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Car News
Mopar Celebrates 75 Years With Four Special Models
- Mopar expands line of factory-modified models
- Special editions include appearance and performance upgrades
- Compass True North, 500 Stinger, Dart 210 Tribute and Mopar '12 300S revealed
Growing from an anti-freeze brand into a global parts and service company does not happen overnight, but Mopar has done just that since its humble 1937 beginnings. Committed to providing parts and service for Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram truck and now FIAT brands, the company has remained competitive thanks to involvement in motorsports - from quarter-mile drag strips to high desert trails - and a five-year growth plan that began in 2009. Mopar offers a host of factory-modified editions and aftermarket parts and accessories. In celebration of its 75th anniversary, Mopar just added modified versions of four vehicles to the lineup, all making their official debut next week at the Chicago Auto Show.
Mopar director of marketing Tricia Hecker pulled a sheet off of the first of the four special vehicles this morning at Mopar's Accessory and Performance Parts Lab in Center Line, Michigan. Hecker revealed the Jeep Compass True North, modified for enhanced off-road performance and including unique styling upgrades. A two-inch lift improves ground clearance and wheel articulation, while a matte black brush bar and skid plate provide protection from off-road hazards. Matte black finishes also cover the wheels, wheel flares, grille and roof. Inside, durable neoprene upholstery replaces the stock material and an inclinometer provides the driver with accurate vehicle position information. A cargo mat and splash guards, two already-popular add-ons for the Compass, are included, and just for fun, a special Kicker audio system provides the entertainment.
Hecker also revealed the next vehicle, the FIAT 500 Stinger. Slotting in between the standard 500 and the new Abarth high-performance model, the Stinger provides upgrades in two stages, one for appearance and one for performance. The appearance kit includes a slightly modified front fascia, projector-beam headlamps and blacked-out side mirrors, door handles and 17-inch wheels. A black stripe runs down the side of the yellow 500, and a black checkerboard graphic covers the roof. Inside, the Stinger gets a carbon fiber instrument panel, gloss black shifter and special yellow and black upholstery. Stage Two performance upgrades include a cold-air intake, cat-back exhaust, added bracing and cross-drilled brake rotors.
Jim Sassorossi, Mopar's director of global parts sales and marketing, took the wraps off of the remaining two vehicles, first revealing the Dart GTS 210 Tribute. The tweaked version of Dodge's latest new model, the compact Dart sedan, harks back to the late-1960s Dart and includes both styling and performance modifications. Matte black details like a chin spoiler, sills, decklid spoiler and roof join a carbon fiber hood, which saves weight, too. The Dart 210 gets 18-inch black forged wheels as well, while its interior is highlighted with special red and black leather upholstery and a suede dash brow. Output of the Dart's 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine is up 26 horsepower to 210 thanks to an improved intake and a cat-back exhaust. To improve handling, the Dart 210 is lowered by one inch and includes coil-over suspension and performance brakes with cross-drilled rotors.
Rounding out Mopar's offerings in its 75th year is the latest in a series of special Mopar cars that started with the Mopar '10, a souped-up Challenger, and the Charger-based Mopar '11. Called Mopar '12, the latest is a modified Chrysler 300S with blacked-out details inside and out and a 3.91:1 final drive ratio, the result of a more aggressive differential that allows low-five-second zero to 60 mph sprints. The stealth look includes a "black chrome" grille and grille surround and black twenty-inch wheels wearing three-season Goodyear Eagle F1 tires. Blue pinstripes give a subtle sporty look to the hood and body sides, while Mopar-embroidered seats with contrasting blue stitching and a large, 8.4-inch touch screen are among interior upgrades.
Mopar's ambitious rollout of factory-modified vehicles and special performance and appearance parts continues with this latest round of special models to celebrate 75 years in business. Each of these models provides a unique alternative to standard models and offers higher performance, whether on-road or off. Many upgrades are also available on an individual basis should customers prefer more mild or specific enhancements.
What it means to you: Celebrating 75 years in business, Mopar revealed four new, factory-modified vehicles that debut at next week's Chicago Auto Show. Each offers enhanced performance and unique styling.


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An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power great distances without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations. They have evolved from wooden vessels used to deploy a balloon into nuclear powered warships that carry dozens of fixed and rotary wing aircraft.
Balloon carriers were the first ships to deploy manned aircraft, used during the 19th and early 20th century, mainly for observation purposes. The 1903 advent of fixed wing airplanes was followed in 1910 by the first flight of such an aircraft from the deck of a US Navy cruiser. Seaplanes and seaplane tender support ships, such as Template:HMS, followed. The development of flat top vessels produced the first large fleet ships. This evolution was well underway by the mid 1920s, resulting in ships such as the Template:HMS, Hōshō, and the Template:Sclasss.
World War II saw the first large-scale use and further refinement of the aircraft carrier, spawning several types. Escort aircraft carriers, such as Template:USS, were built only during World War II. Although some were purpose-built, most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Light aircraft carriers, such as Template:USS, represented a larger, more "militarized" version of the escort carrier concept. Although the light carriers usually carried the same size air groups as escort carriers, they had the advantage of higher speed as they had been converted from cruisers under construction.
Wartime emergencies also saw the creation or conversion of unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships, like the Template:SS, were cargo-carrying merchant ships which could launch but not retrieve fighter aircraft from a catapult. These vessels were an emergency measure during World War II as were Merchant aircraft carriers (MACs), such as Template:MV, another emergency measure which saw cargo-carrying merchant ships equipped with flight decks. Battlecarriers were created by the Imperial Japanese Navy to partially compensate for the loss of carrier strength at Midway.Template:Fact Two of them were made from Template:Sclasss during late 1943. The aft turrets were removed and replaced with a hangar, deck and catapult. The heavy cruiser Mogami concurrently received a similar conversion. This "half and half" design was an unsuccessful compromise, being neither one thing nor the other. Submarine aircraft carriers, such as the French Surcouf and the Japanese I-400 class submarine, which was capable of carrying 3 Aichi M6A Seiran aircraft, were first built in the 1920s, but were generally unsuccessful at war. Modern navies that operate such ships treat aircraft carriers as the capital ship of the fleet, a role previously played by the battleship. The change, part of the growth of air power as a significant factor in warfare, took place during World War II. This change was driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft.
Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Supercarriers, typically displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Most are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as Template:USS and Template:HMS, serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers", many have a secondary capability to operate VSTOL aircraft.
Lacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles, and therefore travel as part of a carrier battle group (CVBG) for their protection. Unlike other types of capital ships in the 20th century, aircraft carrier designs since World War II have been effectively unlimited by any consideration save budgetary, and the ships have increased in size to handle the larger aircraft. The large, modern Template:Sclass of United States Navy carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II-era Template:USS, yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same—a consequence of the steadily increasing size of military aircraft over the years.Template:Fact
History and milestonesEdit
Though aircraft carriers are given their definition with respect to fixed-wing aircraft, the first known instance of using a ship for airborne operations occurred in 1806, when the Royal Navy's Lord Thomas Cochrane launched kites from the 32-gun frigate Template:HMS in order to drop propaganda leaflets on the French territory. Template:Fact
Balloon carriersEdit
- Main article: Balloon carrier
On 12 July 1849, the Austrian Navy ship Vulcano launched a manned hot air balloon in order to drop bombs on Venice, although the attempt failed due to contrary winds.[1]
Later, during the American Civil War, about the time of the Peninsula Campaign, gas-filled balloons were used to perform reconnaissance on Confederate positions. The battles soon turned inland into the heavily forested areas of the Peninsula, however, where balloons could not travel. A coal barge, the George Washington Parke Custis, was cleared of all deck rigging to accommodate the gas generators and apparatus of balloons. From the barge Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, Chief Aeronaut of the Union Army Balloon Corps, made his first ascents over the Potomac River and telegraphed claims of the success of the first aerial venture ever made from a water-borne vessel. Other barges were converted to assist with the other military balloons transported about the eastern waterways, but none of these Civil War crafts ever took to the high seas.
Balloons launched from ships led to the development of balloon carriers, or balloon tenders, during World War I, by the navies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Sweden. About ten such "balloon tenders" were built, their main objective being aerial observation posts. These ships were either decommissioned or converted to seaplane tenders after the war.
