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the x86 instruction proprietary extensions: a waste of time, money and energyby Johan De Gelas on December 6, 2009 12:00 AM EST
- Posted in
- IT Computing general
Agner Fog, a Danish expert in software optimization is making a plea for an open and standarized procedure for x86 instruction set extensions. Af first sight, this may seem a discussion that does not concern most of us. After all, the poor souls that have to program the insanely complex x86 compilers will take care of the complete chaos called "the x86 ISA", right? Why should the average the developer, system administrator or hardware enthusiast care?
Agner goes in great detail why the incompatible SSE-x.x additions and other ISA extensions were and are a pretty bad idea, but let me summarize it in a few quotes:
So I fully support Agner Fog in his quest to a (slightly) less chaotic and more standarized x86 instruction set.
Agner goes in great detail why the incompatible SSE-x.x additions and other ISA extensions were and are a pretty bad idea, but let me summarize it in a few quotes:
- "The total number of x86 instructions is well above one thousand" (!!)
- "CPU dispatching ... makes the code bigger, and it is so costly in terms of development time and maintenance costs that it is almost never done in a way that adequately optimizes for all brands of CPUs."
- "the decoding of instructions can be a serious bottleneck, and it becomes worse the more complicated the instruction codes are"
- The costs of supporting obsolete instructions is not negligible. You need large execution units to support a large number of instructions. This means more silicon space, longer data paths, more power consumption, and slower execution.
Summarized: Intel and AMD's proprietary x86 additions cost us all money. How much is hard to calculate, but our CPUs are consuming extra energy and underperform as decoders and execution units are unnecessary complicated. The software industry is wasting quite a bit of time and effort supporting different extensions.
Not convinced, still thinking that this only concerns the HPC crowd? The virtualization platforms contain up to 8% more code just to support the incompatible virtualization instructions which are offering almost exactly the same features. Each VMM is 4% bigger because of this. So whether you are running Hyper-V, VMware ESX or Xen, you are wasting valuable RAM space. It is not dramatic of course, but it unnecessary waste. Much worse is that this unstandarized x86 extention mess has made it a lot harder for datacenters to make the step towards a really dynamic environment where you can load balance VMs and thus move applications from one server to another on the fly. It is impossible to move (vmotion, live migrate) a VM from Intel to AMD servers, from newer to (some) older ones, and you need to fiddle with CPU masks in some situations just to make it work (and read complex tech documents). Should 99% of market lose money and flexibility because 1% of the market might get a performance boost?
The reason why Intel and AMD still continue with this is that some people inside feel that can create a "competitive edge". I believe this "competitive edge" is neglible: how many people have bought an Intel "Nehalem" CPU because it has the new SSE 4.2 instructions? How much software is supporting yet another x86 instruction addition?
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wavebossa - Friday, January 22, 2010 - linkI realize that you guys are talking about cleaning up the x86 and fullly going 64bit, but lets not get carried away and lets actually focus on the article at hand..
So let me get this straight, at this point... we are are only wasting 4-8% ram utilization...?
Why not just, oh I don't know, buy more ram for now? I mean come on, we are not ready to get into to full 64bit, ppl still use windows 98, lol.
Am I missing something? please tell me if I am.
bcronce - Sunday, January 10, 2010 - link"As for your point about Microsoft choosing not to enable it in consumer based OS's, look also at the limitations in place on the commercial OS's not all of those support "36 bit PAE" (all NT based os's support PAE, it's a question of whether or not they use the 36 bits instead of just 32). it's an artificial selling point on the part of Microsoft, there is no reason to limit consumer 32 bit OS's to 4 gigs of ram except to place a "premium" on the ability to use more than that."
If you ever read MSDN, most consumer level drivers didn't correctly support PEA and drivers that don't handle PEA don't play well with 4GB+ memory. Random errors that were hard to track down or repeat. Essentially your drivers didn't recognize the extra 4bit and when Windows said "Hey, I got free memory at 123456 on page 2" the driver goes, "YAY!! free memory at 123456" and would overwrite data on a wrong page. Being drivers are kernel level, the OS couldn't say "no" and you'd get random corruption/blue screens/weirdness.
"Than my question would be why branch prediction,speculation on today AMD adn Intel cpu-s takes so much space from the core die."
Branch prediction takes about 1/15th of the die space of each core on and i7 and is ~94%+-1% accurate. A quick google brought back a few science journals saying about 10-12% increase in average speed. So, for about 7% of the core die area, you increase the core speed by ~10-12%. Sounds like a decent trade-off... For now. I could see just dropping branch prediction when we start to get a lot more cores and adding more cores with the saved space.
RISC vs CISC
This was more of a debate a decade ago. Now days, modern CPUs have 200+ internal registers that are managed by the CPU so you only see the standard x86 registers. Exposing extra registers helps up to a point, but in a modern desktop computer that's juggling many applications, it's better to let the CPU manage it's own registers to help context switches. RISC can be good for low power situations though.
Modern decoders could use a slimming by removing old deprecated instructions. I would be interested on how much die space could be saved by slimming down a decoder unit to work with all the modern versions of old instructions. I know the i7 has a quite complex decoder. It can combine multiple x86 instructions into single internal instructions. When the i7 detects a loop and if the loop can fit all of its converted micro-code into the instruction cache, it will shut down the decoder to save power.
HollyDOL - Wednesday, December 9, 2009 - linkAnd I say we should all stop using gasoline based vehicles right now.
It's the same thing... While there are some more or less working alternatives you would effectively kill whole traffic.
Same with computers... If you decide to throw away x86 (and it's 1234 extensions) or decide to reduce the set in favor of trashing outdated instructions, you are no longer backward compatibile and you are causing huge havoc... Will my software run on this reduced set or that reduced set, what do I need to make it work?
Even though the x86+extensions gets more and more bloated over time you have to keep in mind backward compatibility. And emulators? I still have to see one that works 100%.
Extensions being useless? Another point that I personaly consider false. My computer runs SETI@Home application... and the same task is done almost twice as fast using optimized application compared to normal one. Of my own software I have one cross comparing huge sets of data. Using 32bit ISA I can compare 32x32 records at one step... running the same software 64bit I compare 64x64 records at once... yay, just recompiling the app made it 4 times faster...
I don't like the ISA getting bigger and bigger but I understand there is a reason behind that. Going to extremes if not for ISA extensions we would still run floating point operations on software emulation.
my 2 cents
- Thursday, December 10, 2009 - linkThe PC is a dinosaur and its X86 instruction set is a dodo bird. Relative to the Iphone, the PC is an underpowered overpriced shell of "could have been's" . The Iphone gives the illusion of new age productivity- heck , I can flick my thumb to scroll- use two or three fingers to enlarge on two planes or three, I can watch movies, listen to music-and take it with me. Talk, internet, text, take and send pics…My computer uses a mouse, my productive programs use menus, as I click, click, click, to get things done- and oh the complexity of Word, Photoshop, C++. Rendering a photo still takes time at any cost –and who wants to spend $700 on a CPU for a 20% savings in productivity, on a Saturday afternoon. And ya know even if there were apps like the Iphone for a PC, it would take a a Quad Core CPUGPU to run and do what the IPhone does, thanks to Microsoft. It finally appears that Intel will no longer hinder the progress of the CPU's, only now it finally melds with the coprocessor; a hybrid- fusion – the king is dead, long live the king
RadnorHarkonnen - Friday, December 11, 2009 - linkI giggled like a little girl.
Have you tried to simulate a CISCO router on X86 CPU ? a 16mhz can bring the latests quad core to its knees. And running a GUI on cisco router ? Impossible.
Diferent chips do difernet things mate. And btw i prefer my APhone.
ProDigit - Wednesday, December 9, 2009 - linkShould Windows ever be written for an ARM processor, we'd see battery life gains, and probably also cost reduction.
If MS would put it's focus away from the x86 architecture, intel would be done for!
And AMD would rule, because they have knowledge of the other architecture thanks to their GPU building.
Then the world would be much easier and simpler!
Intel would probably start making chips that support other architectures, and probably get some optimizations on them;
But for some reason it's MS that decides what architecture leads!
With many more newer Linux distributions supporting other architectures, AMD and Intel could start making those chips too, but I think they know that those markets are rather small...
If MS came out with it's first Windows Mobile platform that would run on anything else than x86/64 we'd probably see a huge leap from one to the other.
Netbooks, MIDS, cellphones, all would be able to run Windows, and quite energy efficient!
I believe some netbooks have been tested, where a certain Linux would give 5-6 hours on x86 cpu's, while giving between 8 and 10 hours on ARM architecture.
The ARM processor was a bit slower than the Atom, but nevertheless, if we'd see 2 hours of battery life gain on netbooks (or about 30% gain), that it will be something to look forward to!
That's a big step forward!
Scali - Thursday, December 10, 2009 - linkI don't think MS decides.
Back in the days of Windows NT 4, Microsoft supported x86, MIPS, Alpha and PowerPC (and for this reason, Windows NT was designed from scratch to be highly portable... In fact, the 32-bit Windows NT executable format is even called Portable Executable).
You could run x86 binaries via a dynamic recompiler.
By the time Windows 2000 arrived, most of these architectures were no longer being used in servers or workstations, so they only supported x86 and Itanium (where Itanium again got a dynamic recompiler for x86 after it turned out that the hardware-emulation of x86 wasn't that efficient).
Later they added x86-64 support, and that's where we are today. Aside from Itanium, non-x86 systems are no longer supported, because there's nothing that really has any significant marketshare worth supporting.
Ofcourse the alternative Windows CE/Mobile works on ARM, and supports most of the Windows API. But until recently, ARM was not powerful enough to run a complete up-to-date desktop OS, so there was no point in doing a 'full port' of the regular x86 Windows. Perhaps that time will come once ARM-based netbooks become more popular.
It seems that MS would like to bring Windows 7 and Windows Mobile closer together anyway.
cbemerine - Wednesday, December 30, 2009 - link"...But until recently, ARM was not powerful enough to run a complete up-to-date desktop OS, so there was no point in doing a 'full port' of the regular x86 Windows. Perhaps that time will come once ARM-based netbooks become more popular. ..."
I would suggest that it has more to do with lack of marketing then desktop OS. As I had a computer in the palm of my hand in 2005/2006 thanks to Linux, Maemo, OS 2008 and the Nokia Nxxx (N770/N800). If only Nokia would have marketed it more effectively. Of course Google will do a much better job advertising their new open Linux Google Android phone than Nokia did/does so perhaps that time is now.
If by saying the ARM is not powerful enough to run a complete up-to-date desktop OS you are referring to MS Windows specifically, then you are correct. The bloat, excessive memory requirements speak for themselves. I still lament the inability to reformat the hard drive, remove all bloat and run efficiently. With auto updates and auto upgrades the bloat is back after the first update and the poor user simply does not have any choice in the matter.
However Linux has been running very effectively for many years in the embedded device space, with low levels of RAM memory and slower processors. I doubt you would suggest that Linux is not a desktop OS? At least I hope not.
Now that the Nokia N900 (has cellular...I had everything else I needed with the Nokia N800.
With the Nokia N800 I had: GPS, H.264 high def video codec, webcam, 2 memory slots (I still have not filled up my two 4GB Micro SSD memory cards and I see both 16GB and 32GB for sub $20 via Amazon of all places...it was a special months ago), full web browser, mic/sound jacks and speakers; WiFi; Bluetooth; touchscreen w/ stylus, full size bluetooth keyboard, and most important of all root account access (so you can tweak/configure applications); FM Chip...
In fact there were over 450 apps available for the N800 and OS 2008 (Linux Maemo) last year, not counting the many Linux repositories where you could download and install apps on the device.
Now in addition to the Nokia N900, 1st quarter 2010 will bring the first unlocked (root accessible with blessings of company from the beginning) Google Android.
Shame the ability to install many applications on a computer this size since 2005/2006 has not been adequately advertised and marketed. Everyone I showed mine too, wanted one. How many people believe the Nokia N900 is the first, when the only thing it has, that the N900 (2006) does not is cellular, thats it.
If you prefer the iPhone, Windows Mobile or other vendor locked OS and hardware, well that is a choice you made.
The ARM is definitely powerful enough to run a desktop OS, but not every desktop OS. There are many versions of Linux, embedded or not, that will simply scream on that footprint (processor and memory). After all there are many Linux distros that will run just fine in 128MB of RAM, more is better, but they will do it!
Perhaps you have picked the wrong desktop OS!
Scali - Monday, January 4, 2010 - link'2006' qualifies as 'recently' with me. Making the rest of your post void.
Penti - Saturday, December 12, 2009 - linkBack in those days Microsoft even helped designing non-x86 systems.
Windows NT was actually originally designed for Intel's RISC chip - Intel i860, but dropped before they completed. Or really OS/2 we might say.
Any way Intel not developing Itanium does of course effect things, IA-64 or Itanium is dead. New products aren't really coming. Compaq killed Alpha-support when they bought DEC. And so on. The world wasn't so uniform before. Now there's mainly ARM, x86 and some POWER and SPARC, MIPS is still there in the embedded space too. In the mid 90's there where MIPS, POWER, x86, SPARC, Alpha and PA-RISC all big. ARM was brewing then too. Of course the seizure of PA-RISC development also has stopped the old HP-UX market from evolving. It didn't pick up much steam on Itanium. Latest Itaniums are dual-core 1.66GHz 90nm processors and didn't get hw virtualization until 2006. So it's understandable. Of course you much rather run high-end x86 servers. Or even Power or SPARC for that matter. Microsoft has no real interest to continue support for Itanium either. They did release 2008 Server however but. They where mainly used for MS SQL Server any way. Ancient hardware makes it unappealing for even that. But of course did MS had a role there. But they decided to run with x86. By the time 64-bit computing became interesting for their market both AMD and Intel had come with x86 cpus supporting it. Only natural for the databases to move there. While Sun and IBM still has their UltraSPARC and POWER servers. They made more strategic choices so software was continued together with hardware. MS could have supported IA64 better and pushed it. So could Intel. It's not like we has to have the same cpus in are desktops as in our servers. But it's mainly Intel that has decided that. They did try RISC cpus, EPIC and so forth. But x86 is where they did succeed where they failed with the others. Itanium didn't really get any real server features so, there's one where maybe they didn't learn so much. It's Intel in the 90's that was able to compete and outdo MIPS and Alpha systems. I can think of Pentium Pro that was a huge performer, Alpha was preferred for some use in high-end for a while, but was killed by Compaq and the failure of DEC. Apple is the ones behind why Windows never took of on PowerPC in a way, no PReP compatible Power Macintosh was released, clones where killed quickly. But however that is all pretty moot because people developed for Windows to get away from all that need to support multiple platforms and architectures. In a way the success of x86 is that it isn't bound to a single vendor. That broad adoption couldn't really be achieved by any one else. Of course the home and lower end corporate market has a lot to do with it. DOS lived for a long time. Where games go it wasn't really till 97 we where starting to see Windows games. The market moved to consolidate the diverse industry it was. Apple show however that MS could have switched arch if they wanted too. But none such move where really made, then came the Pentium Pro as far as workstations and servers are concerned. Then P2, P3, etc. All the rest where ancient history by then when talking none vendor-specific systems. Apple did got the Power-desktop market, Sun moved away from their sparc workstations, the workstation-market as a whole disappeared and the only player in the desktop market was really x86. And it was really the only way to move away from the kind of multi-vendor market with vendor lock-ins that where prevalent. That applied to servers too.
Regarding binary emulation and such, it isn't until recently that could be made, therefore I think it was right that for example Apple didn't switch to x86 with OS X right away, they needed that backwards compatibility. For Classic environment. So backwards compatibility matters and it's only recently the software has turned up and the hardware is good enough to do it. Dropping x86 wouldn't been easy 15 years ago, and it's not easy today with even more legacy or baggage. But I don't think we need that any longer, as with the jump with Pentium Pro, we have really fast and advanced products on x86 today. Dumping x86 to develop x86 doesn't make sense. Hardware wise the legacy of the oldest stuff is already gone. I don't think it's a real problem for the decoders to handle that stuff. The older stuff can be emulated just fine though (see QEMU). But 16-bit BIOSes aren't completely gone yet even though they have stopped developing them. Peripherals are important too just to note. x86 has shown it can reinvent itself without resorting to new ISA. There the power lies. The legacy has just helped x86 cpus. MS was in a way trapped to x86 too, as they where expected to continue to support the machines sold with MS software. So it's not surprising to see them shine in a none-multi vendor and more unified software climate.


