text:
The medieval cathedrals of England, dating from between approximately 1040 and 1540, are a group of twenty-six buildings which together constitute a major aspect of the country's artistic heritage and are among the most significant material symbols of Christianity. Though diversified in style, they are united by a common function. As cathedrals, each of these buildings serves as central church for an administrative region (or diocese) and houses the throne of a bishop ("cathedra" from the Greek). Each cathedral also serves as a regional centre and a focus of regional pride and affection.[1]
Only sixteen of these buildings had been cathedrals at the time of the Reformation; eight being then served by secular canons, and a further eight being monastic. A further five cathedrals are former abbey churches, which were reconstituted with secular canons as cathedrals of new dioceses by Henry VIII following the dissolution of the monasteries; and which comprise, together with the former monastic cathedrals, the 'Cathedrals of the New Foundation'. Two further pre-Reformation monastic churches, which had survived as ordinary parish churches for 350 years, became cathedrals in the 19th and 20th centuries; as did the three medieval collegiate churches which had retained their foundations for choral worship.[2]
While there are characteristics of each building which are distinctly English, these cathedrals are marked by their architectural diversity, both from one to another and also within each individual building. This is much more the case than in the medieval cathedrals of, for example, Northern France, where the cathedrals and large abbeys form a relatively homogenous group and the architectural development can easily be traced from building to building.[3]
One of the points of interest of the English cathedrals is the way in which much of the history of medieval architecture can be demonstrated within a single building, which typically has important parts constructed in several different centuries with no attempt whatever to make the later work match or follow through on an earlier plan.[3] For this reason a comprehensive architectural chronology must jump backwards and forwards from one building to another. Only at one building, Salisbury Cathedral, is stylistic unity demonstrated.[4]
. .
Christianity was carried to England by the Romans and spread throughout Britain, until the 5th century when it waned through the departure of the Romans and the invasion by Saxons. In 597 Pope Gregory sent Augustine as a missionary from Rome to Canterbury where a church was established and run initially by secular canons, then Benedictine monks from the late Saxon period until 1540. The present cathedral church at Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England.[1][4]
As begun by Alfred the Great in 871 and consolidated under the William the Conqueror in 1066, England became a politically unified entity at an earlier date than other European countries. One of the effects was that the units of government, both of church and state, were comparatively large. England was divided between the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York under two archbishops. During the medieval period there were no more than 17 diocesan bishops in England, far fewer than the numbers in France and Italy.[3] A further four medieval dioceses in Wales came within the Province of Canterbury.
Very soon after the Norman Conquest, all the cathedrals of Saxon England were rebuilt. In many dioceses, William the Conqueror ordered that cathedrals should be relocated into major settlements - especially into towns associated with the Roman occupation - Lincoln, Chester, Bath, Chichester, Thetford, Old Sarum. Elsewhere, the foundations of the Saxon cathedral have been found partially under its Norman successor - as at Winchester and Canterbury. Neither of these two demolished Saxon cathedrals were small, around the year 1000 they would have been amongst the largest churches in Western Europe; but they had both grown through successive additions to a venerable original structure. Typically Saxon builders would extend older churches by adding very substantal structures and apses west and east of the original building, and also by adding smaller side chambers,, or porticus north and south. This resulted in longitudinal buildings with little architectural coherence. Saxon cathedrals were also polycentric; at Winchester a massive westwork was constructed, containing the bishop's throne facing eastwards on the ground floor; with in front of it, a western altar and teh shrine of Saint Swithun, and with the royal throne set above it in a first floor gallery looking down the length of the cathedral. The ritual choir was in the central section of the church (which was the original 7th century cathedral) and the high altar was over a seond major shrine at the end of an eastern apse, some 250 feet from the bishop's throne. Saxon Canterbury had a similar arrangement, the westwork there extending laterally as western transepts, terminating in two towers. The new Norman cathedrals, by contrast, were typically cruciform and planned around a single focus, having a central crossing tower over four arms of approximately equal width, in a pattern deriving from the successive major churches of the Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy and the abbeys of Jumièges and Caen in Normandy. Benedictine monasticism, present in England from the 6th century, was greatly extended after the Norman Invasion in 1066. The Romanesque style, of which the English form is often known as Norman architecture, developed local characteristics.[1][4]
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints, and the associated pilgrimages to places where particular saint's relics were interred and their tradition honoured. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefices in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular were St. Alban's Abbey which contained the relics of England's first Christian martyr, Ripon with the shrine of it founder St. Wilfrid, Durham which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan, Ely with the shrine of St. Etheldreda, Westminster Abbey with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor and at Chichester, the honoured remains of St. Richard.
All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela.
In the 1170s Gothic architecture was introduced from France at Canterbury and Westminster Abbey. Over the next 400 years it developed in England, sometimes in parallel with and influenced by Continental forms, but generally with great local diversity and originality.[3][5]
In the 16th century the Reformation brought about changes in the governance of the cathedrals as discussed below. Some existent buildings became cathedrals at this time. Several of the buildings were structurally damaged or left incomplete because of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, 1537-40 . Many of the large abbey churches, particularly those outside the towns, were robbed, burnt out and abandoned. The late 16th and early 17th centuries saw repairs to the fabric of many cathedrals and some new building and stained glass as well as many new fittings.[3][6]
During the period of the Commonwealth, 1649-60, wholesale iconoclasm was wrought on all the pictorial elements of Christian buildings. Most of England's medieval stained glass was smashed. The majority of England's medieval statues were smashed or defaced leaving only a few isolated examples intact. Medieval paintings almost disappeared. Vestments embroidered in the famous style known as Opus Anglicanum were burnt. Those medieval Communion vessels that had escaped the Dissolution were melted down so that only about 50 items of pre-Reformation church plate remain.[3][7]
The Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 also brought about some restoration of churches and cathedrals such as that at Lichfield by Sir William Wilson,[1] and their enrichment with new fittings, new church plate and many elaborate memorials. The loss of the ancient St. Paul's Cathedral in the Great Fire of London in 1666 meant that an entirely new cathedral, the present St Paul's, was built on its site to a design in the Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren.[3]
In general, from the time of the Reformation onwards, apart from necessary repairs so that buildings might remain in use, and the internal adornments of successive generations who wished to be commemorated, there was little building work and only piecemeal restoration. This situation lasted for about 250 years with the fabric of many major cathedrals suffering from neglect. The severity of the problem was demonstrated by the spectacular collapse of the spire of Chichester Cathedral which suddenly telescoped in on itself in 1861.[1][3]
By this date medieval architecture was back in fashion. A growing awareness of the value of England's medieval heritage had begun in the late 18th century leading to some work on a number of the cathedrals by the architect James Wyatt. The consciousness accelerated until in the 1840s two academic groups, the Oxford Society and the Cambridge Camden Society both pronounced that the only suitable style in which to design a church was Gothic. The critic John Ruskin was an ardent advocate of all things medieval and popularised these ideas. The architect Augustus Welby Pugin, who designed mainly for the growing Roman Catholic Church, set himself to recreate not only the structural appearance of medieval churches, but also the richly decorated and colourful interiors that had been almost entirely lost, existing only as a painted screen here and there, a few tiled floors such as those at Winchester and Canterbury and the intricate painted wooden ceiling of Peterborough Cathedral.[4][8]
The Victorian era saw the restoration of all of England's cathedrals and remaining major abbey churches. Some buildings left incomplete were completed at this time and the greater part of existent church furniture, fittings and stained glass dates from this period. The architects included George Gilbert Scott, John Loughborough Pearson, George Frederick Bodley, Arthur Blomfield and George Edmund Street.[3][4]
The 26 cathedrals described in this article are those of Bristol, Canterbury, Carlisle, Chester, Chichester, Durham, Ely, Exeter, Gloucester, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln,Manchester Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Ripon, Rochester, St. Alban's, Salisbury, Southwark, Southwell, Wells, Winchester, Worcester and York with reference also to Westminster Abbey and the ancient cathedral of London generally known as Old St. Paul's.
All the medieval buildings that are now cathedrals of England were Roman Catholic in origin, as they predate the Reformation. All these buildings now serve the Church of England as a result of the change to the official religion of the country, which occurred in 1534 during the reign of Henry VIII.
The cathedrals fall into three distinct groups depending on their earlier organisational structure. Firstly, there are those which during the medieval period, as now, were governed by a body of secular clergy, or chapter, presided over by a dean. These cathedrals are Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Salisbury, Wells and York.
Secondly, there was a group of monastic cathedrals in which the prior also had the role of bishop. These cathedrals are Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Winchester and Worcester. The monasteries were Benedictine except in the case of Carlisle which was Augustinian. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII, all the previously monastic cathedrals became governed by secular canons like the first group.
The third group were those five great medieval abbey churches that were established as new cathedrals under Henry VIII: Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford and Peterborough; and five further large churches which were later to become cathedrals, St Albans and Southwark which were of monastic foundation; and Manchester, Ripon and Southwell which were collegiate churches (and all of which consequently combine the functions of cathedral and parish church). Westminster Abbey was a Benedictine monastery which became a cathedral after the Dissolution of the Monasteries, but only for the period of ten years.
Four other churches are associated with this tradition: St John the Baptist's Church, Chester, Old St. Paul's Cathedral, London, Bath Abbey and the destroyed Benedictine Abbey of Coventry. The collegiate church of St John in Chester was raised to cathedral status in 1075, but became a co-cathedral in 1102, when the see was removed to Coventry. The current building was probably begun around the time of the see's removal. St. Paul's, a cathedral with a secular chapter, was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and was replaced by the present cathedral in the Baroque style designed by Christopher Wren. Bath Abbey was co-cathedral of the Diocese of Bath and Wells, along with Wells Cathedral. Although a large church, architecturally it does not fit the cathedral tradition, but has much in common with King's College Chapel, Cambridge and St. George's Chapel, Windsor. The abbey church at Coventry, was co-cathedral with Lichfield and St John Chester in the Diocese of Lichfield, but was destroyed at the Dissolution. The large parish church of St. Michael's, Coventry, became Coventry Cathedral in 1918. It was bombed during World War II, leaving intact only its spire, regarded as one of the finest in England. The new Coventry Cathedral designed by Sir Basil Spence was consecrated in 1962 and adjoins the shell of the ancient church.[1][3][9]
In practice, the cathedrals are places where the Christian rituals particular a bishop can be performed, especially the sacrament of Holy Orders and the ceremony of enthronement, and are structured and furnished for these purposes. Firstly, the cathedral contains the seat of the local bishop, often literally a large throne; and around the bishop seating may be provided for the other significant clergy of the diocese such as the archdeacons. Secondly, a ritual choir may be provided for the resident clergy of the cathedral, the dean who is the foremost priest at the cathedral, the precentor, and canons. Each of the cathedral clergy, either as secular priests, or as previously, members of a religious order, is obligated to sing the "Holy Office" every day, a responsibility discharged in many cathedrals through employing professional lay clerks or vicars choral. Thirdly, there will be a high altar, the main focus of worship in the cathedral, which in the medieval period would always contain or be associated with saintly relics. The tombs of former bishops would typically be arranged either side of the major shrine, so the worshipping congregation symbolically comprised the whole body of clergy of the diocese, living and dead, in communion with with their patron saint. The laity, by contrast, were not regarded as regular participants of cathedral worship in the medieval period, it being expected their needs would be provided in their parish church.
In addition, cathedrals normally have a number of small chapels which can be used for private devotion, or for small groups; and which in the medieval period, were used by cathedral clergy for private celebration of the Mass. In England there is a very strong tradition that each such chapel should face the east. This may be the reason why the transepts of English cathedrals are long by comparison with those of most other countries, and why there is often a second transept, as at Salisbury. This arrangement permits a greater number of eastward-facing chapels. That part of the main interior which is furthest to the east may also serve this purpose and be known as the ''presbytery''.[3]
English cathedrals maintain a traditional form of church service of which canticles, the set psalm of the day, responses and an anthem are sung by a choir traditionally comprising about thirty men and boys. Because of this tradition, that part of the building which is usually located to the east of the central tower and contains the stalls is know as the "choir" or "quire". At the eastern end of the choir is a Communion table (or altar) on which is served the Eucharist, a symbolic meal of bread and wine in memory of Jesus' last supper with his disciples. The choir is sometimes divided from the nave of the cathedral by a wide medieval screen constructed of stone and in some instances carrying a large pipe organ.[3]
The nave of the cathedral is traditionally that part of the building which is used by and is open at most times to the congregation and general public. In a large cathedral, particularly in those where the building is divided by a screen as at Canterbury, an altar may be set at the eastern end of the nave so that services might be held there for large congregations. One of the functions of the nave is for processions.
At each place where services are held there is a lectern on which rests a Bible. There is also, usually in
the nave, a raised pulpit from
which the dean or other clergy can expound the scriptures. Towards
