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Chemistry and society
For the first two-thirds of the 20th century, chemistry was seen by many as the science of the future. The potential of chemical products for enriching society appeared to be unlimited. Increasingly, however, and especially in the public mind, the negative aspects of chemistry have come to the fore. Disposal of chemical by-products at waste-disposal sites of limited capacity has resulted in environmental and health problems of enormous concern. The legitimate use of drugs for the medically supervised treatment of diseases has been tainted by the growing misuse of mood-altering drugs. The very word chemicals has come to be used all too frequently in a pejorative sense. There is, as a result, a danger that the pursuit and application of chemical knowledge may be seen as bearing risks that outweigh the benefits.
It is easy to underestimate the central role of chemistry in modern society, but chemical products are essential if the world's population is to be clothed, housed, and fed. The world's reserves of fossil fuels (e.g., oil, natural gas, and coal) will eventually be exhausted, some as soon as the 21st century, and new chemical processes and materials will provide a crucial alternative energy source. The conversion of solar energy to more concentrated, useful forms, for example, will rely heavily on discoveries in chemistry. Long-term, environmentally acceptable solutions to pollution problems are not attainable without chemical knowledge. There is much truth in the aphorism that "chemical problems require chemical solutions." Chemical inquiry will lead to a better understanding of the behaviour of both natural and synthetic materials and to the discovery of new substances that will help future generations better supply their needs and deal with their problems.
Progress in chemistry can no longer be measured only in terms of economics and utility. The discovery and manufacture of new chemical goods must continue to be economically feasible but must be environmentally acceptable as well. The impact of new substances on the environment can now be assessed before large-scale production begins, and environmental compatibility has become a valued property of new materials. For example, compounds consisting of carbon fully bonded to chlorine and fluorine, called chlorofluorocarbons (or Freons), were believed to be ideal for their intended use when they were first discovered. They are nontoxic, nonflammable gases and volatile liquids that are very stable. These properties led to their widespread use as solvents, refrigerants, and propellants in aerosol containers. Time has shown, however, that these compounds decompose in the upper regions of the atmosphere and that the decomposition products act to destroy stratospheric ozone. Limits have now been placed on the use of chlorofluorocarbons, but it is impossible to recover the amounts already dispersed into the atmosphere.
The chlorofluorocarbon problem illustrates how difficult it is to anticipate the overall impact that new materials can have on the environment. Chemists are working to develop methods of assessment, and prevailing chemical theory provides the working tools. Once a substance has been identified as hazardous to the existing ecological balance, it is the responsibility of chemists to locate that substance and neutralize it, limiting the damage it can do or removing it from the environment entirely. The last years of the 20th century will see many new, exciting discoveries in the processes and products of chemistry. Inevitably, the harmful effects of some substances will outweigh their benefits, and their use will have to be limited. Yet, the positive impact of chemistry on society as a whole seems beyond doubt.Melvyn C. Usselman
The history of chemistry
Chemistry has justly been called the central science. Chemists study the various substances in the world, with a particular focus on the processes by which one substance is transformed into another. Today, chemistry is defined as the study of the composition and properties of elements and compounds, the structure of their molecules, and the chemical reactions that they undergo. Rather than starting with such modern concepts, though, a fuller appreciation of the subject requires an examination of the historical processes that led to these concepts.
Philosophy of matter in antiquity
Indeed, the philosophers of antiquity could have had no notion that all matter consists of the combinations of a few dozen elements as they are understood today. The earliest critical thinking on the nature of substances, as far as the historical record indicates, was by certain Greek philosophers beginning about 600 bce. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Empedocles, and others propounded theories that the world consisted of varieties of earth, water, air, fire, or indeterminate "seeds" or "unbounded" matter. Leucippus and Democritus propounded a materialistic theory of invisibly tiny irreducible atoms from which the world was made. In the 4th century bce, Plato (influenced by Pythagoreanism) taught that the world of the senses was but the shadow of a mathematical world of "forms" beyond human perception.
In contrast, Plato's student Aristotle took the world of the senses seriously. Adopting Empedocles's view that the terrestrial region consisted of earth, water, air, and fire, Aristotle taught that each of these materials was a combination of qualities such as hot, cold, moist, and dry. For Aristotle, these "elements" were not building blocks of matter as they are thought of now; rather, they resulted from the qualities imposed on otherwise featureless prime matter. Consequently, there were many different kinds of earth, for instance, and nothing precluded one element from being transformed into another by appropriate adjustment of its qualities. Thus, Aristotle rejected the speculations of the ancient atomists and their irreducible fundamental particles. His views were highly regarded in late antiquity and remained influential throughout the Middle Ages.
For thousands of years before Aristotle, metalsmiths, assayers, ceramists, and dyers had worked to perfect their crafts using empirically derived knowledge of chemical processes. By Hellenistic and Roman times, their skills were well advanced, and sophisticated ceramics, glasses, dyes, drugs, steels, bronze, brass, alloys of gold and silver, foodstuffs, and many other chemical products were traded. Hellenistic Alexandria in Egypt was a centre for these arts, and it was apparently there that a group of ideas emerged that later became known as alchemy.
Three different sets of ideas and skills fed into the origin of alchemy. First was the empirical sophistication of jewelers, gold- and silversmiths, and other artisans who had learned how to fashion precious and semiprecious materials. Among their skills were smelting, assaying, alloying, gilding, amalgamating, distilling, sublimating, painting, and lacquering. The second component was the early Greek theory of matter, especially Aristotelian philosophy, which suggested the possibility of unlimited transformability of one kind of matter into another. The third of alchemy's roots consisted of a complex combination of ideas derived from Asian philosophies and religions, Hellenistic mystery religions, and what became known as the Hermetic writings (a body of pseudonymous Greek writings on magic, astrology, and alchemy ascribed to the Egyptian god Thoth or his Greek counterpart Hermes Trismegistos). It is important to note, however, that Hellenistic Egypt is only one of several candidates for the homeland of alchemy; at about the same time, similar ideas were developing in Persia, China, and elsewhere.
In general, alchemists sought to manipulate the properties of matter in order to prepare more valuable substances. Their most familiar quest was to find the philosopher's stone, a magical substance that would transmute ordinary metals such as copper, tin, iron, or lead into silver or gold. Important materials in this craft included sulfur, mercury, and electrum (a gold-silver alloy). However, many other alchemists spurned alchemical transmutation (aurifaction), devoting their efforts instead to a pharmaceutical preparation known as the "elixir of life" that would cure any disease, including the ultimate disease, death. The philosopher's stone and the elixir of life could be considered parallel quests, for each would "cure" metallic or human bodies, respectively, yielding immortal perfection. There was a parallel religious dimension to all this as well. Finally, some alchemists spurned material manipulations entirely, devoting themselves to meditation with the goal of achieving spiritual purity and ultimate redemption.
After the rise of Islam, Arabic-speaking scholars of the 9th century translated Greek scientific and philosophical works into their own language. Thereafter, philosophers in the Islamic world pursued chemical and alchemical ideas with enthusiasm and success. The sizable number of modern chemical words derived from Arabic—alcohol, alkali, alchemy, zircon, elixir, natron, and others—suggests the importance of this period for the history of chemistry. One of the leading ideas of medieval Arabic alchemy was the theory that all metals were formed of sulfur and mercury in various proportions and that altering those proportions could transform the metal under study—even to produce silver or gold from lead or iron. Not every alchemist, however, believed in the possibility of such transmutations.
Later, scholars in Christian western Europe learned of ancient Greek and early medieval Arabic philosophy by translating these books into Latin. Thus, the alchemical tradition, along with the rest of the Greco-Arabic philosophical and scientific corpus, passed to the West in the course of the 12th century. Well-known Scholastic philosophers of the 13th century, such as Roger Bacon in England and Albertus Magnus in Germany and France, wrote on alchemy. Alongside this learned literature, the empirical chemical arts continued to flourish and comprised a largely separate realm of expertise among artisans, engineers, and mechanics.
An important Western alchemist of the late 13th century was the pseudonymous Latin writer who called himself Geber in homage to the 8th-century Arab alchemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān. Geber was the first to record methods for the preparation and use of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid; the earliest clear evidence for widespread familiarity with distilled alcohol also does not much predate his day. These substances could only have been produced by novel stills that were more robust and efficient than their predecessors, and the appearance of these remarkable new materials produced dramatic changes in the repertoire of chemists.
The Renaissance saw even stronger interest in the science. The German-Swiss physician Paracelsus practiced alchemy, Kabbala, astrology, and magic, and in the first half of the 16th century he championed the role of mineral rather than herbal remedies. His emphasis on chemicals in pharmacy and medicine was influential on later figures, and lively controversies over the Paracelsian approach raged around the turn of the 17th century. Gradually the Hermetic influence declined in Europe, however, as certain celebrated feats of putative aurifaction were revealed as frauds.
It would be a mistake to think that open-minded empirical investigation that is well integrated with theory (which is how one might define science) was absent from the history of alchemy. Alchemy had many quite scientific practitioners through the centuries, notably including Britain's Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton—heroes of the scientific revolution of the 17th century—who applied systematic and quantitative method to their (mostly secret) alchemical studies. Indeed, as late as the end of the 17th century there was little to distinguish alchemy from chemistry, either substantively or semantically, since both words were applied to the same set of ideas. It was only in the early 18th century that chemists conferred different definitions on the two words, banishing alchemy to the ashbin of discredited occult pseudosciences.
Phlogiston theory
This shift was partly simple self-promotion by chemists in the new environment of the Enlightenment, whose vanguard glorified rationalism, experiment, and progress while demonizing the mystical. However, it was also becoming ever clearer that certain central ideas of alchemy (especially metallic transmutation) had never been demonstrated. One of the leaders in this regard was the German physician and chemist Georg Ernst Stahl, who vigorously attacked alchemy (after dabbling in it himself) and proposed an expansive new chemical theory. Stahl noted parallels between the burning of combustible materials and the calcination of metals—the conversion of a metal into its calx, or oxide. He suggested that both processes consisted of the loss of a material fluid, contained within all combustibles, called phlogiston.
Phlogiston became the centrepiece of a broad-ranging theory that dominated 18th-century chemical thought. Phlogiston, in short, was thought to be a material substance that defined combustibility. When metallic iron becomes red rust, it loses its phlogiston, just as a burning log does. The ashes of the log and the red rust "ashes" (calx) of iron can no longer burn because they no longer contain the principle of combustibility, or phlogiston. But iron calx can be converted back to the metal if it is strongly heated in the presence of a phlogiston-rich substance such as charcoal. The charcoal donates its phlogiston (becoming ashes itself), while the calx turns into molten metallic iron. Thus, smelting (reduction) of metallic ores could also be understood in phlogistic terms. Later phlogistonists added respiration to the number of phenomena that the theory could elucidate. An animal breathes air, emitting phlogiston in an analogy to a slow fire, fueled by the phlogiston-rich food it consumes. Earth's atmosphere avoids excess accumulation of phlogiston because plants incorporate it into combustible plant tissues that can then be used as animal food. Combustion, calcination, or respiration eventually cease in an enclosed space because air has a limited capacity to absorb the phlogiston emitted from the burning, calcining, or respiring entity.
The phlogiston theory became popular both because of its great success in explaining phenomena and guiding further investigation and because of a certain Enlightenment predilection for materialistic physical theories (the putative fluid of heat became known as caloric, and there were other suggested fluids of electricity, light, and so on). This materialist-mechanist trend can also be seen in the diffuse but powerful influence of Newton and René Descartes on chemists of the 18th century. Enlightenment chemists established distinctive scientific communities and a well-defined discipline (closely allied, to be sure, with medical and artisanal studies) in the major countries of Europe. The chemist's workplace or laboratory (the word itself had been coined in the Renaissance to apply to the chemical arts) was now closely associated with the field, and a standardized repertoire of operations was taught there.
Still unsettled were some fundamental issues relating to chemical composition. To a phlogistonist, a metallic calx was elemental, and the associated metal was a compound of calx plus phlogiston. This puzzled some, though, since the metal gained rather than lost weight when it supposedly lost phlogiston to become a calx. The issues were sharpened in the 1770s, when the virtuoso English chemist (and Unitarian minister) Joseph Priestley produced a new gas by heating certain minerals. A candle burned in this gas with extraordinary vigour, and in an enclosed space a mouse breathing it survived far longer than one could in ordinary air. Priestley's explanation was that the new gas had been radically dephlogisticated and, hence, had much greater capacity than air for absorbing phlogiston.
Actually, gases (then usually known as airs) were a relatively novel object of chemical attention. In Scotland in 1756, Joseph Black studied the gas given off in respiration and combustion, characterizing it chemically and following its participation in certain chemical reactions. (Black, a physician, taught chemistry as a branch of medicine, as did most academic chemists of this era.) He called the new gas "fixed air," since it was also found "fixed" in certain minerals such as limestone. His discovery that this gas was a normal component of common air (at a fraction of a percent, to be sure) was the first clear indication that atmospheric air was a mixture rather than a homogeneous element. In the following quarter century, many new gases were discovered and studied, by such workers as Priestley, the English physicist and chemist Henry Cavendish, and the Swedish pharmacist Carl Scheele.
The chemical revolution
The new research on "airs" attracted the attention of the young French aristocrat Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Lavoisier commanded both the wealth and the scientific brilliance to enable him to construct elaborate apparatuses to carry out his numerous ingenious experiments. In the course of just a few years in the 1770s, Lavoisier developed a radical new system of chemistry, based on Black's methods and Priestley's dephlogisticated air.
Lavoisier first determined that certain metals and nonmetals absorb a gaseous substance from the air in undergoing calcination or combustion and, in the process, increase in weight. Initially, he thought that this gas must be Black's fixed air, for he knew of no other chemical species present in ordinary air; moreover, fixed air was known to be produced in smelting, so it seemed reasonable to think that it was present in the calx that was smelted. At this point (October 1774), Priestley communicated to Lavoisier his discovery of dephlogisticated air. Further experiments led Lavoisier to continuously modify his ideas, until it finally became clear to him that it was this new gas, and not fixed air, that was the active entity in combustion, calcination, and respiration. Moreover, he determined (or so he thought, at least) that this gas was contained in all acids. He renamed it oxygen, Greek for "acid producer."
