr(2) system call. 473 474 update_time: called by the VFS to update a specific time or the i_version of 475 an inode. If this is not defined the VFS will update the inode itself 476 and call mark_inode_dirty_sync. 477 478 atomic_open: called on the last component of an open. Using this optional 479 method the filesystem can look up, possibly create and open the file in 480 one atomic operation. If it cannot perform this (e.g. the file type 481 turned out to be wrong) it may signal this by returning 1 instead of 482 usual 0 or -ve . This method is only called if the last 483 component is negative or needs lookup. Cached positive dentries are 484 still handled by f_op->open(). 485 486The Address Space Object 487======================== 488 489The address space object is used to group and manage pages in the page 490cache. It can be used to keep track of the pages in a file (or 491anything else) and also track the mapping of sections of the file into 492process address spaces. 493 494There are a number of distinct yet related services that an 495address-space can provide. These include communicating memory 496pressure, page lookup by address, and keeping track of pages tagged as 497Dirty or Writeback. 498 499The first can be used independently to the others. The VM can try to 500either write dirty pages in order to clean them, or release clean 501pages in order to reuse them. To do this it can call the ->writepage 502method on dirty pages, and ->releasepage on clean pages with 503PagePrivate set. Clean pages without PagePrivate and with no external 504references will be released without notice being given to the 505address_space. 506 507To achieve this functionality, pages need to be placed on an LRU with 508lru_cache_add and mark_page_active needs to be called whenever the 509page is used. 510 511Pages are normally kept in a radix tree index by ->index. This tree 512maintains information about the PG_Dirty and PG_Writeback status of 513each page, so that pages with either of these flags can be found 514quickly. 515 516The Dirty tag is primarily used by mpage_writepages - the default 517->writepages method. It uses the tag to find dirty pages to call 518->writepage on. If mpage_writepages is not used (i.e. the address 519provides its own ->writepages) , the PAGECACHE_TAG_DIRTY tag is 520almost unused. write_inode_now and sync_inode do use it (through 521__sync_single_inode) to check if ->writepages has been successful in 522writing out the whole address_space. 523 524The Writeback tag is used by filemap*wait* and sync_page* functions, 525via filemap_fdatawait_range, to wait for all writeback to 526complete. While waiting ->sync_page (if defined) will be called on 527each page that is found to require writeback. 528 529An address_space handler may attach extra information to a page, 530typically using the 'private' field in the 'struct page'. If such 531information is attached, the PG_Private flag should be set. This will 532cause various VM routines to make extra calls into the address_space 533handler to deal with that data. 534 535An address space acts as an intermediate between storage and 536application. Data is read into the address space a whole page at a 537time, and provided to the application either by copying of the page, 538or by memory-mapping the page. 539Data is written into the address space by the application, and then 540written-back to storage typically in whole pages, however the 541address_space has finer control of write sizes. 542 543The read process essentially only requires 'readpage'. The write 544process is more complicated and uses write_begin/write_end or 545set_page_dirty to write data into the address_space, and writepage, 546sync_page, and writepages to writeback data to storage. 547 548Adding and removing pages to/from an address_space is protected by the 549inode's i_mutex. 550 551When data is written to a page, the PG_Dirty flag should be set. It 552typically remains set until writepage asks for it to be written. This 553should clear PG_Dirty and set PG_Writeback. It can be actually 554written at any point after PG_Dirty is clear. Once it is known to be 555safe, PG_Writeback is cleared. 556 557Writeback makes use of a writeback_control structure... 558 559struct address_space_operations 560------------------------------- 561 562This describes how the VFS can manipulate mapping of a file to page cache in 563your filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.22, the following members are defined: 564 565struct address_space_operations { 566 int (*writepage)(struct page *page, struct writeback_control *wbc); 567 int (*readpage)(struct file *, struct page *); 568 int (*sync_page)(struct page *); 569 int (*writepages)(struct address_space *, struct writeback_control *); 570 int (*set_page_dirty)(struct page *page); 571 int (*readpages)(struct file *filp, struct address_space *mapping, 572 struct list_head *pages, unsigned nr_pages); 573 int (*write_begin)(struct file *, struct address_space *mapping, 574 loff_t pos, unsigned len, unsigned flags, 575 struct page **pagep, void **fsdata); 576 int (*write_end)(struct file *, struct address_space *mapping, 577 loff_t pos, unsigned len, unsigned copied, 578 struct page *page, void *fsdata); 579 sector_t (*bmap)(struct address_space *, sector_t); 580 int (*invalidatepage) (struct page *, unsigned long); 581 int (*releasepage) (struct page *, int); 582 void (*freepage)(struct page *); 583 ssize_t (*direct_IO)(int, struct kiocb *, const struct iovec *iov, 584 loff_t offset, unsigned long nr_segs); 585 struct page* (*get_xip_page)(struct address_space *, sector_t, 586 int); 587 /* migrate the contents of a page to the specified target */ 588 int (*migratepage) (struct page *, struct page *); 589 int (*launder_page) (struct page *); 590 int (*error_remove_page) (struct mapping *mapping, struct page *page); 591 int (*swap_activate)(struct file *); 592 int (*swap_deactivate)(struct file *); 593}; 594 595 writepage: called by the VM to write a dirty page to backing store. 596 This may happen for data integrity reasons (i.e. 'sync'), or 597 to free up memory (flush). The difference can be seen in 598 wbc->sync_mode. 599 The PG_Dirty flag has been cleared and PageLocked is true. 600 writepage should start writeout, should set PG_Writeback, 601 and should make sure the page is unlocked, either synchronously 602 or asynchronously when the write operation completes. 603 604 If wbc->sync_mode is WB_SYNC_NONE, ->writepage doesn't have to 605 try too hard if there are problems, and may choose to write out 606 other pages from the mapping if that is easier (e.g. due to 607 internal dependencies). If it chooses not to start writeout, it 608 should return AOP_WRITEPAGE_ACTIVATE so that the VM will not keep 609 calling ->writepage on that page. 610 611 See the file "Locking" for more details. 612 613 readpage: called by the VM to read a page from backing store. 614 The page will be Locked when readpage is called, and should be 615 unlocked and marked uptodate once the read completes. 616 If ->readpage discovers that it needs to unlock the page for 617 some reason, it can do so, and then return AOP_TRUNCATED_PAGE. 618 In this case, the page will be relocated, relocked and if 619 that all succeeds, ->readpage will be called again. 620 621 sync_page: called by the VM to notify the backing store to perform all 622 queued I/O operations for a page. I/O operations for other pages 623 associated with this address_space object may also be performed. 624 625 This function is optional and is called only for pages with 626 PG_Writeback set while waiting for the writeback to complete. 627 628 writepages: called by the VM to write out pages associated with the 629 address_space object. If wbc->sync_mode is WBC_SYNC_ALL, then 630 the writeback_control will specify a range of pages that must be 631 written out. If it is WBC_SYNC_NONE, then a nr_to_write is given 632 and that many pages should be written if possible. 633 If no ->writepages is given, then mpage_writepages is used 634 instead. This will choose pages from the address space that are 635 tagged as DIRTY and will pass them to ->writepage. 636 637 set_page_dirty: called by the VM to set a page dirty. 638 This is particularly needed if an address space attaches 639 private data to a page, and that data needs to be updated when 640 a page is dirtied. This is called, for example, when a memory 641 mapped page gets modified. 642 If defined, it should set the PageDirty flag, and the 643 PAGECACHE_TAG_DIRTY tag in the radix tree. 644 645 readpages: called by the VM to read pages associated with the address_space 646 object. This is essentially just a vector version of 647 readpage. Instead of just one page, several pages are 648 requested. 649 readpages is only used for read-ahead, so read errors are 650 ignored. If anything goes wrong, feel free to give up. 651 652 write_begin: 653 Called by the generic buffered write code to ask the filesystem to 654 prepare to write len bytes at the given offset in the file. The 655 address_space should check that the write will be able to complete, 656 by allocating space if necessary and doing any other internal 657 housekeeping. If the write will update parts of any basic-blocks on 658 storage, then those blocks should be pre-read (if they haven't been 659 read already) so that the updated blocks can be written out properly. 660 661 The filesystem must return the locked pagecache page for the specified 662 offset, in *pagep, for the caller to write into. 663 664 It must be able to cope with short writes (where the length passed to 665 write_begin is greater than the number of bytes copied into the page). 666 667 flags is a field for AOP_FLAG_xxx flags, described in 668 include/linux/fs.h. 669 670 A void * may be returned in fsdata, which then gets passed into 671 write_end. 672 673 Returns 0 on success; < 0 on failure (which is the error code), in 674 which case write_end is not called. 675 676 write_end: After a successful write_begin, and data copy, write_end must 677 be called. len is the original len passed to write_begin, and copied 678 is the amount that was able to be copied (copied == len is always true 679 if write_begin was called with the AOP_FLAG_UNINTERRUPTIBLE flag). 680 681 The filesystem must take care of unlocking the page and releasing it 682 refcount, and updating i_size. 683 684 Returns < 0 on failure, otherwise the number of bytes (<= 'copied') 685 that were able to be copied into pagecache. 686 687 bmap: called by the VFS to map a logical block offset within object to 688 physical block number. This method is used by the FIBMAP 689 ioctl and for working with swap-files. To be able to swap to 690 a file, the file must have a stable mapping to a block 691 device. The swap system does not go through the filesystem 692 but instead uses bmap to find out where the blocks in the file 693 are and uses those addresses directly. 694 695 696 invalidatepage: If a page has PagePrivate set, then invalidatepage 697 will be called when part or all of the page is to be removed 698 from the address space. This generally corresponds to either a 699 truncation or a complete invalidation of the address space 700 (in the latter case 'offset' will always be 0). 701 Any private data associated with the page should be updated 702 to reflect this truncation. If offset is 0, then 703 the private data should be released, because the page 704 must be able to be completely discarded. This may be done by 705 calling the ->releasepage function, but in this case the 706 release MUST succeed. 707 708 releasepage: releasepage is called on PagePrivate pages to indicate 709 that the page should be freed if possible. ->releasepage 710 should remove any private data from the page and clear the 711 PagePrivate flag. If releasepage() fails for some reason, it must 712 indicate failure with a 0 return value. 713 releasepage() is used in two distinct though related cases. The 714 first is when the VM finds a clean page with no active users and 715 wants to make it a free page. If ->releasepage succeeds, the 716 page will be removed from the address_space and become free. 717 718 The second case is when a request has been made to invalidate 719 some or all pages in an address_space. This can happen 720 through the fadvice(POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED) system call or by the 721 filesystem explicitly requesting it as nfs and 9fs do (when 722 they believe the cache may be out of date with storage) by 723 calling invalidate_inode_pages2(). 724 If the filesystem makes such a call, and needs to be certain 725 that all pages are invalidated, then its releasepage will 726 need to ensure this. Possibly it can clear the PageUptodate 727 bit if it cannot free private data yet. 728 729 freepage: freepage is called once the page is no longer visible in 730 the page cache in order to allow the cleanup of any private 731 data. Since it may be called by the memory reclaimer, it 732 should not assume that the original address_space mapping still 733 exists, and it should not block. 734 735 direct_IO: called by the generic read/write routines to perform 736 direct_IO - that is IO requests which bypass the page cache 737 and transfer data directly between the storage and the 738 application's address space. 739 740 get_xip_page: called by the VM to translate a block number to a page. 741 The page is valid until the corresponding filesystem is unmounted. 742 Filesystems that want to use execute-in-place (XIP) need to implement 743 it. An example implementation can be found in fs/ext2/xip.c. 744 745 migrate_page: This is used to compact the physical memory usage. 746 If the VM wants to relocate a page (maybe off a memory card 747 that is signalling imminent failure) it will pass a new page 748 and an old page to this function. migrate_page should 749 transfer any private data across and update any references 750 that it has to the page. 751 752 launder_page: Called before freeing a page - it writes back the dirty page. To 753 prevent redirtying the page, it is kept locked during the whole 754 operation. 755 756 error_remove_page: normally set to generic_error_remove_page if truncation 757 is ok for this address space. Used for memory failure handling. 758 Setting this implies you deal with pages going away under you, 759 unless you have them locked or reference counts increased. 760 761 swap_activate: Called when swapon is used on a file to allocate 762 space if necessary and pin the block lookup information in 763 memory. A return value of zero indicates success, 764 in which case this file can be used to back swapspace. The 765 swapspace operations will be proxied to this address space's 766 ->swap_{out,in} methods. 767 768 swap_deactivate: Called during swapoff on files where swap_activate 769 was successful. 770 771 772The File Object 773=============== 774 775A file object represents a file opened by a process. 