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American Whiskey
25, 2012
Johnny Appleseed... and
Cornseed, Ryeseed, Maltseed, etc.
A famous Pennsylvania still moves to Kentucky and then Ohio.
IN ANOTHER ARTICLE on this website we noted "It wasn't always 'bourbon', y'know".
That was the introduction to the story of American rye whiskey. But even before
rye whiskey, as well as during it's hey-day in the 18th and early 19th centuries, America's OTHER
spirit of choice was apple brandy, also known as "applejack". We're all pretty
familiar with that name; from children's breakfast cereal to apple wine, to
cocktails made with apple juice and Tennessee whiskey, lots of things have been
called applejack.
And of course, we have the (mostly Disney-fied) legend of
Johnny Appleseed, planting the American frontier with apple trees. Johnny
Appleseed was not just a made-up legend, however, although he wasn't the Tom
Sawyeresque boy in leather overalls pictured in most of our minds.
There really was a
man known as Johnny Appleseed, who was more properly named John Chapman. He
lived from 1774 to 1845 and was a legend even in his own time. A religious man
and a wandering missionary, Chapman is credited with planting apple trees all over
what was the north and west at that time -- New England, New York, Pennsylvania,
Indiana, and Ohio especially. He didn't plant orchards; he planted nurseries and
then sold the seedlings to settlers who wanted to establish orchards (one way of
obtaining land permits). There are no records of how many apple trees Chapman
planted, but he left over 1,200 acres of apple tree nurseries to his sister at
his death.
The apple trees that grew from Chapman's seedlings did not bear edible fruit. That popular image of mop-haired Johnny Appleseed biting into a nice, juicy apple is totally fictitious. According to author/activist Michael Pollan, Johnny Appleseed was morally against grafting and he used only wild apples for his seedlings. The resultant apples were inedible and could be used only for cider: "Really," wrote Pollan, "what Johnny Appleseed was doing and the reason he was welcome in every cabin in Ohio and Indiana was he was bringing the gift of alcohol to the frontier. He was our American Dionysus."...
The tradition of distilling applejack is very much a part of Ohio, and one major proponent of that tradition is Tom Herbruck. Tom, who makes his home on a farm near Chagrin Falls, in the northeast part of the state, began producing applejack in the old, traditional way back around the end of the 1990s, using a 50-gallon pot still he'd bought several years earlier. Those were the days when any legal production of liquor was the result of months and years of petitioning and succeeding in getting laws changed to a more rational interpretation of the 21st Amendment (the repeal of National Prohibition). Many of those late '90s pioneers made corn whiskey (see our pages on White Whiskey), but the distillery that would become known as "Tom's Foolery" produced true applejack, and that's all.
At least that WAS all until this century, when Herbruck found himself with an opportunity of a lifetime for a young distiller. He was able to purchase a small, one-barrel-a-day capacity pot still from David Beam (of THOSE Beams). This still has a unique place in the history of American whiskey. It was originally built by the Vendome copper company in 1976 and installed in what was then America's oldest operating distillery, in the little town of Schaefferstown, Pennsylvania. The actual name of the distillery was Pennco, and the main still there in the 1970s was a four-story column still, similar to those used by nearly everyone in the industry. But most people think of a different name for the place. That's because there was a retail store on the property, which was (at least officially) not owned by Pennco. It was called Michters Jug House, and sold souvenir "jugs" of whiskey to tourists. The brand later grew large enough to warrant normal glass bottles, as well as ceramic decanters, and national (or at least regional) distribution. Tourism was still an important feature of Michters' operations, though, and as part of the Bicentennial fever of 1976, they installed this tiny pot still at the Jug House to show tourists how whiskey was made. David Beam set up the still back then, and Dick Stoll, the master distiller for Pennco, operated the little pot still for only a few years before Pennco (and Michters) closed its doors. The still, along with all the supporting equipment, was purchased by David Beam , dismantled, and taken to Bardstown, Kentucky, where it remained in storage for many years. For more about that, see the photos on our page about Michters, where we visited David Beam and saw the still.
In 2011, Tom and Lianne Herbruck purchased the still and had it shipped to Chagrin Falls, Ohio. Along with the still they got both David Beam and Dick Stoll to set it up and show them how to operate it. The first product from the still was applejack, but almost immediately Tom began mashing bourbon and rye whiskey and distilling that at the same one-53-gallon-barrel-a-day rate as before.
We visited the Herbrucks in August of 2012. The distillery, which is not really open to the public (although the new facility they're building just up the road will be open in 2016 and will offer tours), is located in the barn of their lovely farmhouse. In fact, the upper floor loft was once the playroom for their little girls and their crayon-colored drawings still adorn the walls.
We brought with us an unopened bottle of pre-prohibition applejack dating from right around 1900 and we proceeded to open and taste it with Tom. We were all surprised that it was very little like what we think of as applejack today, tasting thicker and sweeter, more like an oak-y apple liqueur.
We had hoped to obtain a bottle of Tom's applejack for our own collection, but there was none left, except what was still aging. At the time he was concentrating only on producing bourbon and rye, and the oldest of that had aged only a few months. He was distilling various mash bills, and in fact had just completed one such distillation that very morning. Magnanimously, Tom allowed John the "honor" of cleaning out the still, while Linda and Lianne looked on (trying not to giggle too loudly). Later we tasted samples from some of Tom's ornately painted barrels. We enjoyed several samples and anxiously awaited the two or so years it would take before full bottled retail product would become available.
