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Territorial varieties of English pronunciation
Varieties of English in different regions of Britain and various countries of the world. Sociolinguistics as the branch of linguistics, studying aspects of language – phonetics, lexic and grammar with reference to their social functions in the society.
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«Territorial Varieties of English Pronunciation»
Gulistan 2008
1. Functional stylistics and dialectology
The problem of the work is concerned with varieties of English in different regions of Britain and various countries of the world. It is quite clear of course that dialectology is inseparably connected with sociolinguistics, the latter deals with language variation caused by social difference and differing social needs; it studies the ways language interacts with social reality.
We propose now a definition of this field of science: Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics which studies different aspects of language - phonetics, lexic and grammar with reference to their social functions in the society. The aim is to explain language phenomena in connection with factors outside the language faculty itself in terms of large-scale social structure and in terms of how people use language to communicate with one another.
Though in the past fifteen years Sociolinguistics has come of age and is a fast expanding and increasingly popular subject it should be fair to mention here that language has always been viewed as a social phenomenon, the most important means of human intercourse. So it is evident that language is indissolubly linked with the society; in it we can see a faithful reflection of the society in which people live.
It is quite clear, of course, that such fields of science as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics are inseparably linked in the treatment of various language structures. For example, the subject matter of ethnolinguistics gradually merges into that of anthropological linguistics and that into sociological linguistics and that into stylistics, and the subject matter of social psychology.
Some scholars consider functional stylistics to be a branch of Sociolinguistics since it studies the distinctive linguistic characteristics of smaller social groupings (such as those due to occupational class, age and sex differences) (38, 68).
In the case of English there exists a great diversity in the spoken realization of the language and particularly in terms of pronunciation. The varieties of the language are conditioned by language communities ranging from small groups to nations. Now speaking about the nations we refer to the national variants of the language. In then - treatment we follow the conception of A.D. Shweitzer. According to him national language is a historical category evolving from conditions of economic and political concentration which characterizes the formation of a nation. In other words national language is the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language of a nation's literature.
It is common knowledge that language exists in two forms: written and spoken. Any manifestation of language by means of speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. The literary spoken form has its national pronunciation standard. A «standard» may be defined as «a socially accepted variety of a language established by a codified norm of correctness».
Today all the English-speaking nations have their own national variants of pronunciation and each of them has peculiar features that distinguish it from other varieties of English.
It is generally accepted that for the «English English» it is «Received Pronunciation» or RP; for «The American English» - «General American pronunciation»; for the Australian English - «Educated Australian» (we shall speak about it in detail later in the book).
Standard national pronunciation is sometimes called an «orthoepic norm». Some phoneticians, however, prefer the term «literary pronunciation».
Though every national variant of English has considerable differences in pronunciation, lexic and grammar, they all have much in common which gives us ground to speak of one and the same language - the English language.
It would not be true to say that national standards are fixed and immutable. They undergo constant changes due to various internal and external factors. Pronunciation, above all, is subject to all kinds of innovations. Therefore the national variants of English differ primarily in sound, stress and intonation. It is well-known that there are countries with more than one national language, the most common case being the existence of two national languages on the same territory. For this Canada will be an example, where two different languages - English and French - form the repertoire of the community. In this case scholars speak about bilingualism in contrast to monolingualism typical of a country with one national language. Here arises the problem of interference, that is «linguistic disturbance which results from two languages (or dialects), coming into contact in a specific situation» Learners of a foreign language often use the word "accent" to describe pronunciation features in a foreign language influenced by the mother tongue, in other words, a foreigner may be easily recognized by an accent.
It may be well to state that every national variety of the language falls into territorial or regional dialects. Dialects are distinguished from each other by differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. We must make clear that, when we refer to varieties in pronunciation only, we use the word «accent».1 So local accents may have many features of pronunciation in common and consequently are grouped into territorial or area accents. In Britain, for example, Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cheshire accents form the group of «Northern accent». We must admit, however, that in most textbooks on phonetics the word «dialect» is still used in reference to the regional pronunciation peculiarities, though in the latest editions both in this country and abroad the difference in terms «dialects and accents» is generally accepted. As we see, those terms should be treated differently when related to different aspects of the language. It is, however, true that there is a great deal of overlap between these terms. For certain geographical, economic, political and cultural reasons one of the dialects becomes the standard language of the nation and its pronunciation or its accent - the received standard pronunciation. This was the case of London dialect, whose accent became the «RP» («Received Pronunciation») of Britain.
It has been estimated that the standard pronunciation of a country is not homogeneous. It changes in relation to other languages, and also to geographical, psychological, social and political influences. In England, for example, we distinguish «conservative, general and advanced RP».
As a result of certain social factors in the post-war period - the growing urbanization, spread of education and the impact of mass media, Standard English is exerting an increasing powerful influence on the regional dialects of Great Britain. Recent surveys of British English dialects have revealed that the pressure of Standard English is so strong that many people are bilingual in a sense that they use an imitation of RP with their teachers and lapse into their native local accent when speaking among themselves. In this occasion the term diglossia should be introduced to denote a state of linguistic duality in which the standard literary form of a language and one of its regional dialects are used by the same individual in different social situations. This phenomenon should not be mixed up with bilingualism that is the command of two different languages. In the case of both diglossia and bilingualism the so-called code-switching takes place. In recent years the effect of these forms of linguistic behavior is studied by sociolinguists and psychologists.
As was stated above, language, and especially its oral aspect varies with respect to the social context in which it is used. The social differentiation of language is closely connected with the social differentiation of society. Nevertheless, linguistic facts cannot be attributed directly to class structure. According to A.D. Shweitzer «the impact of social factors on language is not confined to linguistic reflexes of class structure and should be examined with due regard for the meditating role of all class-derived elements - social groups, strata, occupational, cultural and other groups including primary units (small groups).» (38)
Western sociolinguists such as A.D. Grimshaw, JF.Z. Fisher, B. Bernstein, M. Gregory, S. Carroll, A. Hughes, P. Trud Швейцер А.Д. Социальная дифференциация в английском языке в США-М., 1983 gill and others, are oriented towards small groups, viewing them as «microcosms» of the entire society. Soviet sociolinguists recognize the influence of society upon language by means of both micro - and macro-sociological factors.
Every language community, ranging from a small group to a nation has its own social dialect, and consequently, its own social accent.
British sociolinguists divide the society into the following classes: upper class, upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, upper working class, middle working class, lower working class.
The validity of this classification is being debated in sociolinguistics. The problem of social stratification and of group theory has only recently been tackled by the science of sociology. The serious study of social dialects must be proceeded*, or at least accompanied by significant advances in sociology and especially in the more precise definition of the notions, such as class, nation, nationality, society, language community, occupation, social group, social setting, occupational group, and so on.
It is well worth to understand that classes are split into different major and minor social groups (professional, educational, cultural, age, sex and so on). Correspondingly every social community has its own social dialect and social accent. DA. Shakhbagova defines social dialects as 'Varieties spoken by a socially limited number of people.»
So in the light of social criteria languages are «characterized by two plans of socially conditioned variability - stratification, linked with societal structure, and situational, linked with the social context of language use.» (38, p. 6) Швейцер А.Д. Социальная дифференциация в английском языке в США-М., 1983.
Having had our main terms straightened we may speak now of the «language situation» in terms of the horizontal and vertical differentiations of the language, the first in accordance with the spheres of social activity, the second-with its situational variability.