Seaplane carriersEdit
- Main article: Seaplane carrier
The invention of the seaplane in March 1910 with the French Le Canard led to the earliest development of a ship designed to carry airplanes, albeit equipped with floats: in December 1911 appears the French Navy La Foudre, the first seaplane carrier, and the first known carrier of airplanes. Commissioned as a seaplane tender, and carrying float-equipped planes under hangars on the main deck, from where they were lowered on the sea with a crane, she participated in tactical exercises in the Mediterranean in 1912. La Foudre was further modified in November 1913 with a 10 meter flat deck to launch her seaplanes.[2]
Template:HMS, temporarily converted as an experimental seaplane carrier in April–May 1913, was also one of the first seaplane carriers, and the first experimental seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy. She was originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the building stocks to be a seaplane carrier for a few trials in 1913, before being converted again to a cruiser, and back again to a seaplane carrier in 1914. She was sunk by a German submarine in October 1914. The first seaplane tender of the US Navy was the Template:USS, converted to that role in December 1913.[3]
Many cruisers and capital ships of the inter-war years often carried a catapult-launched seaplane for reconnaissance and spotting the fall of the guns. It was launched by a catapult and recovered by crane from the water after landing. These were highly successful during World War II; there were many notable successes early in the war as shown by Template:HMS's float equipped Swordfish during the Second Battle of Narvik in 1940, where it spotted for the guns of the British warships, ensuring seven German destroyers were sunk, and sinking the German submarine U-64 with its own bombs.[4] The Japanese Rufe floatplane, derived from the Zero, was a formidable fighter with only a slight loss in flight performance; one of its pilots scored 26 kills, a score only bettered by a handful of American pilots throughout World War II. Template:Fact Other Japanese seaplanes launched from tenders and warships sank merchant ships and conducted small-scale ground attacks. The culmination of the type was the American 300+ mph (Template:Nowrap) Curtiss SC Seahawk which was actually a fighter aircraft like the Rufe in addition to a two-seat gunnery spotter and transport for an injured man in a litter. Template:FactSpotter seaplane aircraft on U.S. Navy cruisers and battleships were in service until 1949. Seaplane fighters were considered poor combat aircraft compared to their carrier-launched brethren; they were slower due to the drag of their pontoons or boat hulls. Contemporary propeller-driven, land-based fighter aircraft were much faster (Template:Nowrap / Template:Nowrap as opposed to Template:Nowrap / Template:Nowrap and more heavily armed. Template:Fact The Curtiss Seahawk only had two 0.50 inch (Template:Nowrap) calibre machine guns compared to four Template:Nowrap cannon in the Grumman F8F Bearcat or four 0.50 (Template:Nowrap) cal machine guns plus two Template:Nowrap cannon in the Vought F4U Corsair. Jet aircraft of just a few years later were faster still (500+ mph) and better armed, especially with the development of air to air missiles in the early to mid 1950s.
Genesis of the flat-deck carrierEdit
|"An airplane-carrying vessel is indispensable. These vessels will be constructed on a plan very different from what is currently used. First of all the deck will be cleared of all obstacles. It will be flat, as wide as possible without jeopardizing the nautical lines of the hull, and it will look like a landing field."
|Clément Ader, L'Aviation Militaire, 1909
As heavier-than-air aircraft developed in the early 20th century, various navies began to take an interest in their potential use as scouts for their big gun warships. In 1909 the French inventor Clément Ader published in his book L'Aviation Militaire the description of a ship to operate airplanes at sea, with a flat flight deck, an island superstructure, deck elevators and a hangar bay.[5] That year the US Naval Attaché in Paris sent a report on his observations.[6]
A number of experimental flights were made to test the concept. Eugene Ely was the first pilot to launch from a stationary ship in November 1910. He took off from a structure fixed over the forecastle of the US armored cruiser Template:USS at Hampton Roads, Virginia and landed nearby on Willoughby Spit after some five minutes in the air.
On 18 January 1911 he became the first pilot to land on a stationary ship. He took off from the Tanforan racetrack and landed on a similar temporary structure on the aft of Template:USS anchored at the San Francisco waterfront—the improvised braking system of sandbags and ropes led directly to the arrestor hook and wires described below. His aircraft was then turned around and he was able to take off again. Commander Charles Rumney Samson, Royal Navy, became the first airman to take off from a moving warship on May 2 1912. He took off in a Short S27 from the battleship Template:HMS while she steamed at 10.5 knots (Template:Nowrap) during the Royal Fleet Review at Weymouth.
World War IEdit
The first strike from a carrier against a land target as well as a sea target took place in September 1914 when the Imperial Japanese Navy seaplane carrier Wakamiya conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids[7] from Kiaochow Bay during the Battle of Tsingtao in China.[8] The four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German-held land targets (communication centers and command centers) and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September until November 6 1914, when the Germans surrendered.[9] On the Western front the first naval air raid occurred on December 25 1914 when twelve seaplanes from Template:HMS, Template:HMS and Template:HMS (cross-channel steamers converted into seaplane carriers) attacked the Zeppelin base at Cuxhaven. The attack was not a complete success, although a German warship was damaged; nevertheless the raid demonstrated in the European theatre the feasibility of attack by ship-borne aircraft and showed the strategic importance of this new weapon.
Template:HMS was arguably the first modern aircraft carrier. She was originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the building stocks to be a hybrid airplane/seaplane carrier with a launch platform. Launched September 5 1914, she served in the Dardanelles campaign and throughout World War I.
Other carrier operations were mounted during the war, the most successful taking place on 19 July 1918 when seven Sopwith Camels launched from Template:HMS attacked the German Zeppelin base at Tondern, with two Template:Auto lb bombs each. Several airships and balloons were destroyed, but as the carrier had no method of recovering the aircraft safely, two of the pilots ditched their aircraft in the sea alongside the carrier while the others headed for neutral Denmark.
Inter-war yearsEdit
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 placed strict limits on the tonnages of battleships and battlecruisers for the major naval powers after World War I, as well as not only a limit on the total tonnage for carriers, but also an upper limit of 27,000 tonnes for each ship. Although exceptions were made regarding the maximum ship tonnage (fleet units counted, experimental units did not), the total tonnage could not be exceeded. However, while all of the major navies were over-tonnage on battleships, they were all considerably under-tonnage on aircraft carriers. Consequently, many battleships and battlecruisers under construction (or in service) were converted into aircraft carriers. The first ship to have a full-length flat deck was Template:HMS, the conversion of which was completed in September 1918, with the United States Navy not following suit until 1920, when the conversion of Template:USS (an experimental ship which did not count against America's carrier tonnage) was completed. The first American fleet carriers would not enter service until November, 1927 when the Template:USS was commissioned. (Template:USS was commissioned in December of that year.)
The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be laid down was the Template:HMS in 1918. Japan began work on Hōshō the following year. In December 1922, Hōshō became the first to be commissioned, while HMS Hermes began service in July 1923.[10][11] Hermes' design preceded and influenced that of Hōshō, and its construction actually began earlier, but numerous tests, experiments and budget considerations delayed its commission.
By the late 1930s, carriers around the world typically carried three types of aircraft: torpedo bombers, also used for conventional bombings and reconnaissance; dive bombers, also used for reconnaissance (in the U.S. Navy, aircraft of this type were known as "scout bombers"); and fighters for fleet defence and bomber escort duties. Because of the restricted space on aircraft carriers, all these aircraft were of small, single-engined types, usually with folding wings to facilitate storage.
World War IIEdit
Aircraft carriers played a significant role in World War II. With seven aircraft carriers afloat, the Royal Navy had a considerable numerical advantage at the start of the war as neither the Germans nor the Italians had carriers of their own.[12] However, the vulnerability of carriers compared to traditional battleships when forced into a gun-range encounter was quickly illustrated by the sinking of Template:HMS by German battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in 1940.
This apparent weakness to battleships was turned on its head in November 1940 when Template:HMS launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at Taranto. This operation incapacitated three of the six battleships in the harbour at a cost of two of the 21 attacking Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers. Carriers also played a major part in reinforcing Malta, both by transporting planes and by defending convoys sent to supply the besieged island. The use of carriers prevented the Italian Navy and land-based German aircraft from dominating the Mediterranean theatre.
In the Atlantic, aircraft from Template:HMS and Template:HMS were responsible for slowing Bismarck during May 1941. Later in the war, escort carriers proved their worth guarding convoys crossing the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.
Many of the major battles in the Pacific Ocean involved aircraft carriers. Japan started the war with ten aircraft carriers, the largest and most modern carrier fleet in the world at that time. There were six American aircraft carriers at the beginning of the hostilities, although only three of them were operating in the Pacific.
Drawing on the 1939 Japanese development of shallow-water modifications for aerial torpedoes and the 1940 British aerial attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto, the 1941 Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor was a clear illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Concentrating six carriers in a single striking unit marked a turning point in naval history, as no other nation had fielded anything comparable. (Though Germany and Italy began construction of carriers, neither ship was completed. Of the two, Germany's Graf Zeppelin had the greater potential.)