Well, that was then, and this is now. As we write this today (May 2015) bottles of Tom's Foolery Straight Bourbon (and rye, too) can be found on store shelves all over Ohio and other states. For those who cherish the heritage of American whiskey this would be a must to try. For those who are especially enamored of anything Michter, consider this -- What is in that bottle of Tom's Foolery whiskey is a product produced on the original Michter Jug House still, by the student of both David Beam and Dick Stoll. It is as close to the original Michters whiskey as you will ever taste. Oh, and for those who just enjoy good craft-distilled bourbon, well this sure hits that point, too.
On their website (www.tomsfoolery.com), which Lianne publishes, you can access a complete database of every barrel they've made, including those that have been bottled and those still maturing. The database gives minute detail, including the variety of corn, rye, barley, the mashing process, barreling proof, even who made the barrel and what degree of char. In this age of "craft distillers" re-bottling sourced product as their own, as far as we know, no other craft whiskey distiller -- and certainly no major distillery -- publishes this information. For a connoisseur, this is nerd-heaven. About the only thing they don't give you is the corn farmer's daughter's phone number.
... Now, according to the Smithsonian Institute, the last remaining Chapman-derived apple tree is still living (as of 2014) on a farm in Nova, Ohio, about 70 miles southwest of Chagrin Falls. Some historians dismiss that belief based on the fact that it is a Rambo apple tree and Rambo apples, while an antiquated variety that was known in Chapman's time, were grafted plants and Chapman did not use grafted plants. For those of us who (attempt) to weave our way through American whiskey's history, such comes as no real surprise. Suffice it to say that if you find yourself in Nova, Ohio, standing in front of the "last Johnny Appleseed tree", you might want to allow yourself a moment to contemplate the man to whom it is attributed, without doubt or shame. Most of American whiskey's sacred spots are no more valid, nor any less valid, a memorial.
Story and original photography copyright © 2015 by John F. Lipman. All rights reserved.


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Linkage Announces Recipients of 2019 Women in Leadership Executive Impact Award
Sarah Breigle, Sr. Director of Marketing, Linkage, Inc.
firstname.lastname@example.com | 781.402.5599
Date: August 27, 2019
BOSTON, Mass: Each year Linkage, a leading provider of strategic leadership development solutions, presents the Women in Leadership Executive Impact Award to three executives who have demonstrated a commitment to the advancement of women leaders and consistently go above and beyond to make a difference. This year's recipients are:
- Corinne Mescher, Vice President Marketing, Global Brand Strategy at MGA Entertainment
- Barbara Turner, President and Chief Operating Officer of Ohio National Financial Services
- Nancy R. Corcoran-Davidoff, Executive Vice President, Chief Experience & Human Resources Officer of Hackensack Meridian Health
Recipients of the award are innovators and change-makers who are committed to developing and implementing new approaches to achieving gender parity within their organizations and beyond. They work to advance and support women leaders at all levels in meaningful ways.
"The personal stories of these three leaders are inspirational case studies of what it takes to achieve results and make an impact," said Kristen Howe, Chief Product Officer at Linkage. "I am extremely impressed by the work these incredible leaders do every day to accelerate the development of women leaders, and I am proud to recognize their contributions to women's leadership."
The recipients will be presented with their award at Linkage's 20th Annual Women in Leadership Institute™ (WIL) in Phoenix, Arizona, on November 11–14, 2019. They will also participate in a panel hosted by Wall Street legend and author Carla Harris, during which they will share insights with 900+ women leaders representing every industry.
About Linkage: For more than 30 years, Linkage has been changing the face of leadership. Through our work with more than one million leaders, we continue to evolve our leadership data, insights and frameworks—empowering leading organizations to solve their most vexing leadership challenges. From developing effective, purposeful leaders to advancing women and creating cultures of inclusion, we guide our clients with proven Solutions to create transformative change.

subset: commoncrawl


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Why Panama
Buying property in Panama is safe and easy – foreigners enjoy the same property rights as Panamanians. There are over a dozen laws in the country that have been enacted to specifically protect foreign investors. Panama's constitution also protects private property and its owners. Every year, thousands of property transaction are conducted without problems.
What's the main attraction? Price. Property in Panama is relatively affordable. Buyers can purchase highly-desirable property in Panama for less than one third or one half what they might pay for comparable property in the U.S.
Foreign investors love Panama and have targeted this nation as a prime destination for a second home for vacations, retirement and investment.
Additionally, there is real estate readily available in Panama to suit all budgets and tastes. From a luxurious high-rise apartment, to a tropical beachfront condo, or a breezy mountain retreat, there is a perfect piece of Panama property for every type of person.
Source Central America Second Homes


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Featuring an entire week of parties and special events, Kid-O-Rama at Alpine Meadows promises to be one of the most exciting celebrations of the season. From February 13 to 21, you'll find fun attractions from 8 am to 9 pm each day. Check out firetrucks, grooming machines and snowplows during the Big Truck Event, make something special in the craft room, and dance until it hurts at a street party. Highlights of the Kid-O-Rama festival include the following:
- Big Truck Day with snowcats & snowmobiles
- Kids Deck Party with DJ Treez & cookie happy hour
- Light Up the Night with night tubing & mini snowmobiling
- Climbing wall – try it for free
- Live music & street parties
- Crazy helmet day with decorations for your helmet
- All-kid game and craft room
- … plus much more!
