text:
Temporal range: Middle to Late Pleistocene 0.25–0.028Ma
|Neanderthal skull at La Chapelle-aux-Saints.
|Mounted Neanderthal skeleton at American Museum of Natural History.
|Scientific classification
|H. neanderthalensis
|Binomial name
Homo neanderthalensis
King, 1864
|Range of Homo neanderthalensis. Eastern and northern ranges may extend to include Okladnikov in Altai and Mamotnaia in Ural
Homo mousteriensis[1]
The Neanderthals (or Neandertals, from German: Neandertaler) (, , , or )[3] are an extinct species of human in the genus Homo. They are closely related to modern humans,[4][5] differing in DNA by just 0.12%.[6] Remains left by Neanderthals include bone and stone tools, which are found in Eurasia, from Western Europe to Central and Northern Asia. The species is named after Neandertal ("Neander Valley"), the location in Germany where it was first discovered. Neanderthals are generally classified by biologists as the species Homo neanderthalensis, but a minority consider them to be a subspecies of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis).[7]
The first humans with proto-Neanderthal traits are believed to have existed in Eurasia as early as 350,000 - 600,000 years ago[8] with the first "true Neanderthals" appearing between 200,000 and 250,000 years ago.[9] The exact date of their extinction had been disputed. However, in 2014, Thomas Higham of the University of Oxford performed the most comprehensive dating of Neanderthal bones and tools ever carried out, which demonstrated that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago - this coincides with the start of a very cold period in Europe and is 5,000 years after Homo sapiens reached the continent. This was based on improved radiocarbon dating of materials from 40 sites in Western Europe.[10]
Several cultural assemblages have been linked to the Neanderthals in Europe. The earliest, the Mousterian stone tool culture, dates to about 300,000 years ago.[11] Late Mousterian artifacts were found in Gorham's Cave on the south-facing coast of Gibraltar.[12][13]
With an average cranial capacity of 1600 cm3,[14] Neanderthal's cranial capacity is notably larger than the 1400 cm3 average for modern humans, indicating that their brain size was larger. However, owing to larger body size, Neanderthals are less encephalized.[15] Males stood 164–168 cm (65–66 in) and females about 152–156 cm (60–61 in) tall.[16]
Genetic evidence published in 2014 suggests that Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of anatomically modern humans, probably through interbreeding between 50,000 to 60,000[17] years ago with a population of anatomically modern humans. According to the study, by the time that population began dispersing across Eurasia, Neanderthal genes constituted as much as 1–4% of its genome (roughly equivalent to having one Neanderthal great-great-great-grandparent).[18][19][20] Ötzi the iceman, Europe's oldest preserved mummy, was found to possess an even higher percentage of Neanderthal ancestry.[21] Recent findings suggest there may be even more Neanderthal genes in non-African humans than previously expected: approximately 20% of the Neanderthal gene pool was present in a broad sampling of non-African individuals, though each individual's genome was on average only 2% Neanderthal.[22]
In December 2013, researchers reported evidence that Neanderthals practiced burial behavior and intentionally buried their dead.[23] In addition, scientists reported, for the first time, the entire genome of a Neanderthal. The genome was extracted from the toe bone of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a Siberian cave.[24][25]
- 1 Name
- 2 Classification
- 3 Origin
- 4 Discovery
- 5 Habitat and range
- 6 Anatomy
- 7 Behavior
- 8 Violence
- 9 Genome
- 10 Extinction hypotheses
- 11 Interbreeding hypotheses
- 12 Specimens
- 13 Popular culture
- 14 See also
- 15 References
- 16 External links
The species is named after the site of its first discovery, about 12 km (7.5 mi) east of Düsseldorf, Germany, in the Feldhofer Cave in the river Düssel's Neander valley named after Joachim Neander, a 17th-century German pastor and hymnist. Neander's own name was in turn a Greek translation of the German Neumann (lit. "New man"). Thal is the older spelling of Tal (both with the same pronunciation), the German word for 'valley' (cognate with English dale).[26][27][28]
Neanderthal 1 was known as the "Neanderthal cranium" or "Neanderthal skull" in anthropological literature, and the individual reconstructed on the basis of the skull was occasionally called "the Neanderthal man".[29] The binomial name Homo neanderthalensis – extending the name "Neanderthal man" from the individual type specimen to the entire species – was first proposed by the Anglo-Irish geologist William King in 1864 and this had priority over the proposal put forward in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, Homo stupidus.[27] The practice of referring to "the Neanderthals" and "a Neanderthal" emerged in the popular literature of the 1920s.[30]
The German pronunciation of Neanderthaler and Neandertaler is [neˈandɐˌtʰaːlɐ] in the International Phonetic Alphabet. In British English, "Neanderthal" is pronounced with the /t/ as in German but different vowels (IPA: /niːˈændərtɑːl/).[31][32][33] In layman's American English, "Neanderthal" is pronounced with a /θ/ (the voiceless th as in thin) and /ɔ/ instead of the longer British /aː/ (IPA: /niːˈændərθɔːl/),[34] although scientists typically use the /t/ as in German.[35][36]
For some time, scientists have debated whether Neanderthals should be classified as Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, the latter placing Neanderthals as a subspecies of H. sapiens.[37][38] Some morphological studies support the view that H. neanderthalensis is a separate species and not a subspecies.[39][40] Others, for example University of Cambridge Professor Paul Mellars, say "no evidence has been found of cultural interaction"[41] and evidence from mitochondrial DNA studies has been interpreted as evidence Neanderthals were not a subspecies of H. sapiens.[42]
Comparison of the DNA of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens suggests that they diverged from a common ancestor between 350,000 and 400,000 years ago. This ancestor was probably Homo heidelbergensis. Heidelbergensis originated between 800,000 and 1,300,000 years ago, and continued until about 200,000 years ago. It ranged over Eastern and South Africa, Europe and Western Asia. Between 350,000 and 400,000 years ago the African branch is thought to have started evolving towards modern humans and the Eurasian branch towards Neanderthals. Scientists do not agree when Neanderthals can first be recognised in the fossil record, with dates ranging between 200,000 and 300,000 years BP.[43][44][45][46]
Neanderthal skulls were first discovered in Engis Caves (fr), in what is now Belgium (1829) by Philippe-Charles Schmerling and in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar, dubbed Gibraltar 1 (1848), both prior to the type specimen discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley in Erkrath near Düsseldorf in August 1856, three years before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published.[47]
The type specimen, dubbed Neanderthal 1, consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three bones from the right arm, two from the left arm, part of the left ilium, fragments of a scapula, and ribs. The workers who recovered this material originally thought it to be the remains of a bear. They gave the material to amateur naturalist Johann Carl Fuhlrott, who turned the fossils over to anatomist Hermann Schaaffhausen.
To date, the bones of over 400 Neanderthals have been found.[48]
- 1829: Neanderthal skulls were discovered in Engis, in present-day Belgium.
- 1848: Neanderthal skull Gibraltar 1 found in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar. Called "an ancient human" at the time.
- 1856: Johann Karl Fuhlrott first recognized the fossil called "Neanderthal man", discovered in Neanderthal, a valley near Mettmann in what is now North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
- 1880: The mandible of a Neanderthal child was found in a secure context and associated with cultural debris, including hearths, Mousterian tools, and bones of extinct animals.
- 1886: Two nearly perfect skeletons of a man and woman were found at Spy, Belgium at the depth of 16 ft with numerous Mousterian-type implements.
- 1899: Hundreds of Neanderthal bones were described in stratigraphic position in association with cultural remains and extinct animal bones.
- 1899: Sand excavation workers found bone fragments on a hill in Krapina, Croatia called Hušnjakovo brdo. Local Franciscan friar Dominik Antolković requested Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger to study the remains of bones and teeth that were found there.
- 1905: During the excavation in Krapina more than 5 000 items were found, of which 874 residue of human origin, including bones of prehistoric man and animals, artifacts.
- 1908: A nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in association with Mousterian tools and bones of extinct animals.
- 1925: Francis Turville-Petre finds the 'Galilee Man' or 'Galilee Skull' in the Zuttiyeh Cave in Wadi Amud in The British Mandate of Palestine (now Israel).
- 1926 Skull fragments of Gibraltar 2, a four-year-old Neanderthal girl, discovered by Dorothy Garrod.
- 1953–1957: Ralph Solecki uncovered nine Neanderthal skeletons in Shanidar Cave in the Kurdistan region of northern Iraq.