the western end of the building is the font (basin) used for the
ritual washing service of Baptism, at which a person, most often an
infant, is symbolically accepted into the church. The font is
usually made of stone and is usually the oldest fitting in the
cathedral, many of them being Norman.
Note: all the dimensions are those given by John Harvey unless otherwise cited.[1] The periods and style names are those used by Banister Fletcher and others, based on Rickman and Sharpe.[4]
Like the majority of medieval cathedrals, those of England are cruciform. While most are of the Latin Cross shape with a single transept, several including Salisbury, Lincoln, Wells and Canterbury have two transepts, which is a distinctly English characteristic.(See right, plan) The transepts, unlike those of many French cathedrals, always project strongly. The cathedral, whether of monastic or secular foundation, often has several clearly defined subsidiary buildings, in particular the chapter house and cloister.
With two exceptions, the naves and eastern arms of the cathedrals have single lower aisles on either side with a clerestory that illuminates the central space.(See right, plan) At Bristol the aisles are at the same height as the medieval choir like some German cathedrals, and at Chichester there are two aisles on either side of the nave like some French cathedrals. At a number of the cathedrals where the transepts are large they also have aisles, either on the eastern side as at Peterborough, Durham, Lincoln and Salisbury or both, as at Winchester, Wells, Ely and York.[3][4]
The nave and sometimes the eastern arm are often of great length by comparison with the medieval cathedrals of other countries,[4] seven of the twenty-five English cathedrals, Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Lincoln, St Albans, Winchester and York, exceeding 150 metres (being between 509 and 554 feet, 155-169 metres), only equalled by the cathedrals of Milan and Florence.(See left, pic) Another 9 of the cathedrals, Norwich, Peterborough, Salisbury, Worcester, Gloucester, Wells, Exeter, Chichester and Lichfield, are between 120-150 metres long (being between 397-481 feet, 121-146.5 metres). By comparison, the largest cathedrals of Northern France, Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens, Rouen, Reims and Chartres, are all about 135-140 metres in length, as is Cologne in Germany. The longest cathedrals of Spain, including Seville which has the largest floor area of any medieval church, are about 120 metres.[4] Five English cathedrals: Chester, Hereford, Rochester, Southwell and Ripon are 90-115 metres (318-371 feet, 97-113 metres). The last four cathedrals all, for various reasons, either have no medieval nave or only a few remaining bays. At Bristol and Southwark the naves were built in the Victorian era, leaving Carlisle and Oxford, with naves of only two and four bays respectively, as the smallest of England's ancient cathedrals at 73 metres (239 feet) and 57 metres (187 feet.)[1]
By contrast with their tendency towards extreme length, the vaults of English cathedrals are low compared with many of those found in other countries.(See right, pic) The highest medieval stone vault in England is at Westminster Abbey at 102 feet (31 m),[4] that at York Minster being of the same height but despite its appearance, not actually of stone, but wood. The majority of English cathedrals have vaults ranging in height from 20-26 metres (65-86 feet).[1] These contrast with cathedrals such as Beauvais, Amiens and Cologne with internal heights of over 42 metres (140 ft).[5]
An important feature of English cathedrals, uncommon elsewhere, is the large and often elaborate square central tower over the crossing.[4] (See left, pic) The larger of these towers range from 55 metres (182 ft) at Wells to 82.5 meters (271 ft) at Lincoln.[1] The central tower may exist as a single feature as at Salisbury, Gloucester, Worcester, Norwich and Chichester or in combination with paired towers at the west front as at York, Lincoln, Canterbury, Durham and Wells. Among the cathedrals that have three towers, the central tower is usually much the tallest. At Southwell the two western towers are capped by pyramidal spires sheathed in lead. (See below left, pic)
Tall Gothic central spires remain at Salisbury and Norwich, that at Chichester having been rebuilt in the 19th century after its collapse. (See Salisbury and Norwich below left) The spire of Salisbury at 404 feet (123 m) is the tallest in Britain. It is also the tallest 14th century spire, the tallest ashlar masonry spire, (as against the openwork spires of Germany and France) and tallest spire in the world that remains from the Medieval period that has not been entirely rebuilt. However it was greatly surpassed in height by the spires of Lincoln and Old St. Paul's. At Lincoln, between the early 1300s and 1548, the central tower was surmounted by the tallest spire in the world at about 170 metres (557 ft) but this fell in a storm. Lichfield Cathedral, uniquely in England, has three medieval masonry spires.(See below right, pic)
Although single western towers are common in English parish churches, only one medieval cathedral, Ely, retains a centrally-placed western tower, and in that case, it was framed by two lower lateral towers, one of which has since fallen down.[10] Ely, alone among England's cathedrals, has a central feature over the crossing that somewhat resembles the polygonal vaulted lantern towers of Spain. (See below, pic) This elaborate lantern-like structure known as "The Octagon" spans both the nave and aisles, and is thus said to have inspired Christopher Wren's design for the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. Its upper parts are supported by hidden wooden hammer-beams, an architectural device unique to English Gothic.[3]
The facades of English cathedrals show a considerable diversity, rather than a consistent progression, as is the case in Northern France and other cathedrals influenced by the French Gothic style.[4] In many cases, regardless of the architectural form, the English façade was treated as a decorative screen with many niches occupied by statues. A great number of these were toppled or defaced during the 17th century, however a "Gallery of Kings" remains high on the façade of Lincoln, and many of the original weather-worn figures remain at Exeter.[3] (See right, Exeter)
Most English cathedral facades fall into two basic types, with several variations.
The most typical cathedrals are those that have large paired towers at their western end as at Canterbury, Durham, Southwell, Wells, Ripon and York. (See left, Wells)
Between the towers is either a single large traceried window, as at York and Canterbury or an arrangement of untraceried lancets as at Ripon and Wells, rather than the rose windows typical of French facades. There are usually three doors but unlike those of French cathedrals, they are rarely highly elaborate and far more emphasis is placed on the central door than those to either side. The entrance in most common use is sometimes located in a porch at one side of the nave.[4] Where there are not two large towers at the west front, there are generally two pinnacled turrets that frame the façade or the central nave much in the nature of very large buttresses. This arrangement may be seen Salisbury, Winchester and Rochester. (See above left, Winchester)
At Lincoln a vast Gothic screen with similar buttress-like terminals was built across the front of the cathedral, incorporating the Norman portals, but hiding the Norman towers. The towers were then greatly heightened to be visible above the screen.
A Gothic screen was also added to the Norman nave at Peterborough, but this is an architectural oddity with no precedent or successor. (See right, pic) The screen is composed of three enormous open arches, the two outer ones being much wider than that which frames the central door. The overwhelming composition is somewhat spoilt by the later porch and the fact that two towers of very different height pop up from behind the screen. Despite this, it is regarded as one of the supreme masterpieces of Gothic, revealing the enormous diversity and imagination of English medieval architects.[3]
The eastern ends of English cathedrals shows a greater diversity than those of any other country. Those built in the Norman era had high apsidal ends surrounded by a lower ambulatory, as is typical of Northern France. This arrangement still exists at Norwich and in part at Peterborough and also, with variation, in the Early English Gothic east end at Canterbury but in every other case has been modified.[4]
The typical arrangement for an English Gothic east end is square, and may be an unbroken cliff-like design as at York, Lincoln, Ripon, Ely and Carlisle (See left, pic) or may have a projecting Lady Chapel of which there is a great diversity as at Salisbury, Lichfield, Hereford, Exeter and Chichester.
The ends of Norwich and Canterbury also have projecting chapels, that at Norwich being a Gothic addition to the Norman east end, while that at Canterbury, known as the Corona, being designed as part of the Early English plan, specifically to enshrine the relic of the crown of Thomas Becket's skull, sliced off at the time of his assassination.[3] The east ends of a number of other cathedrals such Durham, Peterborough and Gloucester have been modified in various ways and do not fit any particular model.
As English cathedrals are often surrounded by an expanse of green lawn, the plan is usually clearly visible at ground level, which is not the case with the many European cathedrals that are closely surrounded by town or monastic buildings.[4] The general impression is that the English cathedral sprawls across its site with many projecting limbs. These horizontal projections are visibly balanced by the strong verticals of the massive towers, which may be one, two or three in number. Many of the cathedrals, particularly those like Winchester, St. Albans and Peterborough where the towers are not particularly high, give an impression of tremendous length and have been described as resembling "aircraft carriers". (See above left, exterior of Winchester)
While all the cathedrals are impressive, some, because of their location, are highly significant landmarks and landscape elements. Among these is Chichester which can be seen for many miles across a landscape of open fields and is the only one of England's cathedrals that is visible from the sea. The grey spire of Norwich rises serenely from its surrounding city, to be a focus of the Norwich School of landscape painters. Ely, on a small hill, dominates the rural countryside and its appearance in times of flood causes it to be known as "The Ship of the Fens".[3] The three spires of Lichfield are known as "The Ladies of the Vale".[3] The "exquisite tower"[3] of Worcester is seen best across the River Severn.[9] Lincoln with its vast façade and three towers, the tallest being over 80 metres (270 ft), rises majestically from a steep hill above the town. Salisbury Cathedral with its "faultless spire"[3] constitutes one of the iconic views of England, made famous by the landscape painter John Constable. In the north of England, Durham makes a "spectacular" view as it sits dramatically on its steep rocky peninsular above the River Wear, "half Church of God, half castle 'gainst the Scots".[3][11] (See introduction, Durham)
Because the architecture of English cathedrals is so diverse and inventive, the internal appearances differ a great deal. However, in general, English cathedral interiors tend to give an impression of length. This is in part because many of the buildings are actually very long, but also because more than in the medieval architecture of any other country, the horizontal direction is given as much visual emphasis as the vertical. This is particularly the case at Wells where, unlike most Gothic buildings, there are no vertical shafts that continue from the arcade to the vault and there is a very strong emphasis on the triforium gallery with its seemingly endless and undifferentiated row of narrow arches. (See right, pic) Salisbury has a similar lack of verticals while the course below the triforium and the undecorated capitals of Purbeck stone create strong visual horizontals. In the cases of Winchester, Norwich and Exeter the horizontal effect is created by the emphasis on the ridge rib of the elaborate vaults.[3] (See left)
The complexity of the vault is another significant
feature of English Cathedrals.[4] The
vaults range from the simple quadripartite vault in the French
manner at Chichester through increasingly elaborate forms including
the multi-ribbed ("tierceron") vault at Exeter, the similar vault
with inter-connecting ("lierne") ribs at Norwich, the still more
elaborate variation at Winchester, the array of unique lierne
vaults at Bristol, the net-like stellar vaulting of the choirs at
Gloucester and York, the fan vaulting of the retro-choir at
Peterborough and the pendant vaulting of the choir at Oxford where
elaborate long stone bosses are suspended from the ceiling like
Many of the more elaborate forms are unique to England, with
stellar vaulting also occurring in Spain and Germany.[4]
(See left, pic)
While in many cases a Norman church entirely replaced a Saxon one, at Ripon the cathedral uniquely retains its Saxon crypt. All the medieval cathedrals of England, with the exception of Salisbury, Lichfield and Wells have evidence of Norman architecture, and Peterborough, Durham and Norwich remain for the greater part Norman buildings while at many others there are substantial parts of the building in the Norman style such as the naves of Ely, Gloucester and Southwell. (See right, pic) The Norman crypt at Canterbury is famous for its bestial carved capitals.[3]
Many of the cathedrals have major parts in the late 12th-early 13th century style known as Lancet Gothic or Early English Gothic, and defined by its simple, untraceried lancet-like openings. Salisbury Cathedral is the major example of this style (See left, pic) which is also seen Wells and Worcester, at the eastern arms of Canterbury, Hereford and Southwark, and the transepts of York. Also of this period is the spectacular façade of Peterborough, and the less grand but harmonious façade of Ripon.[3]
The Decorated Gothic style, with traceried windows, is further subdivided dependent upon whether the tracery is Geometric or Curvilinear. Many cathedrals have important parts in the Geometric style of the mid 13th to early 14th centuries, including much of Lincoln, Lichfield, the choir of Ely and the chapter houses of Salisbury and Southwell. By the late 13th century the style of tracery evolved to include a greater number of narrow shapes that adapted easily to Gothic openings in combination with circular shapes as can be seen in the windows of the chapter house of York, the Octagon of Ely and the west window of Exeter.
Further development included the repetition of Curvilinear or flame-like forms which occur in a great number of windows of around 1320, notably in the retro-choir at Wells and the nave of Exeter Cathedral. (See right, pic) This type of tracery is often seen in combination with vaulting ribs of extreme projection and very rich moulding as is seen in the chapter house at Wells and the vault at Exeter which stretches, uninterrupted by a central tower, for 91 metres (300 ft) and is the longest medieval vault in the world.[3]
The last stage of Curvilinear or Flowing Decorated Gothic, is expressed in tracery of very varied and highly complex forms. Many of the largest and most famous windows of England date from 1320-30 and are in this style. They include the south transept rose window known as the "Bishop's Eye" at Lincoln, (See below, pic) the "Heart of Yorkshire" window in the west end of York (See below, pic) and the famous nine-light east window of Carlisle.(See below, pic)[1][3]
There are many smaller architectural works within cathedrals which have the curvilinear tracery. These include the arcading in the Lady Chapel at Ely, which also has the widest vault in England, the pulpitum screen at Lincoln and richly decorated doorways at Ely and Rochester. Characteristic of this period of Gothic is elaborate lierne vaulting in which the ribs are connected by intermediate ribs which do not spring from the wall and so are not major structural members. The vaults of Bristol are the most famous examples of this style, (See below, pic) which can also be seen at York.[1][3]
In the 1330, when the architects of Europe were embracing the Flamboyant style, English architecture moved away from the Flowing Decorated in an entirely different and much more sober direction with the reconstruction, in highly modular form, of the choir of the Norman abbey, now cathedral, at Gloucester. The Perpendicular style, which relies on a network of intersecting mullions and transoms rather than on a diversity of richly carved forms for effect, gives an overall impression of great unity, in which the structure of the vast windows of both clerestory and east end are integrated with the arcades below and the vault above. The style proved very adaptable and continued with variations in the naves of Canterbury and Winchester, and the choir of York. (See left, pic)