Are you planning a family getaway to the Tahoe area? Stay at our relaxed resort and enjoy a premium lakefront setting. We offer easy access to skiing, climbing, fishing, water sports, shopping, dining and sightseeing. Do you want to learn more about things to do in Truckee? Read to make reservations? Give us a call today at 1 (855) 979 0402, and start planning your next vacation.


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24 W Main St, Hummelstown, PA 17036
Local: 717-566-7500Email Us
- 24 W Main St, Hummelstown, PA 17036
Bouquet of Seasonal FlowersIntercat-1704
A hand-tied bouquet filled with assorted flowers such as alstroemeria, orchids, and more accented with greens.
All items featured on this site represent the types of arrangements we offer and may vary depending upon availability in certain regions. Substitution Policy


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Coeliac UK Research Conference 9 – 10 March 2016
Come and join us at the Coeliac UK Research Conference 9 – 10 March 2016
For 2016 we will be holding a two day event. The first day will provide an update on research in coeliac disease and the second day will focus on research which supports or directly underpins the Charity's strategic aims around diagnosis and management of the condition.
Day one: Coeliac disease; current controversies and advances
This conference will provide an opportunity to gain a broad update on research in coeliac disease, the current controversies and advances in diagnosis, management and therapeutics.
- Pitfalls in biopsy readout in coeliac disease; Professor Markku Mäki
- Emerging issues in the diagnosis of coeliac disease in paediatrics; Dr Peter Gillett
- Oats in coeliac disease – do we have the full picture; Professor Knut Lundin
- Update on therapeutic advances; Professor Ludvig Sollid
- Could hookworms act as a living drug for coeliac disease; Professor David Pritchard
- Measuring quaility of life in coeliac disease – development of the CDAQ; Helen Crocker
- Refractory coeliac disease; Professor Christophe Cellier
- Non coeliac gluten sensitivity; Professor Simon Murch
We encourage researchers, pathologists, gastroenterologists, dietitians and other healthcare professionals with an interest in coeliac disease to attend the conference which provides an opportunity for continuing professional development and networking.
Call for abstracts
There is a call for abstracts for day one of the conference. There will be a poster session during the lunch break, with a £500 prize for the best poster, to fund the lead author's attendance at an international event, to increase dissemination of the research. Please email submissions forms to the Research Manager, Dr Heidi Urwin, by 12 February.
Day two: Diagnosis and management of coeliac disease – time for reflection
This conference will focus on the research that supports or directly underpins the Charity's strategic aims around diagnosis and management of coeliac disease. There will be plenty of opportunity for discussion and the aim is to produce a report on the conference proceedings to aid the development of public policies in support of patients with coeliac disease.
- NICE guideline on coeliac disease – the research gaps; Rachel Houten
- Epidemiology of coeliac disease in the UK; Dr Colin Crooks
- Helping to diagnose coeliac disease in primary care; Dr Geraint Preest
- Point of care tests in coeliac disease – new emerging evidence; Dr Michelle Lau
- Community pharmacy and coeliac disease; Alastair Buxton
- Scottish Gluten-Free Food Service; Alpana Mair
- Follow up in children with coeliac disease; Dr Margreet Wessels
- Dietitian led group coeliac clinics vs dietetic standard care in newly diagnosed patients; Nick Trott
- Management of patients with persistent symptoms; Dr Matthew Kurien.
We encourage GPs, pharmacists, dietitians and other healthcare professionals with an interest in coeliac disease to attend the conference.
10am to 4:15pm, Wednesday 9 – 10 March, 2016.
Royal College of Physicians, 11 St Andrews Place, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4LE
How much?
The event is free to attend due to the kind sponsorship of Casillo Group, Cereal Partners Worldwide, Glutafin, ImmusanT, Juvela, Provena and Thermo Fisher Scientific.
I would like to attend
To register your interest in attending the event please apply here. Please be sure to indicate on the form whether you wish to attend the first or second day or both conferences.


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Using Energy Efficient Light Bulbs to Go Green
Going green is something that seems to be increasingly popular with each passing day. Going green for the planet is not something that is just the newest hip trend; caring about the environment should be something that everyone should be pitching in to do. Many companies nowadays are incorporating the corporate social responsibility in the practices of their companies. It seems like more and more products are advertising that they are environmentally friendly thus saving money on your bills. From more fuel efficient cars to cleaning products that are not as harsh, many products are making the switch to help you save.
Light bulbs are also one of the many products that are changing as the green trend grows in popularity. Change Your Light Bulb and Change Your WorldIf everyone in the world changed one of the bulbs that they have in their home to one of the energy efficient bulbs, there would be enough energy saved to light over three million homes for at least one year. That would save roughly six hundred million dollars in electricity and energy costs. Energy efficient bulbs also last longer than their traditional incandescent cousins. Energy efficient bulbs tend to emit less heat than other types of bulbs, which can make them less of a fire hazard. These types of lights are perfect for holiday decorating for a number of different reasons. It is easy to see why so many people are making the switch.
Save Money While Going GreenIf you are considering making the switch to more energy efficient light bulbs you might be wondering whether you should wait until your old bulbs burn out before officially making the switch. While you may think you are saving money by not throwing away a perfectly good light bulb, you are wrong. You could be saving yourself even more money than the cost of just a few light bulbs. You can even order models of these bulbs that are weather proof. Users can expect the same if not a better performance from energy efficient bulbs. Energy efficient bulbs not only help save you money on your electric bill each month, they can also last up to seventy five percent longer than a regular incandescent light bulb. Regardless of whether you are going green to save the environmental or are just looking for ways to save on cash, energy efficient bulbs are the way to go.