Lavoisier's oxygen was in some respects the inverse of phlogiston. Rather than releasing anything, the combustible or metal absorbed (more precisely, chemically combined with) oxygen in the process that Lavoisier now called oxidation. He showed that atmospheric air was a mixture of two principal components, oxygen and a physiologically inert gas (known to Priestley) that he called azote or nitrogen. He also showed that water is a chemical compound of two substances, oxygen and what Cavendish had called "inflammable air." The latter gas was now renamed hydrogen ("water producer"). Black's fixed air proved to be a gaseous form of oxidized carbon, or carbon dioxide. The various parts of Lavoisier's new system were beginning to fit together beautifully.
The keys to Lavoisier's success were twofold. First, he carefully accounted for all the substances, including gases, entering into and emerging from the chemical reactions he studied by tracking their weights with the greatest possible precision. He knew to do this partly from Black's example, but he proceeded with a mastery that the science had never before seen. Second, he established a simple operational definition of a chemical element—namely, a substance that could not be reduced in weight as the result of any chemical reaction that it undergoes. Oxygen, carbon, iron, and sulfur were now regarded as elements, along with close to 30 other substances. Lavoisier wrote a textbook to promote the new oxygenist chemistry, Traité élémentaire de chimie (1789), which appeared in the same year the French Revolution began. He and his associates also developed a new nomenclature—essentially the one used today for inorganic compounds—along with a new journal. As an aristocrat of the ancien régime and an investor in a tax-collection agency, Lavoisier was executed in the Reign of Terror, but by that time (1794) the chemical revolution that he had started had largely succeeded in replacing phlogistonist chemistry.
Atomic and molecular theory
Lavoisier's set of chemical elements, and the new way of understanding chemical composition, proved to be invaluable for analytic and inorganic chemistry, but in a real sense the chemical revolution had only just begun. Around the turn of the century, the English Quaker schoolteacher John Dalton began to wonder about the invisibly small ultimate particles of which each of these elemental substances might be composed. He thought that if the atoms of each of the elements were distinct, they must be characterized by a distinct weight that is unique to each element. Although these atoms were far too small to weigh individually, he realized that he could deduce their weights relative to each other—the ratio of the weight of an atom of oxygen to one of hydrogen, for instance—by examining reacting weights of macroscopic quantities of these elements. In fact, the laws of stoichiometry (combining weights of elements) were just then being developed, and Dalton used these regularities to justify his inferences. His first discussion of these issues dates to 1803, and he presented his atomic theory in the multivolume New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808–27).
Dalton's atomic theory was a landmark event in the history of chemistry, but it had a crucial flaw. His procedure required that one know the formulas of the simple compounds resulting from the combination of the elements. For example, analytical data of that day indicated that water resulted from the combination of seven parts by weight of oxygen with one part of hydrogen. If the resulting water molecule was HO (one atom of each element combining to form a molecule of water), then the weight ratio of the atoms of these elements must be the same, seven to one. However, if the formula were H2O, then the weight of an oxygen atom would have to be 14 times the weight of a hydrogen atom. There was simply no way to determine molecular formulas at that time, so Dalton made assumptions based on the simplicity of nature. He chose HO as his water formula and, therefore, seven as the relative atomic weight of oxygen.
In the following years, several leading chemists adopted essential elements of Dalton's theory, but many objected to the hypothetical elements just described; some also doubted the very possibility of investigating the world of the invisibly small. In 1808 the French chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac discovered that when gases combine chemically, they do so in small integral multiples by volume. Three years later the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro argued that this fact suggested that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of constituent particles (Avogadro's law), physical conditions being the same. This idea provided a physical method of determining certain molecular formulas. For instance, Gay-Lussac had pointed out that exactly two volumes of hydrogen combine with precisely one of oxygen to form water. If Avogadro was right, the formula for water had to be H2O. But this line of reasoning also led to the uncomfortable notion that elementary gases had polyatomic molecules (O2, H2, and so on), and therefore many chemists rejected Avogadro's hypotheses.
By far the greatest of the early atomists was the Swede Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who accepted parts of Avogadro's ideas and developed an elaborate version of chemical atomism by 1826. It was Berzelius who in 1813 had proposed the alphabetic system for denoting elements, atoms, and molecular formulas, and the use of formulas as an aid for studying chemical composition and reactions began to blossom about 1830. However, different chemists were still making different assumptions regarding the formulas of simple compounds such as water, and so, for decades, various inconsistent systems of atomic weights and formulas were in use in the various European countries.
Berzelius also developed a theory of chemical combination based on the electrochemical studies that the invention of the battery (1800) had spawned. He became convinced that all molecules were held together by the Coulomb force, the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged objects. (Berzelius assumed that a molecule's constituent atoms or groups of atoms were not neutral, and he called these charged components radicals.) This theory of electrochemical dualism worked well with inorganic compounds, but organic substances seemed anomalous. Particularly in the 1830s, when chemists learned how to replace the hydrogen of organic compounds with chlorine atoms, Berzelius's theory appeared to be threatened—after all, hydrogen and chlorine had opposite electrochemical characteristics, yet the substitution seemed to make little difference in the properties of the compounds. In the 1840s and '50s, extensive debates over rival systems of chemical atomism and over electrochemical dualism enlivened the journal literature.
Organic radicals and the theory of chemical structure
Both problems were finally resolved through the further development of organic chemistry. The leading organic chemists of the day were the German Justus von Liebig and the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste-André Dumas. In 1830 Liebig invented a device that made organic analysis rapid, convenient, and accurate, and his laboratory institute at the tiny University of Giessen in Hesse became the most famous chemical school in the world. Liebig taught an enormous number of chemists, and his students assisted in his research program. He was the leading figure in the rise of the research university and in the idea of a research group. As a professor at Giessen, and later at the University of Munich, he laid much emphasis on practical applications of chemistry, especially for physiology, agriculture, and consumer products. Dumas exerted a similar influence in France, training students and pursuing research at a private laboratory in Paris.
Both Liebig and Dumas initially accepted the Berzelian scheme and sought to understand organic molecules as composed of identifiable radicals held together electrochemically. The younger French chemists Auguste Laurent and Charles Gerhardt pursued chlorine substitution reactions and cast doubt on this simple model; sometime after 1840 Liebig and Dumas both retreated into positivism. In 1852 Liebig's English former postdoctoral assistant Edward Frankland noticed a regularity in the combining capacity of the atoms of certain metals and semimetals. At about the same time, two former students of both Liebig and Dumas, Alexander Williamson in London and Charles-Adolphe Wurtz in Paris, were independently approaching the same idea from a different direction. Using a system of atomic weights and formulas developed by Gerhardt and Laurent—a modified version of Berzelius's system that incorporated Avogadro's ideas more consistently—they proposed that oxygen atoms could combine with two other simple atoms, such as hydrogen, or with two organic radicals and that nitrogen atoms could combine with three. This was the beginning of the concept of atomic valence.
In 1858 the young German theorist August Kekule then expanded this concept to carbon, not only proposing that carbon atoms were tetravalent but adding the idea that they could bond to each other to form chains, comprising a molecular "skeleton" to which other atoms could cling. Kekule's theory of chemical structure clarified the compositions of hundreds of organic compounds and served as a guide to the synthesis of thousands more. (The self-chaining of carbon atoms was independently developed by the Scottish chemist Archibald Scott Couper.) This theory experienced dramatic expansion when Kekule successfully applied it to aromatic compounds (after 1865) and after Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff of the Netherlands and Joseph LeBel of France independently began to investigate molecular structures in three dimensions—later called stereochemistry.
Mendeleyev's periodic law
Kekule's innovations were closely connected with a reform movement that gathered steam in the 1850s, seeking to replace the multiplicity of atomic weight systems with Gerhardt's and Laurent's proposal. Indeed, Kekule could not have succeeded with structure theory if he had not started with the reformed atomic weights. Kekule, Wurtz, and German chemist Carl Weltzien were organizers of the first international chemical conference, held at Karlsruhe in southwestern Germany in September 1860, which was intended to gain unity and understanding across the European chemical community. The Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro played perhaps the most critical role at the conference. The reformers' success was incomplete, but the Karlsruhe Congress can stand as an appropriate symbol of the era when chemistry attained a recognizably modern appearance.
The widespread adoption of a single reformed set of atomic weights for the 60-odd known elements appears to have prompted renewed speculation on the relationships of the elements to each other, and various proposals for systems of classification were developed in the 1860s. By far the most successful of these systems was that of the Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleyev. In 1869 he announced that when the elements were arranged horizontally according to increasing atomic weight, and a new horizontal row was begun below the first whenever similar properties in the elements reappear, then the resulting semi-rectangular table revealed consistent periodicities. The vertical columns of similar elements were called groups or families, and the entire array was called the periodic table of the elements. Mendeleyev demonstrated that this manner of looking at the elements was more than mere chance when he was able to use his periodic law to predict the existence of three new elements, later named gallium, scandium, and germanium, which were discovered in the 1870s and '80s.
To be sure, there were still many anomalies. For example, 15 chemically similar rare earth elements had been discovered by the end of the century. These elements were resistant to any periodic system; eventually they were grouped together in a separate category, the lanthanides (later called the lanthanoids; see transition element). Then in the 1890s British scientists William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh discovered the inert, or rare, gases argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon. These were all clearly members of a single chemical family, but there were no vacant spaces in the table for them. Soon after the turn of the 20th century, chemists decided simply to create an extra group for them.
Structuralist ideas from organic chemistry, as well as the development of the periodic table, gave new impetus to the study of inorganic compounds in the late 19th century. The leading chemical field in the second half of the century, however, was clearly organic chemistry, and the leading country was Germany. It was the Germans who exploited the structure theory most aggressively, and their success was measured by the explosive growth of university institutes as well as by practical applications developed in commercial enterprises. Organic chemists such as August Wilhelm von Hofmann and Emil Fischer at the University of Berlin and Adolf von Baeyer at the University of Munich developed large research groups that turned out novel compounds, research publications, and doctoral dissertations by the score. By the late 19th century, German chemistry, both academic and industrial, dominated Europe and the world.
The rise of physical chemistry
This is not to say that other approaches to chemistry were neglected, nor that other countries failed to participate in the excitement. Physical studies of chemical compounds and reactions began early in the century, and the field of physical chemistry had achieved maturity by the 1880s. Michael Faraday in England, Hermann Kopp and Robert Bunsen in Germany, and Henri-Victor Regnault in France carried out investigations on the physical characteristics of substances in the period 1830–60. Studies of heat, work, and force led to the rise of thermodynamics around 1850; originally oriented almost entirely to the science of physics, figures such as the American Josiah Willard Gibbs, the Frenchmen Marcellin Berthelot and Pierre Duhem, and the Germans Hermann von Helmholtz and Wilhelm Ostwald then applied energy and entropy concepts to chemistry in the 1870s and '80s. Electrochemistry, invented by the independent efforts of Berzelius and Humphry Davy in England at the beginning of the century, was pursued fruitfully by Faraday and others. Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff of Germany developed chemical spectroscopy in the late 1850s. Studies on the kinetics of chemical reactions began in the 1860s.
All this work culminated in the "official" establishment of the field of physical chemistry, traditionally considered to be when the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie ("Journal of Physical Chemistry") began publication in 1887. The editors were Ostwald and van 't Hoff, with Svante Arrhenius of Sweden, a future Nobelist, an especially important member of its editorial board. Controversies over the reality of ionic dissociation and other issues connected with electrochemistry, the theory of solutions, and thermodynamics enlivened early issues of the journal.
Physical chemists were in increasing demand as universities turned to them for instruction in basic courses on general and theoretical chemistry. This was nowhere more true than in the United States, with its vigorously expanding educational structure, including both private and state (land-grant) universities and emerging German-influenced doctoral programs. Soon after the turn of the century, two chemists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) who had studied with Ostwald, Arthur Noyes and Gilbert Lewis, formed the nucleus of a rising American chemical community. Noyes continued his career at Throop Polytechnic in Pasadena (later renamed the California Institute of Technology, commonly known as Caltech), and Lewis went on to the University of California at Berkeley.
Physical chemistry was profoundly altered by what some have called the second scientific revolution—namely, the discoveries of the electron, X-rays, radioactivity, and new radioactive elements, the understanding of radioactive emissions and nuclear decay processes, and early versions of the theories of quantum mechanics and relativity. All of this happened in just 10 years, from 1895 to 1905, and the scientific bombshells continued in the following years. In 1911 the British physicist Ernest Rutherford proposed a nuclear model of the atom, but his orbiting electrons seemed to violate classical electromagnetic theory, and the model was not immediately embraced. However, two years later the Danish physicist Niels Bohr resolved some of these anomalies by applying spectroscopic data and the quantum theory of the German physicists Max Planck and Albert Einstein to Rutherford's model (see figure). Bohr went on to head an international theoretical research group in Copenhagen that led in developing quantum mechanics during the 1920s. In the meantime, Rutherford revealed the existence of the proton and Einstein advanced his theory of general relativity.
Electronic theories of valence
So much for the physicists; but the chemists were not sitting on their hands through all of this. Since its discovery a half century earlier, one of the greatest puzzles in chemistry had been the central phenomenon of valence. It was as inexplicable as it was incontrovertibly true that oxygen atoms had exactly two valence "hooks" with which to form bonds and carbon normally had four (that is to say, oxygen is divalent, carbon tetravalent). Moreover, these bonds were not radially symmetrical like electrostatic charges or gravitation but seemed to be directed at distinct spatial angles around the atom. And the existence of highly stable elementary molecules such as H2 was downright embarrassing—for what could be the basis for the strong attraction of two identical atoms for each other? Some scientists, such as the great Swiss chemist Alfred Werner, used combinations of structural-organic and ionic theories to develop a scheme that brilliantly explained the structures of complex inorganic substances known as coordination compounds.
Others would take their cue from the discovery of the electron. As early as 1902, taking into account the work of the English physicist J.J. Thomson, Werner, and Ramsay and Rayleigh on the rare gases, Lewis privately drew casual sketches—depicting cubic atoms with outer electrons—that constituted the first step toward an electronic theory of chemical bonding. However, it was not until after Rutherford and Bohr had provided the early development of the nuclear theory of the atom that Lewis's ideas gelled. (Simultaneously and independently, the German physicist Walther Kossel published a similar theory.) Lewis suggested that a chemical bond consisted of a pair of electrons that was shared between the combining atoms. By equal sharing of electrons (forming what the American physical chemist Irving Langmuir was soon to call a covalent bond), each atom could complete its outer electron shell and thus achieve stability. The normally complete outer shell, Lewis thought, contained eight electrons—the configuration of the notably stable (that is, inert) rare gases. This was the octet rule, and it helped to explain why Mendeleyev's periodicities often came in multiples of eight.
