text:
This article and the news report of Robert Laxalt's death that follows, has been included into the Etxeto Genealogy pages because the Etxeto family has many stories about immigrating from the Old World into unknown lands. Reading "Sweet Promised Land" and other books will give the reader an idea of the hardships that these early pioneers faced, and how it has changed them compared to those who live in France and Spain.
"… they had forsaken home and family, and gone into the unknown of a new land with only courage and the hands that God gave them, and had given us in our turn the right to be born American." — Sweet Promised Land
"The truth is that the story works as a classic tale of immigration, where the immigrant's experience is portrayed by Laxalt as a process divided into three basic stages: the immigrant's decision to abandon his homeland, his fight for acceptance in the new country and his impossible return to his native land once the assimilation process is over. Throughout these different stages Laxalt shows his deeply felt concern with the modern individual's need for meaning, for a sense of place and identity."
"Although Sweet Promised Land emphasizes primarily the challenges that immigrants must face in America and their often fruitless attempts to recapture the past, it also explores the main reasons that lie behind their decision to seek their future in America. Thus, immigration is presented as the only way to escape from poverty for many European youths, symbolized by Dominique. He, as most immigrants, regretted leaving his native land, but he was well aware that he had to find an opportunity in life somewhere else."
by David Río Raigadas Universidad del País Vasco
David Río Raigadas, Universidad del País Vasco
This article was originally presented by the author as a paper at the II International Conference on Regional Literatures (Space and Place: The Geographies of Literature), Liverpool John Moores University, April 11-13, 1996.
Sweet Promised Land (1957)(1), the first and possibly best-known of Robert Laxalt's books, appears to be a personal and rather simple story about the journey of the author's father, Dominique, to his Basque homeland after forty-seven years as an immigrant sheepherder in the American West. In fact, the book has been often described as an intimate biography or as an affectionate memoir of a son to his father. Even Laxalt himself has emphasized to me the personal quality of this story:
"I couldn't write it as a novel because something was missing. I thought that the poignancy of this trip moved me very much. It was a story of discovery for me, too. [..] It was a book written from the heart."(2)
The intimate approach taken by Laxalt to portray his father's life pervades the whole book and contributes to its success. Readers feel attracted by Laxalt's personal and direct statements on his father and the fact that it is the true story of a man viewed through the eyes of his son, though some incidents in the book may have been a little fictionalized. Laxalt himself felt that the work meant an invasion of his family's privacy and was particularly apprehensive of his father's reaction toward it:
"When I told him about it, I thought I was running a risk of getting shot, but he accepted it well and even a little detachedly."(3)
However, Sweet Promised Land must be read as the story not only of Dominique Laxalt, but of many Basque immigrants in the American West. The book goes beyond its personal level to embody the experience of Basque immigrants in the United States and even becomes a metaphor for American immigration in general.
Laxalt wrote this story about his Basque father at a time in which Basques were neither well-known nor popular in America. As William A. Douglass has pointed out,
"…the Basque-Americans were few in number, scattered lightly over the vastness of the American West and […] their ethnic success as sheepherders par excellence identified them closely with the region's most denigrated occupation." (1986:xiii)
Set against this particular background, Sweet Promised Land constituted a vindication of the role of the immigrant Basque sheepherder in America, represented by the figure of Dominique Laxalt and his capacity to endure hardship in the New World. Basques in America identified themselves with Dominique's story and felt encouraged to show their ethnic pride. At the same time, the wider public in the United States discovered Basques, "they discovered this romantic sheepherder thing," in Douglass' words.(4)
Although the book deals mainly with the way of life of Basque sheepmen in the American West, their experiences can be regarded as a symbol of the struggle of American immigrants in general. In fact, Laxalt himself agrees with this point and he even, in all modesty, refers to his lack of a deep knowledge about the Basques to support this idea:
"Sweet Promised Land became an immigrant book, not particularly a Basque book, because I didn't know so much about the Basques."(5)
The truth is that the story works as a classic tale of immigration, where the immigrant's experience is portrayed by Laxalt as a process divided into three basic stages: the immigrant's decision to abandon his homeland, his fight for acceptance in the new country and his impossible return to his native land once the assimilation process is over. Throughout these different stages Laxalt shows his deeply felt concern with the modern individual's need for meaning, for a sense of place and identity.
Although Sweet Promised Land emphasizes primarily the challenges that immigrants must face in America and their often fruitless attempts to recapture the past, it also explores the main reasons that lie behind their decision to seek their future in America. Thus, immigration is presented as the only way to escape from poverty for many European youths, symbolized by Dominique. He, as most immigrants, regretted leaving his native land, but he was well aware that he had to find an opportunity in life somewhere else:
"What chance was there if I stayed? There was no money for anything. I wanted stock and the land to move in, […] and we didn't even own the property where we lived." (1986: 35)
At first, the journey to America was viewed by people like Dominique just as a temporary experience, as a way to earn enough money to return home. However, most of these immigrants soon realized that their way to success was in America, a raw new land that could provide them with a chance in life if they were ready to suffer and work hard. Thus, America represents for Dominique and many other immigrants the land of opportunity, the place to make their fortune. Nevertheless, Sweet Promised Land also describes the decline of America as a land of opportunity since the mid-century, particularly for new groups of immigrants like the Puerto Ricans, who are shown leaving for Brazil in search of another America.
Although Laxalt stresses the importance of the economic reasons in the immigrant's decision to abandon his native land, he also refers in the book to the lack of freedom of these people in the Old World. Thus, for instance, one of the characters in Sweet Promised Land, Michel, escapes from France in order not to be imprisoned after running away from the seminary where he was to be ordained. Besides, there are other references to the restrictions imposed by the French authorities on one of the main symbols of the Basque culture: the Basque language. This meant, as Dominique says, "to be made to feel that it was a crime to be born a Basque." (1986:76). Being unable to display their ethnic identity in their own land, these people feel constricted in the Old World and they set their heart on America, which symbolizes for them not only the land of opportunity, but also of freedom.
The integration experience of the immigrant in American society is described by Laxalt as a gradual process in which the immigrant's desire for acceptance and his reluctance to lose his ethnic identity often act as opposing forces. He particularly focuses his attention on the challenges that the newcomer must face during his first years in America. Thus, he gives in his book a detailed description of the hardships endured by his father when he first arrived in Nevada. Although Dominique's struggle for integration presents some specific characteristics related to his condition of Basque sheepherder, the tests he must undergo during this process illustrate the hard lessons the ordinary immigrant usually has to learn in the new land. One of the first challenges that the immigrant must face in America is the adaptation to a new setting, often completely different from that of the Old World. Laxalt particularly emphasizes the deep impact that the Nevada desert produces on Basque sheepherders like Dominique, who longs for his green land:
"You would have to see the beauty of the Basque country before you knew what I meant, but I remember going out into that cruel desert when I first came, and nights when I cried to sleep in my tent." (1986: 50)
Thus, on their way to integration, these immigrants will inevitably have to adjust themselves to a harsh landscape, with a devastating climate, and gradually they will have to overcome their nostalgia for the old country, too.
Laxalt also portrays isolation and loneliness as common trials for the immigrant. Besides, in the case of the Basque sheepherders the challenge becomes especially arduous. Their loneliness is not simply the result of their condition of newcomers, their ignorance of the language or the bad reputation of their job, as was often the case with other immigrants. The loneliness of the Basques is also produced by the utter solitude in which they find themselves as sheepherders on the open range. In the most desolate corners of the American West they long for human company, for the sound of a human voice, and the monotony of their lonely life exposes them to potentially severe mental strain. Related to this, it is worth mentioning that, even though the Basques had a special reputation among all nationalities in America for their capacity to endure solitude,(6) Laxalt includes in Sweet Promised Land a Basque sheepherder, Joanes Ergela (or Crazy John), who loses his mind from loneliness in the mountains. This example works as a symbol of the serious nature of the ordeals that the immigrants must undergo in their new country.
Another major challenge that immigrants must face is economic survival, a subject that plays an important role in Sweet Promised Land. Laxalt shows that immigrants, apart from suffering hard working conditions, as in the case of the Basques mentioned above, usually have a difficult start making their living in the New World. America may be the land of opportunity, but working hard is not enough there. The newcomer must be ready to fight competitors, even resorting to violent means. In addition, he must resist the temptation of wasting his money, even if that means staying away from town for a long period. Last but not least, his economic success often depends on a volatile market. All these features are perfectly represented in Sweet Promised Land by the struggle experienced by Dominique and Basque-American sheepherders in general. Thus, these immigrants are shown in open conflict with the cattle ranchers for the feed and the water. Besides, the book describes their obsession with saving and their difficulties in resisiting the temptation of wasting their money in town. Finally, Laxalt also introduces the livestock crisis of the 1920s as an example of the uncertain economic conditions: the sheep market began to go and immediately most of the Basques lost everything for which they had worked so hard.