It is evident that the language means are chosen consciously or subconsciously by a speaker according to his perception of the situation, in which he finds himself. Hence situational varieties of the language are called functional dialects or functional styles and situational pronunciation varieties - situational accents or phonostyles.
It has also to be remembered that the language of its users varies according to their individualities, range of intelligibility, cultural habits, sex and age differences. Individual speech of members of the same language community is known as idiolect.
Now in conclusion it would be a perfectly natural thing to say that language in serving personal and social needs becomes part of the ceaseless flux of human life and activity. Human communication cannot be comprehended without recognizing mutual dependence of language and context. The mystery of language lies, if nowhere, in its endless ability to adapt both to the strategies of the individual and to the needs of the community, serving each without imprisoning either. This is what makes sociolinguistics as a science so important. In this book, though, we shall focus our attention on territorial modifications of English pronunciation viewing them as an object of sociolinguistic study.
2. The main part
2.1 Spread of English
It is common knowledge that over 300 million people now speak English as first language. It is the national language of Great Britain, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Canada (part of it).
English was originally spoken in England and south-eastern Scotland. Then it was introduced into the greater part of Scotland and southern Ireland. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was brought to North America (mainly from the West of England). Later in the 18th and 19th centuries English was exported to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa owing to the colonial expansion. A flow of emigrants who went to invade, explore and inhabit those lands came mostly from the south-eastern parts of England.
English became wide-spread in Wales at about the same time. Welsh English is very similar to southern English, although the influence of Welsh has played a role in its formation. Then in the 20th century American English began to spread in Canada, Latin America, on the Bermudas, and in other parts of the world. Thus nowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-speaking world: English and American English.
According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A. Hughes and others (61, 78) the following variants of English are referred to the English-based group: English, Welsh English, Australian English, New Zealand English; to the American-based group: United States English, Canadian English.
Scottish English and Irish English fall somewhere between the two being somewhat by themselves.
On the whole this division seems rather reasonable and the «English» types of English will be treated first in this book, though it is safe to say that English, Welsh English, Scottish English and Northern Ireland English should be better combined into the British English subgroup, on the ground of political, geographical, cultural, psychological unity which brought more similarities than differences for those variants of pronunciation.
To our regrets, the lack of space gives us no chance to describe all the territorial and national variants of English pronunciation.
2.2 English-based pronunciation standards of English
2.2.1 British English
As was mentioned before, BEPS (British English Pronunciation Standards and Accents) comprise English English, Welsh English, Scottish English and Northern Ireland English (the corresponding abbreviations are EE, WE, ScE., NIE).
Table 1 British English Accents
English English
Welsh English
Scottish English
Northern Ireland English
Sc. Eng.
Regional Varieties
1. Southern
1. Northern
2. East Anglia 3. South-West
2. Yorkshire 3. North-
4. West
2.2.2 English, English
In this chapter we are going to look in greater detail at the Received Pronunciation (RP) and at the regional non-RP accents of England.
Roughly speaking the non-RP accents of England may be grouped like this: 1. Southern accents.
1) Southern accents (Greater London, Cockney, Surray, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire);
2) East Anglia accents (Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire;
3) South-West accents (Gloucestershire, Avon, Somerset, Wiltshire).
2. Northern and Midland accents.
1) Northern accents (Northumberland, Durham, Cleveland);
2) Yorkshire accents;
3) North-West accents (Lancashire, Cheshire);
4) West Midland (Birmingham, Wolverhampton).
It has long been believed that RP is a social marker, a prestige ac-cent of an Englishman. In the nineteenth century «received» was understood in the sense of «accepted in the best society». The speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London area. Then it lost its local characteristics and was finally fixed as a ruling-class accent, often referred to as «King's English». It was also the ac-cent taught at public schools. With the spread of education cultured people not belonging to the upper classes were eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standards.
We may definitely state now that RP is a genuinely regionless accent within Britain; i.e. if speakers have it you cannot tell which area of Britain they come from; which is not the case for any other type of British accents.
It is fair to mention, however, that only 3-5 per cent of the population of England speak RP. British phoneticians (Ch. Barber (44), Crystal D. Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English. - Cambridge, 1969 A.C. Gimson (57), A. Hughes and P. Trudgill (61) estimate that nowadays RP is not homogeneous. A.C. Gimson suggests that it is convenient to distinguish three main types within it: «the conservative RP forms, used by the older generation, and, traditionally, by certain profession or social groups; the general RP forms, most commonly in use and typified by the pronunciation adopted by the BBC, and the advanced RP forms, mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups - mostly of the upper classes, but also for prestige value, in certain professional circles.
«This last type of RP reflects the tendencies typical of changes in pronunciation. It is the most «effected and exaggerated variety» of the accent. Some of its features may be results of temporary fashion; some are adopted as a norm and described in the latest textbooks. Therefore, it is very important for a teacher and learner of English to distinguish between the two. RP speakers make up a very small percentage of the English population. Many native speakers, especially teachers of English and professors of colleges and universities (particularly from the South and South-East of England) have accents closely resembling RP but not identical to it. P. Trudgill and J. Hannah call it Near-RP southern. So various types of standard English pronunciation may be summarized as follows: Conservative RP; General RP; Advanced RP; Near-RP southern.
Changes in the Standard
As was stated above, changes in the standard may be traced in the speech of the younger generation of native RP speakers. These changes may affect all the features of articulation of vowel and consonant phonemes and also the prosodic system of the language.
Considerable changes are observed in the sound system of the pre-sent-day English, which are most remarkable since the well-known Great Vowel Shift in the Middle English period of the language development. It is a well-established fact that no linguistic modification can occur all of a sudden. The appearance of a new shade in the pronunciation of a sound results in the coexistence of free variants in the realization of a phoneme. The choice between permissible variants of [w] or [М] in words is an illustration of what is meant by the process of variability and free variants. In Russian we observe free variants of the pronunciation of the words of энергия, темп type: non-palatalized and palatalized vertions of [H] - [H'] and [T] - [T']. The degrees of variability are different. The most perceptible and stable changes are described in the works of British linguists and have been investigated by Soviet phoneticians. The RP of recent years is characterized by a greater amount of permissible variants compared to the «classical» type of RP described by D. Jones, L. Armstrong, I. Word.
The phenomenon is significant both from the theoretical and practical viewpoint. The variability concerns mainly vowels. Most of English vowels have undergone definite qualitative changes. The newly appeared variants exhibit different stability and range.
The qualitative distinctions manifest new allophonic realizations of the vowel phonemes. Ch. Barber comes to the conclusion that a definite trend towards centralization is observed in the quality of English vowels at present. (44)
Changes of Vowel Quality
1. According to the stability of articulation. 1) It is generally acknowledged that two historically long vowels [i], [u:] have become diphthongized and are often called diphthongoids; the organs of speech slightly change their articulation by the very end of pronunciation, becoming more fronted. Ch. Barber tries to draw a parallel with the Great Vowel Shift which took place in Middle English, where diphthongization was just one part of a complete change of pattern in the long vowels. He claims that there is some resemblance to this process today and other phonemes may move up to fill the places left vacant.
2) There is a tendency for some of the existing diphthongs to be smoothed out, to become shorter, so that they are more like pure vowels.
a) This is very often the case with [ei], particularly in the word final position, where the glide is very slight: [ta'dei], [sei], [mei].
b) Diphthongs [ai], [au] are subject to a smoothing process where they are followed by the neutral sound [?]:
Conservative RP: [tau?], [fai?]
