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A man is a male human. The term man is usually reserved for an adult male, with the term boy being the usual term for a male child or adolescent. However, the term man is also sometimes used to identify a male human, regardless of age, as in phrases such as "men's basketball".
Like most other male mammals, a man's genome typically inherits an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. The male fetus produces larger amounts of androgens and smaller amounts of estrogens than a female fetus. This difference in the relative amounts of these sex steroids is largely responsible for the physiological differences that distinguish men from women. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. However, there are exceptions to the above for some transgender and intersex men.
The English term "man" is derived from a Proto-Indo-European root *man- (see Sanskrit/Avestan manu-, Slavic mǫž "man, male").[1] More directly, the word derives from Old English mann. The Old English form had a default meaning of "adult male" (which was the exclusive meaning of wer), though it could also signify a person of unspecified gender. The closely related Old English pronoun man was used just as it is in Modern German to designate "one" (e. g., in the saying man muss mit den Wölfen heulen).[2] The Old English form is derived from Proto-Germanic *mannz, "human being, person", which is also the etymon of German Mann "man, husband" and man "one" (pronoun), Old Norse maðr, and Gothic manna. According to Tacitus, the mythological progenitor of the Germanic tribes was called Mannus. *Manus in Indo-European mythology was the first man, see Mannus, Manu (Hinduism).
The term manhood is used to describe the period in a human male's life after he has transitioned from boyhood, having passed through puberty, usually having attained male secondary sexual characteristics, and symbolises a male's coming of age. The word man is used to mean any adult male. In English-speaking countries, many other words can also be used to mean an adult male such as guy, dude, buddy, bloke, fellow, chap and sometimes boy or lad. The term manhood is associated with masculinity and virility, which refer to male qualities and male gender roles.
Humans exhibit sexual dimorphism in many characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability, although most of these characteristics do have a role in sexual attraction. Most expressions of sexual dimorphism in humans are found in height, weight, and body structure, though there are always examples that do not follow the overall pattern. For example, men tend to be taller than women, but there are many people of both sexes who are in the mid-height range for the species.
Some examples of male secondary sexual characteristics in humans, those acquired as boys become men or even later in life, are:
In mankind, the sex of an individual is generally determined at the time of fertilization by the genetic material carried in the sperm cell. If a sperm cell carrying an X chromosome fertilizes the egg, the offspring will typically be female (XX); if a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, the offspring will typically be male (XY). Persons whose anatomy or chromosomal makeup differ from this pattern are referred to as intersex.
This is referred to as the XY sex-determination system and is typical of most mammals, but quite a few other sex-determination systems exist, including some that are non-genetic.
The term primary sexual characteristics denotes the kind of gamete the gonad produces: the ovary produces egg cells in the female, and the testis produces sperm cells in the male. The term secondary sexual characteristics denotes all other sexual distinctions that play indirect roles in uniting sperm and eggs. Secondary sexual characteristics include everything from the specialized male and female features of the genital tract, to the brilliant plumage of male birds or facial hair of humans, to behavioral features such as courtship.
Biological factors are not sufficient determinants of whether a person considers themselves a man or is considered a man. Intersex individuals, who have physical or genetic features considered to be mixed or atypical for one sex or the other, may use other criteria in making a clear determination. There are also transgender and transsexual men, who were assigned as female at birth, but identify as men; there are varying social, legal and individual definitions with regard to these issues. (See trans man.)
The male sex organs are part of the reproductive system, consisting of the penis, testicles, vas deferens, and the prostate gland. The male reproductive system's function is to produce semen which carries sperm and thus genetic information that can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg which develops into a fetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the gestation. The concept of fatherhood and family exists in human societies. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called andrology.
In mammals, the hormones that influence sexual differentiation and development are androgens (mainly testosterone), which stimulate later development of the ovary. In the sexually undifferentiated embryo, testosterone stimulates the development of the Wolffian ducts, the penis, and closure of the labioscrotal folds into the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the anti-Müllerian hormone, which inhibits development of the Müllerian ducts.
In general, men suffer from many of the same illnesses as women. In comparison to women, men suffer from slightly more illnesses. Male life expectancy is slightly lower than female life expectancy, although the difference has narrowed in recent years.
For males during puberty, testosterone, along with gonadotropins released by the pituitary gland, stimulates spermatogenesis, along with the full sexual distinction of a human male from a human female, while women are acted upon by estrogens and progesterone to produce their sexual differences from the human male.
Masculinity has its roots in genetics (see gender).[4][5] Therefore, while masculinity looks different in different cultures, there are common aspects to its definition across cultures. In the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, the most common and definitive sign of becoming a man is getting married.[6] Modern American manhood is less tied to marriage itself, but some qualities traditionally associated with it, such as the "triple Ps" of protecting, providing, and procreating, are still considered signs of having achieved manhood.[6][7]
Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example, John Wayne might embody one form of masculinity, while Albert Einstein might be seen as masculine, but not in the same "hegemonic" fashion.
Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself has social status, just like wealth, race and social class. In western culture, for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. Many English words such as virtue and virile (from the Indo-European root vir meaning man) reflect this.[8][9] An association with physical or moral strength is implied. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult men than with boys.
A great deal is now known about the development of biological masculine characteristics, such as the hormonal changes that make it possible for men to grow a beard. The process of sexual differentiation specific to the reproductive system of Homo sapiens produces a female by default. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome, however, interferes with the default process, causing a chain of events that, all things being equal, leads to testes formation, androgen production, and a range of both pre-natal and post-natal hormonal effects covered by the terms masculinization or virilization. Because masculinization redirects biological processes from the default female route, it is more precisely called defeminization.
There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities.
In many cultures displaying characteristics not typical to one's gender may become a social problem for the individual. Among men, the exhibition of feminine behavior may be considered a sign of homosexuality, while the same is for a woman who exhibits masculine behavior. Within sociology such labeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's mores. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as "machismo" or "testosterone poisoning."
The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures.
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology, human ecology and sociobiology. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature, costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer, the King Arthur tales in English, the normative commentaries of Confucius or biographical studies of Muhammad. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita or bushido's Hagakure.