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We are Saskatoon's Concrete Artisans.
Concrete installation is an art form. Our certified concrete experts create unique, yet practical, concrete products with a "showpiece" finish.
It all began in 2002…
Serving Saskatoon and Area with quality concrete services, Stone Temple Decorative Concrete evolved from K & B Concrete Ltd, which started in 2002 as a small two man operation.
Since day one, our main objective has been a high standard of professionalism, quality workmanship, and customer satisfaction. Our enthusiastic and open-minded approach has spurred on many creative and unique designs.
STDC Decorative Concrete patio and driveway
Testimonials / Our Satisfied Customers
Look no further the search stops here for the best of the best!
Russ and his guys did not disappoint. Our pool deck turned out even better than I had imagined and it was done before we knew it! Russ used a fossil and fern leaves to add a special decorative touch which we love. We look forward to spending many sunny days enjoying the patio. Truly happy with the result.
We had a great experience dealing with Stone Temple. The crew arrived on time and the job was completed in a timely manner. We were very pleased with the end result. They were professional and a pleasure to work with. We would highly recommend Stone Temple.
I needed a big concrete floor for a job just outside Saskatoon but could not find the right company until I found K&B. They did an exceptional job and I was very pleased with the quality of their work.
I had my stamped concrete done around my pool and it looks awesome. I am very pleased with the work that Russ and his team did at Stone Temple Decorative Concrete. I would recommend them to anybody.
Dealing with Stone Temple was a joy. They came to the house, listened to our ideas, then took those ideas and laid them out on the ground for us to see. Seeing our ideas in real life made the process much easier. The professionalism and workmanship is top notch. They really care about the customers happiness. I would recommend Stone Temple to anyone looking for concrete work.
The quality of work is outstanding. The employees and owner of STDC are truly craftsman when it comes to concrete work. They are courteous and responsive and the work is done in a timely manner for a fair price.
The guys did a great job on my broomed concrete driveway and sidewalk. They showed up when they said they would and did a great job AND I paid the price on the quote!


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Contemporary Storage Furniture
Contemporary storage furniture is a home organization essential. This type of furniture is versatile, multifunctional, and suitable for use in every room. Depending on the piece, it can be used to divide a large, open-concept floor plan. In tight spaces, storage pieces can be used multifunctionally. Home storage furnishings often feature open storage, closed storage, or a combination of the two. Open storage, such as a contemporary bookcase, offers shelving or cubbies to house practical items and decorative objects. Design objects can be displayed, while more pragmatic items can be neatly organized on the shelves or within the cubbies. Depending on the depth of the unit, some storage pieces can be outfitted with baskets to hide the less visually pleasing things that need a home. Furniture with closed storage, such as a modern storage credenza, is usually designed with drawers or doors that conceal shelves. This is ideal for minimizing the appearance of clutter in common spaces. Learn about the different types of storage furniture to discover what's best for your space.
Types of Storage Furniture
Home storage furniture comes in a wide range of silhouettes, styles, and materials. A low storage unit is usually horizontally oriented, whereas bookcases and standing shelves make use of vertical space. Evaluate the size and layout of your room to determine whether a low or tall piece of storage furniture is better suited to your space. A living room credenza or sideboard is a good example of a low storage unit. This type is usually waist-high and often features doors that open to reveal shelves or drawers. If you're looking to store formal dinnerware, cutlery, and table linens, opt for a credenza storage cabinet. For your library of books and magazines, choose a bookshelf and storage unit combination. This type combines shelves, which offer open storage, and closed-door cubbies for concealed storage space. Finally, modular storage pieces allow you to customize your shelving for a built-in look. Opt for this type to create a customized media unit or library. When arranging items on a tall bookcase, always place the heaviest objects on the bottom. It's also a good practice to bolt tall storage pieces to the wall to prevent the shelving from tipping.
How to Choose Storage Furniture For Your Home
When choosing pieces for your home, first decide if you need horizontally or vertically oriented pieces. Then ask yourself if you prefer open or closed storage. Opt for a credenza with doors to furnish a dining room or to store board games in a living room setting. HAY storage pieces are modular and versatile, featuring a powder-coated metal bookshelf, cabinet, media unit, and more. If you're looking for small storage furniture, choose a functional storage bookcase or cabinet with a low profile but plenty of storage capacity. Store baskets on open shelves to minimize the appearance of clutter.
For more insights into the design of HAY storage furniture, read HAY's Studio Visit with Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec. Shop HAY to find high-quality contemporary solutions for all your storage needs.
Any Questions So Far? We Can Help.
If you have any questions, please contact us at 833-849-3025 or email@example.com.


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title attribute should be used, as long as this attribute is is not being used as the accessible name.
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← Return to main list


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The Four Zoas: Intention and Production
Paul Mann's challenging theory in "The Final State of The Four Zoas" offers an opportunity for others to test their sense of Blake's plans for his long and various manuscript poem. Mann very kindly allowed me to read his essay before publication and accepted my suggestion that I send to this journal a companion piece in the hope that the two articles together will produce more light than would either in isolation. I wish merely to pursue a few lines of speculation that support his basic theory but evolve into a hypothesis about Blake's first plans for his text.