Meanwhile, the Japanese began their advance through Southeast Asia, and the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese land-based aircraft drove home the need for this ship type for fleet defence from aerial attack. In April 1942, the Japanese fast carrier strike force ranged into the Indian Ocean and sank shipping, including the damaged and undefended carrier Template:HMS. Smaller Allied fleets with inadequate aerial protection were forced to retreat or be destroyed. In the Coral Sea, US and Japanese fleets traded aircraft strikes in the first battle where neither side's ships sighted the other, and carriers fought each other for the first time. At the Battle of Midway all four Japanese carriers engaged were sunk by planes from three American carriers (one of which was lost); the battle is considered the turning point of the war in the Pacific. Notably, the battle was orchestrated by the Japanese to draw out American carriers that had proven very elusive and troublesome to the Japanese.
Subsequently the US was able to build up large numbers of aircraft aboard a mixture of fleet, light and (newly commissioned) escort carriers, primarily with the introduction of the Essex class in 1943. These ships, around which were built the fast carrier task forces of the Third and Fifth Fleets, played a major part in winning the Pacific war. The reign of the battleship as the primary component of a fleet ended when U.S. carrier-borne aircraft sank the largest battleships ever built, the Japanese super battleships Musashi in 1944 and Yamato in 1945. Japan built the largest aircraft carrier of the war, Shinano, which was a Yamato-class ship converted midway through construction after the disastrous loss of four fleet carriers at Midway. She was sunk by the patrolling US submarine Template:USS while in transit shortly after commissioning, but before being fully outfitted or operational, in November 1944.
Important innovations just before and during World War IIEdit
Hurricane bowEdit
A hurricane bow is a completely enclosed hangar deck, first seen on the American Lexington-class aircraft carriers which entered service in 1927. Combat experience proved it to be by far the most useful configuration for the bow of the ship among others that were tried, including second flying-off decks and an anti-aircraft battery (the latter was the most common American configuration during World War II).Template:Fact This feature would be re-incorporated into American carriers post-war. The first Japanese carrier to incorporate a hurricane bow was Taihō.
Light aircraft carriersEdit
The loss of three major carriers in quick succession in the Pacific led the U.S. Navy to develop the light carrier from light cruiser hulls that had already been laid down. They were intended to serve as additional fast carriers, as escort carriers did not have the requisite speed to keep up with the fleet carriers and their escorts. The actual U.S. Navy classification was small aircraft carrier (CVL), not light. Prior to July 1943, they were just classified as aircraft carriers (CV).[13]
The Royal Navy made a similar design which served both them and Commonwealth countries after World War II. One of these carriers, Template:HMS, is still in use as India's INS Viraat.
Escort carriers and merchant aircraft carriersEdit
To protect Atlantic convoys, the British developed what they called Merchant Aircraft Carriers, which were merchant ships equipped with a flat deck for half a dozen aircraft. These operated with civilian crews, under merchant colors, and carried their normal cargo besides providing air support for the convoy. As there was no lift or hangar, aircraft maintenance was limited and the aircraft spent the entire trip sitting on the deck.
These served as a stop-gap measure until dedicated escort carriers (CVE) could be built in the U.S. About a third of the size of a fleet carrier, they carried around two dozen aircraft for anti-submarine duties. Over one hundred were built or converted from merchantmen. Escort carriers were built in the US from two basic hull designs: one from a merchant ship, and the other from a slightly larger, slightly faster tanker. Besides defending convoys, these were used to transport aircraft across the ocean. Nevertheless, some participated in the battles to liberate the Philippines, notably the Battle off Samar in which six escort carriers and their escorting destroyers briefly took on five Japanese battleships and bluffed them into retreating.
Catapult aircraft merchantmenEdit
As an emergency stop-gap before sufficient merchant aircraft carriers became available, the British provided air cover for convoys using Catapult aircraft merchantman (CAM ships). CAM ships were merchant vessels equipped with an aircraft, usually a battle-weary Hawker Hurricane, launched by a catapult. Once launched, the aircraft could not land back on the deck and had to ditch in the sea if it was not within range of land. In over two years, fewer than 10 launches were ever made, yet these flights did have some success: 6 bombers for the loss of a single pilot.
Post-war developmentsEdit
Three major post-war developments came from the need to improve operations of jet-powered aircraft, which had higher weights and landing speeds than their propeller-powered forebears.
The first jet landing on a carrier was made by Lt Cdr Eric "Winkle" Brown who landed on Template:HMS in the specially modified de Havilland Vampire LZ551/G [1] on 3 December 1945.[14] Brown is also the all-time record holder for the number of carrier landings, at 2,407.[14]
After these successful tests, there were still many misgivings about the suitability of operating jet aircraft routinely from carriers, and LZ551/G was taken to Farnborough to participate in trials of the experimental "rubber deck". Despite significant effort toward developing this idea, it was found to be unnecessary; following the introduction of angled flight decks, jets were operating from carriers by the mid 1950s.[14]
Angled decksEdit
During World War II, aircraft would land on the flight deck parallel to the long axis of the ship's hull. Aircraft which had already landed would be parked on the deck at the bow end of the flight deck. A crash barrier was raised behind them to stop any landing aircraft which overshot the landing area because its landing hook missed the arrestor cables. If this happened, it would often cause serious damage or injury and even, if the crash barrier was not strong enough, destruction of parked aircraft.
An important development of the early 1950s was the British invention of the angled flight deck by Capt D.R.F. Campbell RN in conjunction with Lewis Boddington.[14] The runway was canted at an angle of a few degrees from the longitudinal axis of the ship. If an aircraft missed the arrestor cables (referred to as a "bolter"), the pilot only needed to increase engine power to maximum to get airborne again, and would not hit the parked aircraft because the angled deck pointed out over the sea.
The first trials of an angled flight deck were conducted aboard Template:HMS[14] using a painted-on angled runway in 1952. The first carriers modified with a port-side extension for the angled flight deck were Template:USS in 1953 and Template:HMS in 1954.[15] The first three ships actually completed with angled flight decks were all delivered in 1955: Template:HMS in February, Template:USS in October and Template:HMAS in November.[15]
Steam catapultsEdit
The modern steam-powered catapult, powered by steam from the ship's boilers or reactors, was invented by Commander C.C. Mitchell of the Royal Naval Reserve.[14] It was widely adopted following trials on Template:HMS between 1950 and 1952 which showed it to be more powerful and reliable than the hydraulic catapults which had been introduced in the 1940s.[14]
Optical Landing SystemsEdit
The first of the Optical Landing Systems was another British innovation, the Mirror Landing Aid invented by Lieutenant Commander H. C. N. Goodhart RN.[14] This was a gyroscopically-controlled convex mirror (in later designs replaced by a Fresnel lens Optical Landing System) on the port side of the deck. On either side of the mirror was a line of green "datum" lights. A bright orange "source" light was directed into the mirror creating the "ball" (or "meatball" in later USN parlance), which could be seen by the aviator who was about to land. The position of the ball compared to the datum lights indicated the aircraft's position in relation to the desired glidepath: if the ball was above the datum, the plane was high; below the datum, the plane was low; between the datum, the plane was on glidepath. The gyro stabilisation compensated for much of the movement of the flight deck due to the sea, giving a constant glidepath. The first trials of a mirror landing sight were conducted on HMS Illustrious in 1952.[14] Prior to OLSs, pilots relied on visual flag signals from Landing Signal Officers to help maintain proper glidepath.
Nuclear ageEdit
The U.S. Navy attempted to become a strategic nuclear force in parallel with the United States Air Force (USAF) long range bombers with the project to build Template:USS, which was termed CVA, with the "A" signifying "atomic". This ship would have carried long range twin-engine bombers, each of which could carry an atomic bomb. The project was canceled under pressure from the newly-created USAF, and the letter "A" was recycled to mean "attack." This only delayed the growth of carriers. Nuclear weapons would be part of the carrier weapons load, despite Air Force objections, beginning in 1955 aboard Template:USS. By the end of the 1950s the Navy had a series of nuclear-armed attack aircraft (see also USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)).
The U.S. Navy also built the first aircraft carrier to be powered by nuclear reactors. Template:USS is powered by eight nuclear reactors and was the second surface warship (after Template:USS) to be powered in this way. Subsequent supercarriers starting with Template:USS took advantage of this technology to increase their endurance utilizing only two reactors. Other nations operate nuclear powered submarines, but thus far only France has a nuclear-powered carrier, the Charles de Gaulle.