Well into prehistoric culture, men are believed to have assumed a variety of social and cultural roles which are likely similar across many groups of humans. In hunter-gatherer societies, men were often if not exclusively responsible for all large game killed, the capture and raising of most or all domesticated animals, the building of permanent shelters, the defense of villages, and other tasks where the male physique and strong spatial-cognition were most useful. Some anthropologists believe that it may have been men who led the Neolithic Revolution and became the first pre-historical ranchers, as a possible result of their intimate knowledge of animal life.
Throughout history, the roles of men have changed greatly. As societies have moved away from agriculture as a primary source of jobs, the emphasis on male physical ability has waned. Traditional gender roles for working men typically involved jobs emphasizing moderate to hard manual labor (see Blue-collar worker), often with no hope for increase in wage or position. For poorer men among the working classes, the need to support their families, especially during periods of industrial change and economic decline, forced them to stay in dangerous jobs working long arduous hours, often without retirement. Many industrialized countries have seen a shift to jobs which are less physically demanding, with a general reduction in the percentage of manual labor needed in the work force (see White-collar worker). The male goal in these circumstances is often of pursuing a quality education and securing a dependable, often office-environment, source of income.
The Men's Movement is in part a struggle for the recognition of equality of opportunity with women, and for equal rights irrespective of gender, even if special relations and conditions are willingly incurred under the form of partnership involved in marriage. The difficulties of obtaining this recognition are due to the habits and customs recent history has produced. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement in recent decades, men in some societies now compete with women for jobs that traditionally excluded women. Some larger corporations have instituted tracking systems to try to ensure that jobs are filled based on merit and not just on traditional gender selection. Assumptions and expectations based on sex roles both benefit and harm men in Western society (as they do women, but in different ways) in the workplace as well as on the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and fatherhood – to name a few. Research has identified anti-male sexism in some areas which can result in what appear to be unfair advantages given to women.
The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles. Model A describes total separation of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution of barriers between gender roles.[10] The examples are based on the context of the culture and infrastructure of the United States. However, these extreme positions are rarely found in reality; actual behavior of individuals is usually somewhere between these poles. The most common 'model' followed in real life in the United States and Great Britain is the 'model of double burden'.
Some positions and titles are reserved for men only. For example, the position of Pope and Bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. Also the priesthood is exclusively male in the Catholic Church and also some other religious traditions. Men are often given priority for the position of monarch (King in the case of a man) of a country, as it usually passes to the eldest male child upon succession.
Ad hominem (Latin for "to the person"), short for argumentum ad hominem, is a fallacious argumentative strategy whereby genuine discussion of the topic at hand is avoided by instead attacking the character, motive, or other attribute of the person making the argument, or persons associated with the argument, rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself. The terms ad mulierem and ad feminam have been used specifically when the person receiving the criticism is female.
However, its original meaning was an argument "calculated to appeal to the person addressed more than to impartial reason".Fallacious ad hominem reasoning is categorized among informal fallacies, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance.Ant-Man (film)
Ant-Man is a 2015 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics characters of the same name: Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the twelfth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Peyton Reed, with a screenplay by the writing teams of Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish, and Adam McKay and Paul Rudd. It stars Rudd as Scott Lang / Ant-Man, alongside Evangeline Lilly, Corey Stoll, Bobby Cannavale, Michael Peña, Tip "T.I." Harris, Anthony Mackie, Wood Harris, Judy Greer, David Dastmalchian, and Michael Douglas as Hank Pym. In Ant-Man, Lang must help defend Pym's Ant-Man shrinking technology and plot a heist with worldwide ramifications.
Development of Ant-Man began in April 2006, with the hiring of Wright to direct and co-write with Cornish. By April 2011, Wright and Cornish had completed three drafts of the script and Wright shot test footage for the film in July 2012. Pre-production began in October 2013 after being put on hold so that Wright could complete The World's End. Casting began in December 2013, with the hiring of Rudd to play Lang. In May 2014, Wright left the project, citing creative differences, though he still received screenplay and story credits with Cornish, as well as an executive producer credit. The following month, Reed was brought in to replace Wright, while McKay was hired to contribute to the script with Rudd. Principal photography took place between August and December 2014 in San Francisco and Metro Atlanta.
Ant-Man held its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in the United States on July 17, 2015, in 3D and IMAX 3D. It grossed more than $519 million worldwide, and received praise from critics, who generally welcomed the film's smaller stakes than preceding MCU installments, as well as its cast (particularly Rudd, Peña, Lilly, and Douglas), humor, and CGI sequences. A sequel, titled Ant-Man and the Wasp, was released on July 6, 2018.Ant-Man and the Wasp
Ant-Man and the Wasp is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics characters Scott Lang / Ant-Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the sequel to 2015's Ant-Man, and the twentieth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Peyton Reed and written by the writing teams of Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, and Paul Rudd, Andrew Barrer, and Gabriel Ferrari. It stars Rudd as Scott Lang and Evangeline Lilly as Van Dyne, alongside Michael Peña, Walton Goggins, Bobby Cannavale, Judy Greer, Tip "T.I." Harris, David Dastmalchian, Hannah John-Kamen, Abby Ryder Fortson, Randall Park, Michelle Pfeiffer, Laurence Fishburne, and Michael Douglas. In Ant-Man and the Wasp, the titular pair work with Hank Pym to retrieve Janet van Dyne from the quantum realm.
Talks for a sequel to Ant-Man began shortly after that film was released. Ant-Man and the Wasp was officially announced in October 2015, with Rudd and Lilly returning to reprise their roles. A month later, Ant-Man director Reed was officially set to return; he was excited to develop the film from the beginning after joining the first film later in the process, and also to introduce Hope van Dyne as the Wasp in this film, insisting that she and Scott are equals. Filming took place from August to November 2017, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, as well as Metro Atlanta, San Francisco, Savannah, Georgia, and Hawaii.