During the 15th century many of England's finest towers were either built or extended in the Perpendicular style including those of the cathedrals of Gloucester, Worcester, Wells, York, Durham and Canterbury, and the spires of Chichester and Norwich.
The design of church interiors was to go through a final stage
which would last into the 16th century. This was the development of
fan vaulting, first used in about 1370 in
the cloisters at Gloucester, then in the retrochoir at Peterborough
in the early 15th century. In a still more elaborate form with
stone pendants it was used to roof the Norman choir at Oxford and
in the great funerary chapel of Henry VII at Westminster Abbey, at
a time when Italy had embraced the Renaissance.[1][3][4]
The plan of Salisbury Cathedral is that most often reproduced in architectural histories for the purpose of comparing English Gothic architecture with that of France, Italy and other countries.[12] It has many features that, on paper at least, are typical. The plan of Worcester Cathedral, for example, closely resembles that of Salisbury. Both have two transepts, a large central tower, a large porch to the north side of the nave, a cloister to the south, off which opens a polygonal chapter house.[1] Internally, there are also strong visual similarities in the simple lancet windows of the east end and the contrasting profusion of Purbeck marble shafts. But the histories of the two buildings are very different. Salisbury Cathedral took 160 years to complete, from its foundations in 1220 to the top of its massive spire in 1380. Worcester took 420 years from its Norman crypt of 1084 to its chapel in memory Prince Arthur in 1504.[1] The history of Worcester is much more representative of the history of most of England's medieval cathedrals than is that of Salisbury. (See exterior of Chichester, right)
(See exterior left, interior above left, plan above right)
An earlier cathedral was located, between 1075 and 1228, on the hill top near the ancient fort at Old Sarum. In the early 13th century it was decided to move the location of the cathedral to the plain. The new building was designed in the Lancet Gothic style (otherwise known as Early English Gothic) by Elias of Dereham and Nicholas of Ely and begun in 1220, starting at the eastern end, and rising westward until by 1258 it was complete, except for the façade and central tower. The façade, huge cloister and polygonal chapter house were then constructed by Richard Mason and were completed by about 1280, the later work employing Geometric Decorated tracery in the openings of windows and arcades. It was about fifty years before the major undertaking of the tower and spire was commenced, the architect being Richard Farleigh and the details being rather more intricate and elaborate than the earlier work. The entire cathedral was complete by 1380, and the only subsequent inclusion of note has been the reinforcement of the arches of the tower when one of the piers developed a bend. This three-part building program spanning 160 years with a fifty-year gap in the middle is the shortest and least diverse and makes Salisbury by far the most homogenous of all the cathedrals.[1][3][9]
Worcester Cathedral, unlike Salisbury, has important parts of the building dating from every century from the 11th to the 16th. The earliest part of the building at Worcester is the multi-columned Norman crypt with cushion capitals remaining from the original monastic church begun by St Wulfstan in 1084. Also from the Norman period is the circular chapter house of 1120, made octagonal on the outside when the walls were reinforced in the 14th century. The nave was built and rebuilt piecemeal and in different styles by several different architects over a period of 200 years, some bays being a unique and decorative transition between Norman and Gothic. It dates from 1170 to 1374. The east end was rebuilt over the Norman crypt by Alexander Mason between 1224 and 1269, coinciding with, and in a very similar Early English style to the greater part of Salisbury. From 1360 John Clyve finished off the nave, built its vault, the west front, the north porch and the eastern range of the cloister. He also strengthened the Norman chapter house, added buttresses and changed its vault. His masterpiece is the central tower of 1374, originally supporting a timber, lead-covered spire, now gone. Between 1404 and 1432 an unknown architect added the north and south ranges to the cloister, which was eventually closed by the western range by John Chapman, 1435-38. The last important addition is the Prince Arthur's Chantry Chapel to the right of the south choir aisle, 1502-04.[1][3][9]
Note: all the dates are those given by John Harvey.[1]
Begun in 1140 and completed in 1888, Bristol Cathedral's fame lies in the unique 14th century lierne vaults of the choir and choir aisles, which are of three different designs and which, according to Nikolaus Pevsner, "from a point of view of spatial imagination are superior to anything else in England."[3].
Founded as a cathedral in 597, the earliest parts are from 1070, completed 1505, except the north west tower of 1834. Canterbury is one of the biggest cathedrals in England, and seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury. It is famous for the Norman crypt with sculptured capitals, the east end of 1175-84 by William of Sens, the 12th and 13th century stained glass, the "supremely beautiful" Perpendicular nave of 1379-1405 by Henry Yevele,[13] the fan vault of the tower of 1505 by John Wastell, the tomb of the Black Prince and the site of the murder of St. Thomas Becket.[3][9]
Founded in 1092 and completed in the early 15th century, Carlisle Cathedral is one of England's smallest cathedrals since the demolition of its nave by the Scottish Presbyterian Army in 1649. Its most significant feature is its nine-light Flowing Decorated east window of 1322, still containing medieval glass in its upper sections, forming a "glorious termination to the choir"[3] and regarded by many as having the finest tracery in England.[3][9]
Built between 1093 and 1537, Chester Cathedral includes a set of medieval choir stalls dating from 1380, with exquisite figurative carving. An unusual feature is the very large south transept. The Early English Lady Chapel is a harmonious composition in Lancet Gothic. It retains substantial monastic buildings including a large refectory.[3][9]
Built between 1088 and the early 15th century, the unusual features of Chichester Cathedral are a transitional retrochoir, a pair of early Norman relief carvings and its freestanding belfry of the 15th century. The spire, rebuilt after its collapse in 1860, can be seen from the English Channel[3][9].
Built between 1093 and 1490, Durham Cathedral, with the exception of the upper parts of its towers, the eastern extension known as the Chapel of Nine Altars, and the large west window of 1341, is entirely Norman and is regarded by Alec Clifton-Taylor as "the incomparable masterpiece of Romanesque architecture". The interior is "overwhelmingly impressive".[3] The western Lady Chapel known as the Galilee Chapel is a unique Norman building different in style to the cathedral itself. The view of the cathedral from the south west is particularly famous because of its "incomparable setting" on a steep promontory above the River Wear.[9] The Venerable C.J. Stranks wrote "It stands today vast and impressive in its massive strength, and yet so well proportioned that there is nothing about it which seems ponderous."[14]
With the present building dating between 1090 and 1536, Ely Cathedral has a significant Norman nave and Decorated Gothic choir, but its most important features are its unique western tower of 1174 and central octagon of 1322 which Clifton-Taylor describes as "one of the wonders of English cathedral architecture".[3] It also has a unique, very large, free-standing Lady Chapel with a very wide vault and intricately carved stone arcades around the sedilia.[3][9]
Dating from 1112 to 1519, Exeter Cathedral is the major example of a cathedral built mainly in the later Decorated Gothic style of the 14th century. It has an impressive vault, the longest medieval vault in the world, which runs between two Norman towers placed, uniquely among the cathedrals, over the transepts.[15] Exeter has many sculptural details, including the figures of its west front.[3][9]
Dating from 1098 to 1493, Gloucester Cathedral has a Norman nave with massive masonry piers, and a fine 15th century Perpendicular tower, but its main feature is the eastern end, reconstructed in the 14th century as an early example of Perpendicular Gothic and with the largest medieval window in the world, the area of a tennis court. The cloisters have the earliest example of fan-vaulting.[3][9]
Built between 1079 and 1530, with a 19th century west front, Hereford Cathedral has a Norman nave and large central tower, other important features being the unusual style of the north transept and the north porch, also of the 13th century, but greatly extended in the 16th. Its Early English Lady Chapel is considered "one of the most beautiful of the thirteenth century".[3][9][16]
Although dating from 1195 to about 1400, Lichfield Cathedral has an interior which presents a harmonious appearance. The nave is very fine and the Lady Chapel is apsidal with very tall windows, giving a rather French impression. Lichfield is the only one of the cathedrals to have retained three spires.[3][4]
Dating from 1074 to 1548, Lincoln Cathedral is one of the largest of England's cathedrals and it has been claimed by John Ruskin that, architecturally, it is worth any two of the others put together. Edward Freeman described it as "one of the loveliest of human works."[17] It retains portions of the three massive arches of the Norman west front and much heavily restored sculpture around the central portal. The central tower is the tallest in England and is visible for many miles as it rises in spectacular fashion from a high hill. The decagonal Chapter House with its huge flying buttresses is the first polygonal chapter house in England. Of the interior, the finest part is considered to be the late 13th century "Angel Choir" with "gorgeous layers of tracery"[5] and enriched with carved angels. The transepts have two rose windows, the "Dean's Eye" on the north dating from c.1200 and retaining its original glass, while the Flowing Decorated "Bishop's Eye" on the south is filled with salvaged medieval fragments.[3][9]
Manchester Cathedral began as a parish church and was re-founded as a religious college in 1422, much of its structure being designed by John Wastell (1485 to 1506). It is very different in style from the earlier great churches, someimes being listed with the 13 Anglican 'parish-church cathedrals'. Double aisles give it the widest nave of any English cathedral (115 feet); and it also has the richest set of late medieval choir stalls and misericords in the country.
Built between 1096 and 1536, Norwich Cathedral has a Norman form, retaining the greater part of its original stone structure which was then vaulted between 1416 and 1472 in a spectacular manner with hundreds of ornately carved, painted and gilded bosses. It also has the finest Norman tower in England, surmounted by a 15th century spire, and a large cloister with many more bosses.[3][9]
Dating from 1158 to the early 16th century, Oxford Cathedral was always a small cathedral and was made smaller by the destruction of much of the nave in the 16th century. The stone spire, 1230, is one of the oldest in England and contributes to Oxford's tradition as "the city of dreaming spires". Its most unusual feature is the late 15th century pendant vault over the Norman chancel.[3][9]
Built between 1117 and 1508, Peterborough Cathedral is remarkable as the least altered of the Norman cathedrals with only its famous Early English west front, with its later porch and the Perpendicular rebuilding of the eastern ambulatory by John Wastell being in different styles. J.L. Cartwright wrote of the west front that it is "as magnificent an entrance to a sacred building as could well be imagined."[18] The long wooden roof of the nave is original and has retained its painting from 1220[3][9].
Dating from the 9th or 10th century to 1522, Ripon Cathedral has a rare Saxon crypt. The West front is an unaltered and harmonious composition in Early English Gothic. The choir has retained richly carved 14th century stalls, famous for the many lively figures among the carvings.[3][9]
Dating from 1177 to 1512, Rochester Cathedral has a Norman nave and crypt, and Early English choir. Its most remarkable feature is the rare, exuberantly carved Norman portal which has unfortunately been much damaged.[3][9]
Built between 1077 and 1521, St Albans Cathedral is unique among the cathedrals in that much of it, including the large Norman tower is built of bricks salvaged from the Roman town of Verulamium. Both internally and externally, the tower is the most significant feature. St Albans also retains some medieval wall paintings as well as a painted wooden roof of the late 13th century.[3][9]
Built between 1220 and 1380 with additional structural reinforcement in the next century, Salisbury Cathedral epitomises the ideal English Cathedral, even though its stylistic unity makes it far from typical. Its fame lies in its harmonious proportions, particularly from the exterior where the massing of the various horizontal parts in contrast to the vertical of the spire make it one of the most famous architectural compositions of the Medieval period. Canon Smethurst wrote "It symbolises the peaceful loveliness of the English countryside…, the eternal truths of the Christian faith expressed in stone…"[3][9][19]
Built between 1208 and 1520, Southwark Cathedral had its nave demolished and rebuilt in the late 19th century by Arthur Blomfield. It has a fine Early English tower and choir which retains an elaborate 16th century reredos, fitted with statues replacing those destroyed in the 17th century.[3][9]
Built between 1208 and 1520, Southwell Minster has its Norman façade intact, except for the insertion of a large window in the Perpendicular Style to give light to the Norman nave. The particular fame of Southwell is its late 13th century chapter house which contains the most famous medieval floral carvings in England, described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "throbbing with life".[3][5][9]
Built between 1175 and 1490, Wells Cathedral has been described as "the most poetic of the English Cathedrals".[3] Much of the structure is in the Early English style and is greatly enriched by the deeply sculptural nature of the mouldings and the vitality of the carved capitals in a foliate style known as "stiff leaf". The eastern end has retained much original glass, which is rare in England. The exterior has the finest Early English façade and a large central tower[3][9][20].
Built between 1079 and 1532, Winchester Cathedral has had an unusual architectural history. The exterior, apart from the modified windows, gives the impression of a massive Norman building and in fact it is the longest medieval church in the world. However, the west front is Perpendicular, with its huge window filled with fragments of medieval glass. Inside, only the crypt and the transepts have retained their Norman appearance. The spectacular Perpendicular nave with its tall arcade arches and strong vertical emphasis has been literally carved out of the original Norman interior. The Very Rev. Sykes wrote of it "Well might the visitor who enters … by the west door gasp with amazement."[21] Winchester is also famous for its carved wooden fittings of many different periods.[3][9]
Built between 1084 and 1504, Worcester Cathedral represents every style from Norman to Perpendicular. It is famous for its Norman crypt and unique chapter house, its unusual Transitional Gothic bays, its fine woodwork and central tower which is not large but of particularly fine proportion.[3][9]
Built between 1154 and 1500, York Minster is one of the biggest Gothic churches in the world. The deceptively simple plan with square eastern and western ends and a single transept dividing the building into equal parts belies the architectural richness of this building. The remains of the Norman crypt indicate that the older building must have been as massive and ornamental in its architecture as Durham. The Early English transepts are both famous, that of the south having a complex arrangements of lancets and a rose window making up an entrance façade. On the north side are lancet windows called the "Five Sisters" each only 5 feet (1.5 m) wide, but 57 feet (17 m) tall. The interior of York is very spacious. The West front with its paired towers is a harmonious arrangement of the late Decorated period and the large central window has fine Flowing Decorated tracery called the "Heart of Yorkshire", while the large eastern window is Perpendicular in style.[3][9] A rare feature of York Minster is that these important windows have all retained their medieval glass, from c.1270, 1335 and 1405, respectively[20].