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Works Reviewed
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What are truffles?
What is mycophagy?
What are mycorrhizae?
What is the role of truffles in ecosystems?
What are "True" vs. "False" truffles?
What are Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes?
Are any truffles poisonous?
Where are truffles found?
How are truffles found?
Pigs vs. dogs?
Truffle maturity and the market
Truffle dog training?
Which truffles are the gourmet edibles?
What are pecan truffles?
How are truffles cooked?
Where can I buy truffles?
How do I store truffles?
I found a truffle. What is it?
How do I dry truffles?
What about truffle farming?
How do I find my local mycological club?
What are truffles?
Truffles are hypogeous (underground) versions of mushrooms. They don't form a prominent stem and their spore-bearing surfaces are enclosed. They rely on animals eating them (mycophagy) to distribute their spores, instead of air currents like mushrooms. Truffles resemble small potatoes, and often between the size of a marble and a golf ball (see the photo gallery). There are hundreds of different kinds of truffles, and while none are known to be poisonous, only a few of them are considered to be delicacies by humans. Truffles (and mushrooms) are only the "fruit" of the fungus (like an apple to an apple tree); the main perennial fungal body exists as a web of filamentous hyphae in the soil. All of the truffle fungi form mycorrhizae with the roots of trees, and are essential to the trees' ability to acquire nutrients. The belowground fruiting habit of truffles is thought to be an adaptation to forest fires or dry or frosty periods, in which aboveground mushrooms are more vulnerable. Oregon State University Extension has published a nice overview of truffles available here, "An Oregon Garden Guide to Truffles."
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What is mycophagy?
As most truffles never break the surface of the soil, they must rely on animals to eat them and distribute the spores in their scats. The word "mycophagy" comes from the Greek words "mykes" (fungus) + "phagein" (to eat). Some animals, like the red-backed vole, eat truffles almost exclusively. In order to be located by hungry critters, truffles have evolved strong scents that, as they mature, can be detected from a distance by a suitably sensitive nose. Depending on the species of truffle, to humans these scents can be pungent, fruity, unpleasant, or delectable.
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What is mycorrhizae?
Mycorrhizae is a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) association between some kinds of fungi and plants. The word "mycorrhizae" comes from the Greek words "mykes" (fungus) + "rhiza" (root). Fungal filaments (hyphae) are much more efficient at extracting water and nutrients from the soil than root hairs - it has been reported that there are as much as 100 meters of fungal hyphae in one teaspoon of healthy forest soil. The fungal hyphae not only permeate the soil, they penetrate the root cells of plants and facilitate a nutrient exchange where the host plant gets needed nutrients from the soil via the fungi, and the fungi (which cannot perform photosynthesis) get their needed sugars from the host plant. Many plants will not grow well at all unless they have mycorrhizal fungi on their roots helping them get nutrients.
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What is the role of truffles in ecosystems?
Truffles (and mushrooms) are the "fruit" of underground webs of fungi. The fungi of all truffles (and many mushrooms) are mycorrhizal. Mycorrhizae are essential in assisting trees obtain nutrients and water from the soil - without mycorrhizae we would not have forests as we know them today. Truffles are also an important part of the food chain via mycophagy. For example, flying squirrels rely on truffles for food, and spotted owls rely on squirrels for food. In turn, the fungi rely on the squirrels (and owls!) for spore distribution, the trees rely on the fungi for nutrient acquisition, the fungi rely on the trees for energy (sugars from photosynthesis), and the owls and squirrels rely on the trees for habitat.
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What are "True" vs. "False" truffles?
In Europe, the term "truffle" in the very strictest ("true") sense has historically only referred to those hypogeous (belowground) fungi that were gourmet edibles, primarily in the genus Tuber. Tubers are members of a larger grouping of fungi called Ascomycetes. For some folks, only Tubers and their close relatives are considered "true truffles" (all others being "false truffles"), and for other folks all hypogeous Ascomycetes (irrespective of culinary qualities) are called "true truffles". However, there are many, many other perfectly nice species of hypogeous fungi, both Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, that are not particularly prized as food outside the squirrel community. Nowadays many folks have discarded the "true truffle" and "false truffle" distinctions for a more egalitarian nomenclature, and are quite comfortable simply calling all hypogeous fungi TRUFFLES.
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What are Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes?
Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are two major groups of fungi (like cats and dogs are two major groups of animals). Unlike cats and dogs, the distinction between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes is based on microscopic characteristics, namely the manner in which the spores are produced. In Ascomycetes, the spores are produced inside of sock- or sac-shaped structures called asci. In Basidiomycetes, the spores are produced on prongs on the outside of structures called basidia. As a general rule, Ascomycetes tend to have a brittle texture (such as Morels), and hypogeous (belowground) Ascomycetes (eg. truffles) are frequently - but not always - hollow (such as Genea). Basidiomycetes are fleshier in texture (all gilled mushrooms are Basidiomycetes), and the hypogeous Basidiomycetes tend to be squishy or spongy on the inside (such as Zelleromyces). This key may help in distinguishing "asco's" from "basid's". There are two other groups: The Mucoromycetes form their spores individually on specialized "suspensor cells" and contain one truffle-forming ectomycorrhizal genus, Endogone. The Glomeromycetes form their spores individually or in clusters at the ends of hyphae. Only one genus in this group forms truffles, Glomus.
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Are any truffles poisonous?
No truffles are known to be poisonous to humans (but we don't know everything...). This non-toxicity seems sensible, considering that truffles rely on small animals (via mycophagy) to distribute their spores. That said, ALWAYS be absolutely sure of the identification of anything you are considering eating! Many poisonous Amanita and Cortinarius mushrooms start out as belowground "eggs" that can be dead-ringers for truffles at a glance. The Oregon white truffles that most folks around here are interested in eating (Tuber gibbosum & T. oregonense
The general principal is to start when the dog is young, and
get them used to the scent of truffles by having them fetch a sock with mature truffles inside,
and gradually work up to finding the hidden, then buried sock. Some folks have used a pungent
cheese (like limburger) as a surrogate for mature truffles.
Links to accounts of truffle dog training are below:
Truffle dog training in Italy
A history of training poodles
Hunting truffles with dogs in France
Hunting truffles with dogs in Alba
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Which truffles are the gourmet edibles?
Oregon white truffle (Tuber oregonense and T. gibbosum)
Reasonably common in the Pacific Northwest from the west side of the Cascade mountains to the coast from British Columbia to northern California. Tuber oregonense is generally found from October through February. Its exterior perideum is whitish when young, developing orangish-brown tints as it matures, and finally becoming orangish-brown overall. Microscopically, it has a perideum of interwoven hyphae. Tuber gibbosum is usually found from February through June. Its exterior perideum begins whitish and becomes pale olive-brown as it matures. Microscopically the perideum is of inflated cells. In both species, the texture is quite firm (not spongy), and the interior is white when immature becoming a marbled smokey brown as it matures. Both species seem to prefer young (15-40 year-old) Douglas-fir plantations. By February, most of the Tuber oregonense should be pretty mature and the T. gibbosum will just be getting started. Tom Volk has a nice Oregon white truffle website. You can also read more about both Oregon white and black truffles in this article.
Oregon brown truffle (Kalapuya brunnea)
The Oregon brown truffle was discovered by NATS members in the early 1990's and formally described in 2010. It grows in younger Douglas-fir forests in the Oregon Coast Range and western foothills of the Cascades. It has a reddish-brown exterior and a greyish mottled interior. When mature the odor can be quite garlicky.
Oregon black truffle (Leucangium carthusianum, formerly Picoa carthusiana)
Less common than Oregon white truffles, Oregon blacks are larger (golf-ball to baseball size), and are often much deeper in the soil than Oregon whites (commonly 4-10" deep). They are very dark inside and out, and have a very pungent, earthy odor when ripe. Some equate the aroma to a strange mix of pineapple, port, mushrooms, rich soil, and chocolate. Looking like irregular lumps of coal, with white-veined flesh, the Oregon black truffle has a texture of moist Parmesan and ground almonds.
French black (Perigord) truffle (Tuber melanosporum)
Native to the oak forests of the Perigord region of central and southwest France, it is now widely cultivated in Spain, Australia, and the United States. The black perigord is among the most valuable of truffles at up to $1000/pound. It has a blue-black exterior when fresh, fading to brown-black with age and a pungent, earthy odor.
Italian white (Piedmont) truffle (Tuber magnatum)
Considered by some (mostly the French) to be second best to the French black truffles, its cost can exceed that of the perigord. It is native to the foothills and mountains of northern and central Italy and southern Yugoslavia. They grow in conjuction with oak, hazel, poplar, and beech trees. The flesh is solid, light-coloured, and very brittle; it is not unheard of for a fresh truffle to shatter if dropped on the floor. Large specimens can weigh as much as a pound, but most are the size of large walnuts. The white truffle is slightly more perishable than its darker cousins, and the flavour and aroma diminishes within a week or two after harvest. The white truffle has a distinctive pepper edge and is often eaten raw. The skin is a dirty beige when fresh, turning a darker brown with age. More information can be found at this website.
Burgundy, or Summer truffle (Tuber aestivum, formerly Tuber uncinatum)
Native to France, Italy, and Spain, the summer truffles are usually at their best in July, but can be found from May to October. They have a black exterior and off-white interior, and a relatively light scent. This truffle has been established on plantations in Sweden and New Zealand.
Tuscan truffle (Tuber borchii, formerly Tuber albidum)
Similar to the Italian white truffle in appearance, having a chestnut to muddy tan exterior and a softish interior equally divided between chocolate brown and white. The flavor can be distinctly garlicky.
Pecan (Texas) truffle (Tuber lyonii, formerly Tuber texense)
Pecan truffles (also called Texas truffles) are found from New Mexico to the gulf coast and eastern seaboard to the great lakes and eastern Canada. It is not limited to areas with pecan trees, but was named based on the habitat in which it was discovered. More information can be found at this University of Georgia website. Click here for a story about Pecan truffles from the Hilton Head Island-Bluffton Island Packet, and click here for a story about Pecan truffles from the New York Times.
Chinese truffles (Tuber sinense, Tuber indicum, and Tuber himalayense)
These are three distinct species found in southwest China, but pickers tend to lump them together as Chinese truffles. This is unfortunate since the flavor and quality vary from one species to another. First marketed in France in 1994, these truffles are now found in American restaurants at fairly reasonable prices, but their flavor and aroma do not come close to that of the French truffles, perhaps for the same reasons as Oregon white truffles (too many immature specimens). T. indicum is recognizable by its brown interior and very fine white veins. T. sinense has a dark brown interior with large ivory veins, and is said to be chewy and oily with a bitter aftertaste.
Desert truffles (Terfezia boudieri, Terfezia pfielii, Terfezia claveryi, and others)
Native to northern Africa and the Middle East, these truffles have been a staple for many nomadic tribes for millenia. Sometimes called the Lightning Truffle, they often fruit shortly after thunderstorms wet the desert. There is an account of desert truffle culture here.
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How are truffles cooked?
Truffles are generally used raw, or very lightly cooked, because the flavor compounds are highly volatile. Truffles go very well with brie cheese (doesn't everything?). NATS has compiled a cookbook of truffle recipes, a few of which are posted on the Recipes page. Below are some links to other truffle recipe websites:
The Mycological Society of San Francisco
The Cottage Kitchen
Truffes-de-Provence, with notes about storage
The Truffle Zone
Oregon White Truffles
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Where can I buy truffles?
There are tons of websites selling truffle-related products. Here are a few, selected for no particular reason. NATS does not endorse or guarantee any of these sites! You might also try ebay...
Oregon Wild Edibles
MycoLogical Natural Products
Tartufi Unlimited
The Wine and Truffle Co.
Truffles USA
Gourmet Foodstore
Earthy Delights
Marky's Caviar
US Shops
How do I store truffles?
Truffles can be stored for several days in a paper bag (never in plastic!) in the refrigerator. They can be frozen for several months in a glass jar. They can be immersed in olive oil, and the oil will absorb the flavor, however shelf life at room temperature is limited without pasteurization. Some folks store truffles in dry white rice, but this is not recommended as the rice will tend to draw the moisture and aroma away from the truffles, diffusing and diluting the aroma. Ideally, truffles should be used as fresh as possible, unless you are in the enviable situation of having too many!
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I found a truffle. What is it?
What? You don't have your very own copy of the NATS Field Guide to Selected North American Truffles and Truffle-like Fungi? You can get one here! Alternatively, you can mail specimens to the Trufflemaster for identification. Truffles should be dried thoroughly before mailing (see below). For more infomation on sending truffles for identification click here. Include your email address, collection location and habitat data, and any notes about unique fresh characteristics (odor, staining reactions, etc.).
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How do I dry truffles?
Truffles should be dried before sending to the Trufflemaster for identification, but not if you intend to eat them. Fresh truffles sent through the mail often arrive as an unrecognizable furry odiferous lump - not a good thing! Ideally, truffles to be mailed for identification should be dried on a regular food dehydrator. If you don't have a dehydrator, leave them in the fridge in a loosely closed paper bag for about 3 days, this will dry them quite well (Caution: This may impart a truffle flavor all other foods in the refrigerator!). Truffles dry a lot faster if they are cut in half first. For more information on sending truffles for identification click here.
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What about truffle farming?
Businesses that sell trees inoculated with truffle mycorrhiza can easily be found on the internet. Results are not guaranteed and can take years. It is a good idea to get sample trees assessed for root colonization by an independent lab (such as MycoRoots).
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How do I find my local mycological club?
Go to the excellent Club Directory on the NAMA website!
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The Science of Resilient Forests