Ant-Man and the Wasp had its world premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released on July 6, 2018, in the United States in IMAX and 3D. The film received critical praise for the levity, humor, and performances of the cast (particularly Rudd and Lilly), grossing over $622 million worldwide.Batman
Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and first appeared in Detective Comics #27, in 1939. Originally named the "Bat-Man", the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, and the World's Greatest Detective.Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American playboy, philanthropist, and owner of Wayne Enterprises. After witnessing the murder of his parents Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne as a child, he swore vengeance against criminals, an oath tempered by a sense of justice. Bruce Wayne trains himself physically and intellectually and crafts a bat-inspired persona to fight crime.Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City with assistance from various supporting characters, including his butler Alfred, police commissioner Gordon, and vigilante allies such as Robin. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers; rather, he relies on his genius intellect, physical prowess, martial arts abilities, detective skills, science and technology, vast wealth, intimidation, and indomitable will. A large assortment of villains make up Batman's rogues gallery, including his archenemy, the Joker.
The character became popular soon after his introduction in 1939 and gained his own comic book title, Batman, the following year. As the decades went on, differing interpretations of the character emerged. The late 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with the character for years after the show ended. Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots, culminating in 1986 with The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller. The success of Warner Bros. Pictures' live-action Batman feature films have helped maintain the character's prominence in mainstream culture.An American cultural icon, Batman has garnered enormous popularity and is among the most identifiable comic book characters. Batman has been licensed and featured in various adaptations, from radio to television and film, and appears in merchandise sold around the world, such as apparel, toys, and video games. The character has also intrigued psychiatrists, with many offering interpretations of his psyche. In 2015, FanSided ranked Batman as number one on their list of "50 Greatest Super Heroes In Comic Book History". Kevin Conroy, Rino Romano, Anthony Ruivivar, Peter Weller, Bruce Greenwood, Jason O'Mara, and Will Arnett, among others, have provided the character's voice for animated adaptations. Batman has been depicted in both film and television by Lewis Wilson, Robert Lowery, Adam West, Michael Keaton, Val Kilmer, George Clooney, Christian Bale, and Ben Affleck.Iron Man
Iron Man (Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was co-created by writer and editor Stan Lee, developed by scripter Larry Lieber, and designed by artists Don Heck and Jack Kirby. The character made his first appearance in Tales of Suspense #39 (cover dated March 1963), and received his own title in Iron Man #1 (May 1968).
A wealthy American business magnate, playboy, and ingenious scientist, Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark suffers a severe chest injury during a kidnapping. When his captors attempt to force him to build a weapon of mass destruction, he instead creates a powered suit of armor to save his life and escape captivity. Later, Stark develops his suit, adding weapons and other technological devices he designed through his company, Stark Industries. He uses the suit and successive versions to protect the world as Iron Man. Although at first concealing his true identity, Stark eventually declared that he was, in fact, Iron Man in a public announcement.
Initially, Iron Man was a vehicle for Stan Lee to explore Cold War themes, particularly the role of American technology and industry in the fight against communism. Subsequent re-imaginings of Iron Man have transitioned from Cold War motifs to contemporary matters of the time.Throughout most of the character's publication history, Iron Man has been a founding member of the superhero team the Avengers and has been featured in several incarnations of his own various comic book series. Iron Man has been adapted for several animated TV shows and films. The Marvel Cinematic Universe character is portrayed by Robert Downey Jr. in the live action film Iron Man (2008), which was a critical and box office success. Downey, who received much acclaim for his performance, reprised the role in a cameo in The Incredible Hulk (2008), two Iron Man sequels Iron Man 2 (2010) and Iron Man 3 (2013), The Avengers (2012), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and will do so again in Avengers: Endgame (2019) in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Iron Man was ranked 12th on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes" in 2011, and third in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers" in 2012.Isle of Man
The Isle of Man (Manx: Ellan Vannin [ˈɛlʲən ˈvanɪn]), sometimes referred to simply as Mann (; Manx: Mannin [ˈmanɪn]), is a self-governing British Crown dependency in the Irish Sea between Great Britain and Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann and is represented by a lieutenant governor. Defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.
The island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century AD, and the Manx language, a branch of the Gaelic languages, emerged. In 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, which included the Isle of Man. Magnus III, King of Norway, was King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103.In 1266, the island became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth, after being ruled by Norway. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the island came under the feudal lordship of the English Crown in 1399. The lordship revested into the British Crown in 1765, but the island never became part of the 18th-century Kingdom of Great Britain or its successors the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the present-day United Kingdom. It retained its internal self-government.
In 1881, the Isle of Man parliament, Tynwald, became the first national legislative body in the world to give women the right to vote in a general election, although this excluded married women. In 2016, the Isle of Man was awarded biosphere reserve status by UNESCO.Insurance and online gambling generate 17% of GNP each, followed by information and communications technology and banking with 9% each. Internationally, the Isle of Man is best known for the Isle of Man TT competition.Johnny Cash
Johnny Cash (born J.R. Cash, February 26, 1932 – September 12, 2003) was an American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actor, and author. He is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, having sold more than 90 million records worldwide. Although primarily remembered as a country music icon, his genre-spanning songs and sound embraced rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, folk and gospel. This crossover appeal won Cash the rare honor of being inducted into the Country Music, Rock and Roll, and Gospel Music Halls of Fame.
Cash was known for his deep, calm bass-baritone voice, the distinctive sound of his Tennessee Three backing band characterized by train-sound guitar rhythms, a rebelliousness coupled with an increasingly somber and humble demeanor, free prison concerts, and a trademark, all-black stage wardrobe, which earned him the nickname "The Man in Black." He traditionally began his concerts by simply introducing himself, "Hello, I'm Johnny Cash," followed by his signature song "Folsom Prison Blues".