Apart from the different challenges mentioned throughout this paper, immigrants must sometimes confront hostility, fun-making or contempt from the host community. In some cases this hostile atmosphere is closely related to economic reasons, as we saw in the conflict with the cattlemen described above. However, in many cases this situation is simply due to the cultural and ethnic distinctiveness of the newcomers. They do not fit into the standard patterns of the American society because they are outsiders, who speak a different language and have a different culture. And at that time in America, as Robert Laxalt remembers, "it wasn't fashionable to be ethnic."(7)
As a result, the Basques, as other groups of immigrants with special ethnic features, will experience some bullying, fun-making, and rejection. Laxalt does not wish to exaggerate the importance of these incidents and consequently he does not include any episodes of violent discrimination against the Basques in Sweet Promised Land. However, he shows how two young Basques are made fun of just because of their speech and clothes and he also refers to the shame suffered by Basque-American children when they speak Basque in public. These examples illustrate the intolerance of the American society in the first half of the twentieth century toward expressions of cultural or ethnic diversity. As William Douglass has pointed out, "persons who clung to their native language and who continued to manifest Old World lifeways were suspect." (1986:x)
So, these immigrants, in spite of their reluctance to lose their original identity, will often have to hide their ethnic heritage or to renounce it in order to become Americans.
All these hardships that immigrants must endure to achieve their integration in American society are symbolized in Sweet Promised Land by boxing, a sport whose rules Dominique and other immigrants understand perfectly well. The comparison between boxing and the immigrant experience enables Laxalt to enhance the sacrifice of these newcomers in America:
"Like the men in the ring, they too had stood alone and fought alone, with their only weapons the hands that God gave them, and the fight was everything they had ever done and seen and felt." (1986:65)
The struggle for acceptance of the immigrants also extends to their descendants, for whom boxing works as a useful model, too. As Laxalt knows from his own experience, second- generation Americans often must fight harder than the rest, just because they "were born of old- country people in a new land." (1986:66)
Although Laxalt's interest is mainly focused on the obstacles that the immigrant finds on his way to integration, he also shows how the newcomer gradually becomes familiar with the host country and its people and even identifies himself with them. This process has its origin in the immigrant's capacity to adapt himself to the new environment without questioning it:
"…afterward it wasn't suffering, because it was the way things was, and a man couldn't do anything about it, and maybe that's why he didn't spend the time thinking about it, either." (1986:50)
However, the self-identification of the newcomer with American society is accelerated by a series of elements that represent the progressive acceptance of the immigrant by the host community. As an example of this, Laxalt describes the first time that his father did not feel like a stranger in America. It was an encounter with a group of bandits, where he discovered that even the cruel people who inhabited the harsh land were capable of kindness toward a foreigner like him. This incident shows him that the new country is not only a place of disillusionment and brutality, but also of generosity and love.
In Sweet Promised Land, Laxalt also pays close attention to the last stage of the immigrant experience: the impossible return of the native. The book shows the return to the homeland as an unrealistic idea for most immigrants. Certainly, Laxalt provides the reader with the examples of two Basques (Nazario and the innkeeper) who come back to their native land after a few years in America and decide to remain in their country of birth. However, these two cases can be regarded as exceptions because most of the Basque immigrants in the story fail to return to their homeland. In addition to this, the main character, Dominique, who manages to see the Basque Country again, prefers in the end to go back to America.
Although a lot of immigrants in Sweet Promised Land talk about going home, their return is nearly always postponed and in most cases it never takes place. Two opposite reasons may be argued to account for this situation: the failure of the integration process, and its overwhelming success. Actually, the book describes a group of Basque immigrants who are unable to overcome the challenges of the new land, but have to remain in America because their return has become physically impossible. They have failed to save money or they have been defeated by adversity, age, or loneliness. As one of the characters in the story says,
"…they were lost souls, and they did not even have the good fortune to be lost in their own hell. They were foreigners when they came and they will always be foreigners." (1986:107)
As a contrast to these immigrants, Laxalt focuses his attention on the figure of his father, who symbolizes the success of the assimilation process. After forty-seven years in the New World, Dominique is so integrated in the American society that his early wishes to return to the Basque Country and settle there have vanished. We can even see how he hesitates when his family encourages him to go back to the old country for a short visit to his sisters. His nostalgic trip to the Basque Country is portrayed by his son, who accompanies him, as a shocking and ambiguous experience. In particular, Robert Laxalt emphasizes the deep impact produced on his father by his sudden return to the old country after forty-seven years of absence. Besides, the return becomes a catalyst for very opposite feelings. On the one hand, it is a moment for joy, reward and fulfillment. Dominique has the opportunity to meet his relatives again and these welcome him as a hero, as "the youth who had gone out into the world in beggar's garb and come back in shining armor." (1986:122) On the other hand, the return makes Dominique feel sad and old because he realizes that too much time has gone on and nothing can be the same again. His parents and some of his old friends are dead and, in spite of the joyous reunion with his relatives and the recall of youthful memories, he cannot avoid feeling like a stranger in his own land.
Robert Laxalt ends his tale of immigration by stressing the impossibility of returning to the past. To illustrate this point, he uses the example of his father's nostalgic trip to the Basque Country. Actually, Dominique's final decision to leave again for the United States shows that once the assimilation process is over and the old land has become only a dimming memory, the return of the native is nearly always a chimerical idea. As Dominique says at the end of Sweet Promised Land,
"I cannot go back. It ain't my country anymore. I've lived too much in America ever to go back." (1986:176)
Nevada author Robert Laxalt dead at 77
By Gaye Delaplane
Reno Gazette-Journal
Saturday March 24th, 2001
Robert Laxalt, one of Nevada's most renowned authors, died Friday in Saint Mary's Regional Medical Center in Reno at age 77.
Laxalt's books, notable for their simple, yet elegant style, won him international acclaim. Many of his writings were rich in Basque culture and sprang from his own family experiences. His writings have been read and translated in the United Kingdom, Europe and South America.
"He had a wonderful life and a peaceful end," Laxalt's son, Reno lawyer Bruce Laxalt, said. "It was a sudden death and a painless one."
Robert Laxalt headed the University of Nevada Press since its beginning in 1961 and was instrumental in starting UNR's Basque Studies Program in 1966.
He was a best-selling author for University Press for years, said Sandy Crooms, marketing director for the University Press.
"He was an outstanding writer," she said. "Anybody can pick up and read his work and be instantly drawn in."
News of Laxalt's death spread quickly.
"It's incredible," Crooms said. "I'm just amazed at how quickly word has gotten around, but he was a very well-respected man. Everybody thought the world of him and we're all saddened by the news."
Former UNR President Joe Crowley said Laxalt is commonly regarded as one of greatest literary figures in this state's history.
"Along with Walter Van Tilburg Clark, he's one of Nevada's greatest authors," he said.
Crowley lauded Laxalt's teaching skills and his generosity with students. "I hear from his students all the time," he said. "He made an indelible mark on them. Through them, he has influenced the literature of the future."
Laxalt had a wonderful way of drawing out the best in his students, said Verita Black Prothro, who took one of the writing classes he taught at UNR.
"He didn't drag it out of you, he would gently coax it," said Prothro, northern Nevada director for U.S. Sen. John Ensign.
"We had to do a writing assignment and he kept telling me, 'Verita, this isn't your voice.' He said, 'You should write from the heart. You're writing from your head.' He told me to try writing at different times of the day. He told me to write in the middle of the night or early in the morning. He told me to write while I was sipping tea or when I was having a glass of wine."
Prothro said she finally wrote a short story Laxalt loved. It is one of the stories included in "The River Underground," an anthology of Nevada fiction that will in bookstores next month.
"I can't tell you what a confidence builder it is when somebody like Bob Laxalt tells you you've written something good," Prothro said. "I always felt like I could fly after I had a conversation with him. I was hoping he would sign my book, but he signed my heart instead."
Alan Abner, a former chairman of the Nevada Gaming Control Board, worked closely with both Robert and Paul Laxalt on three of Paul's political campaigns and remained a close friend of the Laxalt family.
"He was this strange combination, part rugged Westerner and yet sensitive and introspective," Abner said. "Robert was very ill with rheumatic fever as a child and barely survived. He spent months in bed."
His love of reading began while he was ill. After his recovery, he became very competitive.
"He admired his brothers' athletic abilities and worked hard to become an excellent boxer and a tough combatant," Abner said. "And, in contrast, he could write this wonderful poetic prose."
"Along the length of Main Street, the business people of Carson City had come out to sweep the sidewalks in front of their shops and stores and little hotels. They did this when the sun had barely cleared the desert mountains to the east with a blinding burst of light, and before it had time to bake the sidewalks to a furnace heat." — The Basque Hotel
Although Laxalt grew up in Carson, his ties to the Basque country in the Pyrenees mountains between France and Spain were deep-rooted. His interest and experiences there are reflected in most of his work.
His father, Dominique Laxalt, a Basque sheepherder from Soule, France, came to Nevada in 1906. He had little education and didn't speak English. Yet of his six children, three became attorneys, one a nun, one a teacher and Robert became a world-famous author. Eldest son Paul served as Nevada's governor, later became a U.S. Senator and, as a close friend and confidante of President Ronald Reagan, one of the most influential men in the country.
"What children we were. Because we had grown up knowing politicians, we thought we knew politics. But all we had really known was the outward face of politics. We had seen the affable smile and felt the firm handclasps, but we had never seen the unguarded moment when the smile was gone and the bruising showed through, and we had not even wondered why these men grew old before their time." — The Governor's Mansion
Laxalt's mother, Therese Alpetche was born in the Basque province, Basse Navarre, and later lived in Bordeaux, France, where her family operated the Hotel Amerika. She graduated from the renowned Cordon Bleu cooking school. After her marriage, she cooked for 30 men in the sheep camps.