I trust it has become something of a truism that Blake was much concerned with the processes and materials of publication. A man trained to the book and print business of his time who also invented a number of unconventional ways of producing and distributing images could hardly avoid such interests. A corollary proposition is that Blake's works are media specific—that is, his images (whether pictorial or calligraphic) differ in some observable ways because of the different technologies used to produce them. Given the practical exigencies of image production, as well as Blake's insistence on the radical unity of conception and execution,1↤ 1 See, for example, Blake's statement that "Invention depends Altogether upon Execution or Organization" in his annotations (c. 1808) to Reynolds' Discourses and similar statements in the Public Address (c. 1811). The best and most recent study of this central principle of Blake's aesthetics is Morris Eaves, William Blake's Theory of Art (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), Chap. III. it is reasonable to assume that the preliminary stages in the development of an image may reveal the medium in which Blake intended to produce the final form of that image. I take this to be the perspective, as well as the context in which we are to understand the meaning of "intention," implicit in Mann's essay. I share that perspective and usage, and thus I will also view The Four Zoas manuscript not only as the "text" of a "poem" (i.e., the physical embodiment of an aesthetic experience) but also as a preliminary—perhaps even a mockup—for a subsequent work never executed.
Is The Four Zoas manuscript the signifier of an unrealized intention to produce the poem in some other form? The physical condition of the work as we know it, with its deletions, erasures, marginal insertions, and designs rendered as pencil sketches, immediately suggests as much. Mann has argued cogently that Blake did not intend to create a single illuminated manuscript—either the one we have or another never executed—as an end in itself. Such works are generally produced on commission only, much as Blake was hired by Flaxman, Butts and others to make watercolored illustrations to the works of other poets, but it is difficult even to imagine a late eighteenth-century sponsor for an epic like Vala or The Four Zoas. This does not, of course, allow us to rule out completely the theory that Blake originally planned to create a beautiful illuminated manuscript as his final product and only later allowed it to degenerate into a working draft. Yet, as Mann suggests, Blake's entire career as a publisher indicates a consistent desire to find a wider audience for his poetry than the very limited number of people who could see, read, and be moved by a unique manuscript. From the prospectus of October 1793 to the first chapter of Jerusalem (c. 1804-1820), Blake addressed himself "To the Public"2↤ 2 The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake, Newly Revised Edition, ed. David V. Erdman (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of Calif. Press, 1982), pp. 145 (Jerusalem, pl. 3), 692 (1793 prospectus). and tried an extraordinary range of media and publication methods to reach them.
The development of Blake's publishing efforts in the mid- and late-1790s provides some sense of the range of media he had available for the publication of his illustrated poetry. In 1795, Blake published The Book of Los and The Book of Ahania (illus. 4). Both have texts etched in intaglio, whereas the other illuminated books were printed from letters etched in relief.3↤ 3 The one exception discovered to date is the title page of The Song of Los (1795), which appears to have been printed planographically. See Essick, William Blake, Printmaker (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 128-29. This title page, like the evolution of the 1795 color printed drawings, offers further evidence of Blake's movement away from relief etching in the mid-1790s. The visual differences between intaglio and relief letters are less significant than the considerable changes in production procedures. It is not at all clear why Blake abandoned his own invention, relief etching, which he trumpeted as both a practical and beautiful method of self-publication in his 1793 prospectus, and returned to a far more conventional medium.4↤ 4 There are a number of English eighteenth-century books with etched and/or engraved texts, including several illustrated editions of Philip Ayres, Emblems of Love. Several Continental publications of considerable length were completely engraved, including a Virgil in five volumes (The Hague: Henry Justice, 1753-1767) and an edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses in 141 plates (Paris: Basan et Lemire,[e] plates dated 1767-1770). The Books of Los and Ahania are also notable for their paucity of interlinear decoration, as in letterpress, even though the intaglio medium would not in itself prohibit the root and vine motifs punctuating The Book of Urizen or even larger and more elaborate designs set anywhere on the page. Clearly, Richard Edwards' 1797 edition of Young's Night Thoughts, with a typographic text surrounded by intaglio designs on slightly less than half the printed pages, bears a special relationship to The Four Zoas. But we should also keep in mind The Book of Los and The Book of Ahania, for they indicate the medium Blake chose for the production of his own poetry published closest in time to the beginning of his labors on Vala or The Four Zoas.5↤ 5 G.E. Bentley, Jr., Blake Books (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), pp. 454-55, and Erdman, ed., Poetry and Prose of Blake, p. 817, agree that Blake worked on the manuscript c. 1796-1807. Blake Books summarizes the information Bentley first presented in his facsimile edition of Vala or The Four Zoas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963) and repeated in his edition of William Blake's Writings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), II, 1721-32.