Much of Cash's music contained themes of sorrow, moral tribulation, and redemption, especially in the later stages of his career. His other signature songs include "I Walk the Line", "Ring of Fire", "Get Rhythm", and "Man in Black". He also recorded humorous numbers like "One Piece at a Time" and "A Boy Named Sue"; a duet with his future wife, June Carter, called "Jackson" (followed by many further duets after their wedding); and railroad songs including "Hey, Porter", "Orange Blossom Special", and "Rock Island Line". During the last stage of his career, Cash covered songs by several late 20th-century rock artists, notably "Hurt" by Nine Inch Nails and "Rusty Cage" by Soundgarden.List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The MCU is the shared universe in which all of the films are set. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced and released 20 films, with 11 more in various stages of production. It is the highest-grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over $17.5 billion at the global box office.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the series, alongside Avi Arad for the first two releases, Gale Anne Hurd for The Incredible Hulk, Amy Pascal for the Spider-Man films, and Stephen Broussard for Ant-Man and the Wasp. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the series was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant-Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), with Captain Marvel (2019) and Avengers: Endgame (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Spider-Man: Far From Home has also been scheduled for 2019, beginning Phase Four. Two untitled films are scheduled for 2020, three for 2021, and three for 2022. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider-Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.Manchester City F.C.
Manchester City Football Club, sometimes abbreviated to Man City or City, is a football club based in Manchester, England, that competes in the Premier League, the top flight of English football. The club has won five league titles, five FA Cups, five League Cups, five FA Community Shields, and one European Cup Winners' Cup.
Founded in 1880, the club entered the Football League in 1899, and won their first major honour with the FA Cup in 1904. They had a period of success in the late 1960s, winning the League, FA Cup and League Cup under the management of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison. After losing the 1981 FA Cup Final, the club went through a period of decline, culminating in relegation to the third tier of English football.
Having regained their Premier League status in the early 2000s, Manchester City was purchased in 2008 by Abu Dhabi United Group for £210 million, receiving considerable investment. The club subsequently won several trophies in the 2010s, and also became the only team to attain 100 points in a season.
Manchester City's revenue was the fifth highest of a football club in the world in the 2017–18 season at €527.7 million. In 2018, Forbes estimated the club was the fifth most valuable in the world at $2.47 billion.Manchester United F.C.
Manchester United Football Club, commonly known as Man United, or simply United, is a professional football club based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England, that competes in the Premier League, the top flight of English football. Nicknamed "the Red Devils", the club was founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to its current stadium, Old Trafford, in 1910.
Manchester United have won more trophies than any other club in English football, with a record 20 League titles, 12 FA Cups, 5 League Cups and a record 21 FA Community Shields. United have also won three UEFA Champions Leagues, one UEFA Europa League, one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup. In 1998–99, the club became the first in the history of English football to achieve the continental European treble. By winning the UEFA Europa League in 2016–17, they became one of five clubs to have won all three main UEFA club competitions, and the only English club to have won every competition available to them.The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United became the first English football club to win the European Cup. Alex Ferguson won 38 trophies as manager, including 13 Premier League titles, 5 FA Cups and 2 UEFA Champions Leagues, between 1986 and 2013, when he announced his retirement.
Manchester United was the highest-earning football club in the world for 2016–17, with an annual revenue of €676.3 million, and the world's most valuable football club in 2018, valued at £3.1 billion. As of June 2015, it is the world's most valuable football brand, estimated to be worth $1.2 billion. After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million, after which the company was taken private again, before going public once more in August 2012, when they made an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange. Manchester United is one of the most widely supported football clubs in the world, and has rivalries with Liverpool, Manchester City, Arsenal, and Leeds United.Marvel Cinematic Universe
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) is an American media franchise and shared universe that is centered on a series of superhero films, independently produced by Marvel Studios and based on characters that appear in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The franchise has expanded to include comic books, short films, television series, and digital series. The shared universe, much like the original Marvel Universe in comic books, was established by crossing over common plot elements, settings, cast, and characters. Phil Coulson, portrayed by Clark Gregg, is an original character to the MCU and the only character to appear across all its different media.
The first film released in the MCU was Iron Man (2008), which began the first phase of films culminating in the crossover film Marvel's The Avengers (2012). Phase Two began with Iron Man 3 (2013), and concluded with Ant-Man (2015). The MCU is currently in Phase Three, which began with the release of Captain America: Civil War (2016) and is set to conclude with Avengers: Endgame (2019). Phase Four will begin with the release of Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019). Marvel Television expanded the universe further, first to network television with Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on ABC in the 2013–14 television season, followed by online streaming with Marvel's Daredevil on Netflix in 2015 and Marvel's Runaways on Hulu in 2017, and then to cable television with Marvel's Cloak & Dagger on Freeform in 2018. Marvel Television has also produced the digital series Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot, which is a supplement to Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Soundtrack albums have been released for all of the films, along with many of the television series, as well as the release of compilation albums containing existing music heard in the films. The MCU also includes tie-in comics published by Marvel Comics, while Marvel Studios has also produced a series of direct-to-video short films and a viral marketing campaign for its films and the universe with the faux news program WHIH Newsfront.
The franchise has been commercially successful as a multimedia shared universe, though some critics have found that some of its films and television series have suffered in service of the wider universe. It has inspired other film and television studios with comic book character adaptation rights to attempt to create similar shared universes. The MCU has also been the focus of other media, outside of the shared universe, including attractions at various Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, an attraction at Discovery Times Square, a Queensland Gallery of Modern Art exhibit, two television specials, guidebooks for each film, multiple tie-in video games, and commercials.Neil Armstrong
Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut and aeronautical engineer who was the first person to walk on the Moon. He was also a naval aviator, test pilot, and university professor.
A graduate of Purdue University, Armstrong studied aeronautical engineering with his college tuition paid for by the U.S. Navy under the Holloway Plan. He became a midshipman in 1949, and a naval aviator the following year. He saw action in the Korean War, flying the Grumman F9F Panther from the aircraft carrier USS Essex. In September 1951, he was hit by anti-aircraft fire while making a low bombing run, and was forced to bail out. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He was the project pilot on Century Series fighters and flew the North American X-15 seven times. He was also a participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man in Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs.
Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in the second group, which was selected in 1962. He made his first spaceflight as commander of Gemini 8 in March 1966, becoming NASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilot David Scott, he performed the first docking of two spacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his reentry control fuel to remove a dangerous spin caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander of Apollo 11, he had to eject from the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle moments before a crash.