- 1975: Erik Trinkaus' study of Neanderthal feet confirmed they walked like modern humans.
- 1987: Thermoluminescence results from Israeli fossils date Neanderthals at Kebara to 60,000 BP and humans at Qafzeh to 90,000 BP. These dates were confirmed by electron spin resonance (ESR) dates for Qafzeh (90,000 BP) and Es Skhul (80,000 BP).
- 1991: ESR dates showed the Tabun Neanderthal was contemporaneous with modern humans from Skhul and Qafzeh.
- 1993: 127,000-year-old DNA is found on the child of Sclayn, found in Scladina (fr), Belgium.
- 1997: Matthias Krings et al. are the first to amplify Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) using a specimen from Feldhofer grotto in the Neander valley.[49]
- 1998: A team led by pre-history archeologist João Zilhão discovered an early Upper Paleolithic human burial in Portugal, at Abrigo do Lagar Velho, which provided evidence of early modern humans from the west of the Iberian Peninsula. The remains, a largely complete skeleton of an approximately 4-year-old child, buried with pierced shell and red ochre, is dated to ca. 24,500 years BP.[50] The cranium, mandible, dentition, and postcrania present a mosaic of European early modern human and Neanderthal features.[50]
- 2000: Igor Ovchinnikov, Kirsten Liden, William Goodman et al. retrieved DNA from a Late Neanderthal infant from Mezmaiskaya Cave in the Caucasus.[51]
- 2005: The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology launched a project to reconstruct the Neanderthal genome, working with Connecticut-based 454 Life Sciences. In 2009, the Max Planck Institute announced the "first draft" of a complete Neanderthal genome is completed.[52]
- 2010: Comparison of Neanderthal genome with modern humans from Africa and Eurasia shows that 1–4% of modern non-African human genome might come from the Neanderthals.[19][20]
- 2010: Discovery of Neanderthal tools far away from the influence of H. sapiens indicate that the species might have been able to create and evolve tools on its own, and therefore be more intelligent than previously thought. Furthermore, it was proposed that the Neanderthals might be more closely related to Homo sapiens than previously thought and that may in fact be a sub species of it.[53] Evidence has more recently emerged that these artifacts are probably of H. sapiens sapiens origin.[54]
- 2012: Charcoal found next to six paintings of seals in Nerja caves, Malaga, Spain, has been dated to between 42,300 and 43,500 years old. The paintings themselves will be dated in 2013, and if their pigment matches the date of the charcoal, they would be the oldest known cave paintings. José Luis Sanchidrián at the University of Cordoba, Spain believes the paintings are more likely to have been painted by Neanderthals than early modern humans.[55]
- 2013: A jawbone found in Italy had features intermediate between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens suggesting it could be a hybrid. The mitochondrial DNA is Neanderthal.[56]
- 2013: An international team of researchers reported evidence that Neanderthals practiced burial behavior and intentionally buried their dead.[23]
- 2014: Researchers at the University of Colorado Museum in Boulder report that Neanderthals were not less intelligent than modern humans and "that single-factor explanations for the disappearance of the Neandertals are not warranted any more."[57]
- 2014: Prof Thomas Higham of the University of Oxford performed the most comprehensive dating of Neanderthal bones and tools ever carried out, which demonstrated that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago - this coincides with the start of a very cold period in Europe and is 5000 years after Homo sapiens reached the continent.[58]
Habitat and range
Early Neanderthals lived in the Last glacial period for a span of about 100,000 years. Because of the damaging effects the glacial period had on the Neanderthal sites, not much is known about the early species. Countries where their remains are known include most of Europe south of the line of glaciation, roughly along the 50th parallel north. This includes most of Western Europe, the south coast of Great Britain,[59] Central Europe, the Carpathians, and the Balkans,[60] some sites in Ukraine and in western Russia, Central and Northern Asia up to the Altai Mountains, and Western Asia from the Levant up to the Indus River. It is estimated that the total Neanderthal population across this habitat range numbered at around 70,000 at its peak.[61]
Neanderthal fossils have not been found to date in Africa, but there have been finds close to North Africa, both on Gibraltar and in the Levant. At some Levantine sites, Neanderthal remains date from after the same sites were vacated by modern humans. Mammal fossils of the same time period show cold-adapted animals were present alongside these Neanderthals in this region of the Eastern Mediterranean. This implies Neanderthals were better adapted biologically to cold weather than modern humans and at times displaced them in parts of the Middle East when the climate got cold enough.[62]
Homo sapiens sapiens appears to have been the only human type in the Nile River Valley during these periods, and Neanderthals are not known to have ever lived south-west of present-day Israel. When climate change caused warmer temperatures, the Neanderthal range likewise retreated to the north, along with the cold-adapted species of mammals. Apparently these weather-induced population shifts took place before modern people secured competitive advantages over the Neanderthal, as these shifts in range took place well over ten thousand years before modern people totally replaced the Neanderthal, despite the recent evidence of some successful interbreeding.[62]
Separate developments in the human line, in other regions such as Southern Africa, somewhat resembled the Eurasian Neanderthals, but these people were not Neanderthals. One such example is Rhodesian Man (Homo rhodesiensis), who existed long before any classic Eurasian Neanderthals, but had a more modern set of teeth. Some H. rhodesiensis populations appeared to be on the road to modern H. sapiens sapiens. At any rate, the populations in Eurasia underwent more and more "Neanderthalization" as time went on. There is some argument that H. rhodesiensis in general was ancestral to both modern humans and Neanderthals, and that at some point the two populations went their separate ways, but this supposes that H. rhodesiensis goes back to around 600,000 years ago.
To date, no intimate connection has been found between these similar archaic people and the Eurasian Neanderthals, at least during the same time as H. rhodesiensis seems to have lived about 600,000 years ago, long before the time of classic Neanderthals. This said, some researchers think that H. rhodesiensis may have lived much later than this period, depending on the method used to date the fossils, leaving this issue open to debate. Some H. rhodesiensis features, like the large brow ridge, may have been caused by convergent evolution.
It appears incorrect, based on present research and known fossil finds, to refer to any fossils outside Eurasia as true Neanderthals. They had a known range that possibly extended as far east as the Altai Mountains, but not farther to the east or south, and apparently not into Africa. At any rate, in North-East Africa the land immediately south of the Neanderthal range was possessed by modern humans Homo sapiens idaltu or Homo sapiens, since at least 160,000 years before the present. 160,000-year-old hominid fossils at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco were previously thought to be Neanderthal, but it is now clear that they are early modern humans.[63]
Classic Neanderthal fossils have been found over a large area, from northern Germany to Israel and Mediterranean countries like Spain[64] and Italy[65] in the south and from England and Portugal in the west to Uzbekistan in the east. This area probably was not occupied all at the same time. The northern border of their range, in particular, would have contracted frequently with the onset of cold periods. On the other hand, the northern border of their range as represented by fossils may not be the real northern border of the area they occupied, since Middle Palaeolithic-looking artifacts have been found even farther north, up to 60° N, on the Russian plain.[66] Recent evidence has extended the Neanderthal range by about 1,250 miles (2,010 km) east into southern Siberia's Altai Mountains.[67][68]
Neanderthal anatomy differed from modern humans in that they had a more robust build and distinctive morphological features, especially on the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain isolated geographic regions. These include shorter limb proportions, a wider, barrel-shaped rib cage, a reduced chin and, perhaps most notably, a large nose, which was much larger in both length and width, and started somewhat higher on the face, than in modern humans.[9] Evidence suggests they were much stronger than modern humans, with particularly strong arms and hands,[69][70] while they were comparable in height; based on 45 long bones from at most 14 males and 7 females, Neanderthal males averaged 164–168 cm (65–66 in) and females 152–156 cm (60–61 in) tall.[16] Samples of 26 specimens in 2010 found an average weight of 77.6 kg (171 lb) for males and 66.4 kg (146 lb) for females.[71] A 2007 genetic study suggested some Neanderthals may have had red hair and blond hair, along with a light skin tone.[72]
A 2013 study of Neanderthal skulls suggests that their eyesight may have been better than that of modern humans, owing to larger eye sockets and larger areas of the brain devoted to vision.[73] Neanderthals are known for their large cranial capacity, which at 1600 cm3 is larger on average than that of modern humans. One study has found that Neanderthal brains were more asymmetric than other hominid brains.[74] In 2008, a group of scientists produced a study using three-dimensional computer-assisted reconstructions of Neanderthal infants based on fossils found in Russia and Syria. It indicated that Neanderthal and modern human brains were the same size at birth, but that by adulthood, the Neanderthal brain was larger than the modern human brain.[75]
Neanderthals made advanced tools,[76] probably had a language (the nature of which is debated and likely unknowable) and lived in complex social groups. The Molodova archaeological site in eastern Ukraine suggests some Neanderthals built dwellings using animal bones. A building was made of mammoth skulls, jaws, tusks and leg bones, and had 25 hearths inside.[77]
Neanderthals may have been capable of building dugout boats since the Middle Paleolithic.[78][79] Mousterian stone tools discovered on the southern Ionian Islands suggests that Neanderthals were sailing the Mediterranean Sea as early as 110,000 years BP.[80][81] Quartz hand-axes, three-sided picks, and stone cleavers from Crete have also been recovered that date back about 170,000 years BP.[82]
It was once thought that Neanderthals lacked the sophistication for hunting, perhaps scavenging meat from carcasses,[9] but increasing evidence suggests they were apex predators,[83][84] capable of bringing down a wide range of prey from red deer, reindeer, ibex and wild boar, to larger animals such as aurochs and even, on occasion, mammoth, straight-tusked elephant and rhinoceros.[9][85] However, while largely carnivorous,[86][87] new studies indicate Neanderthals also had cooked vegetables in their diet.[84][88] In 2010, an isotope analysis of Neanderthal teeth found traces of cooked vegetable matter, and more recently a 2014 study of Neanderthal coprolites (fossilized feces) found substantial amounts of plant matter, contradicting the earlier belief they were exclusively (or almost exclusively) carnivorous.[86][89]
The St. Césaire 1 skeleton discovered in 1979 at La Roche à Pierrot, France, showed a healed fracture on top of the skull apparently caused by a deep blade wound. This wound was likely fatal, given the lack of medical care, causing the victim to bleed out, or through cranial concussion.[90]
Early investigations concentrated on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which, owing to strictly matrilineal inheritance and subsequent vulnerability to genetic drift, is of limited value in evaluating the possibility of interbreeding of Neanderthals with Cro-Magnon people.