Building the perfect campfire requires the right mix of ingredients: plenty of kindling, a spark to ignite it, and large, dry logs to keep the fire burning strong. Unfortunately, fire suppression strategies adopted long ago—combined more recently with severe droughts and climate change—have created this same mixture writ large across many of the dry forests of the western United States, such as those in Yosemite National Park and elsewhere in the Sierra Nevada. Over the past several years, these conditions have led to disastrous, headline-grabbing fires that threaten human communities, ecosystems, and the very survival of our forests.
Despite their destructive power, fires are natural phenomena in many forests, where they are essential to the biomes' long-term health. Decades of field-based studies have built the field of fire ecology and have informed nuanced views of fire as both a threat and a restorative process. However, the expense of such fieldwork has meant that relatively small portions of forests—and their relation to fire—have been studied in detail. Even extensive field studies involving hundreds of forest plots may cumulatively measure conditions over only dozens to hundreds of hectares, yet because of the limited data available, these samples are taken to represent highly varied conditions over millions of hectares.
Today, with help from remote sensing technologies, fire ecologists are more often examining continuous forest landscapes to understand their conditions before and after fires. In particular, they are using high-resolution laser imaging measurements gathered by lidar instruments aboard planes to map conditions from the treetops to the ground. Lidar allows us, for the first time, to quantify forest structure directly—that is, to determine tree heights, canopy densities, and the distribution of branches and leaves throughout the canopy—a feat previously possible only by painstaking field measurements. Lidar-based studies are beginning to enrich our understanding of wildfires historically, and they are providing forest managers with new tools to use in planning forest restorations and thus to improve forests' resilience to future fires.
A New Understanding of Fire in Forests
For much of the 19th and 20th centuries, forest management efforts in the United States were focused on fire suppression. The rationale was that by preventing fires, forest management agencies could protect natural resources and wildlife, drive economic growth in the timber industry, and safeguard the lives and livelihoods of those living nearby.
However, in the 1960s, fire ecology research at the University of California, Berkeley shined a light on the connection between regular fires and forest health for many forests in the arid western United States. In this work, researchers found that areas burned by fires under nonextreme weather conditions ultimately became more resilient and resistant to future burning. With less flammable material for subsequent fires to burn, these fires were prevented from burning as intensely and moving as rapidly over the landscape as they otherwise would have.
As a result of this research, in the early 1970s, forest managers in Sequoia and Yosemite national parks in the Sierra Nevada of California were among the first to introduce prescribed burns and to allow lightning-sparked wildfires to burn in their jurisdictions as part of a fire benefit program. In doing so, they sought to return these forests to a healthy cycle involving frequent fires that had existed for centuries before managers first sought to suppress all fires in the 19th century.
Much of this early fire ecology knowledge was gained through field studies. Research teams measured conditions on the ground, then extrapolated from these small plots to estimate likely conditions across vast reaches of parkland as they developed management plans. From there, forest managers embarked on strategic thinning initiatives or set managed, prescribed fires to improve forest health and resilience.
The success of this approach became especially evident during the 2013 Rim Fire, which started in California's Stanislaus National Forest but quickly spread to neighboring Yosemite. The fire caused less damage in Yosemite where it entered forests that had been subjected previously to lower-severity burns. In these areas, there was less undergrowth and thus smaller fuel loads, which resulted in lower-intensity fires that burned along the ground, rather than laddering up into the crowns of large, old-growth trees.
Measuring the Whole Forest
Scientists' ability to study Yosemite's forests both on a broader scale and in more detail began to change in 2010. From 2010 to 2011, Watershed Science (now NV5 Geospatial) used its airborne lidar instruments to image and measure a total of 64,800 acres (26,200 hectares) of Yosemite National Park's forests, in research initiated by James Lutz, now at Utah State University, and Malcolm North of the U.S. Forest Service's Pacific Southwest Research Station. These lidar data—collected at a high density of about 100,000 measurements per acre (247,000 per hectare) across the full study area—provided a census of the 3D structure of vegetation and the ground below.
These data sets, supplemented by a larger lidar acquisition in 2013 following the Rim Fire that year, enabled numerous and varied studies focusing on the overall effects of fires, their impacts on habitat for critical species and on hydrology, and guidelines for managers seeking to improve the resilience of other Sierra Nevada forests to wildfire [Kane et al., 2013, 2014, 2015].
The first of these studies, led by one of the coauthors of this article, used the lidar data to examine the effects of fire across several forest types [Kane et al., 2013]. These forest types included stands (groups of trees) that had experienced a range of fire histories, from stands where fires had been suppressed for a century to others burned as many as three times under the restored fire regime enacted by the park's managers since the 1970s.
Key to these studies was the concept of the resulting burn severity. Wildfires naturally burn at different intensities over different areas. Burn severity describes the effects of fire on soils and vegetation and is commonly classified as low (only material on the ground burned), moderate (a portion of trees were also killed), or high (most to all trees were killed). Burn severity also has varying impacts on soil structure, permeability, organic matter, and ability to support regeneration of the forest. Generally, these severities are estimated from multispectral images collected by satellites, such as NASA's Landsat, by analyzing ratios of spectral bands in the images that indicate values corresponding to the removal of green vegetation and organic matter from soils.
The lidar-based studies added nuance and breadth to prior research and observations by ecologists and forest managers on the effects of fire. For example, previous fieldwork had suggested that low-severity fires removed fuels primarily on the surface but caused little change to the structure of the forest canopies above. However, the lidar measurements indicated that low-severity fires did a better job at thinning both underbrush and dead and unhealthy trees than had been thought, suggesting these burns may be effective at improving forest resilience.
Forests that have survived one or more fires tend to be more resilient to subsequent fires. A key trait of these forests is that previous fires leave a pattern of surviving individual trees or small clumps of trees interspersed with openings and gaps. Reconstructions of forests from more than 100 years ago, before managers began suppressing fires, have shown that these conditions were widespread among the U.S. West's drier forests, including in Yosemite, and were key to forests thriving in a regime of frequent fires [Collins et al., 2011; Larson and Churchill, 2012; North et al., 2022]. This pattern reduced the fuel load available and created a web of natural firebreaks, increasing the probability of lower-severity fires. However, fire suppression over many decades allowed trees to fill in the openings, creating dense stands prone to intense fires that threaten forest survival.
The historic tree clump and opening patterns were created by natural fires burning occasionally over centuries. Could fires burning today in vastly changed forests re-create these key patterns? With the lidar data collected in the early 2010s, we mapped patterns of trees and openings in Yosemite's forests. The results revealed that where multiple fires had burned the same locations—reflecting a successful restoration of the frequent fire regime—these key patterns were present. Unexpectedly, we also found that even the first fire to burn a location in a century, if it burned under moderate weather and caused low to moderate burn severity, could re-create clump and opening patterns reminiscent of historic fire-resilient forests. This finding strongly supports the idea that using prescribed fires when weather conditions are not too dry can help restore forests and make them more resilient to future fires.
The Next Generation of Lidar-Based Studies
Until 2019, only about a third of Yosemite had been measured with lidar. In 2019, NV5 Geospatial, funded by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Yosemite Conservancy, conducted a comprehensive aerial survey across all of Yosemite and some adjacent areas. This survey, collected using the latest generation of airborne commercial lidar technology, provides more detailed measurements, particularly of vegetation structure, than the earlier surveys did. The project was completed as part of the USGS's 3D Elevation Program, the objective of which is to meet growing needs for high-quality topographic data and for a wide range of other 3D representations of the nation's natural and constructed features. The new data, for example, offer clearer looks at canopy structure and enable better mapping of fuel ladders (fuel that carries fire from low-growing vegetation into the tree canopy) and snags (dead trees). The new survey showed that forests in Yosemite have changed considerably even since they were first measured with lidar less than a decade earlier. Between 2013 and 2019, 354 fires burned 132,205 acres (53,500 hectares) of its forests—sometimes for the second or third time.
More important, the recent data document how the recent devastating multiyear drought resulted in the death of a large fraction of the park's trees in several key forest types like ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests, changing the character of these forests. The dead trees constitute a huge, unprecedented pulse of fuel that will feed future fires. Instead of being restorative, future fires fed by this massive fuel load could be devastating, akin to the 2020 Creek Fire that burned under similar conditions farther south in the Sierra Nevada.
The new lidar data have been processed and recently been made available to Yosemite's managers and to researchers. We are beginning to work with the park's managers to apply the new measurements to assess conditions across the entire park. Data from the earlier lidar flights will provide an important historic sample that will allow us to examine the intervening changes in detail.
Benefits Beyond Forests
The utility of lidar extends beyond fire management applications. For example, the earlier round of Yosemite lidar data was also used in a study of California spotted owl habitat. A key question that field studies had not been able to resolve was whether these threatened birds require a high density of canopy cover—a condition that would encourage more severe fires—throughout their ranges to survive. When we combined the Yosemite lidar data with lidar data from other Sierra Nevada forests, we showed that these owls require dense canopy cover only around their immediate nesting sites [North et al., 2017]. This finding can help forest managers safely thin forests farther from owls' nests, thereby improving the forests' resilience to future fires and drought while maintaining safe habitat for the owls.
Droughts and fires not only jeopardize forest health and wildlife habitat; they also stress water resources for residents in the western United States. The depth and location of snowpack often affect water availability, which in turn can create shortages for residents. Lidar can help water managers in the Sierra Nevada, the Rocky Mountains, and other snowpack-influenced regions measure snow depth across large areas, and when it is combined with airborne hyperspectral imagery that gives information about the reflectivity of the snow (albedo), the combined data set provides information about the quantity of water stored in the snowpack. By comparing changes in snowpack over time within watersheds, rates of snowmelt can be estimated.
These data help managers regulate water releases from reservoirs that provide water to urbanized areas in California, Colorado, and elsewhere. If water managers underestimate snowmelt and retain more water, their reservoirs could be overtopped, requiring rapid releases to avoid catastrophic damage. Alternatively, if they overestimate snowmelt and release too much water, they may not have enough to supply communities during drier times of the year.
Seeing the Forest and the Trees
Forests play many vital and stabilizing roles on our planet, including in mitigating climate change by moderating temperature and humidity and as prominent parts of Earth's carbon and water cycles. They are also home to diverse species of animals and plants, they contribute to economies through timber production and tourism, and they are widely used for recreation.
Understanding forest structure and responses to fire is more important than ever, considering how the incidence and intensity of forest fires are rising across much of the planet. Improving our understanding will help us to ensure the health of these important resources, prevent out-of-control fires that threaten lives and livelihoods, and preserve endangered wildlife habitat.
Lidar's capabilities to measure vegetation structure in detail across wide areas are shifting the paradigm of how forests are analyzed, and the technology is now being adopted as a foundational data collection method for forest management in the same way aerial photography was more than half a century ago.
Since lidar's initial use to study Yosemite just over a decade ago, lidar data have already revealed many new ecological insights that are changing not just how forestry practices are implemented but also how we see the forest. Scientists and forest managers are looking at how individual trees, rather than management units (i.e., stands of trees spread across 5–100 acres (2–40 hectares)), respond to and interact with climate and their local environment. This granular level of detail tells us much more about the processes occurring in forests and will help us make sustainable and wise decisions about resources that are essential for our long-term survival.
Collins, B. M., R. G. Everett, and S. L. Stephens (2011), Impacts of fire exclusion and recent managed fire on forest structure in old growth Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests, Ecosphere, 2, 51, https://doi.org/10.1890/ES11-00026.1.
Kane, V. R., et al. (2013), Landscape-scale effects of fire severity on mixed-conifer and red fir forest structure in Yosemite National Park, For. Ecol. Manage., 287, 17–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.08.044.
Kane, V. R., et al. (2014), Assessing fire effects on forest spatial structure using a fusion of Landsat and airborne LiDAR data in Yosemite National Park, Remote Sens. Environ., 151, 89–101, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.07.041.
Kane, V. R., et al. (2015), Water balance and topography predict fire and forest structure patterns, For. Ecol. Manage., 338, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.10.038.
Larson, A. J., and D. Churchill (2012), Tree spatial patterns in fire-frequent forests of western North America, including mechanisms of pattern formation and implications for designing fuel reduction and restoration treatments, For. Ecol. Manage., 267, 74–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.038.
North, M. P., et al. (2017), Cover of tall trees best predicts California spotted owl habitat, For. Ecol. Manage., 405, 166–178, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.09.019.
North, M. P., et al. (2022), Operational resilience in western US frequent-fire forests, For. Ecol. Manage., 507, 120004, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.120004.
Author Information
Van R. Kane and Liz Van Wagtendonk, Forest Resilience Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle; and Andrew Brenner (firstname.lastname@example.com), NV5 Geospatial, Ann Arbor, Mich.