In July 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11 Lunar Module pilot Buzz Aldrin performed the first manned Moon landing, and spent two and a half hours outside the spacecraft while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module. When Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon. President Jimmy Carter presented Armstrong with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and Armstrong and his former crewmates received a Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.
After he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati until 1979. He served on the Apollo 13 accident investigation, and on the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. He acted as a spokesman for several businesses, and appeared in advertising for the automotive brand Chrysler starting in January 1979.Pac-Man
Pac-Man, stylized in all capitals, is an arcade game designed by Toru Iwatani of Namco and first released in Japan as Puck Man in May 1980. Licensed for distribution in the United States by Midway Games, it was released in October 1980 when top arcade games were stark space shooters, such as Galaxian and Asteroids. Pac-Man established the conventions of the maze chase genre, and is considered one of the classics of the medium and an icon of 1980s popular culture. The game and subsequent entries in the series became a social phenomenon that crossed over to other media, such as the Pac-Man animated television series and the top-ten Buckner and Garcia single "Pac-Man Fever." Dozens of similarly-styled maze games appeared over the next several years, with some becoming successful in their own right.
According to one estimate published in 1982, 60% of Pac-Man players were women, while 90% of those playing space shoot-em-up Omega Race were men.It is also one of the highest-grossing video games of all time, having generated more than $2.5 billion in quarters by the 1990s. Adjusted for inflation, all versions of Pac-Man are estimated to have grossed over $12 billion in total revenue.The character has appeared in more than 30 officially licensed game spin-offs in addition to bootleg versions. According to the Davie-Brown Index, Pac-Man has the highest brand awareness of any video game character among American consumers, recognized by 94 percent of them. Pac-Man is one of the longest-running video game franchises from the golden age of video arcade games. The Google Doodle version was estimated to have been played by over 1 billion people worldwide in 2010. Pac-Man is part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. and New York's Museum of Modern Art.Sergio Agüero
Sergio Leonel Agüero (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈseɾxjo le.oˈnel aˈɣweɾo]; born 2 June 1988) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Manchester City and the Argentine national team.
Agüero began his career at Independiente. On 5 July 2003, he became the youngest player to play in the Argentine Primera División on his debut at 15 years and 35 days, breaking the record previously established by Diego Maradona in 1976. In 2006, he moved to Europe to play for La Liga side Atlético Madrid, for a transfer fee of €23 million and made a name for himself, attracting attention from Europe's top clubs by scoring 101 goals in 234 appearances while winning the UEFA Europa League and the UEFA Super Cup in 2010.
Agüero moved to Premier League club Manchester City in July 2011 for an undisclosed fee thought to be in the region of £35 million. On the last day of his debut season with the club, he scored a 94th-minute winner against Queens Park Rangers that earned City its first league title in 44 years. At the end of the 2015–16 season, of players who had played at least two seasons in the Premier League, Agüero had the highest goals per minute ratio in the history of the competition since its formation in 1992, averaging a goal every 106 minutes, ahead of Thierry Henry. He also holds the joint-record for the most goals scored in a single Premier League match – five – and the fastest to do so, in 23 minutes and 34 seconds of match time. In November 2017, Agüero became Manchester City's all-time highest goal-scorer, scoring his 178th City goal against Napoli. Agüero is currently the 8th highest goalscorer in Premier League history, and the highest non-European scorer in the history of the Premier League, with over 100 goals in the division.
At international level, Agüero represented the Argentina under-20 team at the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 2005 and in 2007, winning both tournaments. He played at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, scoring two goals in the 3–0 semi-final win against Brazil as Argentina went on to win the gold medal. Agüero was selected to represent Argentina in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the 2011 Copa América, the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the 2015 Copa América, and the Copa América Centenario, reaching the finals of the latter three tournaments. He also participated in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where he scored his first and second World Cup goals for Argentina.
He wears "Kun" on his shirt, a childhood nickname.Spider-Man
Spider-Man is a fictional superhero created by writer-editor Stan Lee and writer-artist Steve Ditko. He first appeared in the anthology comic book Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962) in the Silver Age of Comic Books. He appears in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, as well as in a number of movies, television shows, and video game adaptations set in the Marvel Universe. In the stories, Spider-Man is the alias of Peter Parker, an orphan raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben in New York City after his parents Richard and Mary Parker were killed in a plane crash. Lee and Ditko had the character deal with the struggles of adolescence and financial issues, and accompanied him with many supporting characters, such as J. Jonah Jameson, Flash Thompson, Harry Osborn, romantic interests Gwen Stacy and Mary Jane Watson, and foes such as Doctor Octopus, Green Goblin and Venom. His origin story has him acquiring spider-related abilities after a bite from a radioactive spider; these include clinging to surfaces, shooting spider-webs from wrist-mounted devices, and detecting danger with his "spider-sense".
When Spider-Man first appeared in the early 1960s, teenagers in superhero comic books were usually relegated to the role of sidekick to the protagonist. The Spider-Man series broke ground by featuring Peter Parker, a high school student from Queens behind Spider-Man's secret identity and with whose "self-obsessions with rejection, inadequacy, and loneliness" young readers could relate. While Spider-Man had all the makings of a sidekick, unlike previous teen heroes such as Bucky and Robin, Spider-Man had no superhero mentor like Captain America and Batman; he thus had to learn for himself that "with great power there must also come great responsibility"—a line included in a text box in the final panel of the first Spider-Man story but later retroactively attributed to his guardian, the late Uncle Ben.
Marvel has featured Spider-Man in several comic book series, the first and longest-lasting of which is The Amazing Spider-Man. Over the years, the Peter Parker character developed from a shy, nerdy New York City high school student to troubled but outgoing college student, to married high school teacher to, in the late 2000s, a single freelance photographer. In the 2010s, he joins the Avengers, Marvel's flagship superhero team. Spider-Man's nemesis Doctor Octopus also took on the identity for a story arc spanning 2012–2014, following a body swap plot in which Peter appears to die. Marvel has also published books featuring alternate versions of Spider-Man, including Spider-Man 2099, which features the adventures of Miguel O'Hara, the Spider-Man of the future; Ultimate Spider-Man, which features the adventures of a teenaged Peter Parker in an alternate universe; and Ultimate Comics Spider-Man, which depicts the teenager Miles Morales, who takes up the mantle of Spider-Man after Ultimate Peter Parker's supposed death. Miles is later brought into mainstream continuity, where he works alongside Peter.