In 1997, geneticists were able to extract a short sequence of DNA from Neanderthal bones.[91] The extraction of mtDNA from a second specimen was reported in 2000, and showed no sign of modern human descent from Neanderthals.[51]
In July 2006, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and 454 Life Sciences announced that they would sequence the Neanderthal genome over the next two years. This genome was expected to be roughly the size of the human genome, three-billion base pairs, and share most of its genes. It was hoped the comparison would expand understanding of Neanderthals, as well as the evolution of humans and human brains.[92]
Svante Pääbo has tested more than 70 Neanderthal specimens. Preliminary DNA sequencing from a bone fragment of a femur found at Vindija Cave, Croatia, in 1980 showed Neanderthals and modern humans share about 99.5% of their DNA. From mtDNA analysis estimates, the two species shared a common ancestor about 500,000 years ago. An article[93] appearing in the journal Nature has calculated the species diverged about 516,000 years ago, whereas fossil records show a time of about 400,000 years ago.[94] A 2007 study pushes the point of divergence back to around 800,000 years ago.[95]
Edward Rubin of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory states recent genome testing of Neanderthals suggests human and Neanderthal DNA are some 99.5% to nearly 99.9% identical.[96][97]
On 16 November 2006, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory issued a press release suggesting Neanderthals and ancient humans probably did not interbreed.[98] Edward M. Rubin, director of the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Joint Genome Institute (JGI), sequenced a fraction (0.00002) of genomic nuclear DNA (nDNA) from a 38,000-year-old Vindia Neanderthal femur. They calculated the common ancestor to be about 353,000 years ago, and a complete separation of the ancestors of the species about 188,000 years ago.[99]
Their results show the genomes of modern humans and Neanderthals are at least 99.5% identical, but despite this genetic similarity, and despite the two species having coexisted in the same geographic region for thousands of years, Rubin and his team did not find any evidence of any significant interbreeding between the two. Rubin said, "While unable to definitively conclude that interbreeding between the two species of humans did not occur, analysis of the nuclear DNA from the Neanderthal suggests the low likelihood of it having occurred at any appreciable level."[99]
In 2008 Richard E. Green et al. from [101][102]
In the same publication, it was disclosed by Svante Pääbo that in the previous work at the Max Planck Institute that "Contamination was indeed an issue," and they eventually realized that 11% of their sample was modern human DNA.[103][104] Since then, more of the preparation work has been done in clean areas and 4-base pair 'tags' have been added to the DNA as soon as it is extracted so the Neanderthal DNA can be identified.
With 3 billion nucleotides sequenced, analysis of about ⅓ showed no sign of admixture between modern humans and Neanderthals, according to Pääbo. This concurred with the work of Noonan from two years earlier. The variant of microcephalin common outside Africa, which was suggested to be of Neanderthal origin and responsible for rapid brain growth in humans, was not found in Neanderthals. Nor was the MAPT variant, a very old variant found primarily in Europeans.[103]
However, an analysis of a first draft of the Neanderthal genome by the same team released in May 2010 indicates interbreeding may have occurred.[19][20] "Those of us who live outside Africa carry a little Neanderthal DNA in us," said Pääbo, who led the study. "The proportion of Neanderthal-inherited genetic material is about 1 to 4 percent. It is a small but very real proportion of ancestry in non-Africans today," says Dr. David Reich of Harvard Medical School, who worked on the study. This research compared the genome of the Neanderthals to five modern humans from China, France, sub-Saharan Africa, and Papua New Guinea. The finding is that about 1 to 4 percent of the genes of the non-Africans came from Neanderthals, compared to the baseline defined by the two Africans.[19]
This indicates a gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans, i.e., interbreeding between the two populations. Since the three non-African genomes show a similar proportion of Neanderthal sequences, the interbreeding must have occurred early in the migration of modern humans out of Africa, perhaps in the Middle East. No evidence for gene flow in the direction from modern humans to Neanderthals was found. Gene flow from modern humans to Neanderthals would not be expected if contact occurred between a small colonizing population of modern humans and a much larger resident population of Neanderthals. A very limited amount of interbreeding could explain the findings, if it occurred early enough in the colonization process.[19]
While interbreeding is viewed as the most parsimonious interpretation of the genetic discoveries, the authors point out they cannot conclusively rule out an alternative scenario, in which the source population of non-African modern humans was already more closely related to Neanderthals than other Africans were, because of ancient genetic divisions within Africa.[19] Other studies carried out since the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome have cast doubt on the level of admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans, or even as to whether the species interbred at all. One study has asserted that the presence of Neanderthal or other archaic human genetic markers can be attributed to shared ancestral traits between the species originating from a 500,000-year-old common ancestor.[105][106][107]
Among the genes shown to differ between present-day humans and Neanderthals were RPTN, SPAG17, CAN15, TTF1 and PCD16.[19]
Extinction hypotheses
As the 2014 study by Thomas Higham of Neanderthal bones and tools indicates that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago, and that Homo sapiens arrived in Europe between 45,000 and 43,000 years ago, it is now apparent that the two different human populations shared Europe for as long as 5,000 years.[58] The exact nature of biological and cultural interaction between Neanderthals and other human groups between has been contested.[108]
Possible scenarios for the extinction of the Neanderthals are:
- Neanderthals were a separate species from modern humans, and became extinct (because of climate change or interaction with humans) and were replaced by modern humans moving into their habitat between 45,000 and 40,000 years ago.[109] Jared Diamond has suggested a scenario of violent conflict and displacement.[110]
- Neanderthals were a contemporary subspecies that bred with modern humans and disappeared through absorption (interbreeding theory).