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The unique societal pressures incurred by women of color involve facing intersecting oppressions of race and gender within the stereotypes prescribed by the mass media.
In honor of International Women's Day and Women's Herstory Month, SF State hosted the Questioning Race, Size and Gender in Beauty Standards workshop inside the Richard Oakes Multicultural Center March 10. Students were able to learn about the negative and inaccurate labels that women of color often absorb from both peers and the media.
"These labels aren't who you are," said Genne Scott, an English major and student speaker. "But you have to fit the portrayal just to survive in society."
Scott defines herself as a "boi," a gender identity in which a woman feels comfortable acting and appearing masculine. Growing up exposed to images of "bois" with similar lifestyles, she questioned if her personality originated from life experiences or from societal expectations that were pushed upon her.
"As a 'boi,' I have to always define myself as masculine," Scott said. "There's always a performance and this pressure to be something that I couldn't."
Scott said that from a young age, women are taught they should adhere to society's demands instead of letting others accept their individual lifestyles.
"It doesn't have anything to do with you because these labels were created before you were born," Scott said.
Patricia Valladolid, an SF State graduate student and fellow speaker for the event, also said those labels had a strong affect on women.
"We're hyper-exposed to these images," Valladolid said. "There's always this constant negotiation within yourself, a constant struggle. There's never going to be a way to portray who you really are."
Valladolid, who said her thesis subject is nutrition of Latinos in the U.S., questioned the obsession of dieting among women and the practice of shifting from living a healthier life to improving one's appearance.
"Losing weight has some sort of social advantages," Valladolid said. "Dieting is as much a part of the American culture as eating."
Valladolid also said women of color have even more pressure to look a certain way, with voluptuous hips and a curvy backside, they are often neglected in the narrow beauty standard that constantly shadows them.
Many speakers agreed that women of color should engage in an open conversation about their bodies when particular questions arise.
"Just tell them about yourself and educate them," Valladolid said. "Open that gate so people won't jump to assumptions."
Similarly, Dr. Francine Shakir, moderator for the workshop, said women of color can positively change the perception of others collectively.
"It's a complex process," Shakir said. "We have work to do as women and need to be aware of how women are shaped. We are struggling to get past these limitations. We have the power to change that and what is fed to the media."