General RP: [ta?], [fa?]
Advanced RP: [t?:], [f?:]
c) Also diphthongs [o?], [u?] tend to be leveled to [o:]. Thus the pronunciation of the words pore, poor is varied like this:
older speakers: [po?], [pu?]
middle-aged speakers: [po:], [pu?]
younger speakers: [po:], [po:]
It should be mentioned, however, that this tendency does not concern the diphthong [i?] when it is final. The prominence and length shift to the glide, this final quality often being near to []; dear [di?] - [di].
2. According to the horizontal and vertical movements of the tongue. Very striking changes occur in the vowel quality affected by the horizontal movements of the tongue. In fact the general tendency is marked by the centering of both front and back vowels:
a) the nuclei of [ai], [au] tend to be more back, especially in the male variant of the pronunciation;
b) the vowel phoneme is often replaced by [a] by younger speakers: [hv] - [hav], [nd] - [and];
c) the nucleus of the diphthong [] varies considerably, ranging from [o] among conservative speakers to [] among advanced ones:
Conservative RP: [so], [fon], [not];
Advanced RP: [s], [fn], [nt].
This tendency is so stronp that the transcription symbol has been recently changed in many British books: [o] - [].
d) Back-advanced vowels [], [] are considerably fronted in the advanced RP: but [bt] - [b?t], good [gd] - [g?d].
It should be mentioned here that there is a tendency for all short vowels to be made nearer the centre of the mouth, that is to move towards [?], especially in unstressed position: honest [?nist] - [?n?st].
Thus the horizontal changes in vowel quality may be listed like this:
Centering of short vowels:
More back pronunciation of the nuclei of diphthongs: [ai] -» [ai], - [a] - [a]
More advanced pronunciation of the diphthong: [o] - [].
More fronted pronunciation of the diphthongoids: [i] - [i(j)], [u] - [u(w)].
Vertical changes in vowels may be traced in [e] and [o:] which tend to be closer in advanced RP. It has also been stated above that the nuclei of diphthongs [ei], [ea], [oa], [ua] become more open when these phonemes are being leveled, particularly the diphthong [ea] which is characterized by a great opening of the first element: careful [k?fl] - ['k:fl]. The first element of the diphthong [?] can be lowered considerably. Thus several words with [?] are given a shade pronunciation by some advanced RP speakers: poor, sure [p?] [?] - [p?, ?].
3. Combinative changes. It is general knowledge that when sounds are in company they influence each other. These changes are called combinative. They take place only in certain phonetic contexts. In a diacritic study, however, there is no sharp boundary between isolative and combinative changes.
1) Changes in [j + u:], [1 + u:]. Words like suit, student, super, bulletin may be pronounced either [sju:t] or [sat], [stju:dant] or [stu:dnt], [sjuipa] or [su:pa]. The tendency is for middle-aged and younger speakers to omit the [j] after [s] before [u:]. Word-internally [j] tends to be retained as in assume [asju; m]. There is also fluctuation after [1]: word-initially lute [lu:t] is normal, but it is possible to pronounce [ilju:n] in illusion, for example. These recent developments in combinative RP changes bear remarkable resemblance to American Standard pronunciation.
2) Change of [:] to [?] before [f, s]. Where orthographic «o» occurs before the voiceless fricatives [f, s, ] older speakers pronounce the vowel [o:]: loss [lots]. This pronunciation is currently dying out in RP and being replaced by [?]: [l?s].
Words like salt and ault still may be pronounced with [:].
4. Changes in length.
It is an accepted fact that English vowels vary in length according to the phonetic context - the consonant they are followed by (voiceless, voiced), syllabic border, the degree of stress, the types of nuclear tone and so on.
Actually nowadays there are changes in vowel length that are influenced by other factors. There is, for example, a strong tendency for the so-called short vowels to be lengthened, and it is interesting to note that this lengthening can be heard sporadically in many words in any position.
The lengthening of [i] is often heard in big, his, is; of [u] in good; [] in come. It should also be mentioned that [i] is often lengthened in the final syllable, i.e. very, many: [veri], [meni;].
Short vowels [e, ae] are also very frequently lengthened in yes, bed, men, said, sad, bad, bag and so on. This tendency has considerably increased in the past few years.
Changes in Consonant Quality
1. Voicing and Devoicing. As is well known, there is no opposition of final RP consonants according to the work of the vocal cords. They are all partially devoiced, particularly stops. Such devoiced sounds are clearly heard after long vowels and diphthongs as in deed: [did]. How-ever, these partly devoiced consonants are never identical with their voiceless counterparts, because the latter are pronounced with strong breath-force.
This tendency for devoicing now seems to be on the increase. As soon as the opposition of voiced - voiceless is neutralized in the final position, the fortis/lenis character of pronunciation has become the relevant feature of consonants.
The voiced/voiceless distinction of the minimal pairs [sed] - [set], [d?g] - [d?k] may seem to be lost. Actually it does not take place. The weak consonants are never replaced by their voiceless counterparts, they never become strong, the stops [b, d, g], though devoiced, never acquire aspiration. More than that. The interrelation of final consonants and the preceding stressed vowels is very close. The instrumental investigation of E. Kurjatnikova, showed that the duration of the vowel before the traditionally called voiced consonant is 1.5 times larger than that before the voiceless consonant. Cf.: He saw his cap. - He saw his cab.
Describing the positional allophones of the English stops A. Gimson characterizes the initial lenis [b, d, g] as partially devoiced, final lenis [b, d, g] as voiceless.
The sound [t] in the intervocalic position is made voiced, e.g. better [bet?] - [bed?], letter [let?] - [led?].
2. Loss of [h]. In rapid speech initial [h] is lost in form words and tends to die out from the language. Even most highly educated people subconsciously drop it completely. So instead of: He wants her to come [hi - w?nts h t?, km] one hears:
[i wants 3 t? km]. It is evident, of course, that the loss of [h] in stressed syllables sounds wrong.
3. Initial «hw». Some conservative RP speakers pronounce words like why, when, which with an initial weak breath-like sound [h] - [M]. The general tendency is, however, to pronounce [w].
4. Loss of final. The pronunciation of [in] for the termination [i] has been retained as an archaic form of the RP: sittin', lookin'. These occasional usages are not likely to become general.
5. Spread of «dark» [l]. This tendency is evidently influenced by the American pronunciation and some advanced RP speakers are often heard saying [l] instead of [1] as in believe, for example. There is no threat in spreading it widely yet but it is quite common for pop singers now. It should also be mentioned that sometimes final [I] tends to be vocalized as in people, for instance, but is not likely to become a norm.
6. Glottal stop. In RP the glottal stop [?] can appear only in the following two environments: a) as a realization of syllable-final [t] before a following consonant as in batman [btman - [b? mn] or not quite [n?t 'kwait] - [n?? 'kwait]; b) in certain consonant clusters as in box, simply [b?? ks], [si? mpli], where it is known as «glottal reinforcements». The use of glottal stop by advanced RP speakers produces a «clipped» effect on a foreigner.
7. Palatalized final [k'] is often heard in words week, quick, etc.: [wik'], [kwik'].
8. Linking and intrusive [r]. It has been estimated that all English accents are divided into «rhotic» or «r-full» and «non-rhotic» or «r-less». Rhotic accents are those which actually pronounce [r] corresponding to orthographic «r». RP is a non-rhotic accent but most speakers of it do pronounce orthographic «r» word-finally before a vowel: It is a far away country. It is known as linking «r». Failure by students to pronounce it does not usually affect comprehension but may result in their sounding foreign.