776 777 778struct file_operations 779---------------------- 780 781This describes how the VFS can manipulate an open file. As of kernel 7823.5, the following members are defined: 783 784struct file_operations { 785 struct module *owner; 786 loff_t (*llseek) (struct file *, loff_t, int); 787 ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); 788 ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t *); 789 ssize_t (*aio_read) (struct kiocb *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t); 790 ssize_t (*aio_write) (struct kiocb *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t); 791 int (*readdir) (struct file *, void *, filldir_t); 792 unsigned int (*poll) (struct file *, struct poll_table_struct *); 793 long (*unlocked_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long); 794 long (*compat_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long); 795 int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *); 796 int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *); 797 int (*flush) (struct file *); 798 int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *); 799 int (*fsync) (struct file *, loff_t, loff_t, int datasync); 800 int (*aio_fsync) (struct kiocb *, int datasync); 801 int (*fasync) (int, struct file *, int); 802 int (*lock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *); 803 ssize_t (*readv) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); 804 ssize_t (*writev) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *); 805 ssize_t (*sendfile) (struct file *, loff_t *, size_t, read_actor_t, void *); 806 ssize_t (*sendpage) (struct file *, struct page *, int, size_t, loff_t *, int); 807 unsigned long (*get_unmapped_area)(struct file *, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long); 808 int (*check_flags)(int); 809 int (*flock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *); 810 ssize_t (*splice_write)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct file *, size_t, unsigned int); 811 ssize_t (*splice_read)(struct file *, struct pipe_inode_info *, size_t, unsigned int); 812 int (*setlease)(struct file *, long arg, struct file_lock **); 813 long (*fallocate)(struct file *, int mode, loff_t offset, loff_t len); 814}; 815 816Again, all methods are called without any locks being held, unless 817otherwise noted. 818 819 llseek: called when the VFS needs to move the file position index 820 821 read: called by read(2) and related system calls 822 823 aio_read: called by io_submit(2) and other asynchronous I/O operations 824 825 write: called by write(2) and related system calls 826 827 aio_write: called by io_submit(2) and other asynchronous I/O operations 828 829 readdir: called when the VFS needs to read the directory contents 830 831 poll: called by the VFS when a process wants to check if there is 832 activity on this file and (optionally) go to sleep until there 833 is activity. Called by the select(2) and poll(2) system calls 834 835 unlocked_ioctl: called by the ioctl(2) system call. 836 837 compat_ioctl: called by the ioctl(2) system call when 32 bit system calls 838 are used on 64 bit kernels. 839 840 mmap: called by the mmap(2) system call 841 842 open: called by the VFS when an inode should be opened. When the VFS 843 opens a file, it creates a new "struct file". It then calls the 844 open method for the newly allocated file structure. You might 845 think that the open method really belongs in 846 "struct inode_operations", and you may be right. I think it's 847 done the way it is because it makes filesystems simpler to 848 implement. The open() method is a good place to initialize the 849 "private_data" member in the file structure if you want to point 850 to a device structure 851 852 flush: called by the close(2) system call to flush a file 853 854 release: called when the last reference to an open file is closed 855 856 fsync: called by the fsync(2) system call 857 858 fasync: called by the fcntl(2) system call when asynchronous 859 (non-blocking) mode is enabled for a file 860 861 lock: called by the fcntl(2) system call for F_GETLK, F_SETLK, and F_SETLKW 862 commands 863 864 readv: called by the readv(2) system call 865 866 writev: called by the writev(2) system call 867 868 sendfile: called by the sendfile(2) system call 869 870 get_unmapped_area: called by the mmap(2) system call 871 872 check_flags: called by the fcntl(2) system call for F_SETFL command 873 874 flock: called by the flock(2) system call 875 876 splice_write: called by the VFS to splice data from a pipe to a file. This 877 method is used by the splice(2) system call 878 879 splice_read: called by the VFS to splice data from file to a pipe. This 880 method is used by the splice(2) system call 881 882 setlease: called by the VFS to set or release a file lock lease. 883 setlease has the file_lock_lock held and must not sleep. 884 885 fallocate: called by the VFS to preallocate blocks or punch a hole. 886 887Note that the file operations are implemented by the specific 888filesystem in which the inode resides. When opening a device node 889(character or block special) most filesystems will call special 890support routines in the VFS which will locate the required device 891driver information. These support routines replace the filesystem file 892operations with those for the device driver, and then proceed to call 893the new open() method for the file. This is how opening a device file 894in the filesystem eventually ends up calling the device driver open() 895method. 896 897 898Directory Entry Cache (dcache) 899============================== 900 901 902struct dentry_operations 903------------------------ 904 905This describes how a filesystem can overload the standard dentry 906operations. Dentries and the dcache are the domain of the VFS and the 907individual filesystem implementations. Device drivers have no business 908here. These methods may be set to NULL, as they are either optional or 909the VFS uses a default. As of kernel 2.6.22, the following members are 910defined: 911 912struct dentry_operations { 913 int (*d_revalidate)(struct dentry *, unsigned int); 914 int (*d_hash)(const struct dentry *, const struct inode *, 915 struct qstr *); 916 int (*d_compare)(const struct dentry *, const struct inode *, 917 const struct dentry *, const struct inode *, 918 unsigned int, const char *, const struct qstr *); 919 int (*d_delete)(const struct dentry *); 920 void (*d_release)(struct dentry *); 921 void (*d_iput)(struct dentry *, struct inode *); 922 char *(*d_dname)(struct dentry *, char *, int); 923 struct vfsmount *(*d_automount)(struct path *); 924 int (*d_manage)(struct dentry *, bool); 925}; 926 927 d_revalidate: called when the VFS needs to revalidate a dentry. This 928 is called whenever a name look-up finds a dentry in the 929 dcache. Most filesystems leave this as NULL, because all their 930 dentries in the dcache are valid 931 932 d_revalidate may be called in rcu-walk mode (flags & LOOKUP_RCU). 933 If in rcu-walk mode, the filesystem must revalidate the dentry without 934 blocking or storing to the dentry, d_parent and d_inode should not be 935 used without care (because they can change and, in d_inode case, even 936 become NULL under us). 937 938 If a situation is encountered that rcu-walk cannot handle, return 939 -ECHILD and it will be called again in ref-walk mode. 940 941 d_hash: called when the VFS adds a dentry to the hash table. The first 942 dentry passed to d_hash is the parent directory that the name is 943 to be hashed into. The inode is the dentry's inode. 944 945 Same locking and synchronisation rules as d_compare regarding 946 what is safe to dereference etc. 947 948 d_compare: called to compare a dentry name with a given name. The first 949 dentry is the parent of the dentry to be compared, the second is 950 the parent's inode, then the dentry and inode (may be NULL) of the 951 child dentry. len and name string are properties of the dentry to be 952 compared. qstr is the name to compare it with. 953 954 Must be constant and idempotent, and should not take locks if 955 possible, and should not or store into the dentry or inodes. 956 Should not dereference pointers outside the dentry or inodes without 957 lots of care (eg. d_parent, d_inode, d_name should not be used). 958 959 However, our vfsmount is pinned, and RCU held, so the dentries and 960 inodes won't disappear, neither will our sb or filesystem module. 961 ->i_sb and ->d_sb may be used. 962 963 It is a tricky calling convention because it needs to be called under 964 "rcu-walk", ie. without any locks or references on things. 965 966 d_delete: called when the last reference to a dentry is dropped and the 967 dcache is deciding whether or not to cache it. Return 1 to delete 968 immediately, or 0 to cache the dentry. Default is NULL which means to 969 always cache a reachable dentry. d_delete must be constant and 970 idempotent. 971 972 d_release: called when a dentry is really deallocated 973 974 d_iput: called when a dentry loses its inode (just prior to its 975 being deallocated). The default when this is NULL is that the 976 VFS calls iput(). If you define this method, you must call 977 iput() yourself 978 979 d_dname: called when the pathname of a dentry should be generated. 980 Useful for some pseudo filesystems (sockfs, pipefs, ...) to delay 981 pathname generation. (Instead of doing it when dentry is created, 982 it's done only when the path is needed.). Real filesystems probably 983 dont want to use it, because their dentries are present in global 984 dcache hash, so their hash should be an invariant. As no lock is 985 held, d_dname() should not try to modify the dentry itself, unless 986 appropriate SMP safety is used. CAUTION : d_path() logic is quite 987 tricky. The correct way to return for example "Hello" is to put it 988 at the end of the buffer, and returns a pointer to the first char. 989 dynamic_dname() helper function is provided to take care of this. 990 991 d_automount: called when an automount dentry is to be traversed (optional). 992 This should create a new VFS mount record and return the record to the 993 caller. The caller is supplied with a path parameter giving the 994 automount directory to describe the automount target and the parent 995 VFS mount record to provide inheritable mount parameters. NULL should 996 be returned if someone else managed to make the automount first. If 997 the vfsmount creation failed, then an error code should be returned. 998 If -EISDIR is returned, then the directory will be treated as an 999 ordinary directory and returned to pathwalk to continue walking. 1000
1001 If a vfsmount is returned, the caller will attempt to mount it on the 1002 mountpoint and will remove the vfsmount from its expiration list in 1003 the case of failure. The vfsmount should be returned with 2 refs on 1004 it to prevent automatic expiration - the caller will clean up the 1005 additional ref. 1006 1007 This function is only used if DCACHE_NEED_AUTOMOUNT is set on the 1008 dentry. This is set by __d_instantiate() if S_AUTOMOUNT is set on the 1009 inode being added. 1010 1011 d_manage: called to allow the filesystem to manage the transition from a 1012 dentry (optional). This allows autofs, for example, to hold up clients 1013 waiting to explore behind a 'mountpoint' whilst letting the daemon go 1014 past and construct the subtree there. 0 should be returned to let the 1015 calling process continue. -EISDIR can be returned to tell pathwalk to 1016 use this directory as an ordinary directory and to ignore anything 1017 mounted on it and not to check the automount flag. Any other error 1018 code will abort pathwalk completely. 1019 1020 If the 'rcu_walk' parameter is true, then the caller is doing a 1021 pathwalk in RCU-walk mode. Sleeping is not permitted in this mode, 1022 and the caller can be asked to leave it and call again by returning 1023 -ECHILD. 1024 1025 This function is only used if DCACHE_MANAGE_TRANSIT is set on the 1026 dentry being transited from. 1027 1028Example : 1029 1030static char *pipefs_dname(struct dentry *dent, char *buffer, int buflen) 1031{ 1032 return dynamic_dname(dentry, buffer, buflen, "pipe:[%lu]", 1033 dentry->d_inode->i_ino); 1034} 1035 1036Each dentry has a pointer to its parent dentry, as well as a hash list 1037of child dentries. Child dentries are basically like files in a 1038directory. 1039 1040 1041Directory Entry Cache API 1042-------------------------- 1043 1044There are a number of functions defined which permit a filesystem to 1045manipulate dentries: 1046 1047 dget: open a new handle for an existing dentry (this just increments 1048 the usage count) 1049 1050 dput: close a handle for a dentry (decrements the usage count). If 1051 the usage count drops to 0, and the dentry is still in its 1052 parent's hash, the "d_delete" method is called to check whether 1053 it should be cached. If it should not be cached, or if the dentry 1054 is not hashed, it is deleted. Otherwise cached dentries are put 1055 into an LRU list to be reclaimed on memory shortage. 1056 1057 d_drop: this unhashes a dentry from its parents hash list. A 1058 subsequent call to dput() will deallocate the dentry if its 1059 usage count drops to 0 1060 1061 d_delete: delete a dentry. If there are no other open references to 1062 the dentry then the dentry is turned into a negative dentry 1063 (the d_iput() method is called). If there are other 1064 references, then d_drop() is called instead 1065 1066 d_add: add a dentry to its parents hash list and then calls 1067 d_instantiate() 1068 1069 d_instantiate: add a dentry to the alias hash list for the inode and 1070 updates the "d_inode" member. The "i_count" member in the 1071 inode structure should be set/incremented. If the inode 1072 pointer is NULL, the dentry is called a "negative 1073 dentry". This function is commonly called when an inode is 1074 created for an existing negative dentry 1075 1076 d_lookup: look up a dentry given its parent and path name component 1077 It looks up the child of that given name from the dcache 1078 hash table. If it is found, the reference count is incremented 1079 and the dentry is returned. The caller must use dput() 1080 to free the dentry when it finishes using it. 1081 1082Mount Options 1083============= 1084 1085Parsing options 1086--------------- 1087 1088On mount and remount the filesystem is passed a string containing a 1089comma separated list of mount options. The options can have either of 1090these forms: 1091 1092 option 1093 option=value 1094 1095The <linux/parser.h> header defines an API that helps parse these 1096options. There are plenty of examples on how to use it in existing 1097filesystems. 1098 1099Showing options 1100--------------- 1101 1102If a filesystem accepts mount options, it must define show_options() 1103to show all the currently active options. The rules are: 1104 1105 - options MUST be shown which are not default or their values differ 1106 from the default 1107 1108 - options MAY be shown which are enabled by default or have their 1109 default value 1110 1111Options used only internally between a mount helper and the kernel 1112(such as file descriptors), or which only have an effect during the 1113mounting (such as ones controlling the creation of a journal) are exempt 1114from the above rules. 1115 1116The underlying reason for the above rules is to make sure, that a 1117mount can be accurately replicated (e.g. umounting and mounting again) 1118based on the information found in /proc/mounts. 1119 1120A simple method of saving options at mount/remount time and showing 1121them is provided with the save_mount_options() and 1122generic_show_options() helper functions. Please note, that using 1123these may have drawbacks. For more info see header comments for these 1124functions in fs/namespace.c. 1125 1126Resources 1127========= 1128 1129(Note some of these resources are not up-to-date with the latest kernel 1130 version.) 1131 1132Creating Linux virtual filesystems. 2002 1133 <http://lwn.net/Articles/13325/> 1134 1135The Linux Virtual File-system Layer by Neil Brown. 1999 1136 <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~neilb/oss/linux-commentary/vfs.html> 1137 1138A tour of the Linux VFS by Michael K. Johnson. 1996 1139 <http://www.tldp.org/LDP/khg/HyperNews/get/fs/vfstour.html> 1140 1141A small trail through the Linux kernel by Andries Brouwer. 2001 1142 <http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/vfs/trail.html> 1143