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"The Last Rendezvous is a beautiful, tragic romance about a real-life leading lady: Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, the French singer, actress and poet of the early 19th century….French novelist and biographer Plantagenet follows her through a series of failed pregnancies and unsuccessful relationships. Her prose is nearly flawless: elegant, self-assured and filled with a profound sense of longing."—NPR.org
"A novel of the life—especially the loves—of the 19th-century French actress and poet Marceline Desbordes-Valmore…Plantagenet gives us vivid portraits of theatrical and salon life in 19th-century France…Flitting through the pages is a cast of well-known and lesser-known poets and artists, including Hugo and Balzac. Although Plantagenet anchors her narrative in the first-person perspective of Marceline, she alternates chapters between the young, coming-of-age Marceline and the older, more world-weary actress and poet…This is primarily a novel about giving birth—to poems, to the creative life and to tragically doomed children…A passionate rendering of a passionate poet."—Kirkus Reviews
"Anne Plantagenet's novel is written with controlled precision and attention to detail…an enthralling narrative of a famous woman who had the audacity to pursue male-dominated professions during one of the most difficult, politically tumultuous periods in the history of France. Researched like a biography, the book exposes Marceline's innermost thoughts, much like the pages of a diary. The result is a feeling of intimacy, allowing the reader inside the mind of an ardent poet who lived long ago…Fascinating and absorbing, this talented writer's book is a conscientious expression of her own twenty-first-century attitudes toward the poet; it is educational as well as entertaining."—ForeWord Magazine
"Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, a 19th-century French Romantic poet and actress whose contemporaries included Hugo, Balzac, and Georges Sand, was a sensation in her time… As Desbordes-Valmore gains public acclaim as a writer and pursues political and charitable interests, she emerges here as a modern, liberated woman. This work, a 2005 award winner in France, brings French history and letters to life. With selected poems."—Library Journal
"With a poet's imagery rendered in narrative prose, Anne Plantagenet invites us in to the intimate life of the historic poet, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore. In bold leaps forth and back in time, and in a voice wry, precise, and deliciously sardonic, it's as if Plantagenet inhabits her, has become her. What a splendid achievement."—Susan Vreeland, New York Times bestselling author of Hyacinth Blue, The Passion of Artemisia, and Luncheon of the Boating Party
"An extraordinary portrait of an extraordinary woman. Anne Plantagenet captures the heightened, passionate atmosphere of Romanticism in Europe in a novel that is at once vivid and elegant—and profoundly moving."—Jude Morgan, author of Passion and Symphony
"This is truly a stunning work. Ms. Plantagenet's insights into the lives of her characters are breathtaking. The writing is clean, crisp, fragile and poignant…The book is absolutely magnificent."—Diane Haeger, author of The Queen's Mistake