Later, when the family moved to Carson City in 1926, Therese Laxalt operated the French Hotel. She later purchased the old Ormsby House, demolished it and developed the property. Dominique Laxalt died in 1971, age 84; Therese Laxalt died in 1978, age 87.
"… they had forsaken home and family, and gone into the unknown of a new land with only courage and the hands that God gave them, and had given us in our turn the right to be born American."
— Sweet Promised Land
Educated at the University of Santa Clara in California and the University of Nevada, Reno, Laxalt spent a year as a Fulbright scholar studying the Basque culture in France and Spain.
During World War II, he spent two years in what was then called the Belgian Congo with the U.S. Consular Service. "A Private War" is based on his experiences there.
Laxalt began his writing career as a journalist, starting a news bureau in Carson City, and working for the Nevada State Journal. He was a correspondent for United Press International for five years, covering "gamblers, hoods and contract killers."
Laxalt left UPI in 1954 to become director of publications and news for the University of Nevada.
In 1957, he published his first book, "Sweet Promised Land," the story of his father's return to his native land after 50 years in America. With "Sweet Promised Land" and "A Man in the Wheatfield," Laxalt gained an international reputation. He also established himself as an expert on the Basque culture.
In 1961, Laxalt became director of the University of Nevada Press, which he helped found.
In August, 1966, Laxalt and his family returned from a year in the Basque country. They lived in a small village and the children attended Basque schools. Their trip, he said at the time, had two purposes: "First, my own writing, and second, to lay groundwork for a proposed Basque studies program at the University of Nevada."
He returned with material for future books; his children returned with new friends and an understanding of the Basque culture. He made arrangements for the exchange of Basque scholars and helped lay the foundation for UNR's Basque program.
In 1986, he was given the Tambor de Oro (golden drum) from the City of San Sebastian for his contributions to the Basque people and their country.
Laxalt also served as consultant in Basque culture to the Library of Congress. He was honorary consul to Nevada for the government of France. During his career, he wrote more than 20 articles for the National Geographic.
Mike O'Callaghan, executive editor of the Las Vegas Sun and a former Nevada governor, knew Laxalt for 40 years.
"I'd take my dog running in the hills outside Carson City," O'Callaghan said, "and I'd run into 'Frenchy'," a nickname even Robert's brother Paul used. "I knew his parents, and Frenchy was a lot like his mother. He had the same compassion and feeling. He never let politics get in the way of friendships."
O'Callaghan read all Laxalt's books and found them engrossing. "He had a real love for the state and he could put that into words."
When Laxalt retired from the University Press in 1983, he was designated its director emeritus. In 1988, he was named the first occupant of the Distinguished Nevada Author Chair at UNR.
After retirement, Laxalt also continued to teach UNR classes and conduct tutorials.
Fellow teachers describe Laxalt as extraordinarily good with students and always prepared for his classes. Laxalt's tutorial classes were extremely beneficial to students because they were limited in size, allowing him to spend much individual time with each student.
A member of the Nevada Writers Hall of Fame, Laxalt was a frequent contributor to the National Geographic, The Atlantic and Saturday Evening Post. He was a member of the Authors Guild of America, the Western History Association and Sigma Delta Chi Society of Professional Journalism.
In 1978, Laxalt was named a recipient of a Decade Award by the Nevada State Council on the Arts. In the same year, then-Gov. O'Callaghan cited him for exemplary service to the satate. In 1982, the Friends of the University of Nevada, Reno library, named him Distinguished Nevada Author. The Board of Regents named Laxalt a Distinguished Nevadan in 1984. In 1998, he received the University of Nevada, Reno Alumni Association's Alumnus of the Year award.
Warren Lerude, professor at the Reynolds School of Journalism and former editor and publisher of the Reno Evening Gazette and Nevada State Journal, had nominated Laxalt for a Pulitzer prize in fiction for "A Cup of Tea in Pamplona" in 1985 and for the "Basque Hotel" in 1989.
"Writers, journalists and — more important — readers have lost a great friend in the death of Bob Laxalt,. He nurtured many young writers as well as senior writers who turned to him for his kindness and expertise. His greatest legacy will be his own books his family and the University of Nevada Press, which he founded."
"… the unknown cowboy carried a short rawhide whip attached to his left wrist by a leather thong, ostensibly to train horses but, as occasion had proven, handy to blind an adversary with a backhand flip of his wrist for those few seconds necessary to draw his pistol first.
"John D. Hamilton spit contemptuously into the dirt street. 'Anyone who goes to all that trouble to look dangerous don't scare me one bit. Now, if he was a decent-dressed man doing his damnedest not to look mean, but with that look in his eyes, I would watch out for him. This man is a sidewinder, the kind of rattler you can't tell what direction he will come at you'." — Dust Devils
In 1949, Laxalt married Joyce Nielsen, now a retired French teacher. He told one reporter when he met her, "It was love at first sight." Their home is in Washoe Valley.
He is survived by his wife and their three children: Bruce, a Reno attorney; Kristin Laxalt, a Reno physician who is married to attorney Don Nomura; and Monique Laxalt, an attorney and writer. Laxalt drew from her family experiences in her book, "The Deep Blue Memory," a work of fiction published in 1993.
"Robert was a marvelous father," Abner said. "He was extremely close to his children, and he and Joyce were very close and loyal to each other."
He also is survived by three brothers, Paul Laxalt, former governor and senator; John Laxalt, a lawyer; and Peter, a lawyer; and two sisters, Suzanne Laxalt, a retired nun; and Marie Bini, a retired teacher.
A memorial service will be held at 10 a.m. Wednesday at the University of Nevada, Reno's Nightingale Hall. The service is open to the public. In lieu of flowers, donations may be made in Robert Laxalt's name to the Distinguished Writer's Chair, Reynolds School of Journalism, University of Nevada, Reno.
Books by Robert Laxalt
"The Violent Land: Tales the Old Timers Tell," 1950
"Sweet Promised Land" 1957
"A Man in the Wheatfield" 1964. Selected by the American Library Association as one of the six notable works of American fiction that year.
"Nevada," 1971
"In a Hundred Graves: A Basque Portrait," 1972
"Nevada: A Bicentennial History," 1977
"A Cup of Tea in Pamplona," 1985. Nominated for a 1985 Pulitzer Prize in fiction.
"A Basque Hotel" 1989. Nominated for a Pulitzer Prize.
"A Time We Knew: Images of Yesterday in the Basque Homeland," 1990
"The Child of the Holy Ghost" 1992
"A Lean Year and Other Stories" (16 short stories), 1994
"The Governor's Mansion" 1994
"Dust Devils" 1997
"A Private War: An American Code Officer in the Belgian Congo," 1998
"The Land of My Fathers: A Son's Return to the Basque Country," 1999
"Time of the Rabies," 2000
"Travels With My Royal: A Memoir of the Writing Life," available May 2001
Mike Henderson contributed to this story


text:
English Department, University of Zabol, Iran
Main Subjects
Since the advent of communicative
approaches to second language pedagogy,
enhancing communicative competence has
been underscored instead of merely having
mastery over the structural elements of
language (Savignon, 2000). As Ellis (2008)
argued, these L2 instruction approaches are
based on the hypothesis that L2
communicative competence is developed
through performance and information
exchange. MacIntyre and Charos (1996) also
believed that the primary reason for
language learning is defined in terms of
Furthermore, considering the importance of
communicative competence in language
education, MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei,
and Noels (1998) advanced a heuristic
model of communication to delineate the
concept of willingness to communicate
(WTC) and several factors which might
affect WTC in L2 context. Based on its
original conceptualization (see McCroskey
& Baer, 1985), they defined WTC as "a
readiness to enter into discourse, at a
particular time with a specific person or
persons, using L2" (p. 547). In this model
WTC was deemed a situational variable
which could be affected by various
linguistic, communicative, affective -cognitive, contextual- social variables.
Further, MacIntyre et al. (1998) proposed
that the main objective of second/foreign
language learning should be to "engender in
language students the willingness to seek out
communication opportunities and the
willingness actually to communicate in
them" (p. 547). Since this pioneering work
of MacIntyre et al., L2WTC has been
studied extensively in different English as a
second language (ESL) contexts (e.g., Cao
& Philp, 2006; Clément, Baker &
MacIntyre, 2003; MacIntyre, Babin &
Clément, 1999; MacIntyre, Baker, Clément,
& Conrod, 2001; MacIntyre, Baker,
Clément, & Donovan, 2003; Peng, 2007, to
name a few).
Nevertheless, WTC has been mostly
examined in second language context in
which there is constant linguistic exposure
to and direct contact with the L2 society
(Fallah, 2014). And it has not been given
enough scholarly attention in EFL context,
where students mostly learn English as an
academically mandatory subject, and there
are few immediate linguistic requirements
for them to use English in daily life (see
Cetinkaya, 2005). As such, to shed further
light on the concept of WTC in EFL context,
it would be crucial to examine Iranian EFL
learners' willingness to communicate in
English along with other variables related to
English communication.