As Paul Jordan notes: "A natural sympathy for the underdog and the disadvantaged lends a sad poignancy to the fate of the Neanderthal folk, however it came about." Jordan, though, does say that there was perhaps interbreeding to some extent, but that populations that remained totally Neanderthal were probably out-competed and marginalized to extinction by the Aurignacians.[62]
Climate change
About 55,000 years ago, the weather began to fluctuate wildly from extreme cold conditions to mild cold and back in a matter of a few decades. Neanderthal bodies were well suited for survival in a cold climate—their barrel chests and stocky limbs stored body heat better than the Cro-Magnons. However, the rapid fluctuations of weather caused ecological changes to which the Neanderthals could not adapt; familiar plants and animals would be replaced by completely different ones within a lifetime. Neanderthals' ambush techniques would have failed as grasslands replaced trees. Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago which coincides with the start of a very cold period.[58][112] Raw material sourcing and the examination of faunal remains by Adler et al. (2006) in the southern Caucasus region suggest that modern humans may have had a survival advantage during this period, being able to use social networks to acquire resources from a greater area. They found that in both the Late Middle Palaeolithic and Early Upper Palaeolithic more than 95% of stone artifacts were drawn from local material, suggesting Neanderthals were restricted to more local resources. Furthermore, excavations at Ortvale Klde Rockshelter discovered that there was a clear break between the Late Middle Paleolithic and the Early Upper Paleolithic lithic assemblages, which were attributed to Neanderthals and modern humans respectively. This would suggest that modern humans came in and replaced Neanderthals, rather than a slow shift or integration occurring in this region. [113]
Studies on Neanderthal body structures have shown that they needed more energy to survive than any other species of hominid. Their energy needs were up to 100 to 350 kcal (420 to 1,460 kJ) more per day comparing to projected anatomically modern human males weighing 68.5 kg (151 lb) and females 59.2 kg (131 lb).[114] When food became scarce, this difference may have played a major role in the Neanderthals' extinction.[112]
Coexistence with Homo sapiens
In November 2011 tests conducted at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in England on what were previously thought to be Neanderthal baby teeth, which had been unearthed in 1964 from the Grotta del Cavallo in Italy, were identified as the oldest modern human remains discovered anywhere in Europe, dating from between 43,000 and 45,000 years ago.[115] Given that the 2014 study by Thomas Higham of Neanderthal bones and tools indicates that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago, the two different human populations shared Europe for as long as 5,000 years.[58] The exact nature of biological and cultural interaction between Neanderthals and other human groups has been contested.[108]
Neanderthals became classified as extinct roughly 30,000 years ago coinciding with the arrival of what is known today, as modern humans. According to The Sensuous Curmudgeon "Whatever dates one uses, it seems that Neanderthal was the first to arrive in Europe and the Middle East.".[116] The modern humans co-existed with them in Europe starting around 35 kya, perhaps even earlier. Before the arrival of modern humans, Neanderthals inhabited those continents for many years before to the human arrival. The humans may have introduced a disease which contributed to the extinction hypothesis that complements other recent explanations for the extinction of Neanderthals. When Neanderthal ancestors left Africa roughly 100,000 years earlier they adapted to the pathogens in their European environment, unlike modern humans who adapted to African pathogens. This transcontinental movement is known as the out of Africa Model. If contact between humans and Neanderthals occurred in Europe and Asia the first contact could have been devastating to the Neanderthal population because they would not have any immunity to the African pathogens. "Recent European and American history provides evidence for similar events",[116] where the introduction of viral, or bacterial pathogens to new populations lead to mass mortality and local population extinction. Similar to when Christopher Columbus brought and introduced foreign diseases to the New World when he and his crew arrived to a native population with no immune system to foreign diseases.
Interbreeding hypotheses
An alternative to extinction is that Neanderthals were absorbed into the Cro-Magnon population by interbreeding. This would be counter to strict versions of the Recent African Origin, since it would imply that at least part of the genome of Europeans would descend from Neanderthals.
Hans Peder Steensby, while strongly emphasising that all modern humans are of mixed origins, proposed the interbreeding hypothesis in 1907, in the article Race studies in Denmark.[118] He held that this would best fit current observations, and attacked the widespread idea that Neanderthals were ape-like or inferior.
The most vocal proponent of the hybridization hypothesis is Erik Trinkaus of Washington University.[119] Trinkaus claims various fossils as products of hybridized populations, including the child of Lagar Velho, a skeleton found at Lagar Velho in Portugal.[120][121] In a 2006 publication co-authored by Trinkaus, the fossils found in 1952 in the cave of Peștera Muierii, Romania, are likewise claimed as descendants of previously hybridized populations.[122]
Genetic research has asserted that some admixture took place.[123] The genomes of all non-Africans include portions that are of Neanderthal origin,[124][125] due to interbreeding between Neanderthals and the ancestors of Eurasians in Northern Africa or the Middle East prior to their spread. Rather than absorption of the Neanderthal population, this gene flow appears to have been of limited duration and limited extent. An estimated 1 to 4 percent of the DNA in Europeans and Asians (French, Chinese and Papua probands) is non-modern, and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA rather than with Sub-Saharan Africans (Yoruba people and San probands).[19] Nonetheless, more recent genetic studies seem to suggest that modern humans may have mated with "at least two groups" of ancient humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans.[126] Some researchers suggest admixture of 3.4%-7.9% in modern humans of non-African ancestry, rejecting the hypothesis of ancestral population structure.[127] Detractors have argued and continue to argue that the signal of Neanderthal interbreed may be due to ancient African substructure, meaning that the similarity is only a remnant of a common ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans and not the result of interbreeding.[128][129] John D. Hawks has argued that the genetic similarity to Neanderthals may indeed be the result of both structure and interbreeding, as opposed to just one or the other.[130]
While modern humans share some nuclear DNA with the extinct Neanderthals, the two species do not share any mitochondrial DNA,[131] which in primates is always maternally transmitted. This observation has prompted the hypothesis that whereas female humans interbreeding with male Neanderthals were able to generate fertile offspring, the progeny of female Neanderthals who mated with male humans were either rare, absent or sterile.[132] However, some researchers have argued that there is evidence of possible interbreeding between female Neanderthals and male modern humans.[133][134]
Notable Specimens
- Neanderthal 1: The first Neanderthal specimen found during an archaeological dig in August 1856. It was discovered in a limestone quarry at the Feldhofer grotto in Neanderthal, Germany. The find consisted of a skull cap, two femora, three right arm bones, two left arm bones, ilium, and fragments of a scapula and ribs.
- La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1: Called the Old Man, a fossilized skull discovered in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France, by A. and J. Bouyssonie, and L. Bardon in 1908. Characteristics include a low vaulted cranium and large browridge typical of Neanderthals. Estimated to be about 60,000 years old, the specimen was severely arthritic and had lost all his teeth, with evidence of healing. For him to have lived on would have required that someone process his food for him, one of the earliest examples of Neanderthal altruism (similar to Shanidar I.)
- La Ferrassie 1: A fossilized skull discovered in La Ferrassie, France, by R. Capitan in 1909. It is estimated to be 70,000 years old. Its characteristics include a large occipital bun, low-vaulted cranium and heavily worn teeth.
- Le Moustier: A fossilized skull, discovered in 1909, at the archaeological site in Peyzac-le-Moustier, Dordogne, France. The Mousterian tool culture is named after Le Moustier. The skull, estimated to be less than 45,000 years old, includes a large nasal cavity and a somewhat less developed brow ridge and occipital bun as might be expected in a juvenile.
- Shanidar 1: Found in the Zagros Mountains in (Iraqi Kurdistan); a total of nine skeletons found believed to have lived in the Middle Paleolithic. One of the nine remains was missing part of its right arm, which is theorized to have been broken off or amputated. The find is also significant because it shows that stone tools were present among this tribe's culture. One of the skeletons was buried with flowers, signifying that some type of burial ceremony may have occurred.
- Amud 1: Fossilized remains of an adult Neanderthal, dated to roughly 45,000 years ago, and one of several found in a cave at Nahal Amud, Israel, at least some of which may have been deliberately buried. A particularly notable feature of this find is its cranial capacity, which, at 1,740 cm3, is among the largest known for any hominid, living or extinct.[9][135]
This section describes bones with Neanderthal traits in chronological order.
Mixed with H. heidelbergensis traits
- > 350 ka: Sima de los Huesos c. 500:350 ka ago[136][137]
- 350–200 ka: Pontnewydd 225 ka ago.
- 200–135 ka: Atapuerca,[138] Vértesszőlős, Ehringsdorf, Casal de'Pazzi, Biache, La Chaise, Montmaurin, Prince, Lazaret, Fontéchevade
Typical H. neanderthalensis traits
- 135–45 ka: Krapina, Saccopastore skulls, Malarnaud, Altamura, Gánovce, Denisova, Okladnikov Altai, Pech de l'Azé, Tabun 120 ka – 100±5 ka,[139] Qafzeh9 100, Shanidar 1 to 9 80–60 ka, La Ferrassie 1 70 ka, Kebara 60 ka, Régourdou, Mt. Circeo, Combe Grenal, Erd 50 ka, La Chapelle-aux Saints 1 60 ka, Amud I 53±8 ka,[140][141] Teshik-Tash.