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Perkinsus mediterraneus n. sp., a protistan parasite of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis from the Balearic Islands, Mediterranean Sea
Document Type
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Publication Date
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
First Page
Last Page
A new species, Perkinsus mediterraneus, a protistan parasite of the European oyster Ostrea edulis (L.), farmed along the coast of the Balearic Islands, Mediterranean Sea, is described. Morphological examinations with light and transmission electron microscopy, DNA sequence-analysis and enlargement in Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM) confirmed that this parasite belongs to the genus Perkinsus. Specific morphological and genetic characteristics indicated that it should be considered a new species in the genus, Sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal (ssu rRNA) gene confirmed that the parasite belongs to the genus Perkinsus, and sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) were distinct from any Perkinsus ITS sequences previously published and/or deposited in the GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the ITS sequences of the Dew species formed a monophyletic group comprising a sister clade to the P. atlanticus/olseni group. In addition, morphological differences were observed between the new species and the other described Perkinsus spp.. After incubation in RFTM for 1 wk, the prezoosporangiurn had reached an extremely large size (97.4 +/- 1.99 mum) (mean +/- SE), and after 2 wk incubation had again almost doubled in size (167.1 +/- 8.09 mum). The discharge-tube length was one sixth the diameter of the zoosporangium, i.e. a ratio of 17.36:97.38, the lowest ratio observed for any Perkinsus species. At the ultrastructural level, zoosporangia and zoospores exhibited some differences compared to other Perkinsus species.
Recommended Citation
Casas, SM; Grau, A; Reece, K S.; and al, et, Perkinsus mediterraneus n. sp., a protistan parasite of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis from the Balearic Islands, Mediterranean Sea (2004). Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 58(2-3), 231-244.