text:
Over half of UK homes are being funded by interest-only mortgages, most of which are backed by endowment policies.
The Survey of English Housing, a survey of 20,000 households a year conducted by the National Centre for Social Research, revealed in 2000-2001, 53% of homes were bought with an interest-only mortgage. This is down from 58% the previous year.
But Council of Mortgage Lenders figures for the last quarter of 2001 confirm these products are now being sold less frequently. Three-quarters of all mortgages were standard repayment, 10% were endowments, 1% were pension-backed, 11% were pure interest-only and 'others' made up the last 3% of sales.
Nick Baxter, director of Mortgage Promotions, said the endowment-backed interest-only mortgage is a thing of the past: 'I can't see endowment mortgages coming back. They were popular in high interest rate periods when there was high market growth, and neither factor is predicted to return in the short term. But interest-only mortgages are becoming more popular, particularly with the development of flexible mortgages. A repayment mortgage is quite restrictive in that you have to overpay on the interest by a fixed amount in order to redeem the loan at the end of the term. With an interest-only flexible mortgage you choose the amount you overpay each month, turning it into a repayment mortgage on your own terms.'
He added: 'Those happy with their endowments are those who took them in the early 80s and maybe given the time they have had them, they are not thinking of moving. So the overall percentage of endowment-backed mortgages will fall slowly.'
The survey also found 70% of households in England owned their own home, 20% rent from the social sector, either councils or Registered Social Landlords/ Housing Association, and 10% rent privately. Almost 40% of all owners, around a quarter of all households, own their homes outright. Around 95% of these owners were over 45 and 63% retired.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Steelers Should Not Get Caught in the Trap Game Against Jets
Sure, Ryan Fitzpatrick has thrown nine interceptions over the past two weeks. Sure, he may be playing the worst game of football in his career right now. Sure, he will be stepping into Heinz Field after "Redemption Sunday". But that is the surefire recipe for a "Trap Game" in my well experienced book.
The New York Jets(1-3) will be heading into Heinz Field to take on the Pittsburgh Steelers(3-1) two weeks after the smashing the Steelers took against the Philadelphia Eagles in the City of Brotherly Love. And one week after Pittsburgh got their act together, demolishing the Kansas City Chiefs 43-14. Hence the dubbing of "Trap".. because we all know that the Steelers have been known to downplay towards less than worthy opponents. Big Mistake.
How is Pittsburgh going to enter this game on Sunday versus the Jets? This remains to be seen. But I know how the Steelers should enter the game. Like they are playing the best team in the National Football League. Because that has been the problem Pittsburgh has yet to overcome over the past decade or so. Downplaying of lesser opponents..or so they believe to be lesser.
The Jets' defense are average in defending the pass (288 yards per game), but they are doing well on the ground, limiting all previous four opponents to under 86 rushing yards (70 yards per game). But what they have yet to come across is the likes of a Steelers high powered offense. In other words, covering receiver Antonio Brown and stopping running back, Le'Veon Bell may seem unobtainable.
However, New York still has one prolific corners in the game in Darelle Revis, who may not have been playing his best game as of lately but nothing would surprise me more than to have his game magically upped this Sunday at Heinz Field. Yet..the Steelers receivers aren't buying the hype about his apparent decline.
"(Revis) is a technician who has been at the top of his game for a long time," WR Darrius Heyward-Bey said about the 31 year old CB..leading me to believe that Pittsburgh knows that he could have a 'Breakout' game at any moment. Which is exactly how they should approach the upcoming matchup.
Then we have Fitzpatrick, who let's face it..is playing exactly how he has always played. Minus the somewhat semi-impressive 2014 NFL season that had New York shelling out $12 million to obtain him. But he is in a position where playing "Balls Out" is the only option he has..and that worries me. And nothing that he would love more than doing just that against the Steelers.
Now..for the other side of the ball.
WR Antonio Brown, who since 2013 leads the NFL with 403 receptions, 5,400 yards and 24-100 yard games. RB Le'Veon Bell, who has just one off of an amazing 18 carry..144 yard game against the Chiefs in his first game back after a three game suspension. And future Hall of Famer QB "BIG" Ben Roethlisberger, who went 22-27..throwing for 300 yards and 5 touchdowns..also voted the AFC Offensive Player of the Week, all stats of which should be forgotten entering into week 5. Why? I'll explain why.
Every time the Pittsburgh Steelers go into a game believing that they should win..they have lost. And by believing.. I mean us as fans. Because I cannot count how many times I have heard or seen fans say.."Aww..this is an easy win for us"..only to have the outcome turn out otherwise. Something us as fans will most likely never will refrain from..but the team should seriously consider.
Long story short, the Steelers need and must go into this Sunday like they are playing a top notch team. Not like they are going against a less than admirable team. #HereWeGo
Game information:
New York Jets (1-3) @ Pittsburgh Steelers (3-1)
Kickoff: Sunday, Oct. 9 at 1:00 p.m. E.T
Venue: Heinz Field, Pittsburgh
Television: CBS, CBS Pittsburgh, with Dan Fouts, Ian Eagle, and Evan Washburn as commentators. To see if the game is on in your area, check the NFL broadcast map at 506sports.com
Online: NFL.com Game Pass on delay in the US and live for international viewers or via a subscription to NFL Sunday Ticket. You can also follow the plays via the NFL Game Center.