- 45–35 ka: Le Moustier 45 ka, Feldhofer 42 ka, La Quina, l'Horus, Hortus, Kulna, Šipka, Saint Césaire, Bacho Kiro, El Castillo, Bañolas, Arcy-sur-Cure.[142]
- < 35 ka: Châtelperron, Figueira Brava, Zafarraya 30 ka,[142] Vogelherd 3?,[143] Vindija 32,400 ± 800 14C B.P.[144] (Vi-208 31,390 ± 220, Vi-207 32,400 ± 1,800 14C B.P.),[144] Velika Pećina,
Homo sapiens with some neanderthal-like archaic traits
- < 35 Pestera cu Oase 35 ka, Mladeč 31 ka, Pestera Muierii 30 ka (n/s),[145] Lapedo Child 24.5 ka.
Popular culture
Neanderthals have been portrayed in popular culture including appearances in literature, visual media and comedy, often in an unflattering and inaccurate light.
Early artistic reconstructions mostly presented Neanderthals as beastly creatures, emphasizing hairiness and rough, dark complexion.[146] More recent reconstructions acknowledge that because of the lineage evolution in European latitude there is reason to believe that Neanderthals were fair-skinned and probably with no more facial hair than modern man. Archaeological evidence exists indicating that they probably communicated by speech and used tools. Artist renderings and reconstructions of Neanderthals have become much more intelligent-looking and closely resembling modern humans.[147][148]
See also
- Abrigo do Lagar Velho — More about "the Lapedo child"
- Almas: wild man of Mongolia
- Basajaun
- Altamura Man
- Roca dels Bous (archaeological site)
- Biological anthropology
- Caveman
- Denisova hominin another Homo species that may have interbred with Neanderthals
- Early human migrations
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
- Neanderthal Museum
- Neanderthals of Gibraltar
- Pleistocene megafauna
- Species problem
- List of fossil sites (with link directory)
- List of human evolution fossils (with images)
- List of Neanderthal sites
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- ^ Condemi, Silvana; Mounier, Aurélien; Giunti, Paolo; Lari, Martina; Caramelli, David; Longo, Laura (2013). Frayer, David, ed. "Possible Interbreeding in Late Italian Neanderthals? New Data from the Mezzena Jaw (Monti Lessini, Verona, Italy)". PLoS ONE 8 (3): e59781.
- ^ –The Neanderthals"Homo neanderthalensis". Australian Museum. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
- ^ Bischoff, J; Shamp, Donald D.; Aramburu, Arantza; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Carbonell, Eudald; Bermudez De Castro, J.M. (2003). "The Sima de los Huesos Hominids Date to Beyond U/Th Equilibrium (>350kyr) and Perhaps to 400–500kyr: New Radiometric Dates". Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (3): 275.
- ^ Arsuaga JL, Martínez I, Gracia A, Lorenzo C (1997). "The Sima de los Huesos crania (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). A comparative study". Journal of Human Evolution 33 (2–3): 219–81.
- ^ Kreger, C. David. "Homo neanderthalensis". ArchaeologyInfo.com. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- ^ Mcdermott, F; Grün, R; Stringer, Cb; Hawkesworth, Cj (May 1993). "Mass-spectrometric U-series dates for Israeli Neanderthal/early modern hominid sites". Nature 363 (6426): 252–5.
- ^ Rink, W. Jack, H.P. Schwarcz, H.K. Lee, J. Rees-Jones, R. Rabinovich & E. Hovers (August 2002). "Electron spin resonance (ESR) and thermal ionization mass spectrometric (TIMS) 230Th/234U dating of teeth in Middle Paleolithic layers at Amud Cave, Israel". Geoarchaeology 16 (6): 701–717.
- ^ Valladas, Hélène, N. Merciera, L. Frogeta, E. Hoversb, J.L. Joronc, W.H. Kimbeld & Y. Rak (March 1999). "TL Dates for the Neanderthal Site of the Amud Cave, Israel". Journal of Archaeological Science 26 (3): 259–268.
- ^ a b Rincon, Paul (13 September 2006). "'"Neanderthals' 'last rock refuge. BBC News. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
- ^ Conard, Nj; Grootes, Pm; Smith, Fh (July 2004). "Unexpectedly recent dates for human remains from Vogelherd". Nature 430 (6996): 198–201.
- ^ a b Higham T, Ramsey CB, Karavanić I, Smith FH, Trinkaus E (January 2006). "Revised direct radiocarbon dating of the Vindija G1 Upper Paleolithic Neandertals".
- ^ Hayes, Jacqui (2 November 2006). "Humans and Neanderthals interbred". Cosmos. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
- ^ Neanderthal image by Kupka, based on Boule, 1909, in Humanity's Journeys Dr. Kathryn Denning, 2005, retrieved 2012-03-17
- ^ Atelier Daynes, Neanderthal reconstructions, retrieved 2012-03-17
- ^ Replica of a Neanderthal child, The Ancient Edge Back European Neanderthals Overwhelmed by Sheer Numbers of Invading Homo Sapiens, Genevieve Maul, August 10th 2011, retrieved 2012-03-17
- Boë, Louis-Jean; Heim, Jean-Louis; Honda, Kiyoshi; Maeda, Shinji (2002). "The potential Neandertal vowel space was as large as that of modern humans". Journal of Phonetics 30 (3): 465–84.
- Lieberman, Philip (October 2007). "Current views on Neanderthal speech capabilities: A reply to Boe et al. (2002)". Journal of Phonetics 35 (4): 552–63.
- Serre, David; Langaney, André; Chech, Mario; Teschler-Nicola, Maria; Paunovic, Maja; Mennecier, Philippe; Hofreiter, Michael; Possnert, Göran; Pääbo, Svante (2004). "No Evidence of Neandertal mtDNA Contribution to Early Modern Humans". PLoS Biology 2 (3): e57.
- Wild, Eva M.; Teschler-Nicola, Maria; Kutschera, Walter; Steier, Peter; Trinkaus, Erik; Wanek, Wolfgang (2005). "Direct dating of Early Upper Palaeolithic human remains from Mladeč". Nature 435 (7040): 332–5.
- Shaw, Kerry L. (2002). "Conflict between nuclear and mitochondrial DNA phylogenies of a recent species radiation: What mtDNA reveals and conceals about modes of speciation in Hawaiian crickets". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (25): 16122–7.
- Zilhão, João; Davis, Simon J. M.; Duarte, Cidália; Soares, António M. M.; Steier, Peter; Wild, Eva (2010). Hawks, John, ed. "Pego do Diabo (Loures, Portugal): Dating the Emergence of Anatomical Modernity in Westernmost Eurasia". PLoS ONE 5 (1): e8880.
- Derev'anko, Anatoliy P.; Powers, William Roger; Shimkin, Demitri Boris (1998). The Paleolithic of Siberia: new discoveries and interpretations.
External links
- Kreger, C. David (30 June 2000). "Homo neanderthalensis". ArchaeologyInfo.com. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- O'Neil, Dennis (12 May 2009). "Evolution of Modern Humans: Neandertals". Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- "Homo neanderthalensis". The Smithsonian Institution.
- "Neanderthal DNA". International Society of Genetic Genealogy.: Includes Neanderthal mtDNA sequences
- Panoramio - 'IMG_6922 The Neandertal foot prints' (photo of ~25K years old fossilized footprints discovered in 1970 on volcanic layers near Demirkopru Dam Reservoir, Manisa, Turkey)
- Did better mothering defeat the Neanderthals?
- My Great-great-great Grandfather's a Neanderthal
- Ancient tryst fortified human immune system
- Neanderthal-human hybridisation hypothesis
- Neanderthal hybridization and Haldane's rule
- Articles with 'species' microformats
- CS1 maint: display-authors
- Commons category without a link on Wikidata
- Neanderthals
- Fossil taxa described in 1864
- Prehistoric Germany
- Prehistoric Belgium
- Prehistoric Netherlands
- Prehistoric Britain
- Prehistoric France
- Prehistoric Spain
- Prehistoric Portugal
- Prehistoric Italy
- Prehistoric Croatia
- Prehistoric Slovenia
- Prehistoric Slovakia
- Prehistoric Czech Republic
- Prehistoric Poland
- Prehistoric Russia
- Prehistoric Ukraine
- Prehistoric Israel
- Prehistoric Iran
- Prehistoric Afghanistan
- Prehistoric Syria
- Prehistoric Anatolia
- Prehistoric Lebanon
- Prehistoric Iraq
- Prehistoric Uzbekistan
- Stone Age Europe
- Pleistocene primates
- Primates with sequenced genomes
- Tool-using mammals
- Animals with sequenced genomes


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I've been slowly working away on a new amigurumi. She's my own pattern so it takes longer that way. You'd think it would be faster since I don't have to keep stopping to check a pattern, but in fact, I have to keep stopping to reshape and rethink things. Ah well. Here's a peek for you all. Anyway, I hope to be done soon. I'm actually a lot further along than this photo suggests. (^_^)v
(By the way, how do you like the new blog template?)