In short, based on MacIntyre's (1994) WTC
mode and Gardner's (1985) socio-educational model, the present study set out
to test a model of L2 communication by
examining the potential connections among
L2WTC, motivation, perceived
communication confidence, international
posture, communication anxiety, teacher
immediacy and personality trait of
agreeableness among non-English major
EFL learners.
Literature review
This section includes a review of the related
literature on communicative, affective-cognitive, contextual and personality
variables which according to previous
research (see MacIntyre et al., 1998) can
affect language learners' WTC.
Communicative variables
Two communicative factors, namely self-perceived communication competence
(SPCC) and communication apprehension
(CA) have been extensively examined in
both empirical and conceptualization studies
concerning WTC. Based on studies
conducted on WTC, McCroskey (1997)
argued that SPCC and CA tend to make
significant contribution to prediction of
SPCC refers to the feeling that one has the
ability to communicate effectively at a
particular point (MacIntyre et al., 1998).
McCroskey and McCroskey (1986) argued
that most of the decisions people make
regarding communication are inspired by
self-perceived competence rather than actual
competence i. e. the perception of being able
to perform a communication task can
outweigh actual, objectively defined
competence in inspiring a willingness to
initiate communication. McCroskey and
Richmond (1987) found that SPCC
positively affected general attitude toward
communication, self-esteem,
argumentativeness, willingness to
communicate, and sociability. Further, the
findings of several studies (McCroskey &
Richmond, 1990; MacIntyre, 1994;
MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; MacIntyre,
Babin, & Clément, 1999; Yashima, 2002)
have unanimously shown that perceived
competence is the strongest predictor of
L2WTC. Learners who perceived
themselves as competent communicators are
usually more willing to communicate.
Language anxiety is also defined by Gardner
and MacIntyre (1993, p. 5) as "the
apprehension experienced when a situation
requires the use of a second language with
which the individual is not fully proficient".
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) believed
that foreign language anxiety consists of
three constituents, namely test anxiety,
communication apprehension and fear of
negative evaluation.
Studies have consistently demonstrated the
association of anxiety with foreign language
learning and performance (MacIntyre &
Gardner,1991; MacIntyre, 1995; Saito &
Samimy, 1996; Saminy & Radin, 1994;
MacIntyre, Noels, & Clément, 1997; Cheng,
Horwitz, & Schallert, 1999). Clément,
Dörnyei and Noels (1994) stated that,
compared to their highly anxious peers,
students who are less anxious over speaking
in English think positively about their
language proficiency, and they are interested
in increasing their contact with English.
MacIntyre et al. (1997) also argued that L2
learners' perception of L2 competence can
be affected by level of language anxiety so
that L2 learners who are more anxious about
communicating in L2 tend to perceive their
actual L2 competence more negatively and
lower than that rated by neutral observers.
Furthermore, research has revealed an
inverse relationship between L2WTC and
anxiety i. e. the more students are anxious,
the more reluctant they are to enter into L2
conversations (e.g., Gardner & MacIntyre,
1993; Hashimoto, 2002; MacIntyre &
Clément, 1996).
Affective variables
Motivation and international posture are two
major affective-cognitive variables which
have proven to be theoretically and
empirically related to WTC.
Motivation as a major individual factor can
significantly affect language learning
success (Dörnyei, 2005). According to
Dornyei, motivation inspires L2 learning
and it can be a stimulating and encouraging
force to endure the long and rather tiresome
learning course. Without adequate
motivation, even learners with the most
exceptional abilities can hardly achieve
long-term goals.
In his socio-educational model of L2
acquisition Gardner (1985) mentioned that
when we discuss the motivation to learn a
second language, we should take into
account both cultural context and
educational setting, which are named as
integrativeness and attitudes toward the
learning situation, respectively. Attitudes
towards the language situation include
attitudes towards the language course, the
textbooks, the language teacher and the
school environment. Integrativeness is
conceptualized as a real enthusiasm for
pursuing the second language education
with the hope of becoming psychologically
closer with the target language community
(Gardner, 1985). Research has shown that
attitudes on the learning situation and
integrativeness exert the greatest impact on
motivation, which in turn affect language
achievement (Gardner, 2007; Hashimoto,
2002; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996) and
higher levels of integrativeness and
motivation engender more interaction
among learners (Cetinkaya, 2005).
However, due to the different nature of EFL
context in which there is little or no
immediate contact with English native
speakers, some scholars (e.g., Clément,
Dörnyei, & Noels, 1994; Clément &
Kruidenier, 1983) believe that Gardners'
socioeducational model is not as much
relevant to this context as it is to ESL
context. Connected to this, Yashima (2002)
advanced "international posture" concept as
an orientation close to integrative
orientation. This concept represents
components such as interest in foreign or
international affairs, enthusiasm for going
abroad for study or work purposes,
willingness to speak with intercultural peers
and non-ethnocentric stance on different
cultural issues (Yashima, 2002).
Empirically, it has been shown that
international posture can positively affect
L2WTC (Cetinkaya, 2005; Yashima, 2002).
Teacher immediacy
Another factor which can exert significant
effect on learners' communication including
their WTC is the contextual variable of
teacher immediacy (Wen & Clement, 2003).
The construct of immediacy was introduced
by Mehrabian (1967) who defined it as the
communication behaviors which improve
psychological and physical closeness with
others. Utilizing approach-avoidance theory,
Mehrabian (1971) stated that individuals are
attracted toward people and things they are
interested in and think of highly.
Furthermore, Andersen (1979) believed that
immediacy behaviors play an important
functional role in communication by
conveying positive attitudes of the sender to
the receiver.
Immediacy behaviors are divided into two
kinds, nonverbal and verbal. Nonverbal
immediacy indicates behaviors like positive
use of gestures, smiling, vocal variety, eye
contact, a relaxed body position and forward
body lean. Verbal immediacy includes
verbal behaviors such as using humor and
using "we" and "our" in class (Frymier,
Teacher immediacy is then conceptualized
as communication behaviors that reduce the
perceived distance between teacher and
students (Andersen, 1979). Anderson argued
that immediacy behaviors convey teacher
warmth and positive emotions, indicate
accessibility and approach for
communication, and enhances physiological
arousal in learners. The concept of teacher
immediacy has received substantial attention
in the instructional context. It has been
found to positively affect students. Verbal
and nonverbal immediacy were correlated
with increased affective learning (Anderson,
1979; Gorham, 1988). Along the same line,
positive associations were noticed between
teacher immediacy and learners' motivation
(Christophel, 1990; Frymier, 1993). Carrell
and Menzel's (1998) findings revealed that
the teacher's verbal immediacy behavior
was positively connected to learners'
inclination to speak in class in a liberal arts
However, teacher immediacy has not been
given sufficient scholarly attention in the
TESOL field. There are only a few studies
reported in the existent literature.
In a qualitative study Hsu (2005), for
example, explored learners' perception of
how the immediate relationship influences
their WTC. The findings indicated
significant relationships between teacher
immediacy and the learners' L2WTC. In
another study Yu (2009) found that teacher
immediacy negatively affected
communication apprehension and positively
impacted self-perceived communication
competence. However, the findings showed
that teacher immediacy could affect L2WTC
only through the mediation of
communication competence and anxiety.
Rashidi and Mahmoudi Kia (2014)
investigated the relationship between
teachers communicative behavior and EFL
learners motivation and involvement in their
language learning. The results revealed that
teachers' immediacy behaviors were
significantly and positively correlated with
learners' willingness to talk.
Finally, Nabi Karimi, Shabani, and
Hosseini's (2012) study showed that teacher
immediacy was significantly associated with
EFL learners' willingness to engage in
interaction and meaning negotiation with
their teachers.
Thus, as an attempt to bridge the current gap
and enrich the literature, the present study
sought to explore teacher immediacy in the
context of L2WTC.
Though research on the role of personality
in L2 achievement is admittedly slim, it
seems that the personality of the language
learner would exert some effect on the
process of L2 acquisition (MacIntyre,
Clément, & Noels, 2007). Personality and
anxiety have been linked to speaking ability
(Campbell & Rushton, 1978; Dewaele &
Furnham, 1999). MacIntyre et al.'s (1998)
argued that people of different personality
types approach language learning
opportunities such as in-class activities and
real-life encounters of intercultural
communication in different ways.
The Big Five model as developed by
Goldberg (1993) is a personality model that
covers five basic and
independent personality traits:
Emotional Stability
Goldberg (1992) utilized bipolar inventory
to describe and measure these five
personality traits. For example, the
pleasantness/agreeableness dimension,
which is tested in the current study, is
typified through a sequence from selfish,
uncooperative and unkind to unselfish,
cooperative and kind.
In MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) model,
personality is at the base of the pyramid, and
is thought to play a significant role in
shaping the person's communication pattern.
MacIntyre and Charos's (1996) findings, for
example, revealed that, personality traits of
openness to experience and extraversion
exerted indirect effects on L2WTC through
the mediation SPCC and CA, respectively.
Further, despite the premise that personality
factors would influence L2 WTC indirectly,
agreeableness proved to be directly
associated with WTC.
The initial hypothesized model
Using willingness to communicate (WTC)
and socio-educational models as a
framework, the initially hypothesized model
of the current study was formed by three
latent variables (international posture,
teacher immediacy and motivation) and four
observed variables (SPCC, CA, WTC and
personality trait of agreeableness). The links
among these variables are schematically
represented in Fig. 1.