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NOTICE: This post is over 180 days old. This information may be outdated if you're looking for new or upcoming information.
Balmville New Family Newsletter
Check out the latest Home and School Connection Newsletter. The October issue is now available.
Visit the New Newsletter Webpage
ATTENTION: Are your scholars or colleagues doing something great? Please contact the district Communications Team at firstname.lastname@example.com. We'd love to visit your class or event and/or post your pictures and recap to highlight the amazing accomplishments throughout our district!


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Whether you're looking to keep the kids happily occupied, to provide fun and games for all the family or to really liven up your pool parties, you're sure to find the perfect toys, whatever your budget. In this article, we hope to show the variety of pool toys available to buy.
Whilst some toys are designed for pure enjoyment, others can be used as swimming aids and can help to make learning to swim an enjoyable experience. Floatation aids for example, which can be designed for all ages and are available in a variety of shapes and colours, can be an excellent way to encourage non swimmers to practice their skills.
Pool toys really add an element of fun to any pool and are available in just about any shape, colour and style imaginable. Some toys are very inexpensive and can provide hours of fun for young kids. Others can cost a lot more, but may last a long time, and can be suitable for use by much older children (or even adults!).
Good quality pool toys should be fun, safe and hard wearing and can be purchased from most swimming pool suppliers and pool shops, as well as from on-line suppliers or larger toy stores. Many regular toys are also often suitable for use in water and can be used as an inexpensive alternative.
As well as the toys mentioned below, there are vast amounts of toys available, some of which are extremely fun and innovative. There are lots of pool lighting options, fountains and water features (such as large erupting volcano floats, which can run off ordinary garden hoses), floating boats and cute, floating, convertible cars, which can also help shelter babies and young children from the sun.
Please remember, swimming pool toys are not life saving devices – they should never be used unsupervised, or without a responsible adult.
Some of the main types of pool toys are:
Inflatable pool toys range from the simple blow up ball, through to complete water based obstacle courses. As well as the everyday inflatable toys such as floats, rubber rings and inflatable rafts, there are also giant floats (suitable for 3-4 children), inflatable water slides and fun floats with various activities, which can be suitable for all the family.
Motorised pool toys include remote controlled boats, battery operated fish, (and other swimming animals), underwater torpedoes and a variety of other toys which can either be navigated along the surface of the water or can travel underwater with the help of a motor.
Besides floating pool toys, swimming aids and plastic toys, which are generally very hardwearing, inexpensive to buy and easy to clean, there are various swimming toys and aids which, although not inflatable, are designed to float. These toys can help with flotation and exercise, enabling even the least experienced swimmer to build confidence upon the water. Such toys include kickboards, swim noodles and even plastic weighted toys which sink to the bottom of the pool, providing an opportunity for diving and exploration.
Sports pool toys are an excellent idea if you have older children, or would like to get all the family involved. Such toys may include a basketball net, volleyball net or other type of sports toy that is able to provide the whole family with hours of fun and valuable exercise. These work particularly well with in-ground pools, but can also be fitted to, or installed around, most types of pool.
An extensive range of pool toys should be available from all good pool suppliers. You can find a local, independent supplier by clicking the links at the top right of the page, or by clicking here.
How do you bring your pool alive? Have we missed any toys you couldn't live without? Get in touch with your own suggestions using the comment box below.


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Macroscopic orientation of natural and model membranes for structural studies.
Gröbner G., Taylor A., Williamson PT., Choi G., Glaubitz C., Watts JA., de Grip WJ., Watts A.
One approach for obtaining high-resolution structural and functional information for biomembranes and their proteins is by static solid-state NMR of oriented systems. Here, a general procedure to align fully functional biological membranes containing large membrane proteins (Mr >30,000) is described. The method, based on the isopotential spin-dry ultracentrifugation technique, relies on the centrifugation of membrane fragments onto a support with simultaneous, or subsequent, partial evaporation of the solvent which aids alignment. The quality of orientation, as shown by the mosaic spread of the samples, was monitored by static solid-state 31P NMR for the phospholipids and by 2H NMR for a deuterated retinal in bovine rhodopsin. The generality of this method is demonstrated with three different membranes containing bovine rhodopsin in reconstituted bilayers, natural membranes with the red cell anion exchange transport protein in erythrocytes, band 3, and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.


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Hero Chuckles Funny Sounds Dog Toys
Hero Chuckles Funny Sounds Dog Toys
Low stock: 1 left
Every Dog Needs a Hero!
Besides you, of course. :)
Hero Chuckles plush dog toys are more durable than comparable plush toys, resemble cute cuddly animal characters, and designed in custom patterns of bright, fun colors! Each character contains the new, innovative and patented, Chatterbox™, a unique device which emits a symphony of three distinct sounds including a crunch, squeak, and chuckle which are safely contained within a protective tube. Depending on the position of the toy, Chatterbox emits a symphony of sounds keeping dogs engaged longer!


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Predictions from the National Association of Realtors, the Mortgage Bankers Association, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac show that home sales are going to heat up in 2017, according to a blog by NAR.
NAR predicted existing home sales will reach 6 million in 2017, an increase from this year's forecast of 5.8 million, according to the blog. MBA predicted home sales will reach 5.75 million and Fannie and Freddie forecast home sales will come in at 6.2 million.
From the blog:
A huge wave of Generation Yers, who have delayed home buying, are emerging into their key buying years. They are predicted to keep home sales and condo sales strong well into 2020, according to economists.
Meanwhile, new-home construction starts likely will tick up to about 1.5 million per year to 2024, predicts Forisk Research.
Home builders likely will continue to be more subdued, despite calls for more inventory.
As for the rest of this year, the summer housing market saw high demand next to rising home prices, but don't expect Fall to bring any relief. In fact, it could bring the hottest fall in a decade, new data from realtor.com shows.
While this is great news for sellers or homeowners, the news isn't as welcome to potential homebuyers.


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Climbs 150
Rocktype Dolerite
Altitude 2238m a.s.l
Faces SE
Via Myriam at Cinque Torri © James Rushforth
Cinque Torri, meaning "Five Towers", is a group of actually more than 5 towers that lies on the south slopes of Falzarego Pass above Cortina d'Ampezzo. It is part of the larger Averau-Nuvolau group in the Cortina Dolomites. The climbs are short - no more than 220 m and usually more like 50 to 150 m - and the peak elevations are low (around 2700m). They are therefore ideal when time is short, for training, for beginners or when the weather is poor in the higher peaks. Every difficulty from UIAA III (5.2) on up can be found. Much protection, almost all belay stances and rappel anchors are fixed.
The five main towers are:
# Torre Grande, split into three blocks known as Cima Sud, Cima Nord and Cima Ovest.
# Seconda Torre , made of Torre Lusy, Torre del Barancio and Torre Romana.
# Terza Torre is also known as Torre Latina.
# Quarta Torre made of Alta and Bassa.
# Quinta Torre also known as Torre Inglese.
# One small tower, Torre Trephor, NE of the main group, fell a few years ago. It serves to remind us, how we must enjoy life and climbing while it is there!
The towers can be approached from Cortina in the east, or the Alta Badia to the west. From Cortina take the SS48 following signs for the 'Falzarego Pass'. Follow the road for just under 15km until you reach the large and well signed 'Cinque Torri chairlift' and 'Rifugio Bai de Dones' car park on your left. The chairlift runs from early June to late September and leads to Rifugio Scoiattoli which overlooks the towers. It is also possible to walk up under the chairlift, which takes about an hour.
Alternatively, before reaching the chairlift car park, there is an access track which can be used to drive to the towers. Turn off at a 112km milestone following signs for 'Rifugio Cinque Torri'. Follow this track steeply for 3km and park just before the rifugio. The towers are clearly visible from the parking area. This access road is a steep single-lane road with infrequent passing places and limited parking at the top, so an early start is essential. Additionally, this track is closed between 9:30 and 15:30 during August (and at other periods during the season) and a shuttle bus service runs (most of the time) during these hours.
|The descriptions and grading for via normale on torre inglese and torre Latina north face are mixed up.
afshapes - 12/Sep/15
|Much like "strange little creature" this was our first route on our first visit in June 2005. I debated about big boots / rock boots and went for the big ones which I regretted. The sparcity of bolts was a bit of a shock. My experience on the early crux was much as "strange's". An early shock but boldness saw through. I had a small christmas cracker compass on my rucsac which was very useful (invaluable) for locating descents.
nocker - 30/Sep/06
|This was my 1st climb in the Dolomites. The Crux move on the west face is on the 1st pitch (facing the refuge with everyone!! watching you thru binoculars) is the hardest with a bold overhanging crux move just below the 1st belay. you'll know when you get to it as you are bent over backwards and will be looking up thru a gap between two halves of a slight roof. Move confidently right for about 1 metre and there you will see a bolt above you. Get your hands high lock in, get your left foot as high as it will go and PULL!! up and left. There will be half a second of "this dos'nt feel very nice!" and then your up. Theres not much for the feet on the move but the hand holds are good and once you are over you get lots to put your feet on.
Very subtly the locals will stop and watch you do this move.
The descent is by bolted rappel, there are three and the start is visible over the other side of the flat summit. Dont ab too fast or you'll miss the bolts. So read the guide book.
Strange little creature - 21/Sep/06
|Partner Ascents
Moderators Updates to this page are checked by a UKC volunteer James Rushforth