subset: commoncrawl


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How to Win the Lottery and Live Out Your Dreams
Many, many stories of the "curse of the lottery" are out there. We've all heard of people squandering the millions they won in the lotto until there is simply nothing left to show for their luckiest winning moment. But all is not lost, there are plenty who win big and spend wisely. Winning the lottery can change a person's reality, and though it presents obstacles like being forced to deal with a sudden influx of money, it can be a wonderfully joyous event for you and your family, if you manage the cash well, and don't let yourself be cheated by scammers, old acquaintances, and two-faced relatives. Thankfully, there are some examples of how to win the lottery and live out your dreams.
How to Win the Lottery… the Stories
When Minnesota's Les Robins won $111 million in a 1993 Powerball drawing, he started a day camp called Camp Winnegator, still operating today. Media reports from the area say that Robins can still be seen padding around the 226-acre property that hosts the camp in an old Jeep. Robins also said to volunteer his time as a basketball coach. Talk about giving back!
Brad Duke of Idaho put his money to good use when he banked $85 million cash in a 2005 Powerball jackpot drawing. Duke invested carefully. He put the majority of the money into low risk investments, and $35 million into higher yielding, riskier investments. Duke paid of a modest Idaho estate, and set up a plan to pay each of his family members $12,000 a month – the maximum non-taxable amount in accordance with Idaho state law…Continue Reading Tags: lottery, stories, success, winners
Why So Many People Love Lottery Scratch-Off Tickets
You may see them every day that you shop at a local convenience store, grocery store or department store. You may hear about them in the newspaper or see stories about them on the news. There is a strong possibility that you may have even purchased several of them yourself in the past or had several of them given to you as a gift. What are they? Lottery scratch-off tickets!
The Undeniable Element of Addiction
There are so many people around the world that enjoy the mere thrill of having a chance to win a million dollars almost instantly, even if they only have a one out of a billion chance of winning. This burning desire is what has allowed the lottery to become so successful and widely popular throughout the world over the years.
The idea that your entire life and financial status can change simply by scratching off specific areas of a specific ticket is exciting, captivating and highly addictive for hundreds of millions of people worldwide. People that are seriously addicted to this improbable hope will invest hundreds and even thousands of dollars each month in lottery scratch-off tickets and only receive a fraction of that money back in winnings (if they receive any winnings at all).Continue Reading Tags: lottery, lotto, scratch-off tickets, spending, winners, winnings
Lottery Winners: Who Blew It & Who Grew It
The key reason why millions of people worldwide participate in lottery competitions on a daily basis is because they believe lottery can change their lives for the better. Whereas it is true that people's lives have been changed as a result of winning millions of dollars in lottery, there are also people's lives that were ruined because of winning huge sums of cash in lottery.
In this article, we look at the lives of people that were changed for the good and bad thanks to winning $1 million dollar plus in lottery.
Lottery Winners Who Did Not Relish Their Winnings
The popular saying, "Winning is not everything" is best demonstrated by the people listed below. By reading some of their stories, you will be encouraged to think about what to do with your winnings the instant you are the lucky winner of a million dollar jackpot.
#1: Suzanne Mullins
Rather than clear her debts, Suzanne Mullins managed to dig herself deep into a pile of debts. According to MSN, after winning $1 million the 1993 US Lotto, Suzanne saw that it was in her best interest to receive annual payouts rather than a single lump sum of cash. Before she realized it, she was in a pile of debt. She opted to utilize her future annual payouts as security for a $200,000 credit. Later on, Suzanne decided to receive the remaining sum in lump sum. Unfortunately, she did not use the cash received to pay off her debts. The financing company decided to file a lawsuit and was awarded a $154,000,000. Regrettably, the loaning company did not collect a single cent given that Suzanne did not have any tangible asset to her name.
#2: Michael Carroll
According to The Week Reports, Michael Carroll was at the peak of his career when he was announced as the lucky winner of Britain's £9.7 million jackpot in the year 2002 which is equivalent to $15 million. However, Michael had a desire for life in the fast lane. Some of the luxuries that Michael Carroll had a weakness for included, but not limited to expensive cars, prostitutes, party life and cocaine. In less than 5 years, Michael had blown away the £9.7 million he had won…Continue Reading Tags: keeping your money, losers, lottery, lotto, spending, success, winners


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Explaining BICS and CALP
by Judie Haynes
Classroom teachers need to understand the difference between social language and academic language acquisition. Here is a simple description of BICS and CALP as theorized by Jim Cummins.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
Experts such as Jim Cummins differentiate between social and academic language acquisition. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. It is the day-to-day language needed to interact socially with other people. English language learners (ELLs) employ BIC skills when they are on the playground, in the lunch room,on the school bus, at parties, playing sports and talking on the telephone. Social interactions are usually context embedded. They occur in a meaningful social context. They are not very demanding cognitively. The language required is not specialized. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in the U.S.
Problems arise when teachers and administrators think that a child is proficient in a language when they demonstrate good social English.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content material. This level of language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time and support to become proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to seven years. Recent research (Thomas & Collier, 1995) has shown that if a child has no prior schooling or has no support in native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up to their peers.
Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding of content area vocabulary. It includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced. Information is read from a textbook or presented by the teacher. As a student gets older the context of academic tasks becomes more and more reduced.
The language also becomes more cognitively demanding. New ideas, concepts and language are presented to the students at the same time.
Jim Cummins also advances the theory that there is a common underlying proficiency (CUP) between two languages. Skills, ideas and concepts students learn in their first language will be transferred to the second language.
© 1998-2007 Judie Haynes, www.everythingESL.net


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Face Off
KHAWLA Haddad 6/18/2005 7:00:46 PMWOW such cool image love the colors and that dramtic sky and comp great job Eti!!! #265419
Margot Petrowski 6/18/2005 7:43:17 PMWONDERFUL!!!!! LOVE IT!!! #1487187
Susana Ms Heide 6/18/2005 9:10:10 PMVery interesting and vibrant image! So creative! #1487361
Patty Razonable 6/18/2005 9:46:55 PMVery creative and the colors are outstanding!!! Very well done!! #1487449
Stacey M. Seufert 6/18/2005 10:44:43 PMVERY COOL, ETI! I LOVE THE BRIGHT COLORS AND YOUR CREATIVE EYE FOR DETAILS! #1487512
Eti Swinford 6/19/2005 7:53:31 AMThanks for the the kind comments Margot, Susana, Patty and Stacey. Eti #1488582
Ben Howell 6/20/2005 1:35:38 PMSimply stunning... #1493794
Kay E. Mahoney 7/2/2005 7:56:34 AMNeat photo Eti. Love the effects you used. Beautiful colors. #1546681
Eti Swinford 7/2/2005 9:14:49 AMBen and Kay, Thanks for viewing and the nice comments! Eti #1546859
Daniel Diaz 7/14/2005 7:17:53 AMGorgeous composition Eti, love the colors, effects and clarity!! #1591918
Eti Swinford 7/15/2005 6:19:45 AMThanks Daniel. I roamed your gallery. Very nice. I like your composition in your flower images. Eti #1595713
Kerby Pfrangle 7/22/2005 7:52:42 PMEti
Congratulations on your finalist.
Good luck in the finals.
Kerby #1622815
Kay E. Mahoney 7/22/2005 8:07:02 PMCongratulations Eti. Good luck in the next round. #1622939
KHAWLA Haddad 7/23/2005 1:39:29 PMCongratulations on this wonderful finalist!!!!!!!. #1627705
Eti Swinford 7/24/2005 3:04:49 AMThanks Kerby, Day and Kelly... What a surprise! #1630203
Linda Proctor 7/24/2005 4:40:12 PMCongrats Eti!!! This is fantastic!! #1632608
Susie Peek-Swint 7/25/2005 12:15:01 AMExcellent Eti ~ congrats on your win and potd!! #1633895
Dan Holm 7/25/2005 12:43:17 AMWow!! Big, BIG CONGRATULATIONS, Eti!! A well deserved WIN and POTD!!!! #1633977
Michelle R. Kovach 7/25/2005 2:50:16 AMCongratulations Eti on your POTD win & your Second Place win as well! #1634227
Kerby Pfrangle 7/25/2005 3:00:50 AMEti
Congratulations on your PODT and second place win.