The Lewis-Kossel-Langmuir electronic theory of valence (1916–23) was very incomplete, but was also extraordinarily fruitful for further developments, and essential elements of it survived for decades. In 1922 Bohr proposed electron configurations in the so-called K, L, M, and N shells. The theory was soon thereafter modified by breaking developments in quantum mechanics achieved by Bohr, German physicist Werner Heisenberg, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, and others. In 1927 two German researchers working with Schrödinger in Zürich, Fritz London and Walter Heitler, produced the first-ever quantum mechanical treatment of a chemical system, the hydrogen molecule.
The American physical chemist Linus Pauling (along with another American, John Slater) independently developed this approach into what he called the valence bond method of understanding chemical combination. The orbitals in the various electron shells (classified by the letters s, p, d, and f) could be mathematically "hybridized," resulting in the directed bonds actually observed in chemical compounds. Pauling also made extensive use of the quantum mechanical resonance effect, especially for understanding aromatic compounds. All of this was summarized in his classic work The Nature of the Chemical Bond (1939). An alternative quantum mechanical method of understanding chemical bonding, called the molecular orbital method, was developed by the American chemist Robert Mulliken and the German physicist Friedrich Hund. Although mathematically more complex, this approach has largely replaced Pauling's. In any case, ever since Lewis and Bohr, it has been understood that all chemical reactions and all chemical bonding involves the outer electron shells—the valence electrons—of participating atoms.
Organic chemists also incorporated electronic ideas into their theories. In the 1920s the Englishmen Robert Robinson and Christopher Ingold—bitter rivals then and later—led in the development of electronic theories of organic reaction mechanisms by focusing on rearranging electron pairs over the course of chemical reactions. Not only did this allow chemists to understand the intimate details of reactions in a way that had not previously been possible, but it also allowed them to successfully predict the reactivities of organic compounds in different chemical environments. Other studies of quantum mechanics applied to organic substances, combined with the kinetics of reactions, the nature of acids and bases, and instrumental methods of understanding compounds, led to a well-developed specialty field of physical organic chemistry.
Biochemistry, polymers, and technology
Organic chemistry, of course, looks not only in the direction of physics and physical chemistry but also, and even more essentially, in the direction of biology. Biochemistry began with studies of substances derived from plants and animals. By about 1800 many such substances were known, and chemistry had begun to assist physiology in understanding biological function. The nature of the principal chemical categories of foods—proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates—began to be studied in the first half of the century. By the end of the century, the role of enzymes as organic catalysts was clarified, and amino acids were perceived as constituents of proteins. The brilliant German chemist Emil Fischer determined the nature and structure of many carbohydrates and proteins. The announcement of the discovery (1912) of vitamins, independently by the Polish-born American biochemist Casimir Funk and the British biochemist Frederick Hopkins, precipitated a revolution in both biochemistry and human nutrition. Gradually, the details of intermediary metabolism—the way the body uses nutrient substances for energy, growth, and tissue repair—were unraveled. Perhaps the most representative example of this kind of work was the German-born British biochemist Hans Krebs's establishment of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, in the 1930s.
But the most dramatic discovery in the history of 20th-century biochemistry was surely the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), revealed by American geneticist James Watson and British biophysicist Francis Crick in 1953—the famous double helix. The new understanding of the molecule that incorporates the genetic code provided an essential link between chemistry and biology, a bridge over which much traffic continues to flow. The individual "letters" that make the code—four nucleotides named adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—were discovered a century ago, but only at the close of the 20th century could the sequence of these letters in the genes that make up DNA be determined en masse. In June 2000, representatives from the publicly funded U.S. Human Genome Project and from Celera Genomics, a private company in Rockville, Md., simultaneously announced the independent and nearly complete sequencing of the more than three billion nucleotides in the human genome. However, both groups emphasized that this monumental accomplishment was, in a broader perspective, only the end of a race to the starting line.
DNA is, of course, a macromolecule, and an understanding of this centrally important category of chemical compounds was a precondition for the events just described. Starch, cellulose, proteins, and rubber are other examples of natural macromolecules, or very large polymers. The word polymer (meaning "multiple parts") was coined by Berzelius about 1830, but in the 19th century it was only applied to special cases such as ethylene (C2H4) versus butylene (C4H8). Only in the 1920s did the German chemist Hermann Staudinger definitely assert that complex carbohydrates and rubber had huge molecules. He coined the word macromolecule, viewing polymers as consisting of similar units joined head to tail by the hundreds and connected by ordinary chemical bonds.
Empirical work on polymers had long predated Staudinger's contributions, though. Nitrocellulose was used in the production of smokeless gunpowder, and mixtures of nitrocellulose with other organic compounds led to the first commercial polymers: collodion, xylonite, and celluloid. The last of these was the earliest plastic. The first totally synthetic plastic was patented by Leo Baekeland in 1909 and named Bakelite. Many new plastics were introduced in the 1920s, '30s, and '40s, including polymerized versions of acrylic acid (a variety of carboxylic acid), vinyl chloride, styrene, ethylene, and many others. Wallace Carothers's nylon excited extraordinary attention during the World War II years. Great effort was also devoted to develop artificial substitutes for rubber—a natural resource in especially short supply during wartime. Already by World War I, German chemists had substitute materials, though many were less than satisfactory. The first highly successful rubber substitutes were produced in the early 1930s and were of great importance in World War II.
During the interwar period, the leading role for chemistry shifted away from Germany. This was largely the result of the 1914–18 war, which alerted the Allied countries to the extent to which they had become dependent on the German chemical industries. Dyes, drugs, fertilizers, explosives, photochemicals, food chemicals (such as chemicals for food additives, food colouring, and food preservation), heavy chemicals, and strategic materiel of many kinds had been supplied internationally before the war largely by German chemical companies, and, when supplies of these vital materials were cut off in 1914, the Allies had to scramble to replace them. One particularly striking example is the introduction of chlorine gas and other poisons, starting in 1915, as chemical warfare agents. In any case, after the war ended, chemistry was enthusiastically promoted in Britain, France, and the United States, and the interwar years saw the United States rise to the status of a world power in science, including chemistry.
All this makes clear why World War I is sometimes referred to as "the chemists' war," in the same way that World War II can be called "the physicists' war" because of radar and nuclear weapons. But chemistry was an essential partner to physics in the development of nuclear science and technology. Indeed, the synthesis of transuranium elements (atomic numbers greater than 92) was a direct consequence of the research leading to (and during) the Manhattan Project in World War II. This is all part of the legacy of the dean of nuclear chemists, American Glenn Seaborg, discoverer or codiscoverer of 10 of the transuranium elements. In 1997, element 106 was named seaborgium in his honour.
The instrumental revolution
As far as the daily practice of chemical research is concerned, probably the most dramatic change during the 20th century was the revolution in methods of analysis. In 1930 chemists still used "wet-chemical," or test-tube, methods that had changed little in the previous hundred years: reagent tests, titrations, determination of boiling and melting points, elemental combustion analysis, synthetic and analytic structural arguments, and so on. Starting with commercial labs that provided an out-source for routine analyses and with pH meters that displaced chemical indicators, chemists increasingly began to rely on physical instrumentation and specialists rather than personally administered wet-chemical methods. Physical instrumentation provides the sharp "eyes" that can see to the atomic-molecular level.
In the 1910s J.J. Thomson and his assistant Francis Aston had developed the mass spectrograph to measure atomic and molecular weights with high accuracy. It was gradually improved, so that by the 1940s the mass spectrograph had been transformed into the mass spectrometer—no longer a machine for atomic weight research but rather an analytical instrument for the routine identification of complex unknown compounds (see mass spectrometry). Similarly, colorimetry had a long history, dating back well into the previous century. In the 1940s colorimetric principles were applied to sophisticated instrumentation to create a range of usable spectrophotometers, including visible, infrared, ultraviolet, and Raman spectroscopy. The later addition of laser and computer technology to analytical spectrometers provided further sophistication and also offered important tools for studies of the kinetics and mechanisms of reactions.
Chromatography, used for generations to separate mixtures and identify the presence of a target substance, was ever more impressively automated, and gas chromatography (GC) in particular experienced vigorous development. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which uses radio waves interacting with a magnetic field to reveal the chemical environments of hydrogen atoms in a compound, was also developed after World War II. Early NMR machines were available in the 1950s; by the 1960s they were workhorses of organic chemical analysis. Also by this time, GC-NMR combinations were introduced, providing chemists unexcelled ability to separate and analyze minute amounts of sample. In the 1980s NMR became well known to the general public, when the technique was applied to medicine—though the name of the application was altered to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to avoid the loaded word nuclear.
Many other instrumental methods have seen vigorous development, such as electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray diffraction. In sum, between 1930 and 1970 the analytical revolution in chemistry utterly transformed the practice of the science and enormously accelerated its progress. Nor did the pace of innovation in analytical chemistry diminish during the final third of the century.
Organic chemistry in the 20th century
No specialty was more affected by these changes than organic chemistry. The case of the American chemist Robert B. Woodward may be taken as illustrative. Woodward was the finest master of classical organic chemistry, but he was also a leader in aggressively exploiting new instrumentation, especially infrared, ultraviolet, and NMR spectrometry. His stock in trade was "total synthesis," the creation of a (usually natural) organic substance in the laboratory, beginning with the simplest possible starting materials. Among the compounds that he and his collaborators synthesized were alkaloids such as quinine and strychnine, antibiotics such as tetracycline, and the extremely complex molecule chlorophyll. Woodward's highest accomplishment in this field actually came six years after his receipt of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1965: the synthesis of vitamin B12, a notable landmark in complexity. Progress continued apace after Woodward's death. By 1994 a group at Harvard University had succeeded in synthesizing an extraordinarily challenging natural product, called palytoxin, that had more than 60 stereocentres.
These total syntheses have had both practical and scientific spin-offs. Before the "instrumental revolution," syntheses were often or even usually done to prove molecular structures. Today they are a central element of the search for new drugs. They can also illuminate theory. Together with a young Polish-born American chemical theoretician named Roald Hoffmann, Woodward followed up hints from the B12 synthesis that resulted in the formulation of orbital symmetry rules. These rules seemed to apply to all thermal or photochemical organic reactions that occur in a single step. The simplicity and accuracy of the predictions generated by the new rules, including highly specific stereochemical details of the product of the reaction, provided an invaluable tool for synthetic organic chemists.
Stereochemistry, born toward the end of the 19th century, received steadily increasing attention throughout the 20th century. The three-dimensional details of molecular structure proved to be not only critical to chemical (and biochemical) function but also extraordinarily difficult to analyze and synthesize. Several Nobel Prizes in the second half of the century—those awarded to Derek Barton of Britain, John Cornforth of Australia, Vladimir Prelog of the Soviet Union, and others—were given partially or entirely to honour stereochemical advances. Also important in this regard was the American Elias J. Corey, awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1990, who developed what he called retrosynthetic analysis, assisted increasingly by special interactive computer software. This approach transformed synthetic organic chemistry. Another important innovation was combinatorial chemistry, in which scores of compounds are simultaneously prepared—all permutations on a basic type—and then screened for physiological activity.
Chemistry in the 21st century
Two more innovations of the late 20th century deserve at least brief mention, especially as they are special focuses of the chemical industry in the 21st century. The phenomenon of superconductivity (the ability to conduct electricity with no resistance) was discovered in 1911 at temperatures very close to absolute zero (0 K, −273.15 °C, or −459.67 °F). In 1986 two Swiss chemists discovered that lanthanum copper oxide doped with barium became superconducting at the "high" temperature of 35 K (−238 °C, or −397 °F). Since then, new superconducting materials have been discovered that operate well above the temperature of liquid nitrogen—77 K (−196 °C, or −321 °F). In addition to its purely scientific interest, much research focuses on practical applications of superconductivity.
In 1985 Richard Smalley and Robert Curl at Rice University in Houston, Tex., collaborating with Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex in Brighton, Eng., discovered a fundamental new form of carbon, possessing molecules consisting solely of 60 carbon atoms. They named it buckminsterfullerene (later nicknamed "buckyball"), after Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the geodesic dome. Research on fullerenes has accelerated since 1990, when a method was announced for producing buckyballs in large quantities and practical applications appeared likely. In 1991 Science magazine named buckminsterfullerene their "molecule of the year."
Two centuries ago, Lavoisier's chemical revolution could still be questioned by the English émigré Joseph Priestley. A century ago, the physical reality of the atom was still doubted by some. Today, chemists can maneuver atoms one by one with a scanning tunneling microscope, and other techniques of what has become known as nanotechnology are in rapid development. The history of chemistry is an extraordinary story.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
history of technology: ChemistryRobert Boyle's contribution to the theory of steam power has been mentioned, but Boyle is more commonly recognized as the "father of chemistry," in which field he was responsible for the recognition of an element as a material that cannot be resolved into other…
spectroscopy: ApplicationsSpectroscopy is used as a tool for studying the structures of atoms and molecules. The large number of wavelengths emitted by these systems makes it possible to investigate their structures in detail, including the electron configurations of ground and various excited states.…
life: Chemistry of lifeHuman beings, like mammals in general, are ambulatory collections of some 1014 cells. Human cells are in all fundamental respects the same as those that make up the other animals. Each cell typically consists of one central, spherical nucleus and another heterogeneous…
physical science: ChemistryChemistry had manifold origins, coming from such diverse sources as philosophy, alchemy, metallurgy, and medicine. It emerged as a separate science only with the rise of mechanical philosophy in the 17th century. Aristotle had regarded the…
physical science: ChemistryEighteenth-century chemistry was derived from and remained involved with questions of mechanics, light, and heat, as well as with notions of medical therapy and the interaction between substances and the formation of new substances. Chemistry took many of its problems and much of its…
More About Chemistry13 references found in Britannica articles
Assorted References
- applications of spectroscopy
- life
- Nobel Prize
- In Nobel Prize
- periodic law
- reference works
- alchemy
- science