text:
Benvenuti ... a casa vostra
This site will help you to book your stay in our self catering apartments in Venice. Situated just few minutes from St. Marco Square, you will have all services at a cheap price. We are a typical venetian family and we can suggest you where to do shopping, the highlights of Venice, museums, exhibitions, and concerts that you should see. We know many restaurants where you can taste typical food at a good price. We pay attention to the family, couples and small groups requirements. Your stay in Venice will be unforgettable.
The apartment is located in the district of Castello, close to the famous Biennale, an international art exhibition.
Castello was one of the first areas to be inhabited, and still conserves to this day many characteristic features of the original ways of "living together", less visited by tourists albeit full of restaurants, baccari, cafes, supermarkets and souvenir shops.
The apartment is located at a 2 minute walk from the ferry boat "Giardini",and a few steps from Via Garibaldi and Riva dei Sette Martiri, which offers a particularly impressive view, especially at sunset, of San Marco, San Giorgio Maggiore's Island, Salute Church and the island of Lido.
Dear Gianni!
We would like to thank you for your apartmentt. We have had a great time in wonderful Venice.
We hope to come to see this amazing town again next year.
Sorin Parasca
Dear Mr. dei Rossi, let me thank you for the wonderful week we spent in Venezia. The place you rent us is great and we had a great time there. I hope we did not make to much mess in there. Thank you again, our best regards
Lascia un commento nel nostro Libro degli ospiti ... vedi tutti ..
Bacheca manifestazioni in corso :