Spider-Man is one of the most popular and commercially successful superheroes. As Marvel's flagship character and company mascot, he has appeared in countless forms of media, including several animated and live action television series, syndicated newspaper comic strips, and in a series of films. The character was first portrayed in live action by Danny Seagren in Spidey Super Stories, a The Electric Company skit which ran from 1974 to 1977. In films, Spider-Man has been portrayed by actors Tobey Maguire, Andrew Garfield, and Tom Holland. Reeve Carney starred as Spider-Man in the 2010 Broadway musical Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark. Spider-Man has been well received as a superhero and comic book character, and he is often ranked as one of the most popular and iconic comic book characters of all time.Stan Lee
Stan Lee (born Stanley Martin Lieber ; December 28, 1922 – November 12, 2018) was an American comic book writer, editor, publisher, and producer. He rose through the ranks of a family-run business to become Marvel Comics' primary creative leader for two decades, leading its expansion from a small division of a publishing house to a multimedia corporation that dominated the comics industry.
In collaboration with others at Marvel—particularly co-writer/artists Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko—he co-created numerous popular fictional characters, including superheroes Spider-Man, the X-Men, Iron Man, Thor, the Hulk, the Fantastic Four, Black Panther, Daredevil, Doctor Strange, Scarlet Witch and Ant-Man. In doing so, he pioneered a more naturalistic approach to writing superhero comics in the 1960s, and in the 1970s he challenged the restrictions of the Comics Code Authority, indirectly leading to changes in its policies. In the 1980s he pursued development of Marvel properties in other media, with mixed results. Following his retirement from Marvel in the 1990s, he remained a public figurehead for the company, and frequently made cameo appearances in films and television shows based on Marvel characters, on which he received an executive producer credit. Meanwhile, he continued independent creative ventures into his 90s, until his death in 2018.
Lee was inducted into the comic book industry's Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 1994 and the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1995. He received the NEA's National Medal of Arts in 2008.Straw man
A straw man is a form of argument and an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument that was not presented by that opponent. One who engages in this fallacy is said to be "attacking a straw man."
The typical straw man argument creates the illusion of having completely refuted or defeated an opponent's proposition through the covert replacement of it with a different proposition (i.e., "stand up a straw man") and the subsequent refutation of that false argument ("knock down a straw man") instead of the opponent's proposition.Straw man tactics in the United Kingdom can be known as an Aunt Sally, after a pub game of the same name, where patrons threw sticks or battens at a post to knock off a skittle balanced on top.The World's Billionaires
The World's Billionaires is an annual ranking by documented net worth of the world's wealthiest billionaires compiled and published in March annually by the American business magazine Forbes. The list was first published in March 1987. The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt. Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists. This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding and ranking against those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained.In 2018, there was a record of 2,208 people on the list, that included 259 newcomers mostly from China and the U.S.; there were 63 people under 40 and it had a record number of 256 women. The average net worth of the list came in at US$4.1 billion, up US$350 million from 2017. Added together, the total net worth for 2018's billionaires was US$9.1 trillion, up from US$7.67 trillion in 2017. As of 2018, Microsoft founder Bill Gates had topped the list 18 of the past 24 years, while Amazon founder Jeff Bezos is ranked at the top for the first time and he became the first centibillionaire included in the ranking. Additionally, Mark Zuckerberg is currently the only person in the top 10 billionaires list who is under the age of 50, and the only one in the top 20 billionaires list who is under the age of 40.In 2017, 500 of the richest people in the world became richer by $1 trillion, according to a report by Bloomberg News. According to a 2017 Oxfam report, the top eight billionaires own as much combined wealth as "the poorest half of the human race".
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Mechanical Design Engineer
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Are you a Mechanical Design Engineer who is looking for a bit of variety in your role? Fed up the same thing day after day? I have a great opportunity for a Mechanical Design Engineer who is adaptable and ready to thrive in this diverse environment.
This is a new role due to an increase in demand from customers, including household names and blue-chip companies. As an integral part of the design team, you will be designing Special Purpose Machinery for a number of different industries, creating turnkey solutions for some great customers.
The Mechanical Design Engineer will be responsible for:
* 2D and 3D Drawings using AutoCAD and SolidWorks.* Creating BOMs* Creating tailored solutions to meet client specifications.* Modify existing drawings as appropriate.* Detailed site surveys and buildings drawings.
With a long history of designing, manufacturing and installing special purpose machinery, the design team is the heartbeat of this exceptional company. I specialise in placing Design Engineers, and after several years in the game I can tell a good job from a bad one and I reckon this is a brilliant opportunity to join a growing team working on a varied range of projects with values up to �500,000 and plans to increase turnover by almost 70% by 2020.
Benefits include a competitive salary, on-site parking and a great working environment. They know you work hard during the week, so give you an extra hour on a Friday to make sure you can start your weekend that little bit sooner.
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With Raheem Sterling and Brendan Rodgers seemingly set to consciously uncouple, the Liverpool manager is set to cheer himself up in time-honoured fashion – chowing down chocolate and red wine while listening to a selection of songs about heartbreak and signing a player from Real Madrid.
Real, for their part, are keen on Portugal's star of the recent European Under-21 Championship William Carvalho and look likely to pip Arsenal to the signing of Sporting's £32m midfielder. That could pave the way for Asier Illarramendi's departure from the Bernabéu – Liverpool are at the front of the queue.
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Emery demands improvements despite Arsenal win - 5 months ago, 21 Sep 00:48
Unai Emery admitted Arsenal could have done better despite their 4-2 win over Vorskla Poltava in the Europa League.
Emery saw his side miss out on a clean sheet by conceding two goals in the final quarter of an hour, after a Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang brace had contributed to putting the Gunners in control.