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The ability to change direction quickly in response to a stimulus. One of the key components in sport performance.
John may not be able to run the length of himself, but damn he's agile.
For some positions in football, agility is king.
For some positions in football, agility is king.
by Arsenal6 July 06, 2018
A sport with a dog and person competing as a team, for time, on an obstacle-type course. There are jumps, tunnels, teetertotters, weave poles, dogwalk, Aframe, broadjump, other spread jumps and other possible obstacles that the dog must go over, through, across, weave between in a preordained and specific manner and order. Fastest time with the fewest faults for mistakes, wins. Based on horseshow jumping. Only dog takes the obstacles. Person must handle, run with dog, off leash without toys or treats, or touching dog or obstacles. Runs that count (qualify for some title) are called Q's. Also there are Double Q's and Super Q's, and dirty Q's. Agility tends to produce its own language.
I'm going to an agility trial this weekend. I hope to come home with some Double Q's.
by leximom September 16, 2009
Agility is used in Diablo and other games, it is usually ascociated with stats and abilities. Agility it'self actually means to be agile and agile means to be quick or fast, probably for running fast and dodging attacks thrown at you.
1 Agility increased by 2, you can run faster.
2 Wow, that thing was Agile!
2 Wow, that thing was Agile!
by Ligz March 16, 2006
A stat in World of Warcraft especially important to hunters OR Sylvis.
by Mr. Popo July 21, 2006
The grandmaster pimp daddy of cheese and all things cheddary. Loves to invent new styles of music such as "Slutcore" and "FuckYouCore."
by Strife November 22, 2004