Job well done.
Kerby #1634276
Joy Rector 7/25/2005 3:05:09 AMcongrats on your POTD #1634290
Deborah C. Lewinson 7/25/2005 3:56:00 AMCongrats on your POTD and win, Eti, for this fantastic image!
Leanne M.E. Boyd 7/25/2005 4:10:16 AMA big conratulations Eti! #1634665
Donna Dunbar 7/25/2005 4:32:12 AMWow !!! How did I ever miss this the first time? Beautiful image I love the color and clarity very creative!!!!! Congrats on POTD and for you win in the contest. #1634722
Virginia L. Allison 7/25/2005 4:32:40 AMWow, what great color and so clear. Very creative. Congrats. #1634723
Kevin Anderson 7/25/2005 4:44:37 AMGreat shot Eti! love the color. Congratulations. #1634743
Bill Houghton 7/25/2005 4:48:14 AMBeautifully done. Congratulations. #1634757
Kathleen K. Parker 7/25/2005 4:56:07 AMCongratulations on your win/potd, Eti!
Kay E. Mahoney 7/25/2005 5:03:12 AMCongratulations on your second place win and picture of the day :) #1634850
Laura Clay-Ballard 7/25/2005 5:23:13 AMcongrats! gorgeous! #1634936
Claudette Foote 7/25/2005 5:31:24 AMCongratulations on your win/potd, Eti!
Janine Russell 7/25/2005 5:40:10 AMCongratulations, Eti, on your second place win and on POTD. I love your photo. #1634999
Luhut Napitupulu 7/25/2005 6:29:31 AMCongrats on 2nd place winner, Eti! #1635184
Cathy Barrows 7/25/2005 7:25:01 AMCongrats on your win and your POTD!... great work #1635484
Kay Beausoleil 7/25/2005 8:11:00 AMCongratulations, Eti, on your POTD and your win! #1635736
Kathleen R. Struckle 7/25/2005 8:13:42 AMAwesome image Eti!! Congrats on POTD and you win!! #1635770
Julia a. Dixon 7/25/2005 8:30:09 AMwow you won all of it... this is so real... good job.. smile It is sooo fun to see this picture... keep up with ur work... wish u can teach me how do u do that ? smile
Julia #1635899
KHAWLA Haddad 7/25/2005 8:32:49 AMCongratulations on this wonderful winner!!! #1635918
Linda Proctor 7/25/2005 8:35:08 AMCongrats Eti!!! Fantastic winner! #1635932
Jenny Bosmans 7/25/2005 8:35:21 AMCongratulations on your beautiful win and on POTD, Eti! #1635935
Jacqueline C. Harmon 7/25/2005 8:49:25 AMcongrats on a great potd! #1636021
Jill Flynn 7/25/2005 9:09:10 AMCongratulations on this well deserved SECOND PLACE win Eti! STUNNING work! #1636167
Eti Swinford 7/25/2005 12:39:03 PMThanks everybody! What a surprise again... BIG SMILE #1637149
Detrick V. Martin 7/25/2005 9:51:46 PMWow this is wonderful! Congratulations! #1638682
Mary N C. Taitt 7/26/2005 12:09:38 AMCongratulations on your win and on an ultra cool shot! :-) Mary #1638793
Sharon Day 7/26/2005 11:25:44 AMCongratulations on this outstanding win, Eti!!! #1641247
Warren W. Higgons 7/26/2005 5:07:47 PMGREAT TO COME BACK TO. I have been away for over a month and this is the first
Donna La Mattino Pagakis 7/31/2005 6:43:48 PMWhat a great win, congratulations and welcome back!!! #1660665
Joy Rector 8/1/2005 4:25:02 AMcongrats on your win. #1661719
Mike M. Grogan 8/6/2005 10:50:08 AMstuning erm composition sorry but when is a photo not a photo? This can be done with a downloaded picture of a flamingo, microsoft picture publisher 8 and a lot of imagination (which you obviously have)anyway congrats on the win.
Eti Swinford 8/7/2005 5:14:54 AMThanks for the comments and congratulations from everyone! Much appreciated. For Mike, ALL parts of the image are my images in a composite. Nothing downloaded from anywhere! I do tend to play alot and have lots of fun doing it. #1686844
Mike M. Grogan 8/9/2005 12:45:15 PMSorry Eti no bad feelings meant, I like playing around with photo's myself, and I also have a lot of fun doing it, but what I'm trying to say is, are "composites" real photographs or not? some people may say yes but personally I don't think so, sorry. #1697797
Eti Swinford 8/10/2005 4:49:27 PMNo problem Mike and no bad feelings.. #1702956
Nemil B. Chabebe 5/9/2006 6:52:24 PMCongratulations on this winner photo.
Carrol A. Grimes 12/16/2007 9:44:09 PMCongratulations on an outstanding winning image! Well Done #5216358
Uploaded on 6/18/2005 6:29:38 PM
Camera: Nikon D70 Digital SLR Camera
Copyright for this gallery photo belongs solely to Eti Swinford. Images may not be copied, downloaded, or used in any way without the expressed, written permission of the photographer.
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July Housing Starts Below Expectation
Brendan Conway joins the News Hub with a look at today's market action, including three stocks to watch today. Photo: Getty Images.
This transcript has been automatically generated and may not be 100% accurate.
... the the ... stock futures are pointing modestly higher after the Essen P five hundred biggest one-day drop since June twenty yesterday ... Brendan Conway from Barron's he's here he's got a preview for any good morning morning rough what's going on and ... so the futures are pulled higher after U noe predicted yesterday ... I were still on track for the second straight losing week something that we don't really have not seen it all during two thousand thirteen assists them on this year's ... the market goes up and open up ... on the data this morning I think is kind of interesting ... Lee on housing starts for instance ... housing starts here that that theory that the figure is up twelve five point nine percent of pay for July which sounds good but ... below expectations was below expectations because the June number was was was was actually you know when to drop its done something like ... eight or nine percent said ... they were looking for a jumbo near nine percent this time ... they got almost six which is not bad but you know by the same token it's the it's not kind of a global they're hoping for ok what else do we are today ... yet you know if we just take a look at the overseas market something really strange happened in China which was some don't with the rest of the market selling off suddenly the Shanghai Composite was up by more than five percent ... and ... adjusted to lower it by the feed when we have up there but ... anyway continue yet here yet you know and this trade just goes to show you that the flash crash ahead in the U S were things ... drops momentarily you can ever trading glitches that something's higher to push for self restraint last man to fly flash up flash ... flash something with the right but that will come up with and what they're doing all over the RightNow's are trying to trace it back to there's a brokerage ... in particular that this kind of insights for ... your possibly some bad trades ... I just goes to show you that these marketplaces are still with us okay let's move on to three stocks the first is Dell we got smarting from them yet you know ... Dell is interesting because Carl Icahn the activist billionaire investor his charge against them ... was that they were kind of deliberately slowing down earnings so they could lower the stock price and get a sweeter ... deal when they ultimately I you know take his company private ports gear shareholders into accepting the deal on the table exactly a exactly in this quarter does nothing ... you know it's a kind of disarm Carl Icahn's ... argument ... earnings are down seventy two percent ... again tells been cutting prices so the L a strategy that they say is to get more customers for the future but is it certainly looks like a Zampano plate week today ECPG veteran featured in a lot more to it if I'm ... a fine Meg Whitman ... over HP I'm worried to ... doubt the competitor willing to compete for your Ashley Steel share because the going private indoor tracks earnings anyway moving on ... Nordstrom ... Nordstrom is interesting because again another retail company that had a decent quarter ... of the earnings were up that that stock is down a little the more than two percent this morning because they have a cautious outlook saying things sought full savings of Macy's okay last we have applied Materials semiconductor equipment ... discovered is interesting because this is one of those boom and bust industries in when times are good you've really great ... they have a cautious forecast here they they they they can turn into diesel quarter but they're just not that confident going for it to the reduced their full-year outlook and the stock's down a bit today okay Brendan Conway thank so much for joining us ...