Turning to the manuscript itself, we can immediately see that some pages are written in what Bentley calls a "Copperplate Hand" (illus. 1), others in a related begin page 210 | ↑ back to topbegin page 211 | ↑ back to top begin page 212 | ↑ back to top begin page 213 | ↑ back to top begin page 214 | ↑ back to top begin page 215 | ↑ back to top begin page 217 | ↑ back to top but "Modified Copperplate Hand," and still others in Blake's usual plain manuscript hand (illus. 2-3, 5-6).6↤ 6 Bentley, Blake Books, p. 455, where pp. 1-14, 17-18, 23-30 are listed as written in copperplate hand and pp. 15-16, 31-42 in modified copperplate. Erdman, ed., Poetry and Prose of Blake, p. 816, records pp. 1, 3-18, 23-42 as containing all the "fine copperplate script." Thus the only discrepancy is p. 2, the verso of the titlepage, which bears only a pencil sketch and a rough pencil inscription. In what follows, however, I will include that page among the "fine script" sections since it clearly accompanies pages written in that hand. Our sense of an important structural distinction between the copperplate and plain hands is reinforced by stab holes indicating that Blake "had once sewed together into one group all the sheets with elegant script [i.e., both copperplate and modified copperplate] and into another group those sheets . . . in his usual [plain] hand."7↤ 7 Erdman, ed., Poetry and Prose of Blake, p. 817. If we now consider the manuscript as a mockup, it is reasonable to begin with the assumption that the three hands may indicate at least two different intentions to publish. In what follows I will also assume that the deletions and marginal additions to pages bearing fine script, as well as designs that intrude into fine text areas (on page 25, for example), were made after the abandonment of whatever intentions for publication the copperplate hand(s) may embody.
Through a process of elimination and the weighing of practical probabilities, we can reach some conclusions about the intentions that may lurk behind those sections of The Four Zoas written in fine script. There would have been no reason to write in such a hand if the method of publication was to be either letterpress or relief etching. A typographic printer must of course select one of the available typefaces—or go to the great expense of having a new font case—regardless of the author's manuscript hand. All that is wanted is a clear script, as in the Tiriel manuscript and large portions of The Four Zoas itself. As for relief etching, that is a direct process in which the forms of the letters are composed directly on the copper. Here again, the manuscript needs to be no more elaborate than a fair copy. Blake may have even avoided that stage of production by moving directly from a finished working draft, of the sort found in his Notebook, to the copperplate because corrections can be made easily on the plate at any time before acid is applied. The one extant mockup for pages in a published illuminated book is a rough pencil sketch with only horizontal lines to indicate the approximate position of the text.8↤ 8 A drawing (sheet 22.4 × 31.7 cm.) for The Book of Thel, pl. 6, and an alternative design for pl. 7, recently acquired by the British Museum. See Martin Butlin, The Paintings and Drawings of William Blake (New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press, 1981), I, no. 218, and II, pl. 249. There is no extant manuscript for any of the illuminated books with lettering even vaguely like the copperplate hand(s) in The Four Zoas. This negative evidence cannot prove that such manuscripts never existed; but, given the production characteristics of relief etching, there are practical reasons why Blake need not have written such manuscripts. Even if Blake used a transfer method for applying his texts to the surface of the copper (which I very much doubt), the letters would have to be written on specially treated paper in a glutinous, acid-resistant material.9↤ 9 Such a method was invented by Ruthven Todd and W.S. Hayter and first described by Todd in 1948. See Todd, "The Techniques of William Blake's Illuminated Printing," reprinted in The Visionary Hand: Essays for the Study of William Blake's Art and Aesthetics, ed. Essick (Los Angeles: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1973), pp. 35-36. No part of The Four Zoas manuscript meets these requirements and it is difficult to conceive how they could be added after writing had begun.
We are left then with intaglio publication of text and illustration. As practiced in Blake's day, intaglio was an indirect process in that the image was generally developed to a fairly high level of completeness and finish in materials—usually pencil, ink, or wash on paper—preliminary to the graphic medium itself. This work was then transferred, often by mechanical or semimechanical means, to the copper. Blake describes a completely mechanical transfer process in his Notebook, but like most it requires an image executed in "black lead pencil"10↤ 10 "To Engrave on Pewter," Poetry and Prose of Blake, ed. Erdman, p. 694. Joseph Viscomi has demonstrated that Blake used this type of procedure for transferring the drawing for Jerusalem pl. 26 to the copper for etching in white line; see Blake: An Illustrated Quarterly, 16 (1982), 46. or chalk. In a letter to George Cumberland of 6 December 1795, Blake outlines a soft-wax technique that works very well for transferring an intaglio print to copper for reengraving.11↤ 11 Poetry and Prose of Blake, ed. Erdman, p. 700. Blake's method is very similar to the one described in Sculptura Historico-Technica: or, the History and Art of Engraving, Fourth Edition (London: J. Marks, 1770), pp. 99-100. Lines printed in intaglio are raised slightly above the surface of the paper, and thus it is possible to make an impression of them in a soft material. The copperplate hand in The Four Zoas is of course in ink on paper, and I suspect that even a soft-wax process would not permit its transfer.
If we must rule out mechanical transfer, the sections of The Four Zoas in copperplate hand could still serve a purpose for an intaglio etcher/engraver. After composing his script with some care on paper, Blake could look at the manuscript in a mirror and copy it backwards onto an etching ground or blank plate, following the manuscript letter-forms as closely as he wished within the limitations set by a nonmechanical method. This two-step process avoids the problems of composing (as distinct from copying) a handsome script backwards on a varnished plate or copper surface. Throughout the manuscript, Blake has consistently limited illustration to the margins and avoided interlinear designs on major pictures set between sections of the text on a single page. This format follows what we find in the intaglio plates of The Book of Los and The Book of Ahania. If the copperplate hand sections of The Four Zoas, before deletions and insertions, are in some sense a mockup for a publication, the most probable technology would seem to be a text etched and/or engraved in intaglio with surrounding intaglio designs. This method of production would allow Blake to produce the entire book using techniques in which he was thoroughly skilled and not require him, as would letterpress, to acquire the services of journeymen with tools and materials he did not himself possess.