text:
Carita by Suzanne Tucker Home
A fresh and modern interpretation of a French 19th century hand-painted pattern, Carita is whimsically sophisticated, intricate in detail, and exquisitely printed on the finest linen. Available in 4 colorways, 27" horizontal repeat, 28" vertical repeat. Printed in the UK.
Materials: 100% linen
Product Specifications
- Dimensions
- Width: 54
- Lead Time
- 0-3 Weeks (Quick Ship)
Nearby Showrooms
About Suzanne Tucker / Tucker & Marks
Tucker & Marks prides itself on stylistically diverse, distinctive high-end residential interiors. We believe that good design is not about trends or rules but about creating timeless spaces that enhance one's daily life.
View Profile


text:
Creativity Prism
CreativityPRISM is a generative idea and strategy development tool for helping innovators, entrepreneurs, designers - anyone really! - accelerating creativity and innovation. Creativity PRISM helps you make your awesome idea happen.The project went very well because we took the time to understand the origins of the idea and the vision for it. The exciting thing is that this is only the very first step of a much larger dream.CreativityPRISM is a generative idea & strategy development game.
Things we did
- Web Design
- Cake Php
- Html
- Css
Visit website


text:
Baston family of Hackney, Shoreditch and Whitechapel, London from 1785, originally from Bampton, Oxfordshire
Florence Nightingale's greatest achievement was to raise
nursing to the level of a respectable profession for women.
In November 1856, Miss Nightingale took an hotel
room in London which became the centre for the campaign for a Royal
Commission to investigate the health of the British Army. When Sidney
Herbert was appointed chairman, she continued as a driving force behind
the scenes.
Florence Nightingale
In 1860, with the public subscriptions of the
Nightingale Fund, she established the Nightingale Training School for
nurses at St Thomas' Hospital. The probationer nurses received a
year's training which included some lectures but was mainly practical
ward work under the supervision of the ward sister. 'Miss
Nightingale', as she was always called by the nurses, scrutinised the
probationers' ward diaries and reports.
In 1861, she wrote Notes on Nursing for the
Labouring Classes, a book that gave advice to ordinary working
class people, especially rural poor cottagers, to teach 'the art of
health, which every mother, girl, mistress, teacher, child's nurse,
every woman ought practically to learn.'
At the time of the 1861 census she was living at the
Burlington hotel, 30, Old Burlington street, Westminster, London. With
that information in hand, I set out to look for her census record in the
London 1861 Census CD set from British
Data Archive.
I decided to have a look at the Street Index on CD 20, to see if I
could find Old Burlington street. I searched through the Wesminster
district's street index for Burlington and found Old Burlington street
with the reference Piece 64, folios 107 to 111.
The 1861 London CD set booklet said this piece was on CD 4, so
loading this I clicked on the bookmark 110 and paged down to check to
folio 111b, 30 Old Burlington street was on folio 110b. My search had
finally ended; Florence Nightingale's entry was there in black and
If you have no idea what address your ancestors lived at check www.TheGenealogist.co.uk
as they have name indexes for most census years. I later checked this
out and it only had two Florence Nightingales, one aged 40 and one aged
3. The former having the reference: Piece 64 folio 110b.
view the full page (in Acrobat format), click
Please mention the RIN number attached to a person's name as it is very
difficult for me to know for which John, William, Thomas, Edward etc you wish to have
more information.
Thank you