subset: commoncrawl


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Hans Leenhouts necesitaba un nuevo diseño de logotipo y lanzó un concurso de diseño en 99designs.
Un ganador ha sido elegido entre 73 diseños de 24 diseñadores freelance.
THE BRANCHE/INDUSTRY (where we use the word BRANCHE you can also read INDUSTRY)
Like in the rest of the world many people in the Netherlands visit Quick Service Restaurants like McDonald's, Burgerking, KFC. Apart from these well-known fastfoodrestaurants, we consider also outlets where food and drinks are being served (fast) to consume on the spot or to go/take away, being part of a branche called "Fastservice": a blend of (quick)foodservice, retail and hospitality industry.
In the Netherland there are about 10.000 outlets part of this branche: fresh fruit drinks bars, ice-cream outlets, coffee corners, pizza delivery companies, pancake restaurants, sandwich shops, bakery outlets, lunchrooms, and traditional "cafeteria's", (as we call them in Holland) selling French fries and deep-fried snacks, salads, light meals, ice-cream and drinks.
Not only in Holland the branche has a negative image: for as well as the food ( unhealthy) as working ( so called Mcjobs). With this site we want to inform people about all possibilities of study and working in the branche and so improving the branche image here in Holland.
We stand for improving the standard and level of work (by education/workshops) for employees and entrepreneurs by giving good information.
actual site: http://www.fastserviceopleidingen.nl ( information in dutch)
Employers and employees in the branche.
Young people looking for a job and want to know more about the branche.
People working in highschools in order to give information to their students.
Fastservice companies looking for an educational support.
But also companies delivering to the branche / suppliers
Dutch audience
Regarding color and style: pls don't look only to McDonalds or KFC or Burgerking but also to new concepts in this branche: freshfood, saladbars, smoothies, coffee & tea bars, etc.
Logo must be classy, feel good, warm, hospitality. It must be a "rich" logo as we want to improve the image of the branche. Must be attractive to young people.
- The logo will be used for the new website and stationary and we will use it in several sizes, so consider the ability to read the name of the foundation.
- Please use colours which respect the branche
- Logo should be bright and different ( but a bit of serious business), qualtity first, people friendly, feeling of support/ community/college.
- Should be delivered in a such a format, we can use it fort all kind of purposes.
Descubre cómo funciona un concurso de diseño u obtén más información sobre nuestros servicios de diseño de logo.