The post-war years also saw the development of the helicopter, with a variety of useful roles and mission capability aboard aircraft carriers. Whereas fixed-wing aircraft are suited to air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attack, helicopters are used to transport equipment and personnel and can be used in an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) role, with dipping sonar, air-launched torpedoes, and depth charges; as well as for anti-surface vessel warfare, with air-launched anti-ship missiles.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United Kingdom and the U.S. converted some older carriers into Commando Carriers or Landing Platform Helicopters (LPH); seagoing helicopter airfields like Template:HMS. To mitigate against the expensive connotations of the term "aircraft carrier", the new Invincible-class carriers were originally designated as "through deck cruisers" and were initially to operate as helicopter-only craft escort carriers. The arrival of the Sea Harrier VTOL/STOVL fast jet meant they could carry fixed-wing aircraft, despite their short flight deck.
The U.S. used some Template:Sclass carriers initially as pure ASW carriers, embarking helicopters and fixed-wing ASW aircraft like the S-2 Tracker. Later, specialized LPH helicopter carriers for the transport of Marine Corps troops and their helicopter transports were developed. These evolved into the Landing Helicopter Assault (LHA) and later into the Landing Helicopter Dock (LHD) classes of amphibious assault ships, which normally also embark a few Harrier aircraft.
Ski-jump rampEdit
Yet another British innovation was the ski-jump ramp as an alternative to contemporary catapult systems.[14] The ski-jump ramp at the end of a runway or flight deck allows an aircraft which makes a running start to transition a portion of its forward momentum into upward motion. The intent is that the additional altitude and upward angled flight path from the jump provides extra time until the forward airspeed generated by engine thrust is high enough to maintain level flight. V/STOL aircraft will often also use their ability to direct some of their thrust downwards to give them additional lift until required airspeed is attained.
As the Royal Navy retired or sold the last of its World War II-era carriers, they were replaced with smaller ships designed to operate helicopters and the V/STOVL Sea Harrier jet. The ski-jump gave the Harriers an enhanced STOVL capability, allowing them to take off with heavier payloads.[16] It has since been adopted by the navies of several nations such as India, Spain, Italy, Russia, and Thailand. Most ski-jump equipped carriers operate the British or US built Harrier aircraft. The current Russian aircraft carrier on the other hand launches conventional Sukhoi Su-33 fighters from a ski jump but recovers them using a conventional tailhook and arresting wire.
Many carriers equipped with ski-jump ramps do not have an angled landing deck, but this is more a result of the vertical landing capability of the STOVL aircraft embarked. Russian and future Indian carriers employing STOL fighters are the exception since they require a wire arrested landing. The future British STOVL carriers and the former HMS Hermes both also have angled decks, the former to provide flexibility for easy conversion to CATOBAR operations, the latter because it was a converted CATOBAR carrier and the removal of valuable deck space was not warranted. The Royal Navy's Queen Elizabeth-class carriers will be the first supercarriers with ski-jump ramps.
Post-World War II conflictsEdit
UN carrier operations in the Korean WarEdit
The United Nations command began carrier operations against the North Korean Army on July 3, 1950 in response to the invasion of South Korea. Task Force 77 consisted at that time of the carriers Template:USS and Template:HMS. Before the armistice of July 27, 1953, 12 U.S. carriers served 27 tours in the Sea of Japan as part of Task Force 77. During periods of intensive air operations as many as four carriers were on the line at the same time (see Attack on the Sui-ho Dam), but the norm was two on the line with a third "ready" carrier at Yokosuka able to respond to the Sea of Japan at short notice.
A second carrier unit, Task Force 95, served as a blockade force in the Yellow Sea off the west coast of North Korea. The task force consisted of a Commonwealth light carrier (Template:HMS, Template:HMS, Template:HMS, Template:HMS, and Template:HMAS and usually a U.S. escort carrier (Template:USS, Template:USS, Template:USS, Template:USS, and Template:USS).
Over 301,000 carrier strikes were flown during the Korean War: 255,545 by the aircraft of Task Force 77; 25,400 by the Commonwealth aircraft of Task Force 95, and 20,375 by the escort carriers of Task Force 95. United States Navy and Marine Corps carrier-based combat losses were 541 aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm lost 86 aircraft in combat, and the Australian Fleet Air Arm 15.
Post-colonial conflictsEdit
In the period following World War II through the 1960s, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands employed their carriers during decolonization conflicts of former colonies.
France employed the carriers Dixmude, La Fayette, Bois Belleau, and Arromanches as bases to strike enemy positions during the 1946–1954 First Indochina War.[17]
The United Kingdom and France used carrier-based aircraft from HMS Eagle, HMS Albion, HMS Bulwark, Arromanches, and La Fayette to hit Egyptian positions, and the HMS Ocean and HMS Theseus as floating bases to ferry troops ashore by helicopter, during the 1956 Suez Crisis in the first ever large-scale helicopter-borne assault.[18]
The Royal Netherlands Navy deployed the Karel Doorman and an escorting battle group to the Netherlands' colony of Western New Guinea in 1962 to protect it from Indonesian invasion. This intervention nearly resulted in her being attacked by the Indonesian Air Force using Soviet supplied Tupolev Tu-16KS-1 Badger naval bombers carrying anti-ship missiles. The attack was called off by a last-minute cease fire.[19]
In 1964–1967, the Royal Navy deployed the Far East Fleet carriers HMS Ark Royal, HMS Centaur, and HMS Victorious in support of operations in Borneo during the Konfrontasi period between Indonesia and Malaysia. HMS Albion and HMS Bulwark were deployed as commando carriers. The Australian carrier HMAS Sydney served as a troop transport.[20]
U.S. carrier operations in Southeast AsiaEdit
The United States Navy fought "the most protracted, bitter, and costly war" (René Francillon) in the history of naval aviation from August 2, 1964 to August 15, 1973 in the waters of the South China Sea. Operating from two deployment points (Yankee Station and Dixie Station), carrier aircraft supported combat operations in South Vietnam and conducted bombing operations in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force in North Vietnam under Operations Flaming Dart, Rolling Thunder, and Linebacker. The number of carriers on the line varied during differing points of the conflict, but as many as six operated at one time during Operation Linebacker.
Twenty-one aircraft carriers (all operational attack carriers during the era except Template:USS) deployed to Task Force 77 of the U.S. Seventh Fleet, conducting 86 war cruises and operating 9,178 total days on the line in the Gulf of Tonkin. 530 aircraft were lost in combat and 329 more in operational accidents, causing the deaths of 377 naval aviators, with 64 others reported missing and 179 taken prisoner-of-war. 205 officers and men of the ship's complements of three carriers (Template:USS, Template:USS, and Template:USS) were killed in major shipboard fires.
Falklands WarEdit
During the Falklands War the United Kingdom was able to win a conflict 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home in large part due to the use of the light fleet carrier Template:HMS and the smaller "through deck cruiser" Template:HMS. The Falklands showed the value of a STOVL aircraft—the Hawker Siddeley Harrier (the RN Sea Harrier and press-ganged RAF Harriers)—in defending the fleet and assault force from shore-based aircraft and in attacking the enemy. Sea Harriers shot down 21 fast-attack jets and suffered no aerial combat losses, although six were lost to accidents and ground fire. Helicopters from the carriers were used to deploy troops and for medevac, Search and rescue and anti-submarine warfare.
An opposite lesson from the Falklands War was the withdrawal of Argentina's aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo with her A-4Qs. The sinking of the Argentine cruiser ARA General Belgrano caused the premature home deployment as it showed that capital ships were vulnerable in the nuclear submarines' hunting ground.
Operations in the Persian GulfEdit
The U.S. has also made use of carriers in the Persian Gulf and Afghanistan and to protect its interests in the Pacific. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq U.S. aircraft carriers served as the primary base of American air power. Even without the ability to place significant numbers of aircraft in Middle Eastern airbases, the United States was capable of carrying out significant air attacks from carrier-based squadrons. Recently, U.S. aircraft carriers such as the Template:USS provided air support for counter-insurgency operations in Iraq.
Aircraft carriers todayEdit
Aircraft carriers are generally the largest ships operated by navies; a Nimitz-class carrier powered by two nuclear reactors and four steam turbines is Template:Nowrap (Template:Nowrap) long and costs about $4.5 billion. The United States Navy has the world's largest carrier fleet, with eleven in service, one under construction, and one on order (all of them supercarriers). It is also the only navy to possess operational supercarriers. The U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers are a cornerstone of American power projection capability.
A total of 22 (plus eight under construction) aircraft carriers in active service are maintained by nine navies: the United States Navy, Royal Navy, French Navy, Russian Navy, Italian Navy, Indian Navy, Spanish Navy, Brazilian Navy, and Royal Thai Navy navies. In addition, the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army Navy possesses the former Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag, but most naval analysts believe that they have no intention to render her fully operational, and instead are using her as a training vessel in preparation for future Chinese aircraft carriers. The United States, Brazil, South Korea, United Kingdom, the People's Republic of China, India, Japan, Australia, and France also operate vessels capable of carrying and operating multiple helicopters.