As a further development and by analogy with linking «r», «r» is inserted before a following vowel even though there is no «r» in spelling. This «r» is known as intrusive «r». The actual situation is that younger RP speakers do have it after [a] as in idea of, China and,
It is said that nowadays in colloquial fluent speech there is a strong tendency towards elision, reduction and assimilation. This tendency is reflected in the pronunciation of the young generation: tutor [tu:t?], second year [sek?ndia], perhaps you [p?'hpu:], gives you [givu:], as you know [?ju: 'n]; in the transcribed texts of British textbooks: him [im], he [i:], her [3], his [iz], can [kn], from [firm], than [n], them [m], some [sm], suppose [spz], have to [hafta], usually [ju:w?li], last time [la:staim], and there was no one [?n ?r wz'n wn]; even in the traditional spelling: C'm on, baby, Sorry 'bout that Oh, le'mme see. Oh, I dunno. Must've put'em all together. Why d'you ask? What d'ja think? Alright!
9. Combinative changes. Sound combinations [tj, dj, sj] are pronounced as [t, d,] respectively, e.g. actual [ktjual] - [ktjual], graduate ['grdjeit] - [grdeit], issue ['isju:] - [iu:].
In the clusters of two stops, where the loss of plosion is usually observed, each sound is pronounced with audible release, e.g. active [ktiv] - [ktiv], sit down [sitdan] - [sit 'dan].
Non-systematic Variations in RP Phonemes
Some free phonemes have appeared under the influence of the written image of words, their spelling.
Unstressed prefixes ex - and con - have gained orthographical pro-nunciation: excuse [iks'kju:z] - [eks'kju:z], exam [ig'zm] - [eg'zm], continue [k?ntinju:] - [kan tinju;], consent [k?n sent] - [kan'sent].
The days of the week: Sunday [sndi] - [sndei], Monday - [mndei].
Note also free variants in often: [af?n] - [aft(?) n].
Other cases: economics [ika'namiks] - [eka'namiks].
Now by way of conclusion we would like to state that not all the changes are recognized as a norm by most affected advanced RP speakers. Some of these changes are quite stable, some tend to disappear. The language is a living body and its oral aspect is most vitally changeable. But one should realize the importance of most recent developments, which, in opinion of many prominent phoneticians, may lead to radical changes in the whole inventory of vowel and consonant phonemes.
Regional Non-RP Accents of England
As was stated above, we grouped regional accents of England into southern and northern ones. This division is very approximate of course, because there are western and eastern accents but their main accent variations correspond either with southern or northern accentual characteristics. Thus we would like to point out here the main differences between southern and northern accents.
In vowels
One of the main differences between these groups of accents is in the phoneme inventory - the presence or absence of particular phonemes. Typically, the vowel [A] does not occur in the accents of the north; e.g.
We can also note that many northern speakers while they do not have [A] have [u;] rather than [u] in words such as hook, book, look. They therefore distinguish pairs like book and buck, which in the south sound [buk] and [DAK], in the North as
Another well-known feature which distinguishes northern and southern accents concerns the vowels and [a].
Before the voiceless fricatives [f, , s] and certain consonant clusters containing initial [n] or [m], is pronounced in the north instead of [a].
Note: Speakers with more strongly regional southern substandard accents may not have the contrast or, at most, have a contrast that is variable.
In the south, however, [K] is often pronounced as [a]:
A = in path
B - [a] in path
C = [a] contrast absent or in doubt
One more major north-south differentiating feature involves the final [i:] like in words city, money, etc. In the north of England they have [i]. In the south of England these words are pronounced with [i] e.g.
South North
city [siti:] ['siti]
money [mni:] [mani]
In consonants
It has been mentioned above that some English accents are «rhotic» or «r-ful» and other are non-rhotic or «r-less». Rhotic accents are those which actually pronounce [r], corresponding to orthographic «r» in words like bar and farm. This [r] sound is post-vocalic and is most often heard in Scotland, Ireland and in the southwest of England. The map on p. 222 shows the spread of post-vocalic [r] (A = post-vocalic [r] present, B = post-vocalic [r] absent).
In most regional accents the glottal stop is more widely used than in RP. In some areas, especially the north-east of England, East Anglia and Northern Ireland, the glottal stop may also be pronounced simultaneously with the voiceless [p, t, k], most strikingly between vowels: pity [pit? i:]
Many non-RP speakers use [n] in the suffix «- ing» instead of; sitting [sitin]. In an area of western central England which includes Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool they pronounce [g]: singer [sige], wing [wig].
Now about [j] - dropping. In most accents [j] is dropped after [t, s]: student [stjud?nt], suit [sat]. In parts of the north the change has progressed a good deal further, it has been lost after []: enthusiasm [an'u:zi?zm].
In large areas of eastern England [j] is lost after every consonant. In London [j] is lost after [n, t, d]: news [nu:z], tune [tu:n].
Southern English Accents
We now turn to an examination of regional non-RP accents of England and we shall first give a brief outline of the group of Southern accents.
As was stated above, educated Southern speech is very much near-RP accent whereas non-standard accents are very much near Cockney. Therefore we shall focus our attention on the rather detailed description of uneducated London accent - Cockney.
Cockney accent. It has been long established that Cockney is a social accent - the speech of working-class areas of the Greater London. Here are some pronunciation peculiarities of it.
In vowels
1. [] is realized as [i]: blood [bd] - [blid];
2. is realized as or [i]: bag [bg] - [bg], [big];
3. [i] in word-final position sounds as [ij: city [siti] - [siti:];
4. when [o:] is non-final, its realization is much closer, it sounds like [o:]: pause [po:z] - [po:z]; when it is final, it is pronounced as [o:?]: paw [po:] - [po:?];
5. the diphthong [ei] is realized as [i] or [ai]: lady [leidi] - [lidi:], [laidi:];
6. RP [3] sounds as []: soaked [skt] - [skt];
7. RP [a] may be [?]: now [na] - [n?],
In consonants
1. [h] in unstressed position is almost invariably absent;
2. [?] is widely spread in Cockney speech: paper [pi? pa], butterfly [b't?flai];
3. The contrast between [] and [f] is completely lost: thin [in], booth [bu:f];
4. The contrast between [] and [v] is occasionally lost: weather [weva];
5. when [] occurs initially it is either dropped or replaced by [d]: this [dis], them [(d)?m];
6. [1] is realized as a vowel when it precedes a consonant and follows a vowel, or when it is syllabic: milk [mivk], table [teibv]; when the preceding vowel is, [1] may disappear completely;
7. is replaced by [n] in word-final position: dancing [da:nsin] or it may be pronounced as [ik] in something, anything, nothing: [nfik];
8. [p, t, k] are heavily aspirated, more so than in RP;
9. [t] is affricated, [s] is heard before the vowel: top [trap].
Northern and Midland Accents
Midland accents, Yorkshire, for example, West Midland and North-West accents have very much in common with Northern ones. Therefore they are combined in this book into one group; peculiar realization of vowels and consonants will be marked, of course, when each subgroup is described separately.