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Ladies 18K Yellow Gold Wedding Band
Call for Availability
Ladies 18K Yellow Gold Wedding Band with 0.90ctw.*Prices are subject to change based on fluctuations in metal prices and currencies
Not your average girl's best friend. The Michael M. Collection was inspired by those who understand that some traditions were meant to be broken. They marry time-honored craft with modern design to create unique pieces that elevate the art of fine jewelry. All Michael M. pieces are handcrafted in their Los Angeles studio!


text:
Mrs. Kelsey R. Samsel, M.Ed.
Staff Senator
- 325-486-6579
- email@example.com
- Rassman Building, 201
- Master of Education in Student Development and Leadership in Higher Education, Angelo State University, 2014
- Advising Certification, Angelo State University, 2014
- Bachelor of Arts in Theatre, Angelo State University, 2010
- Previous: College of Education, Curriculum and Instruction Graduate Program
- Previous: Freshman College
Kelsey Samsel, originally from Pflugerville, Texas, earned her BA in Theatre (2010) and her M.Ed. in Student Development and Leadership in Higher Education with a certification in Academic Advising (2014) from Angelo State University. She chose ASU for the student to teacher ratio, student success focused faculty and staff, and strong campus community. Kelsey has a strong passion for students and their success at Angelo State University.
Kelsey enjoys spending time with her husband, son, and 3 dogs, watching football, and attending ASU events. Kelsey joined the ASU College of Business in October 2013 and is a proud member of the National Association of Academic Advisors (NACADA), Sigma Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, Delta Sigma Pi, and the ASU Alumni Association. Go Rams!