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There are few things we love more than Mitsubishi Starions and the Stooges. One comes from Japan. The others come from Michigan (except, of course, for Watt, who reps Pedro harder than anyone else). Together, we suppose, if they decided to rock it Voltron-style, with Iggy forming the head, they would become the Chrysler Conquest. Nevertheless, James Williamson's guitar tone in "Search and Destroy" is one of the most godly forms of sound ever conceived, and the perfect score to watching some dude in a widebody Starion hoon it around a parking lot. Pure bliss.
Hey Killboy: Can You Shoot StarQuests On the Tail of the Dragon? [Internal]


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The East Central University baseball team dropped a pair of Great American Conference games to Southern Nazarene at Cypert Athletic Field. The Tigers (7-21, 1-13 GAC) lost 3-4 and 1-5 to the Crimson Storm (10-16, 5-12 GAC).
ECU was led by senior Paul Guardado, who hit .500 in two games, with three hits. Sophomore Eric Swann went 1-1 in one game and junior Ethan Gold hit .667 in out outing, with two hits. Senior Justin Gibson led the team with two RBIs.
Junior Robert Buitrago allowed eight hits and four runs in seven innings of work in game one, while striking out six batters. Senior Gabriel Martinez suffered the loss in game two, throwing a complete game and allowing eight hits, five runs and earning four strikeouts.
The teams will resume the three-game series, Saturday, March 23 with a single game slated to start at 1 p.m.
Game 1 – SNU 4, ECU 2
The Tigers were the first to get on the scoreboard in the top of the second. Junior Chris Lane hit a single to center field and was advanced on a sacrifice bunt by senior Andrew Olson. Lane advanced to third on a balk, putting him in scoring position when Gibson hit a double down the right field line.
The Crimson Storm countered with two runs in the bottom of the second for a 1-2 advantage.
ECU tied the game at two in the top of the fourth. Lane reached on an error and was advanced to third in a sacrifice bunt by Olson and a 6-3 put-out by senior Sam Malchar. Gibson added a second RBI to his totals with a triple down the right field line for the 2-2 score.
After holding SNU in the bottom of the fourth, the Tigers allowed the Crimson Storm to score a run in the fifth and eighth innings for the 2-4 final.
Game 2 – SNU 5, ECU 1
SNU started the scoring in the bottom of the first inning with a single run.
ECU tied the game at one in the top of the second. Junior Josh Lavender doubled down the left field line and was sent to third on a failed pickoff attempt. That set up Malchar for an RBI with his single to left field.
The teams battled through the tie for the next two innings before the Crimson Storm added two runs in both the fourth and fifth innings for the 1-5 final.


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Palin: Candidate or 'Kardashian'?
In January 2009, Sarah Palin had the world on a string. A potential Republican presidential field-clearer for the presidency, every sentence she uttered was news. A Fox News contract awaited her. So did book deals.
Four years later, Palin is without a clear option for elected office — or a clear sense she has an interest in any position of real public influence. She never took an active, leadership role in the tea party movement, beyond showing up at a scattered handful of events and talking it up on television. For many Americans, her name is now primarily a punchline and if she is envisioning a comeback, it may simply be too late.
Story Continued Below
Once as polarizing as a 1990s-era Hillary Clinton, she can still rouse the conservative base and create headline ripples, and has instincts for picking candidates in a primary battle that other Republicans follow. She is getting the most speaking time at CPAC when she takes the stage Saturday at the Gaylord National hotel in Maryland, and her speech is among the most anticipated.
( PHOTOS: Sarah Palin's political career)
But as a force within the party, Palin has gone from 60 to zero within the span of a single presidential cycle.
"There was a ton of potential there, and it's conceivable that there could be a second act, but it's a little hard to see it now," said Weekly Standard Editor Bill Kristol, who championed Sarah from Alaska as a potential VP pick in 2008 for Sen. John McCain.
"She didn't run, obviously, in 2012, and she hasn't really made herself a leader on any particular issue," added Kristol, arguing that one either needs to hold office or make themselves relevant on an issues front. "Usually you have to do one of those things … otherwise you're just another pundit."
Whether her speech will be a call to arms or something more revealing about her own future remains to be seen. But several Republicans privately said they'd grown weary of the lather, rinse, repeat by which Palin makes an appearance, creates a mystique, then disappears.
( WATCH: Complete video coverage of CPAC)
Conservative columnist Charles Krauthammer argued she has as much of a chance of a second act as Joe Biden managed after being "laughed out of the race" in 1988 amid a plagiarism scandal.
However, he added, "Her act as a celebrity is done. Her act as a political figure is possible — if she applies herself."
Ed Rollins, who managed Ronald Reagan's campaign, and, more recently, the presidential bid of another woman who was a favorite of the base — Michele Bachmann — said plainly: "Her moment in the sun … has gone."
"Being a talking head … was not something that sustained her as a viable candidate," he added. "She's a personality in the same way the Kardashian family is."
Palin's downward trajectory is almost in direct proportion to her rise after the 2008 cycle.
( Also on POLITICO: Marco Rubio, Rand Paul fight for the future of the GOP)
She was the part of the John McCain ticket that had endurance — or seemed to — as she tapped into a populist sentiment within the Republican base, pre-dating the rise of the tea party. Political pros on both sides might have mocked Palin, but they also readily acknowledged her raw but undeniable talent.
Her unvarnished, "mama grizzly" cred and unapologetic chastising of the liberal establishment helped vault her to a leadership role, albeit an unofficial one.
Her endorsement was not only seen as a golden seal of approval within Republican primary politics, but she was a major boost in fundraising for candidates. She was crucial in helping get South Carolina Gov. Nikki Haley and New Hampshire Sen. Kelly Ayotte elected in 2010, for instance.
Yet even those who were beneficiaries of her political swat concede her only real role now is playing in primaries. "I think she still has an ability to ignite activists, and I also think that she is someone who is relatively young. I'm sure it's not the last that we've heard of her," Ayotte told POLITICO.


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By: Jacob Elyachar, jakes-take.com Jake's Take's New Music Reviews is back! In this edition, Jake's Take looks at the latest music from the biggest Top 40 stars, two music legends, and a few up-and-coming acts. Without further ado, let's get this party started! Witness by Katy Perry Katy Perry is back! The newly minted […]
Home » Lindsey Buckingham and Christine McVie album review
Jake's Take's New Music Reviews (The Mid-June Edition)
June 16, 2017 By Jacob Elyachar Leave a Comment
Filed Under: Music Tagged With: Hey Violet album reviews, Hey Violet From the Outside, Hey Violet From the Outside album review, Hey Violet music reviews, Hey Violet O.D.D., Jake's Take articles, Jake's Take music reviews, Jake's Take's New Music Reviews, Jake's Take's New Music Reviews: The Mid-June Edition, Katy Perry American Idol, Katy Perry Witness, Katy Perry Witness studio album, Lindsey Buckingham + Christine McVie album, Lindsey Buckingham + Christine McVie Sleeping Around the Corner, Lindsey Buckingham and Christine McVie album review, Lorde Green Light, Lorde Melodrama album review, Melodrama Lorde, Universal Music Group recording artists


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mrichme -> Welcome Peggy!
PeggyG -> hi! looking forward to this
PeggyG -> are you at the conference?
mrichme -> I am
Tweets about "edtechtalk"
Do you have your EdTechTalk stuff yet? Did you know there are T-shirts, hats, coffee mugs, buttons, magnets, and tote bags available? They're all based on Wordle interpretations of the EdTechTalk Delicious tags.
What are you waiting for? These are limited edition items. Shop now and avoid the rush!


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Am I on the visitor's list?
Please call the Sheriff's Office at 517-543-3512 in advance to verify if your name is on the Inmate's Visitor List. It can take up to two weeks for any changes to take place.
Can I deposit money into an inmate's account?
Three new ways to add money to your inmate account or provide bail
You may go Online at:
Money Load: www.EZMONEYLOAD.com
Bail: www.EZRELEASEKIOSK.com
Or at a Lobby Kiosk located in the Sheriff's Office Lobby and Jail Bond Lobby
You may deposit cash or use a credit card account to deposit money into an inmates account.
Or you may call Call 888-497-2387 to deposit the money through an automated system.
Inmates may receive money orders made payable to the inmate, through the mail.
Address the envelope as: Eaton County Sheriff's Office - MO, "Inmates Name", 1025 Independence Blvd., Charlotte, MI 48813
NO personal or business checks, change or foreign money will be accepted for Inmate Trust Accounts.
Can I bring in books for the inmate?
All reading material must be sent through a publisher to the inmate by the US Postal Service or United Parcel Service. (For more information on what items can be brought in for an inmate, read Inmate Family Guide and click Personal Items)
Can an inmate make phone calls?
Inmates have access to telephones located in their respective living areas. They are reminded that calls are collect calls only, and as such, consideration should be given to those receiving the calls.
Inmates also have the opportunity to purchase phone cards from the Commissary.
If the phones are abused and calls are made to anyone which are threatening, including calling and harassing witnesses or victims, or violation of telephone company rules, a block is placed on the telephone number and/or phone privileges may be suspended.
Can an inmate call from the Jail to my cell phone?
You will need to contact Securus to set up an account to receive calls from the Jail to your cell phone. Securus provides the Inmate telephone service and can be reached at 1-800-844-6591 for billing or connection problems.
For more information, please review the Inmate Family Guide.