Where would Blake acquire enough large copperplates to etch or engrave a poem anywhere near the length of Vala or The Four Zoas? Mann's suggestion that Blake may have acquired the Night Thoughts coppers from Richard Edwards is compelling. It is certainly possible that Blake was paid partly in copper for his labors on Night Thoughts, regardless of who retained the rights to publish the images first etched on the plates. By writing much of his poem on unused leaves of Whatman paper also left over from the Night Thoughts project, Blake insured that the size of his text blocks and accompanying designs would fit with minimal adjustments begin page 218 | ↑ back to top onto the plates illustrating Young. We need not assume that Blake intended to use the engraved Night Thoughts designs themselves in The Four Zoas. The proofs used in the later parts of the manuscript may be there because of similarities in format—a text panel surrounded by designs—rather than symbolic or thematic conjunctions between Young's poem and Blake's. The presence of proofs from the plate printed on page 73 of Night Thoughts, showing Christ crowned with thorns, on pages 59 (illus. 3), 111, and 115 (illus. 5) of The Four Zoas creates an unusually repetitious sequence of illustrations. It is unlikely that the present arrangement of Night Thoughts designs in the manuscript represents the format for an intended publication of any sort. If Blake did have the Night Thoughts coppers, he could simply scrape and burnish away the designs to Young's poem and etch or engrave new images. The backs of the plates could also be used, as in many of the illuminated books, for a total of eighty-six etchings and/or engravings—a good many more than the thirty-eight pages of The Four Zoas bearing fine script. Or, if one side only was to be used, perhaps it is significant that the number of fine script pages is just five short of the number of Night Thoughts coppers.
Pursuing this line of speculation a bit further, we should even consider the possibility that Blake abandoned the idea of using all the Night Thoughts plates for The Four Zoas between c. 1804 and 1807 and began using them for Milton and Jerusalem. By then the manuscript poem may have grown too long for the forty-three known Night Thoughts coppers,12↤ 12 There appears to have been at least one further plate, for a "leaf from Night 5" (presumably illustrated) was offered for sale by the London bookdealer Francis Edwards in a catalogue of c. 1927-1928, item 44 (£26). There may of course have been other plates acquired by Blake or Richard Edwards in contemplation of publishing further Nights of Young's poem. forcing on Blake some alternative publication plans if he had not already made them before extending the poem. Exact comparisons of the sizes of the Night Thoughts, Milton, and Jerusalem plates are not possible because of paper shrinkage and stretching and the unavoidable loss of some copper when a plate is cut and its edges beveled. It is certain, however, that the Night Thoughts plates could have supplied more than enough copper for both illuminated books. If pieces of copper were made from seventeen Night Thoughts plates by cutting along a horizontal line at a point 13.5 to 17 cm. from the top or bottom edge (ie., just short of the middle of the plate), each of the pieces could be cut into thirds to make three Milton coppers. If all seventeen pieces were cut this way they would provide a total of fifty-one plates for etching on one side.13↤ 13 We can assume that Jerusalem was etched on both sides of its copperplates because of paired platemark dimensions and the presence of platemakers' marks. (Many Milton plates can also be paired, but I know of no evidence of platemakers' marks). Each of the remaining, slightly larger pieces from these seventeen Night Thoughts plates could be cut in half to yield two Jerusalem coppers each, for a total of sixty-eight pages in the illuminated book if etched recto and verso. This procedure would require no further cutting, except possibly for minor trimming or filing of edges, and would waste very little copper.14↤ 14 Bentley, Blake Books, p. 225 n. 2, suggests that the Jerusalem plates could have been made from the text panels of the Night Thoughts coppers. This procedure would have wasted a good deal of copper, leaving large but awkwardly shaped and probably useless fragments. Other Jerusalem plates could have been cut from the remaining Night Thoughts coppers, although we know that at least plate 96 of the illuminated book was made from a quarter-piece of the "Moore & Co's Advertisement" Blake designed and engraved c. 1797-1798.15↤ 15 The telltale fragments of white lines from the Moore engraving were first pointed out and identified by Erdman in "The Suppressed and Altered Passages in Blake's Jerusalem," Studies in Bibliography, 17 (1964), 36-37. Other plates in Jerusalem may have been made from other pieces of the Moore copper—or for that matter from any used intaglio plate. The presence of the Moore plate in Jerusalem indicates that Blake may have retained possession of similar commercial engravings, clearly executed on commission, and reused them for his own productions. The possibility that Blake could have used Night Thoughts coppers for Milton and Jerusalem lends some (admittedly circumstantial and speculative) support to Mann's theory that Blake might have retained those very plates and once contemplated using them for Vala or The Four Zoas.