In line with previous research (e.g.,
Christophel, 1990; Christophel & Gorham,
1995) a direct positive path between teacher
immediacy and motivation was proposed.
Based on Wen and Clément's (2003) study,
a negative path was also drawn between
teacher immediacy and CA and a positive
direct path between teacher immediacy and
SPCC. Furthermore, based on Yu's (2009)
findings and Wen and Clément's (2003)
argument that teacher immediacy can exert
potential impact on EFL learners' L2WTC,
a direct positive path was drawn from
teacher immediacy to learners' L2WTC.
Following MacIntyre (1994) and MacIntyre
and Charos (1996), a direct negative path
was hypothesized from CA to SPCC.
Further, one positive path between SPCC
and WTC was expected (e.g., Baker &
MacIntyre, 2003; MacIntyre & Charos,
1996; Yu, 2009).
The two expected positive paths from
motivation and international posture to
L2WTC paralleled previous research
(Ghonsooly et al., 2012; Yashima, 2002). A
positive path from motivation to L2WTC
was also anticipated based on Dörnyei and
Kormos (2000) and MacIntyre et al.'s
(1998) pyramid model of L2WTC. As for
the agreeableness personality trait, Clement
(1980) argued that those who are pleasant
and agreeable are more interested in
interacting positively with L2 speakers. The
most probable variable to be affected by this
trait is integrativeness (MacIntyre & Charos,
1996). Further, Yashima (2002) argued that
integrativeness can be represented and
epitomized by international posture in EFL
context. Therefore, a positive path is
proposed from agreeableness to international
The hypothesized negative path from
agreeableness to communication anxiety is
also supported by previous research in
personality and behavioral psychology. For
example, it was shown that highly agreeable
individuals automatically engaged in
emotion regulation processes when exposed
to unpleasant stimuli (Jensen-Campbell,
Rosselli, Workman, Santisi, Rios & Bojan,
2002). Tobin and Graziano's (2011) findings
also revealed a significant relation between
agreeableness and negative affect regulation
in young learners. Finally, in response to
MacIntyre and Charos's (1996) call, a
positive path from agreeableness to L2WTC
was hypothesized and re-examined.
In short, the following research questions
were addressed to provide answer to the
objectives of the study:
Q 1: Is the proposed model of L2
communication (Figure 1) appropriate for
the Iranian EFL learners?
Q 2: Can the independent variables
significantly predict dependant variables
including L2WTC among the EFL learners?
For the purpose of this study, 398 Iranian
non-English major undergraduate students
were recruited randomly from Colleges of
Humanities, Natural Resources,
Engineering, Agriculture, Veterinarian and
Basic Sciences at the University of Zabol.
Out of these, 372 participants (about 93.5 %
return rate) completed the questionnaires.
They aged between 18 and 34 years (M =
19.13, SD = 1.69). One hundred seventy
three students were male (46.5 %), and 199
(53.5 %) were female. They were freshmen
who had just studied English as a foreign
language for 7 consecutive years in junior
high school and high school. They were all
taking General English as a compulsory
university course prior to their ESP courses.
Before the data collection, the researchers
obtained approval from 8 EFL professors.
Then, the questionnaires were distributed in
twelve classes within 2 weeks in the middle
of winter semester. The participants
completed the Persian versions of the
questionnaires in their classes.
Prior to administering the questionnaires,
language learners were all informed of the
objective of the research and the time to fill
in the questionnaires (about 25 minutes).
They were assured that their participation
would be voluntary and anonymous and at
no cost to their academic evaluation.
The required data were collected through the
following ten questionnaires. These
questionnaires have been utilized
extensively in EFL settings (e.g., Cetinkaya,
2005; Fallah, 2014; Ghonsooly et al., 2012;
Yashima, 2002; Yashima et al., 2004; Yu,
2009). The original English questionnaires
were translated into Farsi in the present
Willingness to communicate
EFL learners' WTC in English was tested
through twelve items from McCroskey
(1992) in terms of contexts of
communication (group discussions, public
speaking, interpersonal conversations and
talking in meetings) and types of receivers
(strangers, acquaintances, and friends). The
participants chose the amount (0% - 100%)
that they would be willing to communicate
in each situation. Scores were the sum of the
points that the respondents achieved based
on the WTC scale (Cronbach's α = .94).
Sample item is "I am willing to talk in a
small group of strangers in English".
Self-perceived communication competence
McCroskey and McCroskey's (1988) 12-item questionnaire was utilized to gauge the
learners' self-perceived communication
competence. Like the WTC scale, the items
in the SPCC scale refer to 4 basic
communication contexts and three types of
receivers. Participants appraised their
communication competence on a 0-100
scale. (Cronbach's α = .93). Sample item is
"I can Talk in English in a large meeting
among strangers".
Communication anxiety (CA)
This was measured by twelve items used by
Yashima (2002). The respondents indicated
the percentage of time that they would feel
anxious engaging in a special activity.
Similar to the WTC and SPCC scales, it
includes 12 permutations (four situations,
three receiver groups) (Cronbach's α = .91).
Sample item is "I feel anxious while talking
in English to a stranger".
Teacher immediacy
The immediacy behavior scale comprised
items tapping on teacher verbal (20 items,
Gorham, 1988, Cronbach's α = .89.) and
nonverbal (14 items, Richmond, Gorham, &
McCroskey, 1987, Cronbach's α = .88)
immediacy behaviors. Respondents
indicated whether or not their teachers
exhibited such behaviors and their incidence
of use on a range from "one" (rarely) to
"four" (very often). Sample item is "my
teacher uses a variety of vocal expressions
when talking to the class".
Agreeableness measure
Two items from The Ten Item Personality
Inventory (TIPI; Gosling, Rentfrow, &
Swann, 2003) were used. The authors
reported TIPI is a reliable and valid measure
of personality. The test begins with the stem
''I see myself as:'' followed by pairs of two-trait descriptors, which respondents assess
on a 7-point likert scale varying from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree)
(Cronbach's α = .68). Sample item is "I am
sympathetic and warm".
The 30-itme Motivation scale with three
constituents (Motivational Intensity,
Attitudes toward Learning English and
Desire to Learn English) was originally
developed by Gardner (1985) as part of the
Attitude/Motivation Test Battery. Each
component was measured by 10 multiple
items. (Cronbach's α = .90, 86 and 87 for
MI, DLE and ALE, respectively). Sample
item is "I plan to learn as much English as
International posture
The participants' international posture was
measured through Yashima's (2002)
questionnaire. The questionnaire included
four sub-scales, namely Intercultural
Friendship Orientation (4 items, sample:
"studying English will allow me to meet and
converse with more and varied people"),
Approach-Avoidance Tendency (7 items,
sample: "I try to avoid talking with
foreigners if I can"), Interest in International
Vocation/Activities (5 items, sample: "I
want to live in a foreign country" ) and
Interest in Foreign Affairs (2 items, sample:
"I often read and watch news about foreign
countries" ). The participants marked the
amount to which they agreed with each item
on a 7-point scale by marking a number
between 1 (strongly disagree) and 7
(strongly agree). The reliability estimates
(Cronbach's α) were .75, .79, .71 and .66 for
the four scales respectively.
Results and discussion
Pearson correlations were used to examine
the relationships between continuous
variables. Table 1 shows the mean, standard
deviation, and correlation matrix between
the variables. Furthermore, to answer the
research questions, as to whether the
proposed model is appropriate for the
Iranian EFL learners and whether the
independent variables can predict dependant
variables including L2WTC, Structural
Equation Modeling was conducted through
AMOS 20. This analysis allows for testing
complex hypotheses and examining the
relationship between one or more
independent variables and one or more
dependant variables. In addition, this
approach examines the direct, indirect and
total effects of the links among the model
In the present study, model estimation was
conducted using maximum likelihood (ML)
estimation. As shown in Figure 1, the
proposed model was tested and the results
indicated that the goodness-of-fit measures
for the base model were as follows:
goodness-of-fit (GFI) index = .94, adjusted
goodness-of-fit (AGFI) index = .90,
comparative fit index (CFI) = .92, root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) =
.07, and Chi-Square = 153.01 (57 df), p <
.001 which show an unacceptable good fit
for the base model. To have a very good fit
model, RMSEA should be smaller than .05,
CFI, GFI and AGFI should indicate values
higher than .90, and p value should be
higher than .05. Thus, model modifications
were conducted to improve the model.
First, the four non-significant paths (the path
from agreeableness to L2WTC and the 3
paths from teacher immediacy to L2WTC,
SPCC and motivation) were deleted. The
goodness-of-fit measures were reanalyzed
for the revised model. They were not
completely acceptable yet: GFI = .94, AGFI
= .91, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .07 and Chi-Square = 156.65 (61 df), p < .001.
Post hoc model modifications were then
conducted in order to improve model fit.
The significant chi-square test for the
modified model indicated that further
variance could be accounted for in case new
paths were drawn. Contrary to the
confirmatory approach followed till now,
drawing additional paths, as MacCallum,
Roznowski, and Necowitz, (1992) stated, is
an exploratory procedure. These paths
should be considered as data driven, and
serve as potential avenues for future
research (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996).
Based on the highest modification index
(MI), additional paths were added, one at a
time, till the model showed a good fit. The
additional paths were as follows: immediacy
→IP and motivation →SPCC. (see Table 2).