The counties of northern England are not far from the Scottish border, so the influence of Scotch accent is noticeable, though there are of course many features of pronunciation characteristic only of northern English regions. The most typical representative of the speech of this area is Newcastle accent. It differs from RP in the following:
In vowels
1. RP [] is realized as [u]: love [lv] - [lv];
2. RP final [i] sounds like [i:]: city [siti] - [siti:];
3. words like dance, chance which in RP have [a] are pronounced with: [dns], [tns];
4. [ei], [] are either monophthongs, or much narrower diphthongs than the ones in the south of England, or they may even sound as opening diphthongs [le], [o]: bay [be:], [bie], plate [ple:t], [phet], boat [bo:t], [bo t];
5. words that have «al» in spelling - talk, call, all, are pronounced with [a]: [ta:k], [ka:l], [a:l];
6. RP words with [3:] are pronounced with in a broad Tyneside accent: first [fist], shirt [f:t]; so first, forced; shirt, short are homonyms;
7. [ai] is [i]: right [rit];
8. words which in RP have [au] may have [it], e.g. about [abut].
In consonants
1. [1] is clear in all environments;
2. [h] is usually present in all positions;
3. - ing is [in]: shilling [ilin];
4. [p, t, k] between vowels are accompanied by glottal stop [?]: pity [pit? i:];
5. in parts of Northumberland and Durham [r] may be uvular (in its production the tongue and the uvular, not the tongue and the alveolar ridge take part),
Yorkshire accents
Yorkshire and Bradford accents are identical with northern vowel features in points 1, 3, 4 (only many speakers pronounce words which have «ow», «ou» in spelling with [au]: know [nau]; with northern con-sonant features in point 3.
Now having accomplished the description of regional non-RP ac-cents of England we would like to say that we didn't attempt to give a detailed account of all the regional differences in accents of remote ru-ral areas. Rather we concentrated on urban accents which can be heard when one travels throughout the country and which are most likely to be encountered by foreign tourists. International features were not dealt with.
Welsh English
As everyone probably knows Wales is a bilingual area. This speech situation in linguistics is known as exoglossic. In Wales English dominates over Welsh in urban areas, in the west and north-west of the country the balance being in favor of Welsh, where English is learnt at schools as a second language. At the moment nationalistic feelings are rather strong in Wales and we are witnessing a movement in favor of the revival of the Welsh language and its spread in all areas of Wales.
However, Welsh English at the level of educated speech and writing is not much different from that of English. Most differences are found at the level of more localized dialects.
In this chapter we shall give a brief outline of Welsh English pronunciation standard.
The principal phonological differences between WE and RP are the following:
In vowels
1. The distribution of [] and [a] is as in the north of England. Last, dance, chance, etc. tend to have rather than [a].
2. unstressed orthographic «a» tends to be [se] rather than [a], e.g.: sofa [so:f];
3. there is no contrast between [] and [a]: rubber [r?b?];
4. [i] at the end is a long vowel: city [siti:];
5. in words like tune, few, used we find [iu] rather than [ju:]: tune [tiun];
6. [ei], [] may become monophthongs: bake [b:k], boat [bo:t];
7. the vowel as in girl is produced with rounded lips approaching [o:];
8. the vowels [i?], [?] do not occur in many variants of Welsh English: fear is [fi:j?], poor is [pu-w?].
In consonants
1. W. Eng. is non-rhotic, [r] is a tap, or it is also called a flapped [r]. Intrusive and linking [r] do occur.
2. Consonants in intervocalic position, particularly when the preceding vowel is short are doubled: city [siti].
3. Voiceless plosives tend to be strongly aspirated: in word final position they are generally released and without glottalization, e.g. pit
4. [1] is clear in all positions.
5. Intonation in Welsh English is very much influenced by the Welsh language.
Scottish English
We must first make clear that the status of Scottish English is still debated. Some linguists say that it is a national variant. Others say that it is a dialect.
English has been spoken in Scotland for as long as it has been spoken in England. In the Highlands and Islands of northern and western Scotland, however, Gaelic is still the native language of thou-sands of speakers from these regions. A standardized form of this language, known as Scots, was used at the court and in literature until the Reformation. Then it was gradually replaced by English. Incidentally a number of writers and poets of the likes of R. Burns retained their native language.
Nowadays educated Scottish people speak a form of Scottish Standard English which grammatically and lexically is not different from English used elsewhere, although with an obvious Scottish accent. We must admit, however, that non-standard dialects of Scotland still resemble Scots and in many respects are radically different from most other varieties of English. It is very difficult to understand them for students who learn RP.
At the moment there is currently a strong movement in Scotland for the revival of Scots. Nevertheless Scottish Standard English is still more prestigious and in this book we concentrate on Scottish English as used and spoken by educated urban Scots.
As for the status of Scottish English, in this book it will be treated as a dialect though it is fair to say that there is much in favor of calling it a national variant of English.
1. Since Sc. Eng. is rhotic, i.e. it preserves post-vocalic [r], vowels such as RP [i?], [3:], [?], [u?] do not occur:
Sc. Eng.
2. Length is not a distinctive feature of Scottish vowels. So pairs like pool-pull, palm-pam, cot-caught are not distinguished. It should be noted, however, that vowels are longer in final stressed open syllables than elsewhere.
3. Monophthongs are pure, there is no trace of diphthongization with the exceptions of [ai - ei], [ao - eu] and [01].
4. The RP [a(a)] distinction doesn't exist: hat [hat], dance [da:ns].
5 - [i], [u], [] [?] may be central.
6. In non-standard Sc. Eng. accent [u:] often occurs when RP has [au]: house [haus-hu:s]
7. It is interesting to mention that [TO] and [su] may be not contrasted.
8. In very many regional accents do, to are pronounced as [d?], [t?].
9. In some accents words such as arm, after, grass may have [e] rather than [a:] after [ft?].
1. Sc. Eng. consistently preserves a distinction between [w]: which [vit] - witch [wit].
2. Initial [p, t, k] are usually non-aspirated.
3. [r] is most usually a flap.
4. Non-initial [t] is often realized as glottal stop [?].
5. [fl is dark in all positions.
6. The velar fricative [x] occurs in a number of words: loch [lux].
7. - ing is [in].
8. [h] is present.
9. A specific Scottish feature is the pronunciation of [r] as [r]: through [ru;].
Northern Ireland English
It should be stated first of all that English pronunciation standards in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Eire are different. The explanation lies in history.
In the Middle Ages almost the whole of Ireland was Irish speaking. Nowadays, however, native speakers of Irish are few in number and are confined to rural areas even though Irish is the official language of Ireland and is taught in schools. The English language in Southern Ire-land was originally introduced from the West and West Midlands of England and still shows signs of this today. This kind of English has spread to cover most of the Irish Republic. Naturally the pronunciation of these areas retains features of western parts of England.
The English of northern parts of the island with its centre in Belfast has its roots in Scotland, as large numbers of settlers came to this part from the south-west of Scotland from the seventeenth century onwards. Now speaking about Northern Ireland, it is true to say that English here is not homogeneous. Areas of the far north are heavily Scots-influenced. Other parts are marked by less heavily Scots-influenced varieties of English. It is, of course, obvious that the language distinction is not coterminous with the political division of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, some areas of the Republic, Donegal, for instance, speak N. Ir. Eng. (Northern Ireland English), while some of the northern provinces speak S. Ir. Eng. (Southern Ire-land English).
In this chapter we shall deal with Northern Ireland English pronunciation.
The vowel system is similar to that of Scottish accents, post-vocalic retroflex frictionless sonorant [r] being used as in Scotland.