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text:
Thick plumes of smoke rose into the sky and fire danced across the fuel-slicked waters surrounding the Nigerian pipeline, another attacked and vandalized so thieves could steal the gasoline inside.
But this attack didn't happen in Nigeria's oil-rich and unrest-prone Niger Delta, where crude oil pipelines are routinely targeted. Instead, this attack occurred in Nigeria's southwest, signaling a worrying expansion in the unstopped thefts hitting the country's petroleum-based economy.
"It's just like farming. It's just like banking," said Jacob Oladapo, an assistant commandant general with Nigeria's Security and Civil Defense Corps. "They are trying to make a living … and they find new ways to do it."
The corps, charged with defending and monitoring the pipelines crisscrossing Nigeria, discovered the pipeline on fire Wednesday morning in the midst of a gun battle with oil thieves, Oladapo said. His men returned fire, but no one was injured in the firefight, he said.
Later Wednesday, officials with Nigeria's National Emergency Management Agency found at least three burned bodies at the site of the pipeline attack, local spokesman Iyiola Akande said. Journalists from The Associated Press who arrived at the pipeline fire late Wednesday afternoon could not reach the site, as it was deeper into a mangrove creek and there were no boats.
In the distance, however, flames could be seen across the muddied waters of the creek.
In the past, attacks on oil pipelines saw rebel and criminal groups detonate explosives to damage the lines and halt production by the foreign oil companies operating in Nigeria, a nation of more than 160 million people that is an important supplier to the U.S. However, some cut into the lines with hacksaws and blow torches to install spigots to steal the crude flowing within the lines, an operation locally known in Nigeria as "bunkering."
A 2009 government-sponsored amnesty program cut down on the militant attacks, but in their place, bunkering rose dramatically into a business that analysts and diplomats say involves Nigeria's military and its top political elite.
Small, informal refineries dot the delta and from the air, one can see crude oil, spilled from pipelines and by thieves, spreading over the creeks like ink stains.
While the government of President Goodluck Jonathan has pledged to contain the crude oil thefts, the thefts happen around the leader's delta home. And the thefts have become an incredibly lucrative business.
In November, the International Energy Agency estimated that the theft of crude oil alone in Nigeria cost the country about $7 billion a year.
The increasing attacks in the southwest target gasoline, instead of crude, pipelines running through the region owned by the state-run Nigerian National Petroleum Corp. The pipelines remain a vital source of fuel for a nation that largely imports most of its gasoline in a multi-billion dollar system that lawmakers described as a massive scam last year.
Officials blamed a pipeline attack in the region this December for causing short supplies and a run on gas stations in Lagos, as well as other parts of the country.
Another pipeline attack about two weeks ago near Lagos likely killed dozens, officials have said, though failing to provide an exact tally of the dead.
But whether anything will be done to stop the attacks remains unclear at this point.
On Wednesday, rifle-carrying members of the Security and Civil Defense Corps reinforced those near the burning pipeline.
A cry went up among the officers that the state governor might be coming. A fire truck even showed up, though it was impossible for it to drive into the swamp to reach the burning inferno.
After about a half hour, however, the fire truck turned around and drove away. The civil defense officers also mounted their trucks and drove away, with one young officer firing his assault rifle into the air, though no one was around except for three foreign journalists.
At that point, as the sun began to set, the fire still burned without any government official to monitor it.


text:
New this year – FOOD TRUCKS! Every evening performance starting in May we will be adding food trucks to our Live Music Series. Check back for our rotating schedule of trucks and menus, and join us on the patio for dinner!
Come enjoy live music and wine tasting; then purchase a bottle to savor during the performance.
Live music will be on our patio and lawn overlooking our vineyard. Seating is limited; you are encouraged to bring a blanket and/or chairs for use on the lawn.
Admission is free and wine tasting is $8.00 per person. The tasting includes 6 samples of Sharrott wines and a souvenir glass.
No BYOB. By law only Sharrott wines can be consumed on the property.


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Tuesday, November 08, 2011
Thank Heaven: A Memoire
21 comments:
Not at all.ReplyDelete
Very stylish in fact as was everything about her.
Above reproach
Yes, perfection, and she has that amazing posture of a dancer.ReplyDelete
From the back, looking at her clothes, she looks exactement like my très parisienne mother-in-law ;-)ReplyDelete
I am adding the book to my Christmas list. Great post! Veronique (French Girl in Seattle)
Right after your first post on LC the movie American in Paris came on TV and we watched it. It was so good. I hadnt seen it in a long while. We own Father Goose and play it every so often as we love it. Fun post. I think my serendipitous surprise was when I got into an Elevator on the 3rd floor of a medical bulding with my Mom in Newport Beach years ago and there was John Wayne in HUGE glorious live color standing with two other people with him. It certainly stays with you. oh and No camera either to take a pix when he got out. Drats. Thanks for sharing your experience with us.ReplyDelete
Right out of Art School back in the sixties I worked in the art dept. of KYW_TV 3, in Philadelphia. Our major production was the nationally syndicated "Mike Douglas Show." It was a wonderful learning experience for a young illustrator/designer...BUT I became very jaded when it came to being dazzled by all the many "personalities" I saw backstage. They all put their pants on one leg at a time, just like the rest of us.ReplyDelete
I had never thought one could have such nice meetings in the parisian metro :)ReplyDelete
All the shoes are looking nice. The pattern of these shoes are very popular still today.ReplyDelete
Spectators of all kinds have always been my passion...I still remember my mother's spectators with their chunky 1050's heels. I own low-heeled sling-backs in navy/gray, black tie ups and brown tie-ups.ReplyDelete
I LOVE Leslie Caron and even more after reading her FANTASTIQUE autobio. Truly wonderful!ReplyDelete
I like Leslie Caron very much! Have you watched the Fanny Trilogy? A character in them, Panisse, is for whom Chez Panisse is named! And Alice Waters' daughter is named Fanny! (After Caron's character in the movies).ReplyDelete


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Posted 7 years ago
(152 items)
This is another of my Urchin Baskets, made by the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes. I got it about a year ago and would love to find a lid that would fit and has the same colors...
The colors are still vibrant on this basket, it is about 5 inches in diameter and almost 2 inches in height. Maybe made in around 1910. Each one of my Urchin baskets are made a little different than the other, the early ones were made more like this one in that they did not have alot of height. I have another that was made later (1930's) that was made with more height in it. But this one is beautiful and it is getting hard to find baskets like this out there.. This shape is one of my favorites, but then I love all Native basketry. They were very hard shape to weave, and they did not use a basket mold to weave around to get the shape. They would have to bend the larger splints more than the other baskets they made, and had to keep everything uniform for the shape while they wove the smaller splints in. The splints broke more during the making of the Urchin baskets because of the severe bending. Because of this, the artist could charge more for Urchin Baskets. Even after they are done, the splints can still break and it is hard to find one now that does not have damage.


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When I see the names Wendy Laurel and Opihi Love pop up on our submissions page, I just know a heaping dose of happiness is about to be delivered to my desktop. Today's elopement was no exception. Complete with pineapples, a "Pu" (a.k.a. conch shell ceremony) and the prettiest petals, this guest-less fete packs a punch.
From Wendy Laurel... Elopements are really my favorite sort of wedding. I love them because the couple is usually so emotional and intimate during the ceremony. This couple decided to take their elopement to the next level. Even though it just the two of them, they choose to style their elopement to the hilt. It all happened at the newest wedding venue on Maui - the new Steeple House with a team of some of the best vendors on Maui. The getting ready happened at the Steeple House in their completely redone interior of a vintage plantation style church in Kapalua. The ceremony was on the Steeple House lawn with a great view over the Pacific ocean and the cliffs of West Maui. A short walk to the beach for their portraits followed. It was a crazy beautiful day filled with emotion.