The manager told BT Sport: "It was disappointing to see the two goals go in because there was progress in the 90 minutes. We want to do better in this minute.
"When you are 4-0 up you want to continue to be competitive and to score more goals not concede like today. For us it is very important to start this competition with this victory.
"We are giving chances to many players to find the pieces and for the confidence.We need to because we are going to play a lot of matches. We need players ...
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Viruses 2014, 6(5), 2052-2061; doi:10.3390/v6052052
Abstract: Adenoviruses (family Adenoviridae) infect various organ systems and cause diseases in a wide range of host species. In this study, we examined multiple tissues from Chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica), collected in Antarctica during 2009 and 2010, for the presence of novel adenoviruses by PCR. Analysis of a 855-bp region of the hexon gene of a newly identified adenovirus, designated Chinstrap penguin adenovirus 1 (CSPAdV-1), showed nucleotide (amino acid) sequence identity of 71.8% (65.5%) with South Polar skua 1 (SPSAdV-1), 71% (70%) with raptor adenovirus 1 (RAdV-1), 71.4% (67.6%) with turkey adenovirus 3 (TAdV-3) and 61% (61.6%) with frog adenovirus 1 (FrAdV-1). Based on the genetic and phylogenetic analyses, CSPAdV-1 was classified as a member of the genus, Siadenovirus. Virus isolation attempts from kidney homogenates in the MDTC-RP19 (ATCC® CRL-8135™) cell line were unsuccessful. In conclusion, this study provides the first evidence of new adenovirus species in Antarctic penguins.
1. Introduction
Adenoviruses are linear, double-stranded DNA viruses, with a genome ranging from 26 to 45-kbp and an icosahedral capsid [1]. Adenoviruses, which can infect the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, eyes and other organs, cause gastroenteritis and respiratory disease in many species [2]. The family, Adenoviridae, comprises five genera: Mastadenovirus, Aviadenovirus, Atadenovirus, Siadenovirus and Ichtadenovirus [3]. Mastadenoviruses infect a wide range of mammalian species, including man, monkey, dog, cattle, swine, mouse and bat [4,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Aviadenovirus have been identified in birds [11,12], and Atadenovirus have been isolated from reptiles, birds and mammals [13,14,15]. Siadenovirus has been detected in birds, frog and a tortoise [16,17,18,19], and Ichtadenovirus has been detected in fish [20].
Previously, adenoviruses had been isolated from various vertebrate species on all continents, except Antarctica. Recently, the South Polar skua adenovirus 1 (SPSAdV-1), the single known member of the species, Skua siadenovirus A, was discovered in dead South Polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki) collected near the King Sejong Station in Antarctica [21]. However, there are limited surveillance studies of adenovirus infection in Antarctic wild birds. The South Polar skua can be observed in Antarctica only during the breeding season and feed on the chicks of penguins. Moreover, the South Polar skua shares breeding grounds with the Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica), an endemic species [22]. To ascertain if Chinstrap penguins in Antarctica are also infected with adenoviruses, we conducted an exploratory study on samples collected during 2009 and 2010.
2. Results and Discussion
Two of the 10 Chinstrap penguin carcasses (designated CSP09-1 and CSP09-2) were collected in the summer of 2009 and eight (CSP10-1 to CSP10-8) in early 2010. Fifty-six tissues, comprising lung, liver, kidney, heart, intestine, brain, colon, lymph node, spleen, trachea and wounded-bill, were tested. An approximately 1240-bp genomic fragment, including parts of two adjacent genes, that of pVI and hexon, was amplified from 28 tissues (lung, liver, kidney, heart, intestine and/or trachea) from eight Chinstrap penguins (CSP09-1, CSP10-1, CSP10-2, CSP10-3, CSP10-5, CSP10-6, CSP10-7 and CSP10-8), by nested PCR (Table 1). The Chinstrap penguin adenoviruses (CSPAdV-1) from eight Chinstrap penguins (from CSP09-1 to CSP10-8) were designated as CSPAdVno1 to CSPAdVno8, respectively. Adenovirus gene sequences, detected in PCR-positive tissues of individual Chinstrap penguins, were almost identical, suggesting widespread systemic infection.
Pair-wise alignment by ClustalW showed a six-amino acid difference between CSPAdVno1 originating from a Chinstrap penguin collected in 2009 and CSPAdVno2, no4 and no8. Twelve amino acid differences were found between CSPAdVno1 and CSPAdVno3, no5, no6 and no7 (Figure 1). Particularly, CSPAdVno1, no2, no4 and CSPAdVno8 showed a deletion at position 242. As a result of sequence comparison with other types within the genus, Siadenovirus, the insertion of amino acid residue S at position 243 was found in the amino acid sequences of some CSPAdV-1 variants. Further study on the full genome sequence of CSPAdV-1 will be required to support the significance of sequence differences.
|Samples No.
|Tissues tested
|Accession No.
|Lu, Li, K, Col, LN, Sp, Br
|Lu, Li, K, Ht, Int, Tr
|Lu, Li, K, Ht, Int
|Li, K
|Lu, Li, K, Int
|Lu, K, Int, Tr
|Lu, Li, K, Ht, Int, Tr
|Ht, Tr
|Lu, K, Int, Tr
Abbreviations: Lu, lung; Li, liver; K, kidney; Ht, heart; Int, intestine; Tr, trachea; Col, colon; Sp, spleen; Br, brain; LN, lymph node; W-B, wounded-bill.