Aircraft carriers are generally accompanied by a number of other ships, to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. This is often termed a battle group or carrier group, sometimes a carrier battle group.
In the early 21st century, worldwide aircraft carriers are capable of carrying about 1,250 aircraft.Template:Fact U.S. carriers account for over 1,000 of these.Template:Fact The United Kingdom and France are both undergoing a major expansion in carrier capability, but the United States will still maintain a very large lead.
Flight deckEdit
- Main article: Flight deck
As "runways at sea," modern aircraft carriers have a flat-top deck design that serves as a flight deck for take-off and landing of aircraft. Aircraft take off to the front, into the wind, and land from the rear. Carriers steam at speed, for example up to Template:Nowrap (Template:Nowrap), into the wind during take-off in order to increase the apparent wind speed over the deck, thereby reducing the speed of the aircraft relative to the ship. On some ships, a steam-powered catapult is used to propel the aircraft forward, assisting the power of its engines and allowing it to take off in a shorter distance than would otherwise be required. On other carriers, aircraft do not require assistance for take off—the requirement for assistance relates to aircraft design and performance. Conversely, when landing on a carrier, conventional aircraft rely upon a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring them to a stop in a shorter distance than normal. Other aircraft—helicopters and V/STOL (Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing) designs—utilize their hover capability to land vertically and so require no assistance in speed reduction upon landing.
Conventional ("tailhook") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, sometimes called "paddles") to control the plane's landing approach, visually gauge altitude, attitude, and speed, and transmit that data to the pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as mirrors provided information on proper glide slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to landing pilots by radio.
The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is one of the world's most dangerous places to work.Template:Fact To facilitate working on the flight deck of a U.S. aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. White shirts are responsible for safety, red shirts handle munitions, purple shirts (grapes) handle jet fuel, and green shirts handle the catapult and arresting gear. Yellow shirts are responsible for directing aircraft.
Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the Shooters, the Handler, and the Air Boss. Shooters are naval aviators or Naval Flight Officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The Handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after landing. The Air Boss (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called "primary" or "the tower") and has the overall responsibility for controlling takeoffs, landings, "those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet".[21] The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below Primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff.
Since the early 1950s it has been common to direct the landing recovery area off to port at an angle to the line of the ship. The primary function of the angled deck landing area is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a "bolter", to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked on the forward parts of the deck. The angled deck also allows launching of aircraft at the same time as others land.
The above deck areas of the warship (such as the bridge, flight control tower) are concentrated to the starboard side of the deck in a relatively small area called an "island". Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island and such a configuration has not been seen in a fleet sized carrier. The "flush deck" configuration proved to have very significant drawbacks, complicating navigation, air traffic control and numerous other factors.
A more recent configuration, used by the Royal Navy, has a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was developed to help launch VTOL (or STOVL) aircraft (aircraft that are able to take off and land with little or no forward movement) such as the Sea Harrier. Although the aircraft are capable of flying vertically off the deck, using the ramp is more fuel efficient. As catapults and arrestor cables are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for equipment. The disadvantage of the ski-jump—and the reason this configuration has not appeared on American supercarriers—is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range): large, slow planes such as the E-2 Hawkeye and heavily-laden strike fighters like the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet cannot use a ski-jump because their high weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or catapult assistance.
Future aircraft carriersEdit
Several nations which currently possess aircraft carriers are in the process of planning new classes to replace current ones. The world's navies still generally see the aircraft carrier as the main future capital ship, with developments such as the arsenal ship, which have been promoted as an alternative, seen as too limited in terms of flexibility.
Military experts such as John Keegan[22] have noted that in any future naval conflict between reasonably evenly matched powers, all surface ships—including aircraft carriers—would be at extreme and disproportionate risk, mainly due to the advanced capabilities of satellite reconnaissance and anti-ship missiles. Contrary to the thrust of most current naval spending, Keegan therefore postulates that eventually most navies will move to submarines as their main fighting ships, including in roles where submarines play only a minor or no role at the moment.
- Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy
In June 2005, reports from boxun.com that the People's Republic of China would build a US$362 million aircraft carrier with a displacement of 78,000 tonnes were denied by Chinese defence official Zhang Guangqin.[23] China is reportedly planning to build a aircraft carrier based on the Varyag in the Jiangnan Shipyard by 2010.[24] However, other sources [25] suggest a 93,000-ton vessel construction to be completed by 2020. China bought the unfinished Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag in 2001 from Ukraine, supposedly to turn it into a floating casino. Pictures taken while in port suggest this plan has been abandoned and show that work is being carried out to maintain its military function. There is no conclusive evidence as to what role it would play in the Chinese Navy.
- French Navy
The French Navy had set in motion plans for a second CTOL aircraft carrier, to supplement Charles de Gaulle. The design was to be much larger, in the range of 65-74,000 tonnes, and would not have been nuclear-powered like Charles de Gaulle. There were plans to buy the third carrier of the current Royal Navy design for CATOBAR operations. (The Thales/BAE Systems design for the Royal Navy is for a STOVL carrier which is reconfigurable to CATOBAR operations.) On 21 June 2008, French President Nicholas Sarkozy decided to pull out of the Franco–British project. Sarkozy stated that a final decision on the future of French participation in the project would be taken in 2011 or 2012. British plans for two aircraft carriers go ahead as planned despite the French withdrawal.[26]
- Indian Navy
India started the construction of a 37,500 tonne, 252 m-long Vikrant-class aircraft carrier in April 2005. The new carrier will cost US$762 million and will operate MiG 29K 'Fulcrum', Naval HAL Tejas and Sea Harrier aircraft along with the Indian-made helicopter HAL Dhruv. The ship will be powered by four turbine engines and will have a range of 7,500 nautical miles (14,000 km), carrying 160 officers, 1,400 sailors, and 30 aircraft. The carrier is being constructed by a state-run shipyard in Cochin.
In 2004, India bought the Admiral Gorshkov from Russia for US$1.5 billion. It is most likely to be named INS Vikramaditya, and was expected to join the Indian Navy in 2008 after a refit.[27] However, delays in the refit were announced in July 2007. Eduard Borisov, an acting director of the Sevmash plant responsible for the refit, stated that production capabilities of the plant were overestimated for the current funding level, and the refit will not be completed until 2011[28] with a total cost of $4.5 billion.Template:Fact Vladimir Pastuhov, Sevmash director, had to step down, along with two other top managers of large defence contractors, in the largest scandal in the Russian defence industry in recent years.[29]
- Italian Navy
The construction of the conventionally powered Marina Militare STOVL aircraft carrier Cavour began in 2001. The ship is being built by Fincantieri of Italy. After much delay, Cavour is expected to enter service in 2009 to complement the Marina Militare aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi.
- Royal Navy (United Kingdom)
The Royal Navy has signed a deal to build two new larger STOVL aircraft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth class, to replace the three Invincible-class carriers. These two ships are to be named Template:HMS and Template:HMS.[30][31] They will be able to operate up to 48 aircraft and will have a displacement of around 65,000 tonnes. The two ships are due to enter service in 2014 and 2016 respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35B Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 1000. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy. Initially to be configured for STOVL operations, the carriers are to be adaptable to STOBAR or CATOBAR configurations to allow any type of future generation of aircraft to operate from them.
- Russian Navy
Russian Navy Commander-in-Chief Admiral Vladimir Masorin officially stated on June 23, 2007 that the Navy was considering the specifications of a new nuclear aircraft carrier design[32][33] for the class that was first announced about a month earlier. Production of the carriers is expected to start around 2010 at the Zvezdochka plant in Severodvinsk, where a large drydock, capable of launching vessels with more than 100,000 ton displacement, is now being built.[34] In his statement, Admiral Masorin said that the general dimensions of the project have already been determined. The projected carrier is to have nuclear propulsion, to displace about 50,000 tons and to carry an air wing of 30–50 air superiority aircraft and helicopters, which makes her roughly comparable with the French Charles de Gaulle. "The giants that the US Navy builds, those that carry 100-130 aircraft, we won't build anything like that", said Admiral Masorin.[33] The planned specifications reflect the role, traditional in the Russian Navy, of the aircraft carrier as an air support platform for guided missile cruisers and submarines.