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Develop iphone applications java jobs
Hi, I need an APP the project is: [login to view URL] Record [login to view URL] voice to text [login to view URL] text in another font (es. paint font) [login to view URL] and Email for print Evolution (second step) [login to view URL] qr code from bangle [login to view URL] original text on app Check the image attached for see the process. Thank you
...days in the month. Plus they will need to work longer on Patch Tuesday which is the second Tuesday of each month. The person should use our app to log in and make sure applications are working. They should have good English. Reply to this questions at the beginning of your proposal or your bid will be hidden: 1) What is the KB article number for the
Because I've encoded software applications, I need MWS API Access Keys.
Hello Team, I am looking Asp.Net/ C#.Net MVC based following applications with its source code: - Construction ERP - Manufacturing ERP - Property Management ERP for Realestate companies - Textile/ Garment ERP - India/ USA based HRMS with PAYROLL - Online Accounting ERP with GST - Hotel Management ERP - Restaurant Management ERP - Automobile Sales
Hi, I need an APP the project is: [login to view URL] Record [login to view URL] voice to text [login to view URL] text in another font (es. paint font) [login to view URL] and Email for print Evolution (second step) [login to view URL] qr code from bangle [login to view URL] original text on app Check the image attached for see the process. Thank you
...members from the African community and MoneyGram representatives will determine the winners. Visit [login to view URL] to apply for the African Community Award. Applications can be submitted up to and including 31 December 2018 MoneyGram's Engagement with the African Communities MoneyGram knows how difficult it can be for Africans in the UK
Hi, Need help to complete Digital Image Processing task using MATLAB
Previously implemented the Sheet-Based Calculator app already available on Google Play [login to view URL] However, it is limited as the current calculator interpretation engine was a simple one that was made from scratch by the previously. There is an excellent open-source calculator interpretation engine called BC [login to view URL] Your task is to port BC to the Sheet-based Calculator and to...
I have purchased all the following applications and would like them all integrated on my C Panel Karenderia Multiple Restaurant System Karenderia Mobile App Karenderia Driver Mobile App Karenderia Order Taking App K-Restaurant Mobile App All information can be found here [login to view URL]
I need you to design and build it. website and android apps in same like this [login to view URL]
Need a Docker/AWS expert to maintain, and deploy applications should have very good expertise in kubernetess and docker swarm.
We need a module to Odoo 10 to create applications for products and search it. Please see PDF file attached for better information, and let me know if something is not clear. I updated the PDF file for more details and requirement.
I need someone to develop me two IOS apps for a dental clinic appointment booking, one for clients and another one for doctors. Android version & back-end APIs is already done, You might have to build yours back-end APIS. specs and more details will be attached. I want to accomplish these apps before 2019.
Develop application for booking event halls
We need a developer who fix bugs in different different websites. Please bid who know about these technologies PHP , Python , Django , Photoshop , SEO , Javascript . Seo expert is also helpful for our project.
I need a freelancer to compile code for my Android and IOS applications and help me release both apps on the store. This should not take more then 24hours to complete this job
I need a fullstack programmer for native iOS and Android applications. The communication is by Skype and in a fluid way. It is necessary that the person is available as long as possible for a correct communication. It will work by project and jointly with a team for development.
My company is looking for a talented developer who understands the ins and outs of automation between web applications, in this case secured, backend ERP level insurance claim web applications. We desire to hire a developer who can take the information submitted through our system and relay that information in an automated way to the insurance companies
Looking for a Docker and AWS expert to join our team part time and assist in maintenance, documentation, and training in AWS and Docker. Must be familiar with Docker, Let's Encrypt, [login to view URL], and AWS. Must be able to attend meetings at 8 AM PDT at least once a week.
This is Ravi, Founder & CEO of BridgeCubes IT Solutions. We build financial applications for businesses across the globe. Looking for experts who can lead and build web applications using PHP, Laravel, Angular JS and MySQL/MS SQL. We have several application ideas in Finance domain. Few are Cash Management application which will assist cash collection
I needing some one publish for me some application and games to apple store any country Contact me for more informations
I need an Android and IOS app. I would like it designed and built. Dictionary like application
I need you to develop some software for me. I would like this software to be developed for Windows using Java.
I created this logo but it needs to be cleaned up or redone so I can scale it down for the web, print, and possibly vehicle applications.
Title: Develop GIS Web And Mobile Applications Description: Need to create GIS web, Android and iPhone apps. Skills: Java, Android, iPhone, GIS, Geolocation
Need to create GIS web, Android and iPhone apps. Skills: Java, Android, iPhone, GIS, Geolocation
I need an Android app. I already have a design for it, I just need it to be built.
I am applying to three separate schools, and am making separate letters of intent for each. I am also applying...intent for each. I am also applying for a fellowship. Each piece (4 total) is around 500-700 words long. I have a draft put together for the letter of intent for three applications, but need someone to make them sound better/more cohesive.
I need developer for my research work having good skills and knowledge of power system dynamics for small signal stability analysis along with signal processing application in power system.
We are a leading data analytics, insights and loyalty company and our mission is to provide a wo...marketing technologies so they can effectively engage with their customers while increasing loyalty. We have a couple of projects that needs testers for both web and mobile applications. Attention to detail and experience in automated testing is a must.
Need someone to add a form to my WordPress site to allow employment applications to be completed and submitted online.
...out. We are looking for people who understand what we are aiming to build and have a passion for mobile apps, fashion, & mobile shopping applications/platforms. Responsibilities Develop mobile applications in Java and/or Objective-C for multiple platforms. Design and implement new user-facing features in WonderFits mobile apps. Write scalable, performant
Website that takes in user preferences and data and calculates daily calorie requirements and macro nutrients depending on user goal (weight loss or gain). The site will create meal plans from a database of recipes and present these as a calendar with daily entries. Site can create a shopping list that covers all ingredients for the meal plan. Additionally the site will produce training/ exerci...
Greetings from Promolta! We are looking for "Listeners" for our new application which is planned for launch on 26th November 2018. You have a chance to earn 60$ per day by just chatting and helping out people in need. The qualities we are looking for are: -Excellent Verbal and written skills in English -Ability to understand and help out people in need -Have the patience ...
Hi, I need all kind of applications using Odoo (Open Source) based applications for all requirements with enterprise Odoo Edition look and feel (It is must). If you have any readymade applications, please share me demo. Thanks, Sheril
...ERP, CRM applications with source code in PHP or Asp.Net/MVC. The application related to Cargo/ Courier Management, Transport, Truck Services etc. I need readymade software which was already developed. Please bid with your live demo login to finalise it quick. *******without demo your bid will be ignored. Because I need to these applications very urgent
The task is to build 2 different applications - a. for passengers and b. for drivers in public transportation. Each one of them has an Android Version and IOS one. Pls read carefully the 3 documents attached prior to any contact
database applications using [login to view URL] with crystal report and MS access
I have a design and want to implement it as an iPhone and Android application I want to communicate with a programmer who has Arabic language
The task is to build 2 different applications - one for passengers and one for drivers in public transportation. Each one of them has an Android Version and IOS one.
We currently have 6 Laravel projects which needs further development. The first project mafo********.no: 1. Add a link on Step 2 which takes user to Step 4 2. House insurance: If else statement for showing boxes if box is ticked "Yes" 3. Create CMS functionality for Privacy Policy page 4. Add new content in "Thank you" email The second project bo****.no: 1. Create CRUD functi...
...restaurant mobile applications build is needed. Built mobile applications must run on ios and android. I call your attention that the task is more than just create single restaurant mobile application! Final product must include: 1). Online constructor of restaurant mobile application model. 2). Basis restaurant mobile applications templates library
Build a E-commerce website categories are Groceries,Home needs,small electronic gadgets with chatter between client and admin, website should be in PWA And Mob apps iOS11,Android 4.2
...React) Knowledge of REST architectures and HTTP protocol Preferential skills: Programming experience in the mobile iOS and Android Using the MQTT protocol in web applications using WebSocket Interest in investigating issues related to the SmartHome world and the Internet of Things Knowledge of the Python language and the Django framework
Hello, In need of a writer who is able to write original descriptions/reviews for software products. Descriptions similar to those on Softpedia or Cnet. Details: - 30 - 40 articles / week - 300 - 400 words each - original content I'm willing to pay 1$ / 100 words Thank you
Zoho CRM Module & template customization Zoho CRM integrations with other Zoho applications like Zoho Survey/Campaign and other platforms such as Wrike or Slack Zoho Reports - expertise in building CRM reports to create dashboards and reports Zoho CRM admin - giving permission to users as needed Our company is 100% Virtual, and we need the potential
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Project Type: Create the web site and application for IOS and Android. Overview of the Project: Because of the nature of the work and the concern of parents in the works, it may be difficult for the advertisers to find an effective way to communicate with marketer and share that has a discount even as pictures and video of goods and service to be able to see it from their Interested. For that,...
We have some Systems Admin, DevOps, Infrastructure Engineer tasks that we would like someone to complete for us. We have a custom build server, and custom infrastructure code software. The build jobs are largely already written, the software is easy to install and execute. You'll largely be writing new / adding to scripts that configure servers, spin up new servers, deploy websites, or depl...
I am looking for a creative web designer to work with on an ongoing basis. You must understand coding wordpress and woo commerce and be good with graphics. You must have impeccable English. Google Translate is an absolute NO NO!! I do not wish to work with a team. The person I am conversing with needs to the sole person working on the website. It is easy to see when this is not the case, from the ...


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Acorn Vase Filler
- Overview
Seasonal nuts from the harvest lend the appeal of healthy abundance to holiday displays.
- Each acorn is made of plastic, painted for an authentic look and has a real acorn top.
- Set of 54 acorns.
- Catalog / Internet Only.
- Dimensions & Care
- Number of pieces: 54
- Container is constructed of plastic with a painted finish, and features an authentic acorn top. Filled with faux acorns.
- Dust with a soft dry cloth. Store pieces inside container when not in use. Not meant to be used with water.
- Shipping Info
This is a general shipping item.
View our Shipping Information
Customer Service - Shipping Information
Return Policy
At Pottery Barn, we take great pride in the quality and craftsmanship of our products. Attention to design, materials, safety and construction is our priority. We carefully inspect your order prior to shipment. Upon receipt, please inspect your purchase and notify us of any damage; we will arrange for a prompt replacement. If, within 7 days for Quick Ship upholstery and 30 days for all other products, you are dissatisfied for any reason, you may return your purchase for a refund of the merchandise value.
We cannot accept returns on monogrammed, personalized, special-order items, or on items damaged through normal wear and tear. We also cannot accept returns of final-sale items which are identified by a price which ends in .99.
For returns of items purchased from your Pottery Barn registry, we will gladly provide a refund or exchange for the merchandise within 90 days of your event or within 90 days of purchase, whichever date is later.
You may return merchandise through the mail for a refund or replacement. For detailed procedures for returning items through the mail, please contact Customer Service at 1.888.779.5176, 7 days a week, 5:00am - 9:00pm (PT).