[i]: pit [pit], fir [fir], bird [bird], city [siti], fern [firn], fur [fir];
[i:] bee [bi:], beer [bi:r], seedy [si:di], meet [mi:t], meat [mil];
[e] pet [pet], bed [bed];
[] but [bt];
[a] pat [pat], bard [bard], hat [hat], dance [dans], half [haf];
[] put [pt], boot [bt], pull [pl], pool [pl], poor [pr];
[o] boat [bot], board [bord], pole [pol], knows [noz], nose [noz], pour [por], pore [por];
[?]: cot [k ? t];
[ai]: buy [bair], tide [taid];
[au]: bout [baut];
[oi]: boy [boi].
The following notes on vowels should be read in association with the list above.
The actual realization of a vowel may vary considerably according to the following phoneme:
1. in words like bay, say the vowel is a monophthongs [e], preconsonantally it may be a diphthong of the type gate [gi?t];
2. [i], [u] are fairly central;
3. [o:] and [»] contrast only before [p, t, k];
4. [ai], [au] are very variable;
5. realization of [a] may vary considerably.
The American variant of English has been very thoroughly described by many prominent scholars both in this country and in the USA. In this book, however, we shall try to follow the conception introduced by A.D. Shweitzer in his sociolinguistic approach to the treatment of contemporary speech situation in America (38).
The sociolinguistic situation in the United States is very complicated. It is molded by certain linguistic, cultural, historic, demographic, geographic, political and other factors.
Generally speaking, the situation in the USA may be characterized as exoglossic, i.e. having several languages on the same territory, the balance being in favor of American English.
It is true, of course, that the formation of the American Standard underwent the influence of minorities' languages, but its starting point was the English language of the early 17th century. However, time has passed, American English has drifted considerably from English though as yet not enough to give us ground to speak of two different languages. Thus we speak of the national variant of English in America.
American English shows a lesser degree of dialect than British English due to some historical factors: the existence of Standard English when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility of population, internal migrations of different communities and so on. As regards pronunciation, however, it is not at all homogeneous. There are certain varieties of educated American speech. In the USA three main types of cultivated speech are recognized: the Eastern type, the Southern type and Western or General American.
1. The Eastern type is spoken in New England, and in New York city. It bears a remarkable resemblance to Southern English, though there are, of course, some slight differences.
2. The Southern type is used in the South and South-East of the USA. It possesses a striking distinctive feature - vowel drawl, which is a specific way of pronouncing vowels, consisting in the diphthongization and even diphthongization of some pure vowels and monophthongization of some diphthongs at the expense of prolonging («drawling») their nuclei and dropping the glides.
3. The third type of educated American speech is General American (GA), also known as Northern American or Western American spoken in the central Atlantic States: New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin and others. GA pronunciation is known to be the pronunciation standard of the USA. There are some reasons for it. GA is the form of speech used by the radio and television. It is mostly used in scientific, cultural and business intercourse. Also in two important business centers - New York and St. Louis - GA is the prevailing forms of speech and pronunciation, though New York is situated within the territory where Eastern American is spoken, and St. Louis is within the region of Southern American. In this chapter we shall give an outline of GA accent. We will then point to differences between this accent and RP.
1. There is no strict division of vowels into long and short in GA, though some American phoneticians suggest that certain GA vowels are tense and likely to be accompanied by relative length: [i:] in seat, [u:] in pool
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Don Giovanni, ossia Il dissoluto punito 27 September 2019 - 19:00
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Even the most technically perfect image can seem a little "meh" if it doesn't have an interesting composition. Composition is simply how we can arrange the various elements in the scene to make an image more visually appealing, and the good news is, it can be simple to get right - its' just a case of knowing what to do and then remembering to do it!
In this post, I'm going to give you 5 photography composition "rules" that you can use to get more interesting images that will make your photos stand out from the crowd!
1) Leading Lines
Lines, such as diagonal, curves or S shaped lines, can add interest to your images simply by being there! However, they are particularly effective when they lead directly to your subject.
Try to position yourself and your subject in such a way so that the line leads directly to your subject. (If there is a line in your location, chances are you can create a leading line!) Your viewer's eye will follow this line, bringing their eye to the subject, and making the image seem more impactful.
Here's an example of an image with a leading line - the line on the right hand side of the frame leads you into the image, and direct to the subject.
And all that was required was a step to the right to make the line a leading one!
2) Framing
Framing your subject is a simply way to bring your viewers attention to your subject, but again, it also adds that little extra "oomph" to your images, because it looks so darn creative.
Using framing as your composition tool is simple to do - all you need to do is take elements or lines that are already in the frame, and use them to create a frame around your subject. You can use absolutely anything: doors, windows, mirrors, trees, bushes - anything that can go around your subject. (Want some concrete suggestions along with examples? Then check this post out with a creativity exercise for using framing as a composition tool)
3) Negative Space
Negative space is simply when you have an area of empty space around your subject. The image above has it (the example for framing - which just goes to show you can mix and match these composition tips too!) as does this image below.
Space that is considered negative is usually either a neutral or contrasting background that helps draws your eye to the main subject of your photograph - but anything that does not compete with the main subject for attention by being too "cluttered" and gives the viewer's eyes a chance to rest is negative space!
4) Rule of Thirds
The rule of thirds is one of the most basic "rules" of composition and rightly so - it can change an image from being bland and boring to something much more interesting!
To use the rule of thirds, simply imagine that the frame is divided into nine equal sections - three sections horizontally and three sections vertically. You should aim to have the important elements in your frame fall generally along those lines, and / or at the four points where they intersect, as marked on the image below.
5) The Golden Compositions
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Welcome to E. Ruth
Hello, I'm Emily. I am a licensed massage therapist, owner and sole practitioner of E. Ruth Wellness Massage.
I am passionate about helping people feel better in their body. The way we move and how we listen to our body affects how we feel. My practice focuses on these principles.
I use a variety of techniques to encourage the body's innate restorative capabilities. The body has an amazing ability to recover from stress, physical and emotional. My goal is to help get you there.
My goal is also to help you stay there - for you to live with increased comfort throughout your day. My years in practice have taught me that an awareness of one's body is empowering. I encourage my clients to be involved in their therapy. Awareness of your body gives you tools to take charge and to respond proactively to stress, allowing for long-term change.
As therapist and owner, I am with my clients for all aspects of their massage therapy experience. I invite you to learn more about E. Ruth by continuing below or by contacting me by phone or email.
Movement & Body Awareness
E. Ruth therapy focuses on mobilizing soft tissues to improve comfort with movement. Before and during each session, I listen, observe and assess. I explore limitations and imbalances in soft tissues that may cause discomfort and restrict movement. I treat to encourage muscle tissue to relax and lengthen and for fascial tissue to loosen and glide. As a result, the passageways for fluids, nutrients and cellular waste products are open; without blockages, the body's natural physiological processes are supported for optimal health and function.
I also focus on strengthening the awareness of one's body. This might include asking clients about changes they notice, prompting clients to focus on their breath or guiding them through active movements. By staying engaged, physically and mentally, the brain to muscle connection is activated, extending the benefits of therapy beyond our sessions. Mindfulness of how your body moves and can move helps break habits that cause discomfort, build new muscle memory and maintain long-term relief.
Style & Techniques
Therapy at E. Ruth is more than a routine massage. Discomfort results from more than one cause: an injury, compensation patterns, chronic health conditions, work posture, surgery, daily physical activities, emotional stress, sleep quality and more. Because of this, and because I understand that these stresses are dynamic, I sit down with my clients before each session to discuss what they need. I balance the long-term and short-term goals of my clients to give the best personalized holistic therapy. I also welcome feedback after each session to strengthen the therapeutic value of future sessions.