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SMI designs, develops and manufactures hi-tech packaging machines and complete bottling lines chiefly intended to supplying the food & beverage sector; thanks to a continuous R & D activity, SMI products are constantly innovated through the introduction to the market of ever-more efficient, performing and environment-friendly models and versions so as to provide end users with a machine range updated to the latest developments.
In addition to new-manufactured models, also machines already installed at customers' facilities can be equipped with latest technologies and applications through a set of upgrade solutions implemented by qualified service engineers of SMI after-sales service; that option allows to progressively enhance SMI machines' efficiency and flexibility all along their life cycle.
In these pages you can find a broad portfolio of updating solutions for SMI machines and select the upgrade proposal that better suits your specific needs: higher efficiency, cost reduction, energy saving, new processes, format changeovers, etc.
Benefits: Efficiency increase - Process automation - Technology update
The retrofit includes the whole upgrade of the machine control system, both for the hardware and for the software components. This is part of a series ...
Benefits: Efficiency increase - Technology update
The upgrade includes the installation of the operator panel on a smooth guide at the top of the machine frame without ground support. This is part ...
Benefits: Technology update
The upgrade of the backup power supply consists in the replacement of the Ultra or Lever System and the 24V power supplier with a stabilized ...
Machines: WP
Benefits: Efficiency increase - Technology update
The upgrade consists in the whole substitution of the cardboard magazine pressure group. This is part of a series of new solutions studied by SMI in ...
Machines: WP
Benefits: Efficiency increase - Technology update
The upgrade consists in the whole substitution of the rubber wheel of the cardboard store. This is part of a series of new solutions studied by ...
Benefits: Environment care - Energy saving - Process automation - Technology update
The retrofitting consists in the whole upgrade of the machine control system, as far as the hardware and the software components are concerned. This is part ...
Privacy statement - Legal notice
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SMI S.p.A. will treat all the data you provided it with in the utmost secrecy and will be allowed to transmit them for the same purposes to its subsidiary or associate companies only, both in Italy and in those countries where SMI S.p.A. operates, it being understood that these subsidiary or associate companies will adopt equivalent criteria of security and secrecy.
The provision of your personal data is not compulsory; in case of denial, it will not be possible for you to send this form on-line.
Moreover, you will be entitled to consult your data and to ask SMI S.p.A. to correct, update and, if applicable, to cancel or block them by writing to SMI S.p.A., Via Carlo Ceresa, 10- 24015 San Giovanni Bianco (BG) - Italy. Any communication is to be addressed to the attention of "the person in charge for the treatment of personal data".
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Capitale Sociale Euro 5.000.000 i.v.


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A brief discussion about a matter concerning a person or an event. Usually to come to a conclusion that needs to be addressed quickly.
1. Dude. Don't carry on until we have a pow wow about this.
2. We desperately need a pow wow before I start talking to him again.
3. He said what? Pow wow!
2. We desperately need a pow wow before I start talking to him again.
3. He said what? Pow wow!
by Sacagawia October 02, 2009
1. An Native American meeting
2. A meeting of people to talk
2. A meeting of people to talk
I don't want to have a little powwow
by ChosenOne5 June 17, 2004
1. a party
2. refers to a party or a get together
2. refers to a party or a get together
Let's have a pow wow!
by II0syrc0II September 17, 2006
How the rapper Paul Wall says his name. Instead of the normal Paul Wall, he apparently cannot pronounce his own name, as simple as "Paul Wall" is.
"Im Pow Wow baby..."
"Yo this is Pow Wow in the house"
"Yo this is Pow Wow in the house"
by DroppinKnowledge October 02, 2005
A gathering of Prisoners Of War playing World Of Warcraft
by w916 February 28, 2011
by neighborhood1985 July 08, 2011
When a group of friends (usually teenagers or young adults) gather around to have a chill sessions. You can relate it to a party, without the intense dancing, loud music, or complete drunkeness. However, light use of drugs and alcohol can be found at some powwows. One does not vigorously make out with ANYONE at these events, unless it is a dirty powwowNormal powwows usually involve a campfire, light background music, and soda. Can be between 3-10 friends, with a 3 person grace period.
Jared, Chloe, Jesse, Keegan and Eric decide to have a powwow at Keegans house at 6. However, Nate decided to show up drunk with hookers and turned it into a dirty powwow
by Chlosiphine November 20, 2013
Trending RN - November 19, 2018
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- 30. running hands


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The last thing Mitt Romney needs is a John Kerry moment that conjures up F. Scott Fitzgerald's description of the very rich: "They are different from you and me."
But like an early Independence Day gift to Democrats, there it was: the image of a grinning Mitt and wife, Ann, enjoying a perfect summer day on a jet ski on Lake Winnipesaukee in Wolfeboro, N.H., where the GOP's presumptive presidential nominee owns a lust-inducing lakefront vacation home. The photo of the contented pair skimming joyfully over the water is a natural bridge to the next, less-quoted, line from Fitzgerald's 1926 short story, "The Rich Boy": "They possess and enjoy early, and it does something to them, makes them soft, where we are hard, cynical where we are trustful, in a way that, unless you were born rich, it is very difficult to understand."
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Featured News - Current News - Archived News - News Categories
Billboard Music Awards playlist revealed
A star-studded lineup of the world's top-selling artists will come together to perform their biggest hits on The 2013 Billboard Music Awards. A few of the collaborations to be featured are Christina Aguilera, Pitbull and a special surprise guest, with "Feel This Moment"; Ne-Yo, with David Guetta and Akon on "Play Hard"; Pitbull and Jennifer Lopez on "Live It Up"; Will.I.Am with Justin Bieber on "The Power"; and Nicki Minaj with Lil Wayne on "High School."
The broadcast, executive-produced by Don Mischer, will air live from Las Vegas at the MGM Grand Garden Arena on Sunday, May 19 (8 p.m. ET), on ABC.
As announced previously, Prince will be on hand to perform and accept the Billboard Icon Award, which pays tribute to his unique journey and history of accomplishments in the music industry. Titles to be performed by Prince will be revealed during the show. Madonna will also take the stage to accept the Top Touring Artist award, honoring the highest-grossing concert touring act of the year.
The playlist of solo performances and collaborations for this year's Billboard Music Awards includes:
Justin Bieber "Take You"
Chris Brown "Fine China"
Selena Gomez "Come and Get It"
Icona Pop "I Love It"
Macklemore and Ryan Lewis "Thrift Shop"
Bruno Mars "Treasure"
Miguel "Adorn"
Kacey Musgraves "Merry Go Round"
The Band Perry "Better Dig Two"
Prince To be revealed
Ed Sheeran "Lego House"
Taylor Swift "22"
Christina Aguilera, Pitbull, special guest "Feel This Moment"
David Guetta, Ne-Yo and Akon "Play Hard"
Jennifer Lopez and Pitbull "Live It Up"
Will.I.Am and Justin Bieber "The Power"
Nicki Minaj and Lil Wayne "High School"
Billboard Music Awards finalists were based on key fan interactions with music, including album and digital singles sales, radio airplay, touring, streaming and social interactions on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, VEVO, Spotify and other popular online destinations for music. Billboard and its data partners, including Nielsen Entertainment and Next Big Sound, tracked these measurements year-round. The awards are based on the reporting period of March 12, 2012, through March 10, 2013.
For the full list of finalists, visit www.billboard.com.


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Transparent belt with slogan
Belt with slogan
Faux leather belt
Belt with metal clasp
Canvas belt
Plain belt
Braided belt
Wide belt
Belt with seam detail
We have updated the information about the use of your personal data contained in our Privacy Policy, which we invite you to read here.
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Bershka Beauty


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One of the fun things we have learned from our Mexican neighbors is how to have fun with a Pinata. Pinatas are a part of the Mexican culture and it's no wonder many of us have incorporated this fun activity into many of our own celebrations. You can make or buy a Pinata in any conceiveable shape or for any theme ... and they are so colorful, they're hard to resist. Kids of any age love trying to break open a pinata ... finding little surprises and candy.
We've come up with an easy and fun project that anyone can make with a few materials and little time. They're mini Pinatas, and you can choose any theme for your party or celebration. The little pinatas we show here are a mini sombrero and a mini burro or donkey.
What You Need:
- Cardstock or plain paper
- Masking tape
- Craft sticks/ straws
- Crepe paper
- Glue/ glue stick
- Candy
What to Do:
- Draw your desired shape on the paper, making sure to draw a very basic rendition, without any details. Repeat, so you have two sides for your mini pinata.
- Cut a few strips of cardstock, about 2 inches long. Fold over 1/2 inch on each end and then glue these "spacers" to both sides of your form, on the inside edges, being sure to position at key spots to keep the shape of your form. Remember, these should be positioned at the edges.
- Now cut a few, thin paper strips, then wrap and glue these to the outside edges, closing in your shape. Some areas can be closed with masking tape, but remember that you want to make the candy inside "accessible". Leave an opening to fill with candy or other surprise, then close up that area also.
- If you will be adding a little handle, which is optional, tape this in place, with aprt of the stick inserted inside of the mini pinata.
- Starting with 2 strips of crepe paper in the same color, cut 12 inch lengths and put both layers together, tacking centers together with dots of glue. Fold in half and then, cutting from the edges, snip fringe all the way across the bottom. You will repeat this step with each color layer, using different colors for each layer.
- Starting at the bottom of your form, attach crepe paper fringe with glue/glue stick. Be sure to leave the "fringed" area hanging down and unattached.
- Work your way up to the top of your form, alternating colors.
- Wallah! Now your mini Pinata is ready for the party!
Another party idea from the ZiggityZoom team.
Project/Photos by Kristin Fitch
Article/Instructions by Sharon Pierce McCullough