The model was tested. As shown in Table 2,
all the selected model fit indices show very
good levels (GFI =.96, AGFI = .94, CFI =
.97, RMSEA = .03) except for the chi-square which was significant (χ2
= 88.83 (59 df), p < .01) due to the relatively large
sample size. However, a conventional way
of dealing with this sample-size impact on
the Model Chi-Square is the relative/normed
chi-square (χ2/df) which in our study
displays a value below the acceptable level
of 2 (see Hooper et al., 2008; Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2007). Therefore, it can be concluded
that the final measurement model have a
very good fit to the data, and it can be
deemed an appropriate communication
model for the Iranian EFL context.
In the structural equation model, significant
paths were obtained leading from SPCC,
motivation and international posture to their
anticipated destination of L2WTC. L2CA
had a direct path to SPCC, while immediacy
had a direct path to L2CA. Also direct paths
were found leading from international
posture to motivation, from agreeableness to
international posture and L2CA, and from
L2CA to SPCC. As for the data driven
paths, two significant paths indicated the
impacts of motivation and immediacy on
SPCC and international posture,
respectively. The paths were all found to be
significant at least at the level of .05. Thus,
it can be safely said that all the independent
variables could significantly predict the
dependant variables in the final model.
The significant path (p < .001, c.r. = 6.85)
showing the effect of SPCC on WTC
confirms the results obtained in previous
studies (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990;
MacIntyre, 1994; MacIntyre, Babin, &
Clément, 1999; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996;
Yashima, 2002; Yu, 2009). The strength of
this impact on WTC also parallels the
findings of these studies suggesting that
SPCC exerts the highest effect on L2WTC.
This indicates that, irrespective of one's real
proficiency, simply deeming oneself able to
communicate can influence the willingness
or intention to get engaged in
communication. The significant effect (p <
.001, c.r. = - 5.63) of L2CA on SPCC was
also supported by previous research
(MacIntyre, 1994; MacIntyre & Charos,
1996; Yu, 2009).
The significant effect (p < .05, c.r. = 2.17) of
motivation on L2WTC in the present study
is basically in accordance with MacIntyre
and Clément's (1996) and MacIntrye et al.'s
(2003) findings indicating significant impact
of motivation on L2WTC in Canada. Along
the same line, Peng (2007) found that
motivation can significantly predict L2WTC
among Chinese EFL learners. However, this
finding was in contrast with Ghonsooly et al.
(2012), Yashima (2002), Kim (2004) and Yu
(2009), who did not find a significant path
leading from motivation to L2WTC. A
plausible explanation for the finding of the
present study might be Peng's (2007, p. 48)
argument that "in an EFL context,
motivation is an important impetus in
stimulating learners to persevere in both L2
learning and possibly L2 communication".
In addition, motivation assuages the effects
of some individual and situational
shortcomings and act as a vigorous driving
force in language learning (Dörnyei, 2005).
Yashima (2002) also stated that high levels
of motivation encourage perseverance
among L2 learners, which can in turn boost
their proficiency, confidence and eventually
their willingness to communicate.
Interestingly, the role that motivation played
was two-dimensional as it also contributed
to L2WTC indirectly, through impacting the
learners' SPCC. In other words, the role of
Iranian EFL learners' motivation in
increasing learners' L2WTC in English can
be mediated by their perception of their own
ability to communicate.
The results of this study also revealed a
mildly significant path (p < .05, c.r. = 2.54)
and a strong direct path (p < .001, c.r. =
7.07) from international posture to L2WTC
and motivation respectively, suggesting that
the more internationally aligned learners
were, the more tendency they had to enter
into communication and also the more
motivation they have to pursue their L2
education. This is basically supported by the
socioeducational model in that attitudes
affect motivation. In the present study
attitude (international posture) covered the
learners' attitudes toward international
vocation or activities, intercultural
communication, and foreign affairs.
Therefore, up to this point, it can be
suggested that the willingness to enter into
L2 communication in Iran is mainly
determined by a combination of the EFL
learners' motivation, perception of their L2
proficiency, and their attitudes and
orientations toward the international
The results also revealed that teacher
immediacy had a significant negative effect
(p < .001, c.r. = - 4.05) on EFL learners'
L2CA. This corroborates Rodriguez, Plax,
and Kearney's (1996) argument that
immediate teachers facilitate interpersonal
closeness and create warm and friendly
atmosphere in the classroom through
conveying positive attitudes, thereby
reducing anxiety. Connected to this, Wen
and Clement (2003) stated that teacher's
dependability and affability make learners
feel emotionally supported and less
communicatively nervous. Therefore, in
Iranian EFL context, where the teacher is the
main authority in the classroom, teacher
immediacy behaviors can be deemed an
important emotional resource, under the
auspices of which the learners can tackle
communication apprehension. Put it into
nutshell, learners feel happier and less
stressed in classes with caring and
affectionate teachers (Ellen & Michael,
The significant path (p < .001, c.r. = 4.28)
from teacher immediacy to international
posture is one of the data-driven paths of the
present study. It suggests that the more EFL
learners find their teachers physically and
psychologically approachable, the more
positive attitude they develop towards the
international society. As Yashima (2002)
argued, language learners' attitudes toward
the international community are subject to
change. As such, EFL teachers' verbal and
non-verbal immediacy behaviors can be an
invaluable asset in creating a supportive and
non-threatening learning milieu for learners.
Such an environment is conducive to the
development of positive attitudes and views
toward language learning and intercultural
community among EFL learners. Since
adding an additional path is deemed data-driven and exploratory, this path should to
be replicated and further examined along
with the path from motivation to SPCC.
Given the strong effect of teacher
immediacy on international posture, the
unquestionable impact of international
posture on the learners' motivation, and the
mildly significant path leading from
international posture to L2WTC, it appears
that teacher immediacy exerts positive
indirect effects on both learners' motivation
and their L2WTC.
Furthermore, the significant path (p < .01,
c.r. = 2.77) indicating the impact of
agreeableness on international posture
suggested that agreeable EFL learners
tended to be more interested in foreign
languages and international activities and
affaires. Given the agreeable individuals'
high social desirability, positive prosocial
behaviors and friendly disposition (Graziano
& Tobin, 2013), it is likely that they have
more positive feelings and attitudes toward
international community. This interpretation
gains more credibility in the light of
MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) notion that
personality can affect the way a person
reacts to foreign people and cultures.
Interestingly, agreeableness personality trait
contributed to L2 communication anxiety (p
< .001, c.r. = 3.75). This finding is in
contrast with previous empirical studies on
the regulatory function of agreeableness
(e.g., Tobin & Graziano, 2011) though these
are restricted in the realm of education, and
almost rare in the EFL/ESL context
altogether. The reason is due in part to the
nature of English communication in Iran.
Since Iran is an EFL context, occurrences of
natural and social communication in
English, especially in verbal mode, are quite
scarce. Instead English communication, if
any, occurs only for academic or pedantic,
so to speak, purposes. Therefore, L2
communication, in most likelihood, is set up
as a form of competition. If this line of
reasoning is valid, then persons high in
agreeableness perhaps do not care to
participate or at least do it with an extra
burden of carrying communication
apprehension. This conjecture seems to gain
more plausibility in the light of Graziano,
Hair, and Finch's (1997) argument that
highly agreeable individuals are interested in
social harmony and, compared to their less-agreeable peers, they dislike conflicts and
competitions. Connected to this, Ryckman,
Thornton and Gold (2009) found that
competition avoiders were pleasant,
agreeable and acquiescent in their social
interactions. An intriguing study (Bilalic,
McLeod & Gobet, 2007) also showed that
playing chess was not appealing to highly
agreeable participants due to the competitive
nature of chess where players endure
constant confrontations.
Conclusion and implications
This study tested a model of L2WTC among
Iranian EFL learners. The final model was
an acceptable representation of the dataset
regarding the evaluated variables. The
results of structural equation modeling
supported both the WTC model and the
socio-educational model.
The findings indicated that L2WTC is a
complex concept and obviously connected
to different factors in EFL context. It was
shown that SPCC, international posture and
motivation were significant predictors of
L2WTC. The indirect effects of CA and
motivation on L2WTC were mediated by
SPCC, and the roles of teacher immediacy
and agreeableness in enhancing EFL
learners' L2WTC were also mediated by
international posture. Therefore, SPCC,
international posture and motivation seemed
to play a key role in understanding and
improving L2 communication in the Iranian
EFL context. Further, while teacher
immediacy significantly predicted
international posture and CA, personality
trait of agreeableness predicted international
posture and communication apprehension
among the EFL learners.
Based on these findings, it can be suggested
that for more effectively enhancing EFL
learners' willingness to communicate,
teachers and learners as well should be more
aware of the effect of affective and personal
factors on learners' communication capacity
including their WTC. They should try to
assuage communication anxiety and
improve learners' motivation and their
beliefs and attitudes toward the international
Due to the ubiquitous existence of anxiety in
EFL context, teachers should pay more
attention to the way they treat their students
particularly by adopting appropriate error
correction ways in order to facilitate
communication and should learn not to
discourage them from speaking. Also based
on the findings of the current study, in order
to establish a welcoming, relaxing, and
supportive classroom climate and to lower
EFL learners' affective filter (Krashen,
1982), teachers can use immediacy
behaviors. In such an atmosphere learners
are more emotionally secured, suffer less
communication apprehension, and perceive
themselves to be more proficient and
motivated and consequently more willing to
communicate in English. In such an
atmosphere teachers can also use
miscellaneous materials and activities to
engender EFL learners' enthusiasm for
familiarizing themselves with different
cultures, forming realistic attitudes toward
those cultures, promoting their linguistic
competence and eventually enjoying
effective English communication
(Cetinkaya, 2005).