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The Supergirl Snow Pro at Breckenridge
PHOTOS: Dave Lehl
Words: Hondo
On Saturday, April 6th, some of the world's best female pro snowboarders gathered at Breckenridge, Colorado for the Supergirl Snow Pro slopestyle event. It was a sunny day and the course was in tiptop for thanks to Breckenridge's amazing park crew. The course was sick! It started off with three jumps, each getting progressively bigger in size, followed by an awesome jib section featuring garbage cans, pole jams, and a cool missile type rail. The format of the contest was pretty standard. Riders got two runs in prelims, and the top six advanced to the finals to join Sarka Pancochova, Kjersti Buaas, Enni Rukajarvi, and Silje Norendal, who got a bye to the finals.
Serious action went down in round one. Some standouts were Kaitlyn Farrington and Maddy Schaffrick showing that they aren't just "pipe jocks", Possom Torr's huge backside 540's over the last jump, Brooke Voigt's backflips, and Christy Prior's radical style over all of the jumps.
When round one was over the riders who advanced were Phoebe Novello, Stefi Luxton, Possom Torr, Brooke Voigt, Serena Shaw, and Christy Prior. They joined Sarka Pancochova, Kjersti Buaas, Enni Rukajarvi, and Silje Norendal and things really started to get popping. Enni has some of the smoothest style out right now. I could watch her do switch backside 540's all day. They are sick. Other standouts were Silje's combo of cab 720 to switch backside 540, Sarka's frontside rodeo 720 off her toes, and Christy Prior's crazy looking underflips.
Christy Prior in my eyes was the stand out of the event. I'd only heard of her just briefly as the girl who wanted to charge the US Open course during a blizzard, when no one was making the jumps, (not even the guys), so in my mind I figured she was loose as hell. But my mind has now been changed. She's sick. She has really good style and knows how to ride her snowboard. I have a feeling we will be seeing, and hearing, a lot from her next season.
When the event was all said and done, the results were as follows: Enni Rukajarvi won best trick, Silje Norendal got third place, Christy Prior ended up in second, and Sarka Pancochova was the winner, walking away with two trophies, a cape, and $8000 dollars. Not a bad come up.
The Supergirl Snow Pro is a really cool event. It's really low pressure, and felt more like a session in the park rather than a televised contest. And that's a good thing…


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GENEWS ONLINE is the online edition of the official publication of The UPLB Genetics Society. The UPLB Genetics Society, also known as GeneSoc, is a duly recognized academic organization at UP Los Banos. The organization strives to promote and create awareness about the science of Genetics in the Philippines.
Showing posts from February, 2017


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A Double Nucleus in Active Galaxy Markarian 315
A NASA Hubble Space Telescope image of the core of the Seyfert galaxy Markarian 315 reveals two nuclei located approximately 6,000 light-years apart. (Seyfert galaxies are a class of spiral galaxy with extremely bright nuclei that are thought to be powered by massive black holes accreting matter.)
The brighter member of the pair is the energetic core of the galaxy which probably contains a black hole. The fainter companion is considered to be the core of a galaxy in the process of merging with Markarian 315.
The image helps confirm that galaxy mergers may be one mechanism for driving gas deep into the heart of a galaxy, according to astronon~t,rs. This raw material fuels a massive black hole, theorized to be the "central engine" in Seyfert galaxies and other active galactic nuclei.
The photograph, taken with HST's Planetary Camera, was presented at the 1 81st Meeting of the American Astronomical Society meeting in Phoenix, AZ on January 7, 1993.
Photo Credit: J. MacKenty (STScl), and NASA.


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The most powerful SEO automation software ever
(PRWEB) November 27, 2012
The most powerful SEO automation software ever? Such is the claim of founder/developer Areeb Bajwa when describing SEnuke XCr.
"Search Engine Optimization ("SEO") has been battered around in the Google storm, notably with the crushing implementations of Panda and Penguin earlier this year" states John Taggart of reviews-domain.com. He continues, "You can see how rapidly the art of SEO evolves just by watching Areeb whip out newer versions as he discovers cutting edge methods to gain back ranking prominence for his clients and their websites. Senuke XCr is the latest of Bajwa's SEnuke releases, and has some pretty cool stuff that the other guys haven't started doing yet. Time is of the essence...always!"
Notes Bajwa, "after one and half years and $125,000 in development, the newly released SENuke X makes the original version look like a baby's toy". Further amplifications to the SEnuke software are encompassed in the very latest version, SEnuke XCr, where "Cr" stands for "Crowd". As in, Crowd-Sourced Link Building.
In short, the power of crowd synergy - that is, where marketers and site owners can help one another with compounding effectiveness - is the focus of Areeb's latest SEnuke implementation. It is a very specific, research-based improvement on the recent Senuke X release coming subsequent to his intensive study of Google's Panda and Penguin ranking dynamics and algorithms.
SENuke X uses sophisticated programming to create accounts with myriad sites, then automatically matriculates blogs and posts, RSS feeds, articles, press releases, and forum posts to generate exponential exposure to the user's website. The end result, of course, is optimal page ranking with Google, and the "Cr" addition makes it just that much more effective.
"Don't take my word for it or that of the hundreds of verifiable testimonials we've received - You can try SENuke XCr free four fourteen days," states Bajwa. His trademark has become customer satisfaction through a standard two week free software trial.
Click Here to go directly to the SENuke XCr website or HERE for the full review.
Reviews-Domain.com is a broad-sweeping review site, where author, editor, and person of many interests John Taggart shines the limelight on products of every persuasion. John has always been a bit of a Renaissance Man and seems to have a knack for nuance, so we suggest you tune in when he profiles a product for review!


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ZSL is asking hundreds of daring swimmers to make a splash at Brockwell Lido! If you love a dip in the lido you probably like lakes, rivers and oceans too. Take part in the ZSL Swim for Wildlife and help ZSL protect aquatic animals and their habitats!
Join ZSL at Brockwell Lido for our very first moonlit swimming challenge - whether your swimming style is more of a manatee or a shark, you would like to swim in a pod or on your own - we have something for everyone!
This moonlit challenge is open to all abilities, with 4 different distances to choose from: 750m, 1,500m, 2,500m and 1,000m Relay (must sign up in a team of 4).
For more information visit www.zsl.org/swimforwildlife
ZSL Swim for Wildlife
Welcome! Ask your questions and chat about swimming, technique, swimming training or Mr Smooth.
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Three Layered Name Necklace
- $121.90 $60.95
- Availability: In Stock
- Product Code: INFINITY-111
Available Options
|Sterling Silver / 18k Gold Plating / 18k Rose Gold Plating
|Height: 9mm / 0.35"
Our Infinity Name Necklace provides the best way for you to show off what the word "forever" means to you. You can get up to four names or words on each loop of the infinity symbol. This is the perfect personalized infinity necklace to wear. Get your name and your significant other on this name necklace. You can also get the names of best friends, inspirational words, children, or anything else you can think of. This customized infinity necklace also makes a great gift to give someone.
How To Order:
1. Choose the Material of the necklace you want.
2. Add the Inscription, choose the Charm Type and Chain Length. Then add to cart.
3. After you complete your purchase. You will receive an "Order Confirmation" email (check your spam folder if you can't find it) Make sure all info is correct.
4. Please allow 3 - 5 business days after confirmation for production.
5. We will send out notification again when your order is ready to ship.
If you have any questions, Please contact us anytime.
Jewelry Maintenance:
Firstly, you should keep your Jewelry away from any chemicals, the chemicals will corrode your jewelry.
Secondly, please do not put your jewelry into water especially seawater ofen, Water will oxidize the color of jewelry.
Thirdly, Please clean your jewelry with clean and dry duster ofen, to keep your jewelry clean.
Lastly, when you don't wear your jewelry, please clean it and put in a sealed box.


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Conspirituality - AmBushed "Never Trust A Bush Unless It's Burning" [User Submitted]
G reports "AmBushed by Conspirituality (Watch in HD) lyrics by Gemineye Music by BigBrother www.conspirituality.com www.myspace.com/conspirituality The hardest video on the planet right now. War Criminals hunted down by Patriots. Bush Lynched, Cheney Curbstomped, WHOA ! Directed By DJ BALL and J-Mo"
Please click the "Report" button below if the video on this page is not working properly.
Comments will only be displayed by verified emails. No Spamming or Racism.


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China and the New Chinese LeadershipVIEW EVENT DETAILS
Update on China
Asia Society Australia will host a CEO Boardroom Breakfast Briefing with Australia's Ambassador to China, H.E. Ms Frances Adamson.
Ambassador Adamson will provide an update on "China and the New Chinese Leadership."
Adamson took up her posting as Ambassador in August 2011. She has previously served in Hong Kong and as the Representative of the Australian Commerce and Industry Office in Taiwan.
She has also served in the United Kingdom as Deputy High Commissioner from July 2005 to January 2009. Between January 2009 and December 2010 she was Chief of Staff to Stephen Smith, both as Minister for Foreign Affairs and Minister for Defence. Adamson has worked on China-related matters for 21 years of her 27-year career with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. She speaks Mandarin.
The boardroom breakfast is generously sponsored by Minter Ellison and will be held under the Chatham House Rule.
The breakfast is invitation-only for corporate members.
For membership enquiries, please contact:
Fiona Wallace-Smith, +61 2 8199 9402, email@example.com