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Frankie Sullivan's long 3-pointer front-rimmed as Boston College held on for a 50-49 victory after a furious Auburn rally in the Conte Forum in the non-bracketed Charleston Classic Finale on Wednesday.
Sullivan, who had a team-high 23 points and eight rebounds, brought the Tigers back from a seven-point deficit with just over three minutes to play. He had a huge four-point play on a 3-pointer from downtown Boston to tie the game at 49 with 46.1 seconds to go.
Olivier Hanlan, who scored a career-high 19 points on 3-of-5 threes to lead Boston College, split a pair of free throws with 19.1 seconds left to give the Eagles the game-deciding point.
"I'm extremely proud of the effort and the way we came back, but the biggest part of the game was Boston College's offensive rebounds," said Barbee of the Eagles who had an 11-5 advantage on the Tigers. "(On the last play) We set a ball screen for Frankie, and he dribbled into the lane and they doubled him. He got the ball back and his shot was on line but fell just short."
After Sullivan scored the first bucket of the second half, Boston College went on an 10-0 run to take a 35-28 lead four minutes after the half. Two-straight 3s by the Eagles gave them a 41-33 lead with 9:22 left.
Sullivan scored the Tigers' first 11 points of the second half to bring them to within 41-37 with 6:54 to play before Allen Payne's conventional 3-point play brought the Tigers to within 43-40 with 6:31 left.
BC went ahead 47-40 on Hanlan's bucket with 3:56 left, but a Noel Johnson 3 from the corner closed the Tigers to within four with 3:07 left followed by a pair of Rob Chubb free throws to bring Auburn to within 47-45 with 1:52 remaining. Joe Rahon's reverse layup in traffic with a minute left put the Eagles back up by four. Sullivan's four-point play then tied it.
Both teams are now 2-3 overall.
Auburn made six of its first nine shots to open the game while Boston College scored its first nine points all on 3-pointers and neither team led by more than four points in a closely contested first half. The Eagles took the first half's largest lead at 25-21 with 2:48 to go, but Auburn closed on a 5-0 run to take a 26-25 lead after Sullivan drained a 3-pointer just before the shot clock expired with 1.2 seconds left.
It marked the Tigers' first halftime lead of the season and the play came after a called time out by Barbee with 35.7 seconds on the clock.
Auburn outshot Boston College from the field 42.2 percent to 36.2 percent while the Eagles were 8-of-22 from the floor to the Tigers' 4-of-13. Auburn was 7-of-13 from the foul line after missing its first six while Boston College was 8-of-15. BC outrebounded Auburn 35-28.
Chubb added 12 points for the Tigers and Payne had seven points and six boards. Rahon added 15 for the Eagles.
The Tigers return home for the first time in 16 days to play host to Rhode Island on Sunday at 4 pm Central.
INFORMATION SOURCE: Auburn Athletics Dept.


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ByBiehl is a jaw dropping new arrival from Denmark. Created by the fabulous designer Charlotte Biehl, it is focussed on the concept of silver beads or ?pods?, which are collected and worn on a leather bracelet or necklace to create the ?The Story of You?. Recently launched in the UK, Aurum are thrilled to be one of the first UK stockists of this exciting new concept, which is already gaining a following from men and women of all ages.
The pods themselves are made from silver with a contemporary matt finish. Many are embellished with stones or are oxidised or finished with 18ct gold to create completely different looks. Some pods have a special meaning or can be used to mark an occasion, others are inspired by nature or just simply cool and quirky in their design. Beautiful sparkle rings and matching earrings are also available.
Whether your style is rock chick, glam or understated elegance - now is the perfect time to start collecting ?pods? that have special meaning - go on, create your own story!


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Adam Archer needed a new logo design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 79 designs submitted by 20 freelance designers.
Games That Give is a Silicon Valley start up company that is architecting, implementing and bringing to market video games that have one goal: To help charities raise money. That's right, video games that raise money for charities. And we need a company logo! Your logo!
Games That Give
A striking, original and simple logo is needed for our video game startup. We want something that's uplifting and shows our optimistic view about the world. We've put together an unbelievably talented team that is currently working on our first generation video games for charities; our team consists of former employees from Apple, Microsoft and eBay. In addition, we have hired former independent Silicon Valley consultants.
We can't wait to help charities around the world raise millions donation dollars by using our video games, and we want our logo to let everybody know how excited we are to create video games for charities.
- simple, striking logo- have fun with it
- there's nothing that we don't want
Find out how a design contest works or learn more about our logo design services.


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Displaying images
Images can be displayed individually on the screen and as thumbnails in a table, list, or carousel.
Use the single image view to display a full-sized image. In this view, users can zoom in to and pan the image.
Use thumbnail images in a table to display several images at one time.
Use thumbnail images in a list to help users find an image quickly. The list displays smaller images than the table and includes additional information, such as the name and date, for each image.
Use thumbnail images in a carousel view to allow users to browse through a related set of images such as featured items or a photo album. This view requires less space and allows other items to appear on the screen at the same time.
Users can view more images by performing the following actions:
User goal
Action using the navigation keys
Action using a touch screen
View more thumbnail images in a table or list.
Move a finger vertically on the trackpad.
View more thumbnail images in a carousel view.
Move a finger horizontally across the trackpad.
Best practice: Displaying images
Guidelines for displaying thumbnail images
- Use the same size for each thumbnail image in a particular view. Resize or crop images if necessary. If you must display the original image without cropping it, create a box that is the same size as the other images and place the box behind the image. Center-align the width or height of the image.
- Do not distort the image proportions.
Guidelines for displaying images in a single image view, table, or list
- Always provide a single image view so that users can zoom in to and pan images.
- In a table, display four images in each row by default.
- If images take time to display, render the images in increments and provide placeholder images.
Guidelines for displaying thumbnail images in a carousel view
- Avoid using a carousel view if the primary goal for users is to find a specific image. Use a table or list instead.
- Display three to seven images on the screen at one time. The number of images to include on one screen varies depending on the size of the thumbnail images and the width of the screen.
- Display the total number of images and indicate the current position of the highlighted image.
- If there are more images than can be displayed on the screen at one time, display a partial image or an arrow on the left or right side of the screen. Include a scroll bar if it is important to show the beginning and the end of the images in the carousel view.
- If images have a specific order, provide users with an indication of the start and end of the set of images.
- Assign shortcut keys for moving to the next or previous image. Where possible, in English, allow users to press "N" to move to the next image and "P" to move to the previous image.
- Avoid placing images in a carousel view near other components.
- If you include labels, place the labels above the image on BlackBerry devices with a touch screen. This approach allows users an unobstructed view of the label as they move through the images.
Got questions about leaving a comment? Get answers from our Disqus FAQ.comments powered by Disqus