Since the participants were a selected group
of EFL learners from only one university,
any generalization of the findings to other
contexts should be done with caution. The
data collection was done only through self-reported questionnaires. In order to obtain a
more accurate estimate of the variables,
future research should utilize qualitative
methods such as interview and observation,
too. It is also recommended that this study
be replicated in different EFL contexts
among learners with diverse cultural,
educational and socioeconomic
This study was supported by a research
grant (No. 19-93) from the University of
Zabol. Also, we would like to especially
thank Professor William Graziano from
Purdue University, Dr. Mostafa Papi from
Michigan State University and the Journal's
anonymous reviewers for their invaluable
and insightful comments on the earlier
versions of the manuscript. We must also
thank all colleagues and participants for
their warm cooperation during the data
collection phase.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Rogers Dyno-Matic Snare Stand
by Rogers Drums
Sold out
The Rogers Dyno-Matic lightweight snare stand has a single-braced tripod base with Rogers swan leg design for its low center of gravity. It has a locking snare basket with a gearless lever action tilter. A 360 degree height adjuster with all direction access allows for easy adjustments. Adjustable from 19" to 26". The upper tube is 5/8" in diameter and the lower tube is 7/8" in diameter.


text:
Over at Straight and Narrow Blog, Jettboy posted the entire text of a speech JFK gave in Salt Lake City on September 26, 1963, in the Tabernacle. The photo I posted appears to be from that very event: President Kennedy in the center, LDS President David O. McKay on the left, and Utah Senator Frank Moss on the right.
Kennedy opened his speech with this compliment:
Of all the stories of American pioneers and settlers, none is more inspiring than the Mormon trail. The qualities of the founders of this community are the qualities that we seek in America, the qualities which we like to feel this country has, courage, patience, faith, self-reliance, perseverance, and, above all, an unflagging determination to see the right prevail.
And he ended it on this pleasant note:
Therefore, I think this country will continue its commitments to support the world of freedom, for as we discharge that commitment we are heeding the command which Brigham Young heard from the Lord more than a century ago, the command he conveyed to his followers, "Go as pioneers . . . to a land of peace."
It's worth reading the entire speech. I'll encourage you to comment at Jettboy's blog by leaving comments off on this post.


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Air Products provides a full range of proven oxygen enrichment technologies to boost Sulfur Removal Unit (SRU) capacity. Other benefits include improved reliability, flexibility and environmental performance, the avoidance of expensive physical retrofits, and meeting SRU redundancy requirements. Air Products provides complete support for SRU oxygen enrichment including HAZOP, pre-commissioning, training and startup support. We have implemented over 50 SRU oxygen enrichment projects worldwide.
Operational flexibility is a must in today's refineries. Sulfur recovery unit oxygen enrichment is a good way to boost capacity in a cost efficient way.
Air Products gases, typically provided in gaseous and liquid form, enable customers in a wide range of industries to improve their environmental performance, product quality, and productivity.
Delivered by truck and stored on your site either as a liquid in cryogenic tanks or as a gas in high-pressure tubes based on your volume, desired pressure, purity level, flow rate, and operating pattern.
On-site gas generation helps sustainability-minded customers lower their carbon footprint, boost energy efficiency, increase throughput, enhance end product quality, and improve environmental performance.


text:
"Another precious secret in the life of two people…
Remember that one of the main points for a commitment to last is to make each other HAPPY!
No it is not easy, be genuine, and do it whole heartedly…"
#MOI Author of
Where is My Angel? Book by #MOI and Read about How to reach the light while walking dark paths
Mommy I am a PACER! Book by #MOI because I believe that children are the future, the change…
Both available: Amazon: amazon.com link to both books
Through the publishers:
Novum Publishing: Where is My Angel?
Dorrance Publishers: Mommy I Am a PACER! http://www.dorrancebookstore.com/mommyiampacer.html
Follow me @ https://youreverydaycoffeeblog.com/ https://www.facebook.com/YourEverydayCoffee/


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'Star Trek' Actors 'Disappointed' by George Takei's Reaction to Gay Sulu
Finally, Sulu is getting more attention in the "Star Trek" universe! Unfortunately, the source of the attention is dividing the actors in the "Star Trek" family.
Casually revealing John Cho's Sulu to be gay in the new "Star Trek Beyond" movie was meant, in part, to honor George Takei, the original Sulu actor who is also gay. But Takei seemed to surprise the new cast members with his negative reaction to boldly going where no character had gone before.
"I'm delighted that there's a gay character," Takei told The Hollywood Reporter. "Unfortunately, it's a twisting of Gene [Roddenberry]'s creation, to which he put in so much thought. I think it's really unfortunate." Takei said he wanted the filmmakers to create a new character with a history of being gay, "rather than Sulu, who had been straight all this time, suddenly being revealed as being closeted." Spock would admire that logic, if nothing else.
Simon Pegg plays Scotty, and he also co-wrote the new movie's script; he and director Justin Lin are credited with the idea of making Sulu gay. Pegg shared a written statement with the Guardian reacting to Takei's reaction:
"I have huge love and respect for George Takei, his heart, courage and humour are an inspiration. However, with regards to his thoughts on our Sulu, I must respectfully disagree with him.
He's right, it is unfortunate, it's unfortunate that the screen version of the most inclusive, tolerant universe in science fiction hasn't featured an LGBT character until now. We could have introduced a new gay character, but he or she would have been primarily defined by their sexuality, seen as the 'gay character', rather than simply for who they are, and isn't that tokenism?
Justin Lin, Doug Jung and I loved the idea of it being someone we already knew because the audience have a pre-existing opinion of that character as a human being, unaffected by any prejudice. Their sexual orientation is just one of many personal aspects, not the defining characteristic. Also, the audience would infer that there has been an LGBT presence in the Trek Universe from the beginning (at least in the Kelvin timeline), that a gay hero isn't something new or strange.
It's also important to note that at no point do we suggest that our Sulu was ever closeted, why would he need to be? It's just hasn't come up before."
Read more here. His reasoning is also sound and Spock-worthy. This is turning into quite a debating society! Speaking of Spock, Zachary Quinto (who, like Takei, is also openly gay) reacted to Takei's response in an interview with Pedestrian.TV:
"As a member of the LGBT community myself, I found it slightly -- I was disappointed by the fact that George was disappointed. I think any member of the LGBT community that takes issue with the normalized and positive portrayal of members of our community in Hollywood and in mainstream blockbuster cinema, you know -- I get it that he has his own personal journey and has his own personal relationship with this character. But, you know, as we established in the first 'Star Trek' film in 2009, we've created an alternate universe. And my hope is that eventually George can be strengthened by the enormously positive response from especially young people who are heartened by and inspired by this really tasteful and beautiful portrayal of something that I think is gaining acceptance and inclusion in our societies across the world, and should be."
Sulu being gay isn't meant to define him, and John Cho said they don't make a big deal about it in "Star Trek Beyond," which opens July 22.
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Star Trek Beyond
The USS Enterprise crew explores the furthest reaches of uncharted space, where they encounter a mysterious new enemy who puts them and everything the Federation... Read the Plot


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The three-ring circus that is the republican campaign for president points out just how ridiculous our elections have become. Anyone with enough money can toss his or her hat into the ring and the media concentrates on the spectacle rather than substantive issues affecting our country. Candidates run to stoke their own egos rather than … Continue reading I Want to be Elected
Month: October 2015
Mountain of Stone, #1
A compilation of recent photos and video from Stone Mountain Village and Park, posted to Instagram. Part one, the road in. Enjoy!
Fun with Photoshop, Rocks
Same rocks, different filter. This was one of my first attempts at playing around with Photoshop Express on my phone, so I didn't note the filters I used. I'll have to recreate it and be more meticulous next time. Enjoy! These were originally posted to Instagram, where I'm gmatt63.
Guidelines for Writing, First Draft
I have recently been considering a set of guidelines for writers and have come up with an initial set of principles, listed below. These are by no means comprehensive and will continue to expand and evolve as time goes on, but provide a basis for further discussion. I welcome comments, inquiries, and constructive criticism. … Continue reading Guidelines for Writing, First Draft
Fun with Photoshop, Building in Marietta
Same building, different filter. These were taken with my iPhone 5S and edited using Adobe PS Express for iPhone. This is the original. After I cropped it, I applied filters. First, Vibrant. Next, Summer. Aquatic. Contrastpunch. Finally, Glow.