Within the genus, Siadenovirus, CSPAdVno1 was shown to have a nucleotide (amino acid) identity of 71.8% (65.5%) with SPSAdV-1, 71% (70%) with raptor adenovirus 1 (RAdV-1), 71.4% (67.6%) with turkey adenovirus 3 (TAdV-3), 69.4% (66.5%) with great tit adenovirus 1 (GTAdV-1) and 61% (61.6%) with frog adenovirus 1 (FrAdV-1). The nucleotide and amino acid sequence identity of each strain of CSPAdV-1 was more than 97% and 96%, respectively (Table 2). However, the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of CSPAdVno3, no5 and no7 and CSPAdVno2, no4 and no8 were identical (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The nucleotide sequence identity of CSPAdV-1 was less (<33%) with other adenovirus genera, such as Atadenovirus, Aviadenovirus and Mastadenovirus. The G+C content of CSPAdVno1 and CSPAdVno2, no4 and no8 was found to be 37.44% and 37.2%, respectively. The partial hexon of CSPAdVno3, no5 and no7 had a G+C content of 37.42%.
|Virus strain
|Sequence identity (%)
|amino acid
GenBank accession No.: CSPAdVno1 to CSPAdVno8 (KC593379 to KC593386), SPSAdV-1 (HM585353), RAdV-1 (EU715130), TAdV-3 (AC000016), GTAdV-1 (FJ849795), FrAdV-1 (AF224336).
For phylogenetic analysis, approximately 855-bp of the hexon gene, which contains structural loop regions that encode serotype-specific epitopes, were selected [23]. CSPAdV-1 showed the highest similarity with SPSAdV-1 and RAdV-1 and was classified into the genus, Siadenovirus, based on phylogenetic trees generated by the maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining methods, implemented in MEGA5.1 (Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis, 5.1) (Figure 2) and PAUP version 4.0b (Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony, 4.0b) [24,25]. A novel adenovirus species is usually defined as one detected in a new host species and having more than a 5%–15% sequence difference at the nucleotide and amino acid levels compared with previously characterized adenovirus species [3]. Based on these criteria, we conclude that CSPAdV-1 (Penguin siadenovirus A) seems to merit the establishment of a new species for it.
Isolation of CSPAdV-1 was attempted by inoculating the MDTC-RP19 (ATCC® CRL-8135™) cell line [27] with kidney homogenates, but all such attempts were unsuccessful. Failure of the isolation of RAdV-1 on the chicken embryonic liver cell or MDTC-RP19 cell line has been reported previously [28,29].
3. Experimental Section
3.1. Sample Collection
Chinstrap penguin carcasses were gathered at Narębski Point, located on the southeast coast of Barton Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica (62°13'40''S–62°14'23''S and 58°45'25''W–58°47'00''W) during 2009 and early 2010 (Figure 3). All carcasses were identified, weighed and measured. Internal organs (lung, liver, kidney, heart, intestine, trachea, brain, lymph node and spleen) were dissected using sterile instruments and stored at −70 °C until use for adenovirus identification.
3.2. DNA Extraction and PCR
Total genomic DNA was extracted from tissue samples, using the High Pure PCR Template preparation kit (Roche, Indianapolis, IN), according to the manufacturer's instructions. For screening of adenovirus infection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used. PCR assay targeting capsid protein precursor pVI and the capsid protein hexon gene was performed using oligonucleotide primer pairs (outer: 5'-ACC (C/T)GG ATT AGC TGG TGA T-3', 5'-TAA TTT CTG TAT TCC TGT CCT-3'; inner: 5'-CCT GC(A/T) GAT CAA CTG GCT-3', 5'-GGA TCC CTA ACC ATT ATC GTA ATA-3'). The sequences of PCR primers were designated from the conserved region by the alignment of adenovirus sequences within the genus, Siadenovirus. PCR conditions were performed as follows: 1 cycle of 95 °C for 5 min followed by 14 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C for 40 s, one degree step-down each of 1 cycle annealing from 50 °C to 37 °C for 40 s, extension at 72 °C for 1 min, then 25 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C for 40 s, annealing at 42 °C for 40 s, extension at 72 °C for 1 min and, finally, at 72 °C for 5 min in a Mastercycler (Eppendorf, Germany).
3.3. Sequencing and Sequence Analysis
All PCR products were sequenced with the Big Dye terminator v3.1 cycle sequencing kit (ABI) and ABI3730 Automated DNA Sequencer (ABI). Nucleotide sequences were analyzed by ClustalW in MegAlign of DNAstar programs. Phylogenetic trees were generated by maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining methods, implemented in MEGA5.1 and PAUP version 4.0b [24,25]. Topologies were evaluated by a bootstrap analysis of 1000 iterations by using MEGA5.1 software [26].
3.4. Isolation Attempts
For isolation attempts of CSPAdV-1, 5% (w/v) kidney homogenates of virus-infected penguins (CSP10-2 and CSP10-3) were inoculated onto MDTC-RP19 (ATCC® CRL-8135™), a lymphoblastoid cell line of turkey origin (Meleagris gallopavo) with high susceptibility to TAdV-3, a member of the genus, Siadenovirus [27]. Cultures were observed daily for the cytopathic effect, and the cells and supernatant were screened for the adenoviral hexon gene by PCR at each passage.
4. Conclusions
Previous studies on sub-Antarctic and Antarctic penguins have shown that avian species in this region may become infected with various viruses, including paramyxoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, infectious bursal disease virus and influenza viruses [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. The identification of a novel adenovirus species in Chinstrap penguins suggests the possibility of other viruses, including additional previously unrecognized adenoviruses in Antarctic birds.
There is an increasing risk of infectious diseases being introduced into the Antarctic fauna, because of the increased numbers of people travelling to and within Antarctica [38,39]. Consequently, further studies in Antarctic birds may provide new insights into the emergence and dissemination of viral infectious diseases from Antarctica.
We thank Sung-Ho Kang, Min-Goo Lee, Kyeong Hoon Cho and Yeong Woong Kim for assistance in the sample collection, Seo Tae-Kun for help with phylogenetic analysis and Richard Yanagihara for editorial assistance. This work was supported by grants PD12010 (Polar Academic Program) and PE13030/PE14020 provided by the Korea Polar Research Institute, Korea.
Author Contributions
S.Y.L. and Y.M.P. performed primer design, DNA extraction, PCR and DNA sequencing reactions. S.Y.L. and O.S.S. performed phylogenetic analysis and S.Y.L. attempt to isolate virus. H.K.K. performed histopathological study and ecological analysis. J.H.K. and H.G.C. provided penguin samples. J.W.S. conceived the project, and provided overall scientific oversight. All authors contributed to the preparation of the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References and Notes
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