The plain-hand portions of The Four Zoas offer even less evidence than pages in copperplate hand concerning methods of publication. The intended medium might have been relief etching (although that still seems unlikely), intaglio etching/engraving, or letterpress. It is most tempting to conclude with Mann that the change from fine scripts to plain might record a change in publishing plans, roughly parallel in chronology to the shift from an unrecoverable poem entitled Vala to an unfinished poem entitled The Four Zoas.16↤ 16 Bentley accepts the usual assumption that the copperplate-hand portions were composed before the plain-hand pages and states that a reversal of this sequence "cannot . . . satisfactorily account for such diverse factors as symbolism, stab holes, corrections, and handwriting" (Blake Books, p. 455 and n. 5). Erdman notes that "on certain copperplate pages a distinctly late style appears in the script, marked by the g which Blake adopted after Nov. 1802" and states that "it is safer to conclude that the copperplate pages range in inception from 1797 to 1803" (Poetry and Prose of Blake, p. 817). Yet even if some of the fine script was written as late as 1803, the sequence of copperplate hand to plain is not thereby upset. The contextual and historical evidence Mann assembles in support of his letterpress hypothesis comes from what is generally taken to be a middle or later period in the development of the manuscript—the years with Hayley, 1800-1803. Blake's work with the provincial printer Joseph Seagrave on a book (the 1802 Ballads) with a typographic text and intaglio illustrations may have suggested a return to that combination of techniques, also used in Edwards' Night Thoughts edition, for the publication of The Four Zoas. Such a change could account for the appearance of Night Thoughts proofs in the plain script pages of the manuscript and the use of their text panels as a mockup for a projected publication with the same format. At this point, Blake could have cut up some of the Night Thoughts coppers for other purposes if the new plans for The Four Zoas required fewer than one design per page of text, again as in Night Thoughts. The first Night Thoughts proof appears on page 43 of the manuscript (illus. 2), immediately following the last page in fine script. If the plain-hand revisions to pages first composed in copperplate script are later revisions, as seems probable, the differences between pages 42 and 43 may record a significant shift in Blake's intentions for publication.17↤ 17 Bentley places page 42 as the last in a group he dates 1797 and page 43 (illus. 2) the first in a group he dates "?1802" (but see Erdman's statements on the date of the fine script in note 16, above). These are also the last and first pages in groups once separately sewn, as the two distinct patterns of stab-holes indicate (see Bentley, Blake Books, pp. 454-56).
As attractive as Mann's theory—or the combination Mann/Essick theory—may at first seem, the manuscript pages on Night Thoughts proofs exhibit a few recalcitrant features. The number of lines written in the text panels ranges between twenty-eight and fifty-seven (not including pages bearing part-titles or those on which Nights end short of the lower margin), the text begins above the panel on fourteen pages (illus. 6), and extends below it on two (illus. 5). Accommodating marginal additions would cause further dislocations. If these portions of the begin page 219 | ↑ back to top manuscript are a letterpress mockup, they form a rather loose one. Blake may have planned to create somewhat larger text panels in a variety of sizes. If the panels were not altered, a sympathetic printer might be able to manage difficulties by shifting the text about as required, although this would probably disrupt some text-design relationships. A minor form of this problem occurred in the production of the 1797 Night Thoughts, with the result that the lines illustrated by the design on page 54 begin on page 53.
The treatment of the Night Thoughts proof on page 137 of The Four Zoas (illus. 6) throws into doubt at least two of our theories. Blake has drawn-in the back of one of the wrestling figures right through the text panel. The text carefully follows the new lower left margin created by the outline of the back. If this drawing was composed as part of the development of The Four Zoas (as distinct from a drawing executed earlier for some other purpose), it strongly suggests that at least this one Night Thoughts design was to be used in Blake's poem. At the same time, the drawing argues against a letterpress text. It would not have been impossible to adjust the left margin of a typographic text according to the pencil line of the back, but such a format would have been highly unusual for an early nineteenth-century letterpress book. An etched or engraved text, however, would have accommodated the drawing without technical difficulties or the violation of printing conventions. On page 72 of the Edwards' Night Thoughts, a figure's head intrudes slightly into the lower right corner of the text panel, but this in no way disrupts normal letterpress margins. In spite of his introduction of printed designs with rigid text panels, Blake's extensions and revisions of The Four Zoas forced the manuscript ever further from a recognizable mockup.
At some point Blake must have given up any plans for eventual publication, and perhaps that occurred before he ceased fussing with the manuscript. If this is indeed the case, then the suggestions presented here can be summarized as a three-step process of changing plans for a manuscript reflecting those changes as follows:
a manuscript and production mockup for a poem (Vala?) intended for publication of text and designs as intaglio etchings/engravings (i.e., the Blake of Los and Book of Ahania format), tentatively dated c. 1796-1800;
a manuscript and production mockup for a poem (The Four Zoas?) intended for publication as a letterpress text accompanied by intaglio etched and/or engraved designs surrounding selected pages of text (i.e., the Night Thoughts format), tentatively dated c. 1800-1804;
a working manuscript unrelated to any specific publication intentions (i.e., The Four Zoas manuscript as we know it today), tentatively dated c. 1804-1807.
The foregoing has clearly proven only one proposition: it is impossible to prove any theory about Blake's production plans for The Four Zoas. Yet I believe that these companion essays may contribute to a better understanding of the manuscript and the intentions it never completely reveals. Our speculative arguments may have the additional benefit of providing a more comprehensive view of the evolution of Blake's activities as a poet, engraver, and printer from 1796 to 1807.


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Now that at least two coronavirus vaccines are on the horizon, and the end is in sight (if it isn't right around the corner), it's the perfect time to look ahead at some of the big opportunities 2021 has to offer.
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Cisco has had a tough 2020; even though it's up 24% from the March crash lows, it's still down around 14% on the year as the bullishness that's swept other stocks along to new highs passed Cisco over.
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