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by Alaina Mabaso
The old stone building on Chestnut Hill's Meade Avenue used to house a carriage and its horses. Now it holds a veritable menagerie: bears, birds and Beowulf mingle with a llama-like vicuna, a graceful springbok, an octopus and even a quizzical guinea pig.
These new residents are the clay and metal creations of sculptor Joe Winter, who along with his artist wife of 56 years, Kathy, converted the 1901 structure into a home and workspace. A tile and sculpture studio, crammed with the characters of Joe's career, occupies the former carriage-house. A stable of horses once stood in what is now the Winters' living room.
The Winters, both 77, have lived in Chestnut Hill, where they raised their three children, for more than 50 years. But compared to many other families in the area, "we still call ourselves newcomers," they laugh. "It suits us to a T," Kathy says of the beautiful old lane, where an ambling parade of friendly neighbors and their dogs appear throughout the day. Several large tiles decorated with colorfully painted birds are set above the studio door: Joe's latest artistic foray.
Joe and Kathy met in the fall of 1953, when they were both beginning their first year of a fine arts degree program run through a partnership of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (PAFA) and the University of Pennsylvania. Joe is a native of Ohio who, with a father who was a physician for the U.S. Navy, bounced around the country as a child. Kathy grew up in Williamsburg, Virginia, in a magical window of time after the town's historic buildings had been restored but before they were roped off or inundated with tourists.
When Kathy and Joe arrived at PAFA for their fine art prerequisites, they were members of a diverse group. Some students were fresh from high school while others had trained for years. Others came from France, Ivory Coast or China, like Kathy's lifelong best friend, Phoebe Shih, now of Flourtown, with whom she has studied Chinese brush painting. Still more were soldiers from World War II studying on the GI Bill. There were 54 students in the class all together.
"We all became very fast friends," Kathy says. In fact, they were so friendly that Joe and Kathy are one of 14 married couples to come from that group.
A fiberglass bust of Kathy, sculpted by Joe when she was 19, still dominates the studio. There's an especially lucid quality, both serene and expectant, to its lovely features. After working side by side for so many years, the Winters do not take turns telling their own life story: they alternate telling parts of each other's without seeming to realize it.
Kathy was drawn by her love of color into painting, both oil and watercolor as well as pastels, and later designed several of the region's notable stained glass installations. She specializes in portraiture, and in addition to a variety of commissions, volunteered in PAFA's "Lost Dreams on Canvas" program, which provides professional portraits of children killed by violence in Philadelphia. The paintings become centerpieces of anti-violence programs and ultimately are gifted to the children's families. "You get into a portrait like that, and you're into the person," she says, sharing the families' sadness.
Also a longtime art teacher — at Villa St. Joseph in Flourtown and Our Mother of Consolation School in Chestnut Hill, et al — Kathy has exhibited her work at New York's Knickerbocker Art Exhibition, Lutheran Theological Seminary in Mt. Airy, Springfield Residence in Wyndmoor, Woodmere Art Museum and many others. "The best thing is that you don't have to retire from making art," Kathy says.
Joe found an early love of sculpture as well as an appreciation for lettering, both of which served him well for a fruitful career in medallic sculpture with the U.S. Mint and many private mints. During his tenure at the U.S. Mint, he designed numerous medals, including the 1986 Statue of Liberty half dollar (reverse) and the 1988 Olympic silver dollar (reverse). He was acting Chief Engraver in 1981, and he designed over 300 medals and coins for private mints throughout the country.
His work is published in "Sculpture of a City" (Walker Publishing Company, 1974) and "Commemorative Coins of the United States: A Complete Encyclopedia" (1991). Today, the top of his studio is lined with dozens of his large plaster-white coin and medal designs, shelved like old film reels.
Joe's work is found in many private collections, as well as at The Pennsylvania Academy Fellowship,Villanova University and the U.S. Embassy in Jamaica. But locally, Joe is perhaps best known as a former teacher at Chestnut Hill College and for the sculpture in what was once called Delancey Park at 3rd and Delancey Streets in Society Hill. In the 1960s, landscape architect John Francis Collins asked him to create a kid-friendly piece to anchor the park's new design. Joe's charming concrete sculpture of three bears, two large and one small, has turned the space into "Three Bears Park" ever since.
The bears' rounded, durable presence remains irresistible to local tots, and Joe designed his bears with climbing kiddies in mind. He even enjoys watching the latest generation ply their chalk on the sculpture, which is easily rinsed off by the rain.
Back at the studio, alongside small reproductions of the bears that are now for sale to their Philadelphia fans, the Winters' grandchildren appear in portraits and sculpture. The young family faces aren't the only signs of life coming full circle for the talented Winters. In a lush side-yard, Kathy proudly shows a giant, graceful magnolia tree, explaining that it was given to them by Joe's Delancey Park collaborator, who became their dear friend. Collins, who passed away last year, had cultivated the tree himself from a seedling. Kathy painted a picture of one of its blossoms, and Joe adapted the flower in her painting onto ceramic tiles that now surround the front door of their happy home.
For more information, email email@example.com or visit www.winterartstudio.com


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In September, 1786, delegates from New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Virginia met in Annapolis, Maryland, in a convention formally called the "Meeting of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government." Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina and Rhode Island had appointed delegates, but they failed to get to the meeting in time to attend it. This Annapolis Convention voted to ask that a meeting of all the states be held in May, 1787, in Philadelphia. This article reports that the delegation from Virginia would have some very respected members and recommends some prominent men from Pennsylvania as being suitable to attend the May convention. John Armstrong was the only man listed in this article who did not represent Pennsylvania at what became known as the Constitutional Convention.
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"From the Worcester Magazine" article in Hampshire Gazette on Shays' Rebellion insurgents
Editorial "To the Public" on the Constitution published in the Hampshire Gazette
Southern papers suggest dissolution of the Confederation of States article published in the Hampshire Gazette
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VIENNA (Reuters) - A new mobile operator plans to start up in Austria next year, bringing fresh competition into the market after Hutchison Whampoa's takeover of Orange Austria.
Mass Response is the second company to take advantage of cheap wholesale access to Hutchison's network, which it was forced to offer as a condition of the takeover that reduced the number of Austrian mobile network operators to three from four.
Liberty Global's UPC, Austria's biggest cable operator, also plans to offer mobile services on the back of Hutchison's network as a so-called mobile virtual network operator (MVNO), but has not said when it will start.
The chief executive of T-Mobile Austria, the second-biggest of the country's three network operators after Telekom Austria, told Reuters this week there might be room for up to 10 such MVNOs in the market.
He said a price war between the three network operators might be over and there could be room at the low end of the market for new entrants with cut-price deals.
Mass Response, a former unit of Telekom Austria, provides interactive services for television and media companies, for example for viewers to vote in game show competitions, as well as call center and other telecoms services for businesses.
It said on Sunday it now plans to branch out into the consumer market as well as providing new mobile packages for business customers and machine-to-machine connections like telematics in cars or smart utility metering.
Reporting by Georgina Prodhan; Editing by Elaine Hardcastle


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(Reuters) - Infielder Jurickson Profar, the top-rated prospect in Major League Baseball, has been added to the Netherlands team for the championship round of the World Baseball Classic starting on Sunday in San Francisco.
The 20-year-old, who had been at spring training with the Texas Rangers trying to make their Opening Day roster, replaced infielder Yurendell De Caster, who has a strained left foot, tournament organizers said.
The Netherlands and two-times reigning champions Japan have already qualified for the semi-finals. The other two semi-finalists will come from Pool 2 which includes the United States, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Italy.
Profar, a native of Curacao, split the 2012 season between Double-A Frisco and the Rangers. With Frisco he hit .281 with 14 home runs, 62 runs batted in and 16 stolen bases in 126 games before joining Texas for nine games at the end of the season.
Reporting by Larry Fine in New York, Editing by Peter Rutherford


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text: SuperDwarf Retics are a rare very small island locality, that exhibit dense patterns and deep coloration. They have all the intelligence, good looks, and charm that the "mainland" Retics have, but in an incredibly small package. Pure blood SuperDwarf retics attain adult sizes that are comparable to many Colubrids, and can be kept and bred in widely available caging and rack systems commonly used for much smaller species, such as Ball Pythons. When crossed into the Mainland varieties, they can be used to scale down the size of popular morphs. After several generations of selective breeding for size, they offer the chance for anyone to be able to keep this magnificent species, regardless of how much space they have available.