I believe understanding what and how my clients feel are the keys to my practice. My approach is to work with the body and not forcefully push through soft tissue (which may cause pain and tissue damage). Often my work varies from slow, gentle techniques to ones that engage deeper tissues or broader regions. I check in with my clients to make sure they are not in any discomfort and adjust pressure and therapeutic techniques as needed.
I am trained in various styles of massage and bodywork: myofascial massage, neuromuscular techniques, sports massage, craniosacral therapy, intraoral massage, hydrotherapy, restorative yoga, Thai massage and breathwork. I incorporate various techniques in each session, adapting to my client's goals, their body's response to the technique and their comfort. No two sessions are alike.
Depending on therapy goals, and unlike typical massage therapy, much of my work allows for clients to stay fully clothed. With clients in exercise or yoga attire, I am able to move about the body efficiently and utilize techniques that affect multiple areas at a time. During therapy, clients may sit on a massage chair, lie on a traditional massage table or on a cushioned mat on the floor.
Background & Experience
I became fascinated with massage after a craniosacral massage session in 2010. I felt restored, at peace with my body. I discovered that healthcare is more than fixing a problem; it acknowledges and promotes with is right with the body. I was excited and eager to share my awareness with others. Within months, I enrolled in the 1,000 Hour Extended Massage Therapy program at the Cortiva Institute, Seattle.
My training at Cortiva provided me with a solid foundation. I learned hot to assess posture imbalances and soft tissue restrictions. I trained extensively in Swedish massage, myofascial and neuromuscular techniques, orthopedic massage and structural bodywork. While at Cortiva, my curiosity about therapeutic value of touch led my conducting a case study on the effect of relaxation focused massage on a client with diagnosed TMJ dysfunction. Relieving jaw and facial tightness continues to be a focus of my practice today.
After receiving my massage license, I opened up E. Ruth with the mission to bring comfort into people's everyday lives and to offer healthcare as a rewarding experience. After a fulfilling three years in the Queen Anne neighborhood of Seattle, I fell in love with scenic downtown Edmonds and relocated E. Ruth in early 2015. As a small business owner since 2012, I take pride in all aspects of my practice.
I am committed to developing expertise in by field. My continuing education includes training in intraoral, Thai and shiatsu massage, craniosacral study through Bastyr University and restorative yoga teacher training at Twist Yoga Edmonds. I have also volunteered at community fairs, fundraising events and at the Seattle Cancer Care Alliance. I am always exploring ways to make massage more accessible to the community. If you are interested in bringing massage to a fundraising event, assisted living community, senior center or to other underserved populations, please contact me.
Emily is a member of The American Massage Therapy Association. The AMTA is a professional organization of massage therapists and a valuable resource for massage therapy consumers.


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Section III: Surface Gravel Section III: Surface Gravel 39 base courses will generally have larger top-sized stone and a very small per-centage of clay or fine material.This is necessary for the strength and good drainability needed in base gravels.This material will not form a crust to keep the material bound together on a gravel road.Chat with sales
Millions of tons of graded aggregate base (GAB) materials are used in construction of highway base layers in Maryland due to their satisfactory mechanical properties. The fines content of a GAB material is highly variable and is often related to crushing process, stockpiling in the quarry, transportation and during construction at the site.Chat with sales
This is the Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center. INTRODUCTION. Aggregates are used in granular base and subbase layers below the driving surface layer(s) in both asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete pavement structures.Chat with sales
Construction stone is typically used for a base, backfill or drainage application. Patio bases, road bases, leveling applications and drainage behind retaining walls are just some of the varied uses of construction stone.Chat with sales
for Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction. ICPI recommends No. 2 stone subbase because it is very stable under construction equipment and has a high water storage capacity (No. 3 also works well). Also recommend-ed are No. 57 stone for the base (over the No. 2) and No. 8 stone for the bedding layer. Figure 1 shows a typical PICPChat with sales
A Vital Ingredient in Road Construction Road base is a mixture of aggregates, such as stone and sand, used in building roads across the nation. It is inexpensive and components can be many sizes, from almost an inch to a dust.Chat with sales
Grade A Base Material. 3/4" crushed stone with fines. Great for building pads, roads, driveways and fill. Hours of operation between 7:00 am to 4:00 pm Monday - Friday.Chat with sales
The topic of road construction and maintenance is of import to companies, municipalities, governments, NGOs, and military organizations across the globe.. There are numerous issues relevant to the process, including design and engineering concerns, contracting and administrative tasks, implementation, cost control, and more.Chat with sales
Whether serving as base stone for a library or assisting erosion control in waterways, crushed stone is one of the most vital and versatile materials in construction projects. Other applications include roadways, water filtration and mineral production for consumer products like toothpaste and antacids.Chat with sales
3. CONSTRUCTION PROCESS Constructing a G1 Crushed Stone base layer is a very exacting process and the specifications must be stringently applied if it is to perform as expected and be a cost-Chat with sales
The Basics of a Good Road. 2 Build on a firm foundation A road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears . of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. . Knowing the road's construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its futureChat with sales
estimating road construction unit costs The unit cost of road construction in dollars per kilometer is the sum of the subunit costs of the road construction activities. Road construction unit costs are estimated by dividing the machine rates by the production rates for the various activities involved in road construction.Chat with sales
Whether serving as base stone for a library or assisting erosion control in waterways, crushed stone is one of the most vital and versatile materials in construction projects. Other applications include roadways, water filtration and mineral production for consumer products like toothpaste and antacids.Chat with sales
CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY BASE AND SUBBASE LAYERS CONTAINING RESIDUE FROM AN ATMOSPHERIC FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION PROCESS by David Q. Hunsucker Transportation Research Engineer and R. Clark Graves Transportation Research Engineer Kentucky Transportation Center College of Engineering University of Kentucky in cooperation withChat with sales
- Armour stone - Railway Ballast - Sub-base Aggregates in Building Construction . for Sub-Base Aggregates in Building Construction. Civil Specifications Series 800 – Sub-base . 11 •Civil . solely dedicated to the specification of road construction, however theChat with sales
"When there is wet, soggy clay present, you need to remove it or put down a good stone base." He adds that the worst failures can be subdivision driveways. "Bad preparation on driveways in some subdivisions will result in construction (truck) traffic ruining the driveway.Chat with sales
BITUMINOUS MACADAM ROAD CONSTRUCTION By A. O. H astings, District Engineer, Indiana State Highway Commission. . If the present road has a good gravel or stone base that is holding up very well, a bituminous macadam top course is a very economical pavement to use. If it is a new grade thereChat with sales
The most common uses for the material to be used without a binder are as a road base or sub-base material, shoreline riprap and railroad track ballast track beds, while it is most often used with a binder for cement and bituminous concrete (asphalt/blacktop) in road construction and repair as well as macadam roads and other general construction .Chat with sales
Grade A Base Material. 3/4" crushed stone with fines. Great for building pads, roads, driveways and fill. Hours of operation between 7:00 am to 4:00 pm Monday - Friday.Chat with sales
Copies of the Construction and Material Specifications may be purchased by contacting: Ohio Department of Transportation Office of Contracts P.O. Box 899Chat with sales
Aggregate Base Subbase Aggregate Pavement or Shoulders Summary of Gradation Requirements. 5-1 . to fine aggregates regarding their approval for use on highway construction projects are: . Aggregates used for stone matrix asphalt mixtures are required to meet theChat with sales
Which volume of stone (base & sub-base) per mile its used when paving a typical route/highway? Update Cancel. ad by iContact for Salesforce. . Dana M Dietz, Over 28+ years of roadway design and construction. Answered May 14, 2016 · Author has 929 answers and 1.9m answer views.Chat with sales
Road construction techniques gradually improved by the study of road traffic, stone thickness, road alignment, and slope gradients. Initial road construction materials were stones that were laid in a regular, compact design, and covered with smaller stones to produce a solid layer.Chat with sales
TABLE OF CONTENTS . DIVISION 100 - GENERAL PROVISIONS . . 302 Dense Graded Aggregate Base (DGA) and Crushed Stone Base (CSB) . These Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction are written to the bidder, before the award of the Contract, and to the Contractor after .Chat with sales
Decker Construction is fully capable of creating any pavement surface from a gravel parking lot to a finished asphalt or concrete pavement. Proper stone base installation, as well as subgrade preparation, is essential to a quality finished pavement.Chat with sales
construction on the project kept the road closed through the spring of 1979. Macadam Stone Base Construction Base construction began on September 18, 1979. A ten-foot wide Jersey spreader powered by a D8 placed the stone 24 feet wide in two passes (Figure 3). Spreading the macadam stone 12 feet in width with a 10-Chat with sales
CONSTRUCTION CROSS-SECTION DRAWINGS AND GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR CAMBRIDGE INTERLOCKING PAVINGSTONES 01 Residential Driveway With Concrete Edges 02 Patio/Sidewalk/Plaza On Compacted Aggregate Base 03 Patio/Sidewalk/Plaza On Concrete Base 04 Street/Parking Lot/Residential Driveway Overlay On Existing Concrete PavementChat with sales


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Vanilla Fudge Returns With Songs From 1967by Laura Huntt Foti
1967: the summer of love. The calm before the storm of 1968. A time of great rock, pop and R&B music. The year also saw the birth of Vanilla Fudge, a major root in the newly sprouting heavy metal tree.