The Russian naval establishment had long agreed, since the decommissioning of the Kiev-class carriers, that the only operational carrier, Admiral Kuznetsov, was insufficient, and that three or four carriers were necessary to meet the Navy's air support requirements.Template:Fact However, financial and organisational turmoil in the 1990s made even the maintenance of Admiral Kuznetsov a difficult undertaking. The improvement in Russia's economic situation after the year 2000 has allowed a major increase in defence spending. Admiral Vladimir Vysotsky announced on Navy Day 2008 that Russia plans to build 5 or 6 carriers of the new design for deployment in the Northern and Pacific fleets, starting around 2012-2013.[35] The new carrier groups are planned to be at full strength around 2050–2060.[36]
- Spanish Navy
The project for the 231 meter-long, 27,000–30,000-tonne Juan Carlos I for the Spanish Navy was approved in 2003, and its construction started in August 2005, with the shipbuilding firm Navantia in charge of the project. The Juan Carlos I is a vessel designed to operate both as amphibious assault ship and as VSTOL aircraft carrier, depending on the mission assigned. The design was made keeping in mind the low-intensity conflicts in which the Spanish Navy is likely to be involved in the future. When it is configured to operate as VSTOL aircraft carrier, the operating range will be about 27,000 tonnes, and it will operate a maximum of 30 AV-8B+ Matadors, F-35 or a mixed force of both aircraft. The ship is provided with a ski-jump and a three-dimensional radar-based combat system, and will be the second operating aircraft carrier of the Spanish Navy after Príncipe de Asturias. Australia is also purchasing two of these vessels, the Canberra-class large amphibious ships, for the Royal Australian Navy. At this time the unfinished Australian ships are not planned to operate VTOL aircraft, however against the apparent wishes of the Royal Australian Navy.[37]
- US Navy
The current U.S. fleet of Nimitz-class carriers are to be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the Gerald R. Ford class. It is expected that the ships will be larger than the Template:USS, and will also be designed to be less detectable by radar. The United States Navy is also looking to make these new carriers more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to maintain and operate its supercarriers.
With the decommissioning of the Template:USS in March 2007, the U.S. fleet has been reduced to 11 supercarriers; thus creating major discussions between the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Congress. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on July 24, 2007 recommended seven or maybe eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate is deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the Gerald Ford-class carrier (estimated service 2015) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000-ton class big-deck amphibious assault ships for squadrons of the new F-35Bs.[38]
See alsoEdit
Other aircraft carriersEdit
- ASW carrier
- Escort carrier
- Helicopter carrier
- Light aircraft carrier
- Supercarrier
- Amphibious assault ship
- Seaplane tender
- Balloon carrier
- Airborne aircraft carrier
- Submarine aircraft carrier
- Land mobile aircraft carrier
Related listsEdit
- List of aircraft carriers
- List of amphibious warfare ships
- Francillon, René J, Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, (1988) ISBN 0-87021-696-1
- Nordeen, Lon, Air Warfare in the Missile Age, (1985) ISBN 1-58834-083-X
- Ader, Clement, "Military Aviation", 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base Alabama, 2003, ISBN 1-58566-118-X
- Friedman, Norman, U. S. Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History, Naval Institute Press, 1983 - ISBN 0870217399 (Contains numerous detailed ship plans)
- Template:Cite book
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text:
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text:
#Wikipedia in "our" language is what people are working towards in the incubator. There are many challenges that need to be taken before this dream is fulfilled. Messages need to be localised, articles need to be written and finally the text has to be proven to be in "my" language. Several challenges that take time and effort, all for the big moment when one more Wikipedia is created.
They are challenges but they are dwarfed by the challenges facing the people working towards a Wikipedia in American Sign Language. First of all, their effort cannot be part of the incubator. Their incubator project is in a Wikimedia Labs environment. An environment with experimental software that allows them to write their own language.
The SignWriting script is written from top to bottom as you can see in the screenshot. This is not supported by MediaWiki. The SignWriting script is not yet part of Unicode. MediaWiki only supports scripts that are encoded in Unicode.
Consider what it does to localising the software at translatewiki.net. Below you find what Wednesday looks like for Adam, who is working on the localisation of the most used messages. It must be copying data from one environment to the next, not even knowing what the effect will be when it finally shows in the labs environment.
If anything I know how much hard work goes into new projects. The effort for the Wikipedia in American Sign Language is probably the most complicated of them all.


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text:
About Rob Taylor
I would like to invite you to join me on our new Global music based website called NuMuBu = Nu Music Business this is a free service that is run as a way of uniting all aspects of the music industry, by bringing it all under one umbrella.
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A Quote from Elliott Randall (Steely Dan )
NuMuBu exists to support artists and their music through patronage, sponsorship, sharing and assistance. Our site aims to provide all of the tools necessary to enable musicians to establish a relationship with those who love music in an effective, lucrative and enjoyable way.


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To qualify as a candidate for election to a local authority a person must satisfy the criteria on the day they are nominated and on polling day they:
The candidate must also meet at least one of the following four qualifications on the day they are nominated and on polling day:
Please note: The qualification to be a registered elector is an ongoing qualification that must be satisfied (unless duly qualified under another criterion stated above) for the duration of councillorship should a candidate be successful in their candidature. It is therefore important to mark all of the qualifications that the candidate satisfies when completing the nomination paper.
No, you do not need any specific qualifications to become a Councillor. Experience of life is probably the best thing you can bring to the role.
No, although the majority of people become Councillors as a result of joining a Political Party. However, some people do stand for election as Independents (candidates who do not belong to any Political Party and the inscription "Independent" is shown on the ballot paper).
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Single-track service starts Monday on Metro Rail downtown
Single-track service will begin Monday on Metro Rail's surface section and continue for about two months as part of the continuing project to return vehicle traffic to Main Street, according to the Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority.
NFTA spokesman C. Douglas Hartmayer said installation of new track and prefabricated concrete panels near Shea's Performing Arts Center requires the service changes.
As a result of the single-track system, passengers must transfer from one train to another at the Church Street Station to continue their trip.
Hartmayer also said trains will operate on 20-minute intervals during the project.
The NFTA will provide special weekday shuttle bus service as an option between downtown and the University Station via Main Street from 6:30 to 9 a.m. and from 3 to 6 p.m. during the project. As a result, service will be provided every 10 minutes via bus or train.
Maps of the area, as well as bus and train timetables, are available at nfta.com. Metro personnel will also be initially available at all stations to provide assistance.
Passengers using mobility devices, Hartmayer said, should be aware of special boarding procedures because of platform restrictions:
• Inbound passengers from all underground stations must board the last car of the train if they plan to exit at a surface station. Inbound passengers from Church or Seneca Street must board the first car.
• Outbound passengers from Erie Canal Harbor or Seneca Street must board the last car. Outbound passengers boarding at Church Street, Lafayette Square or Fountain Plaza must board the first car.
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- Datasheet (英语)
- STARBRITE® Reveal (英语)
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Cost of Medical School11 05 2015
Many people dream of becoming a doctor, but only a small percentage actually move down this path.
Those who are interested in this profession must answer a variety of questions, including but not limited to:
- What type of doctor do I want to be?
- How long will it take me to complete school?
- What is the process of applying to medical school?
- What is the average cost of attending medical school?
- How long does it take, on average, for a doctor to pay back school loans?
- What is the average doctor salary and career earnings?
While some people know the answers to each and every question, others are unsure of what the future holds and how they will be impacted if they continue to move forward with this career path.
For the sake of this article, we are going to focus on the financial side of becoming a doctor. This includes everything from the cost of medical school to how to secure financing for tuition to average salaries and career earnings.
Your Time in School and Training
To become a physician in the United States, you are required to complete many educational requirements.
As you get started, you must receive a four year degree from a college or university, typically in the area of science.
From there, you will move onto medical school. Known as an undergraduate medical education, this entails four years of education at an institution accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME). Upon completion, a student will earn a doctor of medicine degree.
Once medical school is complete, you will complete a residency program that lasts between three and seven years. From there, a fellowship is completed. This additional training is not required, but is for doctors who want to become highly specialized in a particular field.
As this is a lot of schooling, the cost of obtaining a medicine degree can quickly add up.
What is the Cost of Medical School?
Just the same as an undergraduate education, the cost of medical school differs from one institution to the next.
The Association of American Medical Colleges tracks the average cost of medical school, noting that during the 2013-14 school year, the annual tuition and fees at public medical schools averaged:
- $31,783 for state residents
- $55,294 for non-residents
Students who attend a private medical school find tuition and fees much higher, reaching:
- $52,093 for state residents
- $50,476 for non-residents
Use these approximate numbers, the average cost of medical school, over a four-year period, ranges from $127,132 on the low end to $221,176 on the high end.
How to Afford Medical School
Even though the cost of medical school can be high, loans, grants, and scholarships are available. Some are merit based, while others are need based.
Most medical students borrow some money to finance their education. The Association of American Medical Colleges noted that the "median debt for graduating students was $175,000.
There are many types of federal loans to consider, including the Stafford loan, Perkins loan, and PLUS loan.
Scholarships and grants are also available, both from the government as well as the individual institution. Any free money you receive will reduce the amount of debt you take on.