Junk Shop, Chamblee, GA, 16 October 2015
I pass this shop all the time and enjoy seeing the variety of interesting items on the lawn. I've always thought, if I ever have a house, I'd like to bring some of the larger items home to jazz up the outdoors. What yard would be complete without a giant chicken. It's not the Big … Continue reading Junk Shop, Chamblee, GA, 16 October 2015
Free Will
A central tenet at the heart of many philosophies and religions is the notion of free will and how much it guides our daily existence. Are we free to choose our own course in life, or have our lives been written ahead of time by some unseen heavenly entity and we are merely following … Continue reading Free Will
An Egret Fishing at Myrtle Beach, 10 October 2015
There was an egret fishing in this little inlet created when the tide rolled out Saturday morning. It started out in one section on the northern side of the pedestrian bridge, but flew away without catching anything. Possibly the same egret showed up several minutes later, downstream from where it was first seen. I zoomed … Continue reading An Egret Fishing at Myrtle Beach, 10 October 2015
Flock of Seagulls, Three Different Views
Three separate videos featuring seagulls from Myrtle Beach, 9 October 2015. Up first, a lone seagull walks with steely determination to nowhere in particular. Next three to five seagulls peck around in a puddle left over from high tide. Finally, a seagull frenzy as birds fly in an out and shuffle all around.
Sanderlings, Myrtle Beach, SC, 8 October 2015
Strolling along the beach, I encountered some Sanderlings, trying to avoid the surf.


text:
Apollo's Fire conjures early 19th century rural Americana with Come to the River, an evocative and kaleidoscope journey through traditional folk songs and fiddle tunes, ballades and barn dances, and the indispensable Old Time revivalist meetings. This is music as old as the hills themselves, a melting pot of Irish, English and Scottish tunes which permeated Appalachian culture, and rural America based on field recordings of Old-Time and Appalachian singers.
Come to the River was conceived by Apollo's Fire founder Jeannette Sorrell who first began to identify with this music when, as a teenager, her family moved to the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia, and she landed her first job playing piano for the Greenway Southern Baptist Church. She draws on the expertise of the great folklorists Francis James Child and Alan Lomax, and British immigrant Cecil Sharp.
Come to the River features leading vocalists and instrumentalists practicing in the early American folk tradition. Fiddle, banjo, hammered dulcimer and Irish flute, with cello and harpsichord, back the vocalists' beautiful, stark, open harmonies and shape-note hymns - tunes that are instantly recognizable and an indelible ingredient in American musical history.


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Gwent Wildlife Trust. Historicwales.gov.uk. Sorry, some of our services may be intermittent from the 27th of March to the 3rd of April.
This is due to essential maintenance. Cymru Hanesyddol Historic Wales Croeso i Gymru Hanesyddol, y porth wedi'i gyrchu drwy fapiau lle gellir cael gwybodaeth am amgylchedd hanesyddol Cymru. Gallwch chwilio cannoedd ar filoedd o gofnodion am archaeoleg, adeiladau ac arteffactau Cymru. Cefnogwyd gan: Sports, prenatal and recovery massage therapy Newport South Wales. Where you can spend Time Credits - Spice Time Credits. 12 Free Things To Do in Cardiff.
Cesar Canopy 120 Litre Litter Bin. MyHermes - Home. The Classroom – Modern European Dining. Travelodge Newport Central, Gwent. Domestic Appliance Repairs & Servicing In Newport. Wales Coast Path home. Sitters Babysitting - Nationwide Evening & Daytime Childcare. Need trusted childcare?
We can help. Register free and we'll find approved childcarers near you: Trusted by parents since 1967 – today we're proud to be Britain's favourite babysitters. We'll find you experienced childcare professionals, suited to your family. Need trusted childcare? Trusted by parents since 1967 – today we're proud to be Britain's favourite babysitters. Easy online booking Book childcare online Available nationwide We'll do all the work Competitive rates Total peace of mind. Hairdressing and Hairstyling Service - Newport, Gwent. Gwent Appliance Services - For all your appliance needs, repairs, servicing, parts or new equipment.
Find a Tradesman or Handyman For Any Job - For Free! Newport Bus. Newport Spytty - Wales. Pillgwenlly Primary (@Pill_Primary) Service. Robins - hospital volunteers. Volunteering - Our Volunteering Schemes. St David's Dewi Sant. Welcome to St David's Dewi Sant, Wales' newest, biggest and best fashion destination.
For the best in high street names find all you need and more in Grand Arcade. National Express Coaches. Rome2rio: discover how to get anywhere. Bus Travel through the City of Newport. Journey Planner Customers can easily find bus routes information through the City of Newport and beyond, by downloading the route of choice to your computer, tablet or mobile device.
Simply select the route of interest by clicking on the map below, and a PDF document will automatically download and open in a new tab. Each route includes the City Route Overview Map and the City Centre Bus Terminals, in addition to the local route and timetables of interest. Please note - the interactive map below is optimised for desktop and tablet devices. If you experience difficulty using the map on a smaller smartphone, please access the route PDF's by clicking the PDF indicated in the list below. You can still view and plan route information on the website if you prefer to enter route details yourself. Plan your Journey. Newport Bus ZONE system is really easy to understand.
If you're traveling in ZONE 1, then you only pay the relevant fare in Table 1 below. If you want to travel in both ZONES 1 & 2, or from one zone to another, then you'll pay the relevant fare in Table 2 below. Our newly introduced ZONE 3 (Sept 2015) covers South East Monmouthshire, and Table 3 refers to the relevant fares. Please view our Route Map PDFs on the Bus Routes page for downloadable routes/timetables and fare charts covering Services 60, 63, 73, 74 & 75 accordingly. Newport Bus Tickets & Fares. Using one of the Newport Transport Smartcards, you can catch any of our buses at any time they operate, from as little as £1.90 a day.
Happy days! Bus Travel through the City of Newport. Journey Planner Customers can easily find bus routes information through the City of Newport and beyond, by downloading the route of choice to your computer, tablet or mobile device.
Simply select the route of interest by clicking on the map below, and a PDF document will automatically download and open in a new tab. Friends of the Newport Ship. Admission to infant or primary school. St Michael's R.C. Primary School, Newport, Gwent. Keep up to date with all the news happening in school at the moment.
Tiny Tots - Newport Centre in Newport, SE Wales - Baby & Toddler Groups. St Paul's Toddlers in Newport, SE Wales - Baby & Toddler Groups. Little Treasures in Newport, SE Wales - Baby & Toddler Groups (40) Caerleon Comprehensive School - News. Details Thirty students from Years 11 & 12 at Caerleon Comprehensive School have been selected to take part in a two year Comenius Project funded by the British Council.
Comenius projects have two main objectives: To develop knowledge and understanding among young people and education staff of the diversity of European cultures and languages, and the value of this diversity. To help young people to acquire basic life skills and competences for their personal development, for future employment and for active European citizenship. The students are split into five groups and each group will be part of a week's exchange visit to Poland, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, France, Romania and Czech Republic studying the impact folk art has had on modern day culture.
In October, one group travelled to La Cote Saint Andre near Lyon, where the first exchange visit took place. The focus of the week was Hector Berlioz's music since La Cote Saint Andre was the town of his birth. Caerleon Sports Centre - Children's Activities, USW Sport. We offer a range of activities for young people at our Sports Centre in Caerleon.
From school holiday clubs to coaching opportunities to Children's Parties. Wards of Newport. Newport English. iSharemaps at Newport City Council. Newport, Wales. Street-level crime in Newport - South Wales Argus. Newport Central Newport Central 1-3 Cardiff Road, xxx, Newport, South Wales NP20 2EH INSP Richard Blakemore I have been an officer within Gwent Police since 1991. My formative years were served initially at Cwmbran before moving into the Support Group. In 1998 I was promoted to the rank of Sergeant and in 2006 I developed the introduction of Neighbourhood Policing within Pill.
I became the Neighbourhood Policing Inspector in Cwmbran in early 2011 and became the Inspector for Newport Central in March 2015. PS Mark Sexton No additional details are available for this team member. PS Mervyn Priest Hi, I am Merv Priest and I am the Neighbourhood Sergeant for the City Centre Team.


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Igor Tulchinsky is Founder, Chairman and CEO of WorldQuant, a global quantitative asset management firm with over $7 billion in assets under management and more than 27 offices in 17 countries. Prior to founding WorldQuant in 2007, Tulchinsky spent 12 years as a statistical arbitrage portfolio manager at Millennium Management. Igor is the Founder of WorldQuant University, a not-for-profit organization that offers an instructor-guided, tuition-free MSc program in Financial Engineering, and is committed to making higher-quality education more accessible worldwide. He also founded WorldQuant Ventures, a private investment vehicle focused on disruptive companies in technology. Tulchinsky previously worked as a venture capitalist, scientist at AT&T Bell Laboratories, video game programmer and author.
He holds an M.A. in computer science from the University of Texas, completed in a record nine months, and an MBA in finance and entrepreneurship from the Wharton


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text:
In the media: June 22
In the media this week:
- A Blacktown firefighter has called for a designated prostate cancer nurse in western Sydney hospitals, the Blacktown Sun reports. Our cancer team has applied for a prostate cancer nurse to work at Blacktown & Westmead hospitals.
Full story here.
- Westmead Hospital acting general manager Jude Constable spoke to 2SER Radio about the future of health – electronic medical records.
Listen to the interview here.
- The NSW Budget was announced on Tuesday and funds were allocated to continue the Westmead Redevelopment & the BMDH expansion. Money was also devoted to planning for Rouse Hill Hospital.
Read the whole story here.