text:
Level name : Oranje
Author : Jman25
Date of release : 24 January 2005
Size : 712 ko
Number of maps : 1
Website : none
Download link: here
Alternative download :
There is no storyline for this but through objectives to be complete I could tell you something like this: You have been dropped near a secret V2 launch base where you will need to get rid of all resistance, destoy the V2 stock and finally escape...
Design is basic and quite average, landing zone is quite boxy and surronding environment look not realistic the base is in the middle of nowhere and is just a succession of squared place fill with railway parts, bad lighting and mostly oversize place. The general location misses a good layout and some realism: there is no launch bay, you entire more a kind of goldmine than a secret base that seems through walking quite huge but you end your mission close from where you start like if the huge base was well hidden under a simple building lost somewhere.
Starting idea was quite good but putting it together was a little approximative like if the ambitius project was armed by the mapping skill (not wanting to learn things correctly)
Gameplay is quite easy with no spawn of enemies but just some simple 'static' placement there is not a numerous amount of them so it's more a rush through the map gameplay with simple objectives.
In conlcusion: Even if there is a lot of point to ameriolate in this release it was still fun to play through, so for the time you will spend playing it and no frustration according gameplay, if you have miss this one you may give it a try.
Playtime : 15 Minutes
Rating : A B C D E (54%)
Friday, 25 May 2007
No comments:
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


text:
As a student of sports training and competition I took up the opportunity to watch the exercise selection from the waiting room at the physical therapists. I was surprised at the amount of quad exercises used over the weeks of my observing.
Later as I lay on a table in the therapy clinic I listened to a young male client answer the question from this physical therapist.
Therapist: Okay what have we done so far?
Patient: Squats.
My mind: That's one.
Patient: Wall squats.
My mind: That's two
Patient: Lunges.
My mind: That's three.
Patient: Walking lunges.
My mind: That's four.
Patient: Step ups.
My mind: That's five.
So far, the workout was 100% quad. I shook my head and said a prayer for the patient. Now to be fair I did see one non-quad exercise being done later. But the first five and the overwhelming majority of exercises being used in the rehab program for what I believe was an ACL surgery patient were quad exercises.
I found this ironic, because it was this very profession some 30 years ago that brought me attention to the risks of 'quad dominance' in muscle balance and its relationship with gait and joint integrity. And here I was, some three decades later, and they were creating that exact same condition.
I took this quad dominant concern, along with my own observations, quite seriously and spend a decade or so developing and refining before publishing a concept I called 'Lines of Movement' in 1998. You might not recognize the concept title I gave it but you will recognize the terminology by virtue of the prolific unreferenced and uncredited publishing by people who knew better.
In relation to the lower body, I developed the concept to 'hip dominant' exercises to counter the concern I learnt from my therapist colleagues about 'quad dominance'. Now, nearly 20 years after I first published this concept, my theories about the risks of quad dominance have become greater and clearer. I rank the muscle imbalance presented by quad dominant training as one of the highest correlates with ACL ruptures and similar.
If I am track, then the question can be asked:
How can you hope to solve the problem (ACL rupture risk) using the same stimulus that contributed to the problem?
Now I understand that there are many reasons why most will disregard this message. Firstly, and most importantly, because the majority of 'performance', 'injury prevention' and 'injury rehab' strength training does just this – create quad dominance. And to accept this and change would take the emotional intelligence to conclude one is off track and needs to redirection one's training programs. That's the biggest reason the message will be ignored.
I understand this. I understand others are waiting for 'evidence'. I say look at the changing injury landscape. This injury was extremely rare in the 1980s, and even after the surgery became available there was not an instant increase in ACL incidence – so the low incidence was not because the surgery was not available. It was just a rare injury. It is not any more. So what changed? Why are so many athletes suffering from this injury now? But this would take again a degree of commitment to excellence and a detachment from ego that few are committed to.
Evidence is, I suggest, another way of saying I will only do it when I see most others doing it, and when I am doing what most others are doing, I feel 'right' and 'safe'.
What I do say is this – not withstanding the frequent medical claims I here quoted by patients all too often about how their graft will be stronger than the one their Maker gave them - 50% of all ACL patients will have repeat knee surgery, and 100% will have premature degenerative changes such as osteoarthritis. I would not wish this on anyone. If it was your child would you want this?
So while the masses wait the quarter to full century it may take for the 'evidence' to 'allow' them to take note of my conclusions, another generation or more will suffer from life changing injury and surgery such as the ACL.
It does not have to be this way for you and those in your care, however that is up to you.
Sunday, June 12, 2016
Knee injuries - How can you hope to solve the problem using the stimulus that caused the problem?
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


text:
In sports, politics and in any other competitions such as pageants and the arts, we see big winners going on victory tours. Some of those who won on the basis of public support also embark on thank you tours. That's exactly what the tandem of President-elect Donald Trump and Vice President-elect Mike Pence are undertaking in states that delivered them awesome victories. But where in the world has anyone ever heard of big time losers going on losers tours purportedly to say thank you, too, to their supporters who did not deliver to them the cherished triumphs? Only Hillary Clinton and her allies can muster the audacity-or maybe shameless attitude-to do just that!
Sen. Tim Kaine, Hillary's running mate, has just announced that their losing team-up will also go on a thank you tour to coincide with Trump-Pence legit trips of their own. Kaine says that he and Hillary want to show their appreciation to their supporters in their line-up of events and tours.
Kaine even goes on to say a few kind words for Hillary-that she's a resilient person and her steel resolve to accept tough times. Consoling words, really that does little to change things.
The Virginia Democrat also tries hard to defend their party's decision to join the recount efforts initiated by another losing candidate, Green Party's Jill Stein. Kaine says they are obliged to participate to make sure that the recount process " is done right". He says further that the people are entitled to know that the results are fair.
Kaine joins the supporters of Hillary who are still in huge denial of their candidate's crushing loss to Trump by continuing to bring up the unproven Russia hacking speculation. Kaine says it is important that all nagging doubts are put to rest, even as he acknowledged that it is unlikely that the recount would result to a change in the election outcome. Even he admits, Trump's victory while disappointing for him is not really shocking.
Hillary has been under fire for joining Stein's recount efforts when she herself was very adamant during the campaign in demanding that Trump accepts the election result because not doing so will be " horrifying" and would only denigrate democracy. Who is destroying democracy now?
Hillary has been embarrassed enough- with her devastating loss, and with her inconsistencies even after conceding to Trump. Results in the first day of recount in Wisconsin has yielded her… all of one point! All that for the $6 million cost? Up to what extent will Hillary and her allies demean themselves further? How pathetic can Hillary go just to remain relevant, perhaps to extend her political career?
Hillary should realize how to stop the bleeding, if she really wants to heal. And perhaps she should rethink those losing tours if she does not want to receive more blows to her ego. If during the campaign where she was touted as unbeatable, she had to face thin and small crowds, how much more now? And what, pray tell, can a losing candidate do on a losing tour? Engage the audience in a pity party, hold a crying contest, solicit comfort and hugs?
Hillary must show mercy-if not for herself, at least to her supporters by stopping her pathetic acts.


text:
Condition: Factory Second
Brand: Fisher & Paykel
Model: WA1068G1
Warranty: 12 Months
Water Rating: 3.5 stars
Energy Rating: 4 stars
Dimensions: 1060H x 685W x 700D
Height With Lid Open: 1470H
Additional Features
- 6 Washing programs
- 5 Rinse options
- 5 Wash temperature controls
- 5 Water levels (manual)
- Capacitive touch control panel
- Auto out of balance correction
- Direct drive motor
- Load sensing
- Eco active wash system
- Auto water level
- Fabric softener dispenser
- Auto lint disposal
- Soak option
- 3 Spin speeds
- Delay start
- Stainless steel bowl
- Lid lock
- Delay start
- Water connection – Hot & cold
- Energy usage = 350kWh p.a
Returns & Delivery
Queensland Appliances offer a local delivery service to the Brisbane Metro area. Prices start from $55, $65 for two items and $88 for large fridges where the delivery require two people, for example if there are many stairs. Prices are subject to change based on items and/or time required and distance. All prices are inclusive of GST
We do offer installation services for dishwashers, cooktops, ovens, freestanding cookers, range hoods and dryers requiring wall mounting.
- Dishwashers – $132
- Washing Machines $65
- Cooktops, Stoves & Ovens – $180
- Double Ovens – $250
- Rangehoods – $132
- Dryer (if hooks already present) – $85 ( if installation of bracket required) – $145
- Fridges – $55 (if stairs present) – $88
When delivering your appliances such as fridges, washers & dryers, we take away your existing appliance at no extra charge. If delivering dishwashers, the existing dishwasher MUST be disconnected if you want it taken away. TEST
Enquire about this product
Important Payment Information
Thanks to our competitive prices and regular additions of quality white goods to our shelves, we have a high demand for our products and our selection of goods changes multiple times daily.
Due to this high turnover, your chosen product may not be available. One of our friendly team will be in contact within 24 hours of placing your order to reconfirm your product selection. They will also confirm delivery or pick up, and installation details at this time.
Please be aware, as products are continuously coming and going from our busy warehouse, we sometimes don't have the product you want at the time you order it – but don't worry, it's not long before it's back in stock.
If you have any queries about our payment process, please contact our sales team via the Contact Us tab above.
There are no reviews yet.


text:
WATCH | Reince Priebus, current chairman of the Republican National Committee and soon-to-be chief of staff under Donald Trump's administration, defended the Trump University settlement in an interview on CNN on Sunday.
The ONLY bad thing about winning the Presidency is that I did not have the time to go through a long but winning trial on Trump U. Too bad!— Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) November 19, 2016
The $25 million settlement was outside Trump's usual legal playbook.
WATCH | Priebus also defended Trump's criticism of "sanctuary cities."
WATCH | Priebus also commented on Trump's policy toward Muslims, including a ban on Muslim immigration. Priebus insisted there would be no "religious tests".
Reince Priebus on Muslim registry plan: 'I'm not going to rule out anything' https://t.co/YN2EIWJmdd— NBC News (@NBCNews) November 20, 2016
However, he told NBC's "Meet the Press" he would not rule out a Muslim registry.
Priebus also addressed the fact that Trump's daughter Ivanka sat in on meetings with foreign leaders, saying this should not be cause for concern
"This is ridiculous. Let's just kind of take a deep breath," he said.
He also deflected a question about undocumented immigrants, saying border security and deporting criminals was more important than the status of so-called Dreamers, who were brought into the U.S. as children.