Average Salary
There is no denying the fact that medical school is expensive. As noted above, most students leave school with nearly $200,000 in debt.
Here is the good thing: doctors have a high earning potential, meaning that loans can be paid back sooner rather than later. From there, once the debt is gone, it is easy to realize that all of the schooling was worthwhile.
The Association of American Medical Colleges notes that the average salary for a family medicine doctor in 2013 was $161,000.
Forbes outlined the best and worst paying jobs for doctors, with orthopedic surgeons at the top of the list, thanks to an average salary of $519,000.
Final Word
The cost of medical school is extremely high. Furthermore, it takes many years for a student to complete the necessary education to become a doctor.
When everything is said and done, doctors are among the highest paid professionals. For many, this is enough to cancel out the cost of their education.
Article provided by:
Mr Sasha Boyd
Outreach Director
Abcbizloans.com [on-line] Seminole, FL (USA): abcbizloans.com, 11 de mayo de 2015 Dispoñible en Internet:http://www.abcbizloans.com/medical-financing/cost-of-medical-school/
Categories : Artículos de colaboradores de DOCTOPOLIS, Artículos de Innovación y Salud de la prensa


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I've been here little more than two weeks, and I hope always, whenever I'm involved in a new community to contribute in the best ways I can. I create this post with full knowledge that it may be a little bit too forward, but seeing the ausphreak community die several times and also witnessing it at it's best, I really hope that in some way I can experience and assimilate some of my knowledge of the best of ausphreak and all communities I've been engaged in. I really want to discuss some of my thoughts with someone, and unlike the previous ausphreak communities this one doesn't seem to burgeon content, challenge or population, unlike the old ones did.
I could expand a lot further, but I'm hoping that I can just leave this short note of IRC this morning to reflect on.
In no way am I being schadenfreude and I am sure this will be perceived with vindication from someone but I will likely not continue here really, if there isn't something livelier to continue with, instead of that, though, I want to spend the next months watching Ausphreak develop, contributing in any way I can, with ideas, or content, or help, or hosting, or finance.
What made the previous ausphreak communities so lively was that it was a collaboration, I could even say that it helped that there was some sense of criticism about who and what was engaged with the group and not all of the people who joined could particularly come so closely, people who contributed were praised, people with ideas were praised, people who were accustomed were praised little less, people who were new could be nurtured as long as they had a willingness to learn and didn't interfere with the sites function, people who were members would speak about new and interesting topics. It was a place to learn and to collaborate, the chatter was primary in the sense of community and secondary in the sense of content ( though it did change over the years as recruits died, and eventually ostracised newcomers, because everyone had become more advanced really, and there was no room for newcomers ).
None the less, of course I will continue to help out with any issues that really set back the community. I'm amazed that some of the old school crew have hosted their servers for seven or eight years, some even longer. Anyone who has anything to upload to phreakfiles, I'm managing phreakfiles.net and I'll be uploading some little miscellania to make it slightly more interesting. I'll continue to host it and provide access to the community as long as this ausphreak is around.
Read this, ausphreakers
Talk about everything NOT related to Phreaking or the bellow categories
Post Reply
4 posts • Page 1 of 1
- landau
- Big Maggot
- Posts: 51
- Joined: Thu Oct 03, 2013 8:02 pm
- Posts: 1
- Joined: Fri Nov 08, 2013 11:32 am
Re: Read this, ausphreakers
- Timon
- Moderator
- Posts: 513
- Joined: Mon Nov 26, 2012 10:30 pm
- Contact:
Re: Read this, ausphreakers
We are always welcome to take money from anyone willing to offer it, thanks heaps!
- Freak
- Donater
- Posts: 328
- Joined: Sat Nov 24, 2012 9:09 pm
Re: Read this, ausphreakers
put up a donation button timon
Post Reply
4 posts • Page 1 of 1


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Hi There
I am Sydney Daniel, a 24 years old, junior exploration geologist now working in Rustenburg. I'm new in town and don't know where to go climbing? I've been to Tonquane but hoped there would be a cragg or gym closer to town. If there are any climbers that want to join me for bouldering and training during the week and the odd weekend excursion please let me know.
Kind Regards...
Climbing sites and partners in Rustenburg?
Find someone to climb with... anywhere
Post Reply
3 posts • Page 1 of 1
- Posts: 163
- Joined: Tue Mar 21, 2006 6:53 pm
- Real Name: Danny Pinkas
Post Reply
3 posts • Page 1 of 1


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Home of Jeanette Lunde of Fryd + Design
Jeannette is a graphic designer and blogger. We immediately fell in lover with her home. It feels so open and inviting. The natural light looks gorgeous. We also adore her style. This is another great example of white walls really working. Check out our previous post from a few months ago for more inspiration. The splashes of color come from the furniture, art, and decorations. More pictures after the jump...
It is an old house that used be part of a large farm. Jeanette and her husband have been renovating it over the past five years. Her collection of art and variety of objects add a lot of personality. Many of the pieces in her home she received from her grandparents. We adore the more unusual color and pattern combinations as well. Fun flower patterns on the yellow and bright green pillows and aqua blanket decorate a sleeping/lounge area in a children's room. A variety of fragrant hyacinths beautifully dress the dining table for a dinner party. We also love the wire chandelier over the table. It is so simple and glamourous at the same time.
Check out more photos on Visual Notes. The post also includes a short interview with Jeanette.
Be sure to visit Fryd + Design for more inspiration.
Images: Visual Notes


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U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission
Trial in EEOC Suit Will Go Forward on Nov. 16 After Company's Second Failed Attempt to Have Case Thrown Out of Court
DENVER – In a legal victory for the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Bellco Credit Union, for the second time in two years, lost a court motion to dismiss the EEOC's lawsuit charging the company with firing a 61-year-old teller because of her age, the federal agency announced today.
Bellco tried to have the EEOC's lawsuit dismissed last year, however, in April 2008, U.S. District Court Judge Zita L. Weinshienk denied Bellco's motion and cleared the way for a jury trial set to begin on November 16, 2009. In August 2009, after the case had been reassigned to a different judge, Bellco tried again to have the suit thrown out, arguing that the U.S. Supreme Court's June 2009 decision in Gross v. FBL Financial Services, Inc., raised the evidentiary burden on plaintiffs in age discrimination cases. However, on October 5, U.S. District Court Judge Thomas J. McAvoy denied Bellco's renewed motion to dismiss the case, ruling that the U.S. Supreme Court's opinion in Gross "did not establish a heightened evidentiary burden."
According to the EEOC's lawsuit, EEOC v. Bellco Credit Union, 06-cv-01883 TJM-MEH, Frances Cruz was employed by Bellco as a teller for seven years, from 1996 until 2003. Cruz was fired in October 2003, allegedly based on performance deficiencies over the prior two-year period, during which time she was given Bellco's prestigious President's Club Award, and received two evaluations rating her performance as "Exceeds Standards." Additionally, Cruz received a raise just two months before her termination in October 2003, when she was 61.
The EEOC asserts that Cruz was treated less favorably than younger workers, and that a year earlier, Bellco management told former managers to get rid of Cruz and other older employees. Finally, the EEOC charged, Cruz was terminated because of her age in violation of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA).
The ADEA prohibits employment discrimination based upon age, and protects employees who are 40 years of age and older. If the EEOC prevails at trial, Bellco could be liable to Cruz for wages she would have earned since October 2003 had she not been fired because of her age, as well as an additional amount equal to her back pay (called liquidated damages).
"The EEOC is very pleased with Judge McAvoy's decision and we look forward to giving Ms. Cruz her day in court," said Regional Attorney Mary Jo O'Neill of the EEOC's Phoenix District, whose jurisdiction includes Colorado. "The EEOC has seen an increase in charges of discrimination, including age discrimination, and employers are on notice that employees are not expendable merely because they happen to be older, even in these challenging economic times."
EEOC Trial Attorney Andrew Winston added, "We have confidence in our facts and in our case, and we look forward to getting in front of the jury and laying out for them what kind of employee Ms. Cruz really was and all of the circumstances leading to her termination."
The EEOC is responsible for enforcing federal laws prohibiting employment discrimination. Further information about the EEOC is available on its web site at www.eeoc.gov.


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Spyder Auto ® - Chrome LED Tail Lights (5070180)
- Description
Spyder Auto Chrome LED Tail Lights (5070180), These tail lights greatly enhance the look of your vehicle. Want to have a show car look? Or just something that satisfy your personal taste? Look no further than our high quality tail lights. Our tail lights are made in high quality materials to ensure appearance, durability and fitment.