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99tshirts.com is a home of all types of tshirts and personalized designs. It is an online shopping portal that serves the needs of all fashion obsessed people around the world. It's a fashion label for men, women, boys, girls and kids. 99tshirts.com has been founded to make your online shopping experience more fun loving and interesting.
Buy Tshirts for Men, Women, Boys Girls Online in India, Winter tshirts, summer tshirts, Raglan tshirts, men hoodies, women hoodies, ringer tshirts, polo tshirts, round neck tshirts are available at 99tshirts.com. Poker branded tshirts for men, Curves branded tshirts for women and Youth related t-shirts are available with 99tshirts.com . We introduce ourselves as an acclaimed manufacturer of any kind of garments. We have been in textile business since 1968, manufacturing quality apparels for the past 4 decades and exporting them worldwide. Therefore, we are able to provide our apparels at a cheaper price owing to a genuine reason of manufacturing them ourselves, eliminating all middlemen & passing all the cost savings directly to our tshirt lovers.
Our product range includes Mens tshirts, womens tees, Round neck tshirts, polo t-shirts, Full sleeve t-shirts, Half sleeve t-shirts, sleeveless tshirts, womens t-shirts, collar t-shirts, hoodies, shorts, pants, onesies for babies, tops for boys & girls, camis, vests & briefs, tank tops, pyjamas, leggings, boxers, cardigans and also home apparels such as pillow covers, towels, aprons and many others.
Such a wide collection and variety of apparels available at 99tshirts.com has made us the favorite destination for all fashion savvy people. Quality of our products is excellent as we carefully choose our fabrics, employ highly skilled labor and use advanced quality monitoring systems at each stages of manufacturing. Our designs are all created from a team of professional designers, fashion advisors, size and fit specialists. Our fashion label is not only appealing, catchy and trendy but also tested &assured for your size, fit &usage.
In case you are not satisfied with our designs, you could very well go in to creating your own designs using our customization platform. It's a user-friendly platform integrated at 99tshirts.com to make your shopping worth the money you spend. Things are always preferred when it suits your preferences and therefore you might go for customizing your apparels the way you want. We also make t-shirts available with a plenty of themes based on funny quotes (humorous t-shirts), college events, politics, environment (eco-friendly tees), cricket matches (cricket t-shirts), football matches (team jerseys), religious messages and so on. Custom t-shirts make you more expressive through its designs.
We make sure that our customers get 100% satisfaction on buying our products. We believe in the concept of "Let the Product Speak for Itself". That is why we have in place various customer - friendly policies to give you 100% satisfaction guarantee even before you shop from us.
It's been a great pleasure to provide our customers a convenient online shopping experience, without the hassles of driving around the town locating a shop and then a place to park your vehicle. So shop with us, sit back and relax. Our logistics and customer support team works very hard to get your goods delivered at the earliest and respond to any queries that you may have.
99tshirts.com is the unique online website in India providing 3D cotton t-shirts which gives the more real and magnificent image on printed tshirts. 3D designs are the fast moving products in our website.3D designs gives the illustration that the image is more natural. Today most of the youngsters and teenagers like this kind of 3D t-shirts. 3D intends would be very striking because of having many colors. Our 3D designs have the minimum of seven colors. Couple t-shirts are for couples with customization option. We make available offers on couple Tshirts. Couple T-shirts comes in numerous colours.
Tshirts, Couple Tshirts, 3D Tshirts, Custom Tshirts, Personalized T-shirts, Designer Tshirts, Buy Tshirts Online, Customized T-shirts
© 2015 99tshirts.com. All Rights Reserved.


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I would dispute it. First, sati isn't a verb. Second, in the definition, sati means 'remembrance', in the sense of 'bearing in mind' and 'ability to remember'.I don't think anyone disputes that the definition of sati is "to remember" or "remembering".
Katamañca, bhikkhave, satindriyaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako satimā hoti paramena satinepakkena samannāgato, cirakatampi cirabhāsitampi saritā anussaritā.
"And what is the faculty of remembrance? There is the case where a monk, a disciple of the noble ones, is endowed with memory, highly meticulous, remembering & able to call to mind even things that were done & said long ago."
Indriya-Vibhanga sutta, (SN V 197-8 )
Definition of REMEMBRANCE
1 : the state of bearing in mind
2 a : the ability to remember
Billymac29 wrote:How would the definition of "remembrance" fit into the beginning of ananapanasati?
Here a monk, having gone into the forest, or to the foot of a tree, or to an empty room, sits down cross-legged, keeps his body upright and setting mindfulness to the fore...Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu araññagato vā rukkhamūlagato vā suññāgāragato vā nisīdati pallaṅkaṃ ābhujitvā, ujuṃ kāyaṃ paṇidhāya, parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā
saying "..setting 'remembrance' to the fore.." makes no sense in english!!
"Setting mindfulness to the fore" doesn't make much sense as well.
However, when we take into account the original meaning of 'parimukham', the commentarial explanation makes perfect sense:
Pakatiassāsapakatipassāse nissāya uppannanimittampi assāsapassāsāti nāmaṃ labhati. Upaṭṭhānaṃ satīti taṃ ārammaṇaṃ upecca tiṭṭhatīti sati upaṭṭhānaṃ nāma.
'Sati upaṭṭhāna' means that 'sati', having approached, stays on that object-support (ārammaṇa) (i.e. the representation (nimitta) which has arisen due to natural in-and-out-breath).
Patisambhidamagga-Atthakatha 2.509
I have already given you this quote. If you don't understand it, please do ask questions, otherwise there's not much I can do.
Buddha's teaching is a non-trivial science, with some complicated notions.
Considering no one on here is a linguistics expert (and from the sight of some interpretations, not very skilled in reading comprehension [at least in english]), we shouldn't be making such outlandish statements saying certain people are right and others are wrong.
I agree that, since this forum is dedicated to Pali language, the claims should be substantiated by Pali glosses, and there should be no outlandish statements. And the posts should be read carefully.
As Mike wrote, "this area is intended to be for technical discussion of Pali, not discussion of meditative experience."
Surely 'remembering' (instead of 'remembrance') does not fit well, for example, in:So by using 'remembering' we are just using the closest meaning we have in english. He has said it doesn't give the word justice or it's truest meaning.
Atthi kāyo'ti vā panassa sati paccupaṭṭhitā hoti, yāvadeva ñāṇamattāya patissatimattāya.
"Or his remembrance that 'There is a body' is established to the extent of knowledge & bearing in mind.
Atthi vedanā ti vā panassa sati paccupaṭṭhitā hoti yāvadeva ñāṇamattāya paṭissatimattāya.
Or his remembrance that 'There are feelings' is established to the extent of knowledge & bearing in mind.
Atthi cittanti vā panassa sati paccupaṭṭhitā hoti, yāvadeva ñāṇamattāya patissatimattāya.
Or his remembrance that 'There is a mind' is established to the extent of knowledge & bearing in mind.
Atthi dhammā'ti vā panassa sati paccupaṭṭhitā hoti. Yāvadeva ñāṇamattāya patissatimattāya.
Or his remembrance that 'There are mental qualities' is established to the extent of knowledge & bearing in mind."
Maha-satipatthana sutta, DN 22
Seyyathāpi bhikkhave gimhānaṃ pacchime māse sabbasassesu gāmantasambhatesu gopālako gāvo rakkheyya. Tassa rukkhamūlagatassa vā abbhokāsagatassa vā satikaraṇīyameva hoti: etaṃ gāvoti. Evameva kho bhikkhave satikaraṇīyameva ahosi: ete dhammāti.
"Just as in the last month of the hot season, when all the crops have been gathered into the village, a cowherd would look after his cows: While resting under the shade of a tree or out in the open, he simply maintains remembrance of 'those cows.' In the same way, I simply maintained remembrance of 'those mental qualities.'
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka ... .than.html