text:
Many independent schools now use a universal application called Gateway to Prep Schools. It is an online application website that helps the student and family navigate the application process.
In addition to the traditional biographical data, students are requested to answer questions and write essays. We can help the student organize his thoughts by asking the right questions.
Our methods elicit interesting aspects of the student's personality and the answers/writing is always in the student's own voice. It is important that the students sound like a 12-13 year old and not like a parent or coach has written the answer.
We can also help organize and edit the parents' comments.
Be prepared for prep school applications by being organized. We can help!


text:
By: wildbun & crawburr Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 2.5 Container: Regular
I was surprised at how much open area there was up here. The road is exposed, and was a bit warm this morning. No troubles spotting this one. Thanks!
By: PDFrogs Difficulty: 1.0 Terrain: 2.5 Container: Micro
I came from Sam McDonald park, and decided to make this my turn-around point. The trail was headed down, and I didn't want to have to climb back up again. I did encounter a number of other hikers and horse riders today. Thanks!
By: Michael_SFBA Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 2.5 Container: Small
This was my first visit to Sam McDonald, and I thought I got a pretty good tour of the park this morning. I managed to find this one without reading the hint. The coordinates were right on for me. Thanks!
By: Dragons West, Mini Cacher & AirSax Difficulty: 2.5 Terrain: 1.0 Container: Small
I would say that most of the time this cache is accessible. Today, it was inches from being inaccessible, at least when I parked and headed out for a hike. I was able to get to it, however. Thanks!
By: Michael_SFBA Difficulty: 2.0 Terrain: 2.5 Container: Micro
I headed up the hill to the hut about 10 am and met a number of hikers who had just packed up and were leaving the hut. The place was vacated when I got there. It looks like a neat place to stay on a cool winter weekend. Today, there were a bunch of pesky flies in the area. Thanks!
By: Michael_SFBA Difficulty: 2.0 Terrain: 2.0 Container: Small
I think the hint is a necessity for this one. My PN-40 didn't get me very close, and the cache was completely covered with duff. I left a CKayaks Nomad coin, ant took a GeoKret from Poland. Thanks!
By: Geokashers Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 1.5 Container: Micro
Another spur-of-the-moment cache on my way out of Uvas Canyon. Another good pull-out and I stayed behind the guard rail as there was a bit of traffic today. Thanks!
By: Geokashers Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 2.0 Container: Micro
I headed over here via the Contour Trail from Alec Canyon after replacing my "Logger's Picnic" cache. I read the description and hint a couple times on my PN-40, then it finally all came together. I didn't meet anyone on the trail this morning. Thanks!
By: Wet Blanket Difficulty: 2.0 Terrain: 3.0 Container: Small
It was a shady hike up here, so I wasn't very thirsty yet. It is surprising how hard it is to spot this cache until you find it, then you can't help but see it when you look in that direction. Thanks!
By: Trail Reader Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 3.0 Container: Small
I have been up this nasty steep trail before for a different cache. Good thing I have a poor memory of the hike. I have been spending weekends working lately instead of hiking, so I might be a little out of shape. Anyway, I made it up, found the cache, and had my little lunch on top. Thanks!
By: Totorama & Lady Pamela Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 1.5 Container: Small
I was headed for Uvas Canyon Co. Park to replace my "Logger's Picnic" cache, and made a quick stop here just before 8 am. Thanks!
By: Geokashers Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 1.5 Container: Micro
This cache popped up on my way out of Uvas Canyon. It was about noon, and there was traffic whizzing by, but there is a good pull-out and I stayed behind the guard rail. Thanks!
By: Team 'zilla & Mbooski & G.Gadboir Difficulty: 2.5 Terrain: 1.5 Container: Regular
I first looked for this cache about four years ago. I doubt if I'm getting any smarter, but a few more things made sense this time. I made it though each step, missing lots of the clues. I passed the final, but walked back and had a look at a place that matched a clue and I spotted the cache. I became acquainted with an area of Sanborn I hadn't hiked before, and had a fun time of it. Thanks!
By: aggiejen Difficulty: 2.0 Terrain: 2.0 Container: Regular
This was my first hike up this trail, and it was a nice place to be this morning. Thanks!
By: Curtis Difficulty: 1.5 Terrain: 2.0 Container: Small
I missed the turnoff to the cache, and ended up finding this one on my way back. No troubles once I was on the right trail. Thanks!
By: AlphaRomero.com Difficulty: 2.0 Terrain: 1.5 Container: Micro
I headed up for a hike in Sanborn, and this was the first stop. I needed the hint to focus on the right area. Thanks!
By: aggiejen Difficulty: 3.0 Terrain: 2.0 Container: Micro
My PN-40 froze when it was about 37 feet from ground zero. It did the honorable thing, though, and rebooted itself. Meanwhile, a couple was headed up the trail, so I just hiked on by and stopped on my way back. My search was quite a lengthy one due to the GPSr accuracy for this terrain and woods, and the hint. Hint for future finders: don't read the hint.


text:
LATE BREAKING Shock Change in Trump Polls Since Media Started Onslaught… YUGE
Trump Breaking News Network -LATE BREAKING Shock Change in Trump Polls Since Media Started Onslaught… YUGE.
In an attempt to discredit and delegitimize President Donald Trump, liberal media outlets have been incessantly attacking him, his team and their policies, but recent polls have shown that their anti-Trump actions are apparently backfiring.
The Rasmussen Reports daily Presidential Tracking Poll for Feb. 16 showed that 55 percent of "likely U.S. voters" approved of the president's job performance.
What's even more impressive is that the president's approval numbers in this poll were not negatively affected by the Feb. 13 resignation of Michael Flynn as Trump's national security adviser. In fact, Trump's numbers actually went up three percentage points since Flynn's retreat.
While many Americans simply approve of how Trump has handled our country's affairs during his first month as commander in chief, another contributing factor to his positive approval numbers has likely been the public's distrust of the media.
In fact, 48 percent of those polled said they believed most reporters were "biased against the president." That, compared with the fact that only 12 percent believed that news reporters were biased in Trump's favor, showed that the media's incessant attacks on the president could have actually been helping him, instead of their likely-intended result.
And it wasn't just the media who were distrusted by the public, as 47 percent of the poll's participants believed that the country's intelligence agencies had their "own political agenda."
Also in Trump's favor was the fact that a majority of those polled agreed with the idea behind his temporary immigration ban on people from certain high-risk countries.
A Rasmussen Reports survey of 1,000 "likely voters" conducted on Jan. 31-Feb. 1 found that 52 percent favored a temporary ban on refugee acceptance until there is a better system in place to keep out individuals who are terrorist threats.
The truth is that Trump has been doing what millions of Americans elected him to do — put America back on the path to prosperity, success and security.
His approval numbers, despite the liberal media's attempt to bring him down, reflect that he and his team have gotten off to a good start.
Like and share this article on Facebook and Twitter if you're glad to see these polls showing President Trump's positive approval numbers.
What do you think about President Trump's approval numbers from his first month in office? Scroll down to comment below!
LATE BREAKING: Shock Change in Trump Polls Since Media Started Onslaught… YUGE
Trump Breaking News Network – TBNN
For the latest new about Donald Trump and his presidency. Stay tuned.
Share and like.
'Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for 'fair use' for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use'
News & Politics
Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed)
News & Politics
Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed)
Disclosure of Material Connection: Some of the links in the post above are "affiliate links." This means if you click on the link and purchase the item, I will receive an affiliate commission. Regardless, I only recommend products or services I use personally and believe will add value to my readers. I am disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission's 16 CFR, Part 255: "Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising."


text:
Salaheri (Mewat): Talim (23) a driver who took up contract jobs, was killed in an encounter by the Police alleging that he along with other members were smuggling cows in a mini truck. The police say that they fired at Talim in retaliation to the attack.
At Aravali police station, where the family arrived, Talim's elder brother Abid, a fruit-seller in Nuh market, said they were asked to sign a statement that Talim was involved in cow slaughter and he further said that the cops also asked them to take the body without an autopsy. "But we won't accept the body before the postmortem."
Talim's family says that he did not know how to use a gun, and he did not possess any Gun.
Deen Mohammad, Talim's uncle said that, Talim was driving the mini truck. "He left home on Wednesday night after eating rotis with us."
"Next morning, when he didn't return, we called his phone."
Deen Mohammad also added that "Talim had no criminal record. He lived by driving vehicles."
Haji Issac, a neighbor of Talim asked that "If police claim shots were fired at them, and they fired only in retaliation, were any of them (cops) injured?"
The villagers also claim that several Mewat youths have been killed in a similar fashion. Maulvi Syed says that "They give excuses of robbery and cow slaughter to shoot us. Where is justice? Each house here has 15-20 cows. Even Talim's father and uncles are farmers. Animal farming is our profession for decades."
"Police said they were fired upon by seven men. Where are the rest? Didn't anyone else get injured?" said Deen Mohammad.
Abid says that "He was clearly shot from close range. It appears like murder."
The family demanded compensation for Shahroona, Talim's wife, and his children, 3-year-old Ahsan and 3-month-old Faizan.
Talim's father said that "My son didn't know how to use a gun."


text:
I'm a big fan of using left over, using up what we have and making the best out of ingredients that we already have in, before buying any more.
This lunch is an example of me using up leftovers:
This is roast chicken, with roast veg, both of which were left over from a meal, plus a pear from the cupboard. A very delicious, low cost lunch, made from left overs.
I'm also a bit in love with my new lunch box:
I love the divided sections of this box, which means I can do all sorts of combinations of foods, and don't have to worry about them touching! Watch this space about more ideas with the lunch box....
I was also treated to a hot chocolate from a chain this week - I went with one of their christmas editions - honeycomb hot chocolate:
Tasted a bit like the well known chocolate honeycomb bar with the golden wrapping - very nice!
I've also had porridge:
Cinnamon porridge with warmed blueberries and peanut butter
Banana porridge with warmed berries and peanut butter
It's been a good week.