- Parking Light: LED Type
- Stop/Brake Light: LED Type
- Signal Light: LED Type Bulb
- Backup Light: 3156 Type Bulb, Not Included
- LEDs Type: 26 Philips LEDs, 2.0lm per LED, 336.000 hrs Life Span
- Lens Material: AC - Acrylic
- Back Housing Material: PC - Polycarbonate
- Operating Temperature : -40°C~+80°C
- Voltage Protection - Over & Under : 12.8V
- Sold in pairs
- Package Weight : 7.4 pounds
- Package Size : 16 x 14 x 9 Inches
- 1 Year manufacturer warranty.
Spyder Auto is the leading provider of aftermarket lighting and specialize in distribution of automotive products, tuning and styling auto parts in the U.S. Spyder Auto stands by their products to ensure excellent quality control for all its products. The quality lighting products offered by Spyder Auto are compliant with all applicable federal regulations. Unless otherwise noted, all products meet DOT regulations and compliant with FMVSS 108, also they are approved by SAE and meet ISO 9000, 9002 quality standards.
- Additional Information
Additional Information
Item Availability Discontinued Fits on 2007 - 2008 - 2009 - 2010 Jeep Grand Cherokee Models Color Chrome Warranty 1 Year Warranty
- Fitment
Fits on: 2007 - 2008 - 2009 - 2010 Jeep Grand Cherokee Models
- Reviews
User Reviews (0)
Add review


text:
I had a microphone set up and started making some popping effects with my mouth and decided to record them. They could be really useful for button clicks, notifications and other multimedia uses.
There are 6 different pops all under 1 second in length and all are given in both high quality wav as well as mp3 files.
Click Here to check out my portfolio for even more top quality music, fx, and logo tracks!


text:
Cheap Jeep, Part 4Posted in Project Vehicles on October 5, 2005
After being teased around the campfire and a having a restless sleep in the back of a Toyota Land Cruiser, I had to consult with the 4Wheel and Off-Road staff. "What do I do?" "Am I going to get a big fat ticket for abandoning my Jeep?" "Will the Feds bring in a helicopter and send me a huge bill?" Those were a few of the (stupid?) questions I had for the seasoned editors.
Rick Pw suggested calling the Forest Service to let them know I was leaving the truck, and freed-up Fred Williams and David Kennedy for a rescue operation during the week. After David gave me a list of parts that may be needed to fix the power steering and necessities such as tow straps, two cases of trans fluid and fire extinguishers, I left the Cheap Truck Challenge camp. When I got home, I placed a call to the Forest Service and was assured the truck would not be removed, (the lady laughed at me, but was very nice about the situation), and was warned that vandalism was a possibility.
I tried not to think about finding a stripped or burned Grand Wagoneer in the woods and started shopping for parts. The major chain stores did not have the pressure line for the power steering, but Tampa Auto Parts in Reseda, California, had one in stock, plus they only charged a few bucks for a transmission mount (the chains wanted more than 20 dollars!). Once I had all the parts on David's list, I felt better about using (wasting?) the time of two editors with deadlines to meet. Over a truck stop breakfast on Tuesday, the guys kept assuring me that it was not a big deal and said it would be fun - that "other kind of fun" that Pw told me about back at camp.
After loading the Ultimate Adventure K10 and Fred's Army Truck, we headed to the end of the Miller Jeep Trail and started climbing the hill toward my FSJ, which was about two miles from the exit. I rode with David in the big yellow pickup and he suggested making mental notes about obstacles that I would have to face on the way out. Everything looked treacherous to me, but the UA truck lugged trough the trail like it was going over parking lot speed bumps. Fred had no problem keeping up in his green diesel pickup.
It only took about an hour to find Stinky parked where it had been "abandoned" three days earlier. Fortunately, the recent thunderstorms had not soaked the interior of the truck, since the passenger window stuck in the down position and the back glass was resting in the second row of seats. Also, there were no signs anyone had messed with the vehicle. Maybe it was because there was no temptation since it's a beater, but I prefer to think the folks on Miller Jeep Trail are just good people who pointed and laughed as they drove by.
Once the truck had been started and shut off, (to make sure it still worked), Fred leapt into action, threw down a tarp, got under the truck and was covered with grease in less than 60 seconds. He was soon joined by David, and I tried to help by handing tools to the guys like an assistant in a M.A.S.H. unit. Good news - Fred couldn't find anything wrong with the patient's steering and it kept the fluids down, so those parts can go back to the store. The prognosis was not so great for the transmission. It looks like the homemade shim was used to "solve" a problem with the seal was not holding the transmission oil like it did before the Cheap Truck Challenge - which means the trans will need to be removed for repairs.
When he got done laughing at the bailing wire holding the sheet metal to the tranny, Fred determined that the transmission mount looked fine, but the driver side engine mount was shot. That could explain why it was difficult to shift when the truck was off-camber. With the engine not secure, there was more movement in the drivetrain than should be allowed. (Maybe I can swap the power steering pump for some new mounts and fix one of the Jeep's ailments). Unable to find anything else wrong, Fred and David got out from under the truck and we added trans fluid to the power steering reservoir.
I started the jeep and the tires came to life with power assist - and it didn't seem to lose fluid when I cranked the wheel back and forth. With the engine running, the guys checked the transmission oil and there was none on the stick, so David added four quarts (which did not immediately get dumped onto the trail). Since the Jeep's hood can only be opened by poking a screwdriver, (or the included hacksaw dummy blade), in a gap above the grille, we worried about a game-breaking engine fire. Fred was more than happy to remove the hood and strap it to the roof rack.
After attaching chains and tow straps from the FSJ to the Ultimate Adventure truck, David warned me that Rule Number One was "Do NOT hit the yellow truck." I agreed, and we started the extraction. I tried to keep the straps taught while he led me down the tight switchbacks at the end of the trail. Using walkie-talkies to keep in communication, David gave me tips and plenty of encouragement as Fred trailed us out of the woods. Good thing the Army Truck was in the caravan, because I broke the unwritten Towing Rule Numero Uno, (unwritten because it is a given). I ran over the tow strap.
I had allowed too much slack while making a turn, and thought the chains had just shifted on the bumper when I radioed David that something did not look right. We stopped and when he removed the strap, my brake pedal went to the floor and I almost hit the yellow truck. Dang! Fred attached his winch and we were able to survey the damage. David said we needed a setback because things were going too easy, but I felt like a real sucker because I was scared the rescue would be infinitely harder since I was convinced the brakes would be gone.
Fred got under the truck and sacrificed a small pair of vice grips to clamp the rubber brake line, and secured the tool with zip ties. I was really worried about the brakes, and I'm sure the guys could tell. The idea of being unhooked from the other trucks for the rest of the trail was making me act like a real wuss. Fred said I should aim for a tree that would stop the truck if the brakes gave out. Oh boy.
Fortunately, that did not happen, and I did not hit the yellow truck, and I was even able to use the engine and possibly damaged tranny to power the Jeep up the few inclines left in the trail. It was a great relief to see a farm house that meant there was only about 50 yards left in the ride. I was able to avoid a large rock that is known for causing body damage and even made a final water crossing to get off the trail. What a relief it was to be closer to civilization.
We reinstalled the hood and the guys aired up their tires before we hit the road to find a place for the Jeep to sit until my 100 mile AAA towing kicked-in. I was surprised how mobile the FSJ was. It was able to drive (loudly) on a country road and easily made it to a large parking lot where I hoped it would go unnoticed for a few days. It dumped the transmission fluid while it sat around, but was able to drive and get in position so Shawn of Interstate Towing could put it on a flatbed. He followed me back to Los Angeles and after I parked it on the street outside my home, he wished me the best of luck with the future repairs/build-up of my "new" Cheap Jeep.


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Yellow Striped Paper Sweet Bags
High Quality Kraft paper bags made from 36gsm paper.
These are the traditional sweet shop paper bag. Great for parties and candy buffets as well as use in sweet and gift shops.
Size: 13cm x 18cm (5"x7")
Bags are strung in a bundle of 100 bags.


text:
HONOLULU: Authorities say a police officer shot a 17-year-old runaway in the wrist at a Hawaii high school after the teen cut one officer with a knife and punched two others.
State Department of education spokeswoman Donalyn Dela Cruz says Roosevelt High School officials recognized the boy as a runaway and called police after he showed up at the school Tuesday morning.
Maj. Richard Robinson, commander of the Criminal Investigations Department for Honolulu police, says the boy lunged at officers who arrived and tried to take him into custody.
Robinson says the teen attacked one of the officers with a knife, leaving his torso with a minor cut.
One of the officers then fired two shots, hitting the boy once in the wrist. He was hospitalized with non-life-threatening injuries.
The public high school near downtown Honolulu was placed on locked, but students have since been released. (AP)


text:
Panic! At The Disco Invite Halsey On Stage For "I Write Sins Not Tragedies" Performance
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