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College Resources
Federal Student Aid at a Glance
Do you need money for college? The Federal Student Aid, U.S. Department of Education, would like to share some information to assist students who want to attend college or go back to school. Remember to explore information and resources we've provided for you to advise students about federal student aid. This list should show basic sources you need to get started, or to learn more information.
- Fill out the FAFSA
- Basic FAFSA info: What is it; how do you fill it out?
- Dependency status for FAFSA purposes
- Determining which parent's info to report
- How aid is calculated (inc. link to EFC info)
Types of Aid/ Getting Aid
- Types of financial aid
- Who can get federal student aid
- Pell Lifetime Eligibility Used
- Finding and applying for scholarships
- Loan interest rates and fees
- Aid for military families
- Avoiding financial aid scams
Student Account Access
- My Federal Student Aid (log in to see grant and loan records and certain eligibility info
- The FSA ID (What is it, how to apply, create your own FSA ID'S)
Repaying Loans
- Loan Repayment
- Repayment Estimator
- Income-driven repayment plans
- Public Service Loan Forgiveness
- Loan Forgiveness in general
- Loan forgiveness for teachers
College Prep
- College Preparation Checklist: academic and financial prep for K-12 and adult students
- Why go to college (education and pay/unemployment rates)
Special Audiences
- Info for parents (tax benefits, support your child, college costs)
- Graduate school funding
- Financial aid for adult students
- Going to college in another country


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08 November 2009
Shaimus @ Nectar
appearance from the boys of Shaimus at Nectar.
They pulled a great crowd, doubling up as an MI reunion. I'd be lying
if I said seeing the old gang didn't leave me nostalgic.
The performance of Left To Dry was a favorite of mine. Glad I got the
chance to bask with them for a season.
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Kanya Vidya Dhan Yojana
At present, there has been a real awareness among people for the prevention, safety and security of girl child. We just wished if it would have come a bit earlier, so many girl lives would not have been wasted date. However, being a country with a considerable number of female foeticide, the Indian government has decided to take up immediate steps for the ban of girl child abortions. Apart from that, the government has also come up with excellent schemes and programs to help a family bear the cost of education for a girl child. And in such an attempt, UP Kanya Vidya Dhan has been formatted. This is a really great initiative for the benefit of a girl's education.
The scheme is also known as KVD. This offers the scholarships for the families of those girls who are below poverty level. In India a huge number of women have the capability to achieve something in life but they are not being nurtured properly. This is why he scheme has been formatted. For those women who have the skill and ability to achieve something but do not have the financial support will now have the scholarships from KVP. But only those girls shall be liable for the scholarship who have cleared the UP Madhyamik Board and have proper certificates for it.
Distribution of forms
This will soon be available on the website and you will be able to apply for the scholarships online. Education is really important for girls since this helps themselves to make them independent. Within this scheme, the girls shall be admitted within the ITI courses and Trade Examinations after they have completed class 12. The girls, who have already completed class 12, can apply online and they can pursue their studies after 12th. The application forms shall be made available within every district of UP and even if the online applications are not accessible for everyone, the offline application forms shall also be distributed from certain institutions within different districts.
Change in proposition
The government shall offer fess for the education of such capable girls and it will be applicable specifically for those families who are within the low income groups and cannot provide for the education of girls. There are also discussions going on for extending the scope of this scholarship. Earlier this scholarship was applicable for the girls who passed from the Uttar Pradesh board, but now it will be made available for those girls who have passed from Secondary Sanskrit Education Board or the Madrasa Board.
A tabular overview
|Facts to Know
|Brief Details
|Established in the year
|Amount to be given
|Rs 30000 for each girl who passed the intermediate
|Annual Budget
|Rs 300 crore
|Total number of girls to benefit
|1 Lakh
|Initial proposed outlay
|Rs 28184 Lakh
|The boards covered
|UP board, CBSE and ICSC board
Other Articles


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Business Services and Process
As business owners and entrepreneurs we have unique talents and abilities. Risk taking is done as a normal course of action and fuels our success. We also juggle multiple roles and tasks on a daily basis. We know what we are good at and hopefully hire others to handle the things that are not our unique abilities. We know what we know, but not what we don't know.
Often entrepreneurs come to us in various stages of their business. By listening first and discussing afterward, we are able to help clients identify intermediate and long term goals. Ultimately the business is a financial asset that can be used to finance a lifestyle, a retirement, and a legacy.
By collaborating with other advisors such as CPA's and attorneys, we help guide clients to achieving their goals. We help business owners plan for the future and take care of key issues along the way, such as protecting the value of the business for heirs in the event they pass away unexpectedly or become incapacitated. Whether business owners plan to bring family members into the business or sale the business to help fund their retirement, we help determine the best strategies and most importantly ensure agreed upon strategies are implemented and finally get done.
By taking a 30,000 foot view and analyzing on a cross disciplinary basis, years of uncoordinated advice brings issues to light. Our process involves a thorough discovery process whereby goals are discovered and clearly defined. By analyzing work already done and finding new, often not previously known, strategies to meet goals, the plan begins to take shape. We bring strategies and fully educate entrepreneurs on such. At our "try on" meeting, we collaboratively determine what fits best. We then go to work with prioritizing and implementing.
It's no one's job but ours to take that 30,000 foot cross disciplinary view, identify issues, collaborate with other advisors and implement smart strategies for our clients.
Financial plan recommendations can be implemented with the advisor of your choosing. Implementation of specific products or services may result in commissions or fees outside of the financial planning fee.


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Fields of cows filled the horizon as far as the eye could see. This seemed par for the course as I had been driving through North Dakota. I had been enjoying these fields bursting with life. A dairy farm here, a pasture ripe for grazing there… The canola was in full bloom which gave a burst of yellow to every other field. I was on my way to a different cow though. The worlds biggest holstein cow to be exact. As I had learned, the mid west had a penchant for giant statues of animals and North Dakota seemed to be falling right in line. Soon enough, I saw Salem Sue come into view on top of a distant hill.
Continue reading "Tesla Model 3 Maiden Voyage – Salem Sue – New Salem ND"


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The tagline for the campaign, "We're building a new car company. Come see what we're building for you," focuses on the direction that the company hopes to take, and will be used in prime time television spots to help boost Chrysler's image.
The first television ad mentions Chrysler's new alliance with Fiat, and a voiceover explains that Chrysler's "new alliance with Fiat" gives it "access to even more high quality, environmentally friendly, fuel efficient vehicles". The ad also shows the Dodge Circuit electric vehicle concept, Chrysler 200C concept and 2011 Jeep Grand Cherokee as the voiceover concludes with "At Dodge, Chrysler and Jeep, the future is not only bright. It's electric. Come see what we're building for you."
The ads will appear this Monday on the NBC, ABC and Fox networks, and the ads are also expected to be rolled out in international markets eventually, although it's likely they will be edited differently. There will also be a print advertising campaign for the new Chrysler, as well as specific ads for each brand.
The focus on electric vehicles is not a surprising one as the new Chrysler will be hoping to distance itself from the attitudes and practices associated with its former incarnation - whether or not the American public buys into Chrysler's new image is another thing.


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Dates: May 18 - June 24
Transwestern Presidential Tower
Entrance at 2511 S. Clark St.
Crystal City, VA
Schedule (TENTATIVE):
Wednesday: 5pm - 10pm
Thursday: 5pm - 10pm
Friday: 12pm - 1am
Saturday: 12pm - 1am
Sunday: 12pm - 10pm
Artists come from all over the DC metropolitan area—and beyond—to participate in Artomatic's vibrant month-long celebration of the arts.
Artomatic transforms a vacant building into a center for the arts. Artists and community members connect in neighborhoods throughout the DC metro area through this unique arts showcase.
Visual artists exhibit a wide variety of art: painting, photography, collage, assemblage, found art, ceramics, glass, fiber, mixed media, video, furniture, jewelry, sculpture, installation, and more!
Artomatic is not juried. That is, participation is based on a first-come basis and no one needs to see your art in advance. It's open to all artists 18 and older.
If you wish show your art at the next Artomatic, make sure to sign up for Artomatic email. We will let you know when registration will open via our e-newsletter!
Here are a few ways to help support and be a part of Artomatic
February 21st:
Join Artomatic in Clarendon's Mardi Gras Parade!
Join Artomatic's official parade float as part of the annual Clarendon Mardi Gras parade on February 21st!
We're looking for Artomatic artists to help light the float to make it nighttime-ready, assist in the transport and re-assembly of it in Clarendon, and the fun part--to march as part of an Artomatic contingent in the parade.
Sign up to help out and walk with Artomatic!
Artomatic Poster Design
Submit your own poster design for Artomatic 2012!
We're collecting poster designs from Artomatic fans that show what you love about Artomatic! Poster designs may be featured by Artomatic on our website, in our social media, and in our online and event stores. (If sold, all sale proceeds will be used to directly support Artomatic's 2012 event.)
Find details and download our design files package on our website to get started!
Poster designs must be submitted by March 31, by email to firstname.lastname@example.com and/or uploaded to our Flickr group.
We can't wait to see your posters!