text:
Steven Ross Smith, writer and sound poet, has published eleven books of poetry, fiction and non-fiction, and has appeared on more than ten recordings in group and solo contexts. A creator and performer of sound poetry for three decades in collaborative and solo contexts, his poetry book fluttertongue book 3: disarray, won the 2005 Saskatchewan Book Awards Book of the Year Award. The chapbook Pliny's Knickers, a collaboration between Smith, poet Hilary Clark and artist Betsy Rosenwald, won the 2006 bpNichol Chapbook Award. His most recent book – fluttertongue 4: adagio for the pressured surround, was short-listed for the 2007 Saskatchewan Book Award for Poetry. Smith has performed his work and/or been published in England, Holland, Russia, Portugal, USA, and Canada. He is currently the Director of Literary Arts at The Banff Centre.
©2009 Calgary International Spoken Word Society


text:
Before downloading make sure that your PC meets minimum system requirements.
- OS: Windows XP/Vista/7
- Processor: Intel Core 2 DUO @ 2.0 GHz / AMD Athlon 64 X2 3800+
- Hard Drive: 10 GB free
- Video Memory: 256 MB
- Video Card: NVIDIA GeForce 7800 / ATI Radeon X1800
- Sound Card: DirectX Compatible
- DirectX: 9.0c
- Extract the file using Winrar. (Download Winrar)
- Open "TCSCC" folder, then double click on "Setup" and install it.
- After installation complete, go to the folder where you install the game.
- Open "src" >> "system" Folder, double click on "Conviction_game" to play the game. Done!
If your don't know how to Download this game, just Click Here!
Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Conviction Free Download
Click Here to Download This Game
Game Size: 5.44 GB
Password: www.apunkagames.net or apunkagames


text:
The idea is now to finish the creepy crawler by tuesday and do the initial work on a 15-termagant strong brood. After that I won't be able to get much done for two weeks due to a tons of different circumstances, after that I will finally be able to come close to actually calling this a legally playable army with the addition of a hormagant brood and some Ymgarl Stealers!
Imperial Guard Basing
20 hours ago


text:
ERIC Number: ED220790
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1979
Pages: 35
Abstractor: N/A
RIM Reading Skills Guide. Revised.
Fairbanks North Star Borough School District, AK.
This reading skills guide for grades kindergarten through six is based on the Readiness-Instruction-Maintenance model, which is designed to serve as an aid in the teaching of reading by supplying a cohesive framework for the instruction and acquisition of basic reading skills. In the RIM model, readiness (R) stands for exposure to the skill, mastery not expected; instruction (I) stands for formal presentation with expectation of 80% mastery on tests at that grade level; and maintenance (M) stands for review and expansion of the skills previously presented. The guide is organized with emphasis on the following points: (1) it is geared toward the average student at each grade level; (2) each skill is written as a behavioral objective; (3) the four major reading skills of word analysis, vocabulary, comprehension, and study skills are addressed at each grade level; and (4) each objective is written to allow for increasing degrees of difficulty according to the grade level in which it will be used. (HOD)
Publication Type: Guides - Classroom - Teacher
Education Level: N/A
Audience: N/A
Language: English
Sponsor: N/A
Authoring Institution: Fairbanks North Star Borough School District, AK.
Note: For related document see CS 006 663.


text:
Terri was alone as she entered the church. This was where she spent most Sunday mornings. Her family attended regularly – they had all been baptised, made their first Holy Communion and been confirmed here. Terri had always thought that she would love to get married in this church, to marry a man who loved and respected her, but now she was no longer sure that such a thing was possible, that such a person actually existed.
She had seen Lizzie crawl on her hands and knees like a dog, begging Bobby to stop shouting, screaming, abusing, intimidating, tormenting, insulting and punching her while her frightened children huddled in the corner, watching. Terri swallowed deeply, feeling sick inside. She didn't love or pity her father, her love had congealed and turned to hatred. Repulsed by his behaviour, she lied to her friends and teachers about him, never wanted to invite anyone to her house. The shame of them finding out what he was really like would have been embarrassing, shameful. Because if they found out about Bobby, they would find out what she really was. She hated herself for being what he wanted her to be, what he had turned her into.
She had never fitted in anywhere; she had always been different, unwanted. Even the girls in class thought she was strange and different. No one could believe that she cared about her schoolwork; that she didn't go out with boys or talk about sex. What difference did it make, who cared? She did. She was used to being different and having the piss taken out of her – her dad had done it all the time – but Terri still had her dreams and was determined that no one could take them away from her, not even Bobby.
She wanted a career, a nice place to live, a proper and exciting job, to travel the world and eventually find a husband whom she loved and respected. There must be more to life than Dagenham. Terri never told anyone about her fantasies, they would just think she was going off her head and ship her off to the funny farm. She certainly couldn't imagine a life like her mum's – trapped in a marriage to a man who paid no attention to her at all except for the unwanted kind, never listened to her and never cared what she was thinking. Lizzie wasn't allowed to think for herself, not allowed to make any decisions, have any choices, even have an opinion. She was treated like an animal. Bobby didn't give two fucks for anyone but himself. Terri wanted so much more.
She looked up, peering ahead towards the statue of the Virgin Mary, another suffering mother who stood with her arms outspread. Terri's light footsteps echoed on the cold marble as she walked slowly around the church reading the Stations of the Cross, whispering softly to herself.
'Jesus is condemned to die.' She looked at Jesus and his crown of thorns. Each movement driving the thorns deeper into his head, fresh blood dripping down his face. Broken.
'Jesus carries his cross.' Her voice was heavy as she gazed into his eyes, seeing the anguish, the freedom and surrender. A huge crushing weight lay upon his shoulders as he walked the path of misery and suffering.
'Jesus falls for the first time.' She stared at the exhaustion in his frail body, the fatigue, the burden. Terri shivered; it was so cold inside the church, so cold inside her heart.
'Jesus meets his sorrowful mother.' She studied them carefully. She could see the sorrow in his mother's eyes, her unutterable suffering – it was a look she recognized from her own mother. How pained Mary must have been to see his tears.
'Simon helps Jesus carry his cross.' Terri peered into his face seeing the weakness and struggle. Conquered by the pain of the cross, such a heavy burden.
'Veronica wipes the face of Jesus.' She looked deeply into his eyes seeing pain as he suffered his vile and abusive treatment. She wished someone would wipe her own pain away, but nobody knew or cared.
'Jesus falls for the second time.' She gazed at him. He was hot, tired and sweating, on his knees bearing the weight of the cross. The agony was taking its toll on his torn and bleeding body.
'Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem.' Terri wanted to comfort them. Their eyes were full of love and gratitude, loss and fear. She could feel their grief.
'Jesus falls for the third time.' She watched him, collapsed under the weight of the cross, paying the price. There had been times in her life that she had fallen and she would fall and fall again. Confronted by the same things again and again. But she vowed that she would always get back up.
'Jesus is stripped.' No shield, no security. Such nakedness. Fresh humiliation drenched with gall. She recognized that.
'Jesus is nailed to the cross.' She made herself look at the cruel nails driven through his flesh. Hammered into his hands and his feet, hanging in agony. She wished she could make the hurting stop.
'Jesus dies on the cross.' She watched him. His head bowed forward as he surrendered his last breath.
'Jesus is taken down from the cross.' She stood still, shivering from the cold and shame, trembling with fear. She beheld the scene at the foot of the cross. A lifeless body in his mother's arms. Would someone come for her? Be there for her when she needed it?
'Jesus is laid in the tomb.' A deep sigh echoed through the empty church. Her heart throbbed painfully in her chest, the familiar panic rising.
Terri walked further along the aisle, her head bowed, keeping her fragile eyes fixed firmly to the ground, tortured by the memory of all her yesterdays. She felt just as she did then, on the day of her first Holy Communion, all those years ago. She should have felt like the rest of the girls and boys, happy and joyous about receiving the body and blood of Christ for the first time. It was the holiest moment of her life and she should have been filled with joy. Instead she was filthy, dirty and ugly. She didn't feel special or grateful because there was nothing in her life to feel special or grateful for. There were no reasons to laugh or smile. Terri only hoped that it would make her a good, clean girl again. God knew she was a bad girl because God knew everything, knew the disgusting and humiliating things she had done.
The above excerpt is taken from my book Dangerous. Available to buy from Amazon, click here.


text:
Caisson Shaft Construction Projects in Devon
Delta Civil Engineering has undertaken a wide range of Caisson Shaft Construction Projects.
Please find details of these below.
West Hoe Tanks Rehabilitation PlymouthSaline Infiltration up to 100L/Sec was leaking into three 100 year old adjoining horseshoe shaped, brick arched storage tunnels, approx 3m high x 3m wide and 250m long, located beneath a busy road and adjacent to the sea, at the Hoe in Plymouth.Read More


text:
- Average
- Main course: £14
- Food spend: £31
- Opening hours
- Open for dinner from 19:00 to 21:00, Wednesday to Saturday.
Situated on Cannon Street, just a short walk from the historic town centre of Bury St. Edmunds, this restaurant was originally two Victorian cottages and a bakery. It has now been respectfully renovated to retain many of its original features and offers the perfect atmosphere for any occasion from an intimate dinner for two to a party gathering. The Chalice started life as a vegetarian restaurant, but now, although vegetarian dishes are always available, the menu also features fine fish and meat dishes. Logs roar in the grate on cold winter evenings, whilst summer brings a host of flowers and herbs to the courtyard garden. An excellent selection of wines complements this ambience and the diverse ever-changing menu, celebrating the best of fresh seasonal home-cooked food, prepared especially for you and served by attentive and friendly staff.
Chalice Restaurant
28/29 Cannon Street, Bury St. Edmunds, IP33 1JR
See all restaurants in Cambridgeshire
Unfortunately, you can't book Chalice Restaurant online on this site
Deals direct to your inbox!
Hear about Bookatable's top offers & book the best tables
Great deals coming your way soon
Nearby restaurants
466m 27 reviewsByron - Bury St Edmunds
Byron - Bury St Edmunds
475m 14 reviewsHarriets Cafe Tearooms - Bury St Edmunds
Harriets Cafe Tearooms - Bury St Edmunds
Afternoon Tea
507m 471 reviewsPrezzo - Bury St Edmunds
Prezzo - Bury St Edmunds
511m 431 reviewsThe Angel Eaterie
The Angel Eaterie