On this album, original drummer Carmine Appice, guitarist Vinny Martell and keyboardist Mark Stein are joined by bassist Pete Bremy replacing Tim Bogert, who retired in 2008. They're a solid team.
Doubters may question the need for yet another version of "Heard It Through the Grapevine." Doubters would be wrong. As the prelude to the song puts it, "They take these arrangements of songs that were big hits and they kind of put their symphonic psychedelic trip to it." They brand the song as their own.
The album is funky. It rocks. It's moving in multiple ways, from the dramatic and passionate ballad version of "The Letter" to the pounding "I'm a Believer." Stein's vocals are as strong as ever, as are all the instrumentalists. Evocative of the past yet firmly planted in the present, this collection of the greatest hits of 1967 works together or individually.
Related: Looking back at 1967 in rock music
Laura Huntt Foti
More recently, after a move from New York to Los Angeles and a long stint in interactive multimedia, Laura moved into internet/social media marketing for music and other clients. In 2012 she wrote The Cusp of Everything, a novel incorporating a full soundtrack. In 2014 she wrote and performed a one-woman show about online dating, All the Wrong Men. Currently she is working on a new show, My Life as a Shiksa, and workshopping her play, Worldly Possessions.
Latest posts by Laura Huntt Foti (see all)
- The Beatles at The Hollywood Bowl in 1965: Eyewitnesses - 08/26/2018
- Kosh Creates Unforgettable Album Covers - 08/26/2018
- Amy Winehouse's Death Still Haunts - 08/26/2018


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Inside look at fall sports' practices and routines
Brad Bishop, Staff writer
October 3, 2013
As the fall sports season has descended on NKU, the student athletes who represent the Norse are practicing week by week to prepare for their respective games and matches. This fall, the soccer, volleyball, golf and cross country teams begin their second season of competing in Division I athletics...
Junior nursing major always on the run the balancing act of studies, social and sports
Brad Bishop, Staff writer
September 5, 2013
NKU cross country runner J.J. Webber is used to running. Whether it is running on the track or running to his next class, J.J. is always in a hurry. Webber is a junior at NKU and has been one of the most successful runners in the Atlantic Sun Conference over the past two seasons. He is ranked second...
Senior runner takes school record, competitive edge before graduation
Erin Pierce, Contributing writer
May 7, 2013
Wrapping up her fourth track season with NKU, senior Kayla Justice said being a student-athlete in college has been one of the most unique experiences she could have imagined. Though it was a tough start four years ago, she has overcome many obstacles and even cracked a school record. "The initial tran...
Cross country team notices change in competition
Erin Pierce, Contributing Writer
September 27, 2012
Northern Kentucky University is well into the first semester, meaning that its athletes have had some experience with NCAA Division I under their belts. Before the official kickoff of the season had even occurred, the Atlantic Sun Conference had ranked NKU men's cross country team seventh out of 10...
Sport Shorts 9/13/2012
September 12, 2012
Cross Country Northern Kentucky University's cross country teams both competed in the Queen City Invitational on Sept. 7 in Cincinnati. The men finished fifth out of 12 teams, led by sophomore J.J. Webber, who finished in 16th place. The women finished fifth out of 10 teams led by freshman Addie...
Former college athlete ready to run university
Matt Reed, Contributing writer
April 25, 2012
Few college students can say that they have a record-setting athlete at the helm of their university. Next fall, Northern Kentucky University students will be able to boast that they do. Geoffrey S. Mearns will succeed James Votruba as the president of NKU, effective Aug. 1, 2012. Mearns has a long...


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One year after driving a University of Kentucky-themed car to honor the 2012 NCAA basketball national champions, Michael Waltrip will be celebrating the reigning national champions from the University of Louisville in Saturday night's Quaker State 400 Sprint Cup race at Kentucky Speedway.
Michael Waltrip Racing driver Brian Vickers will be behind the wheel of the red-and-white No. 55 car when the green flag drops at 7:30 p.m.
"I've always been a Wildcats fan, but I remember when I was a young man watching Denny Crum coach those boys and I was a big Louisville fan, too," Waltrip said. "Growing up in Kentucky and having a couple of top teams to cheer for was fun.
"There's going to be a big crowd here Saturday night, and I know when this car goes by there is going to be a lot of love for it. There's also going to be some hate for it, and I'm OK with that. To be able to come to Kentucky and bring this car and have the Louisville Cardinals all over it is an honor. I'm thankful, and I'm sorry."
Vickers, who will be making just his seventh Cup start of the season, is a Thomasville, N.C., native who grew up cheering for the North Carolina Tar Heels. But he said he's thrilled to trade Carolina blue for Cardinal red this weekend.
"Whether it's basketball or racing, I think watching athletes at their best perform at that level is just a special thing to see," Vickers said. "To have those guys on the car, a team that competes at the highest level and wins championships, is incredible. I'm very proud to have them on the car and what they represent. Hopefully we can go win the race."
Sole pole: Ryan Blaney earned the pole for Thursday night's UNOH 225, the first of his career in the Camping World Truck Series series.
"It's always pretty cool to get a pole," the 19-year-old Blaney said. "But we've got to perform in the race, too."
Blaney qualified second twice in 2012 and parlayed those good starting spots into a win at Iowa and a fifth-place showing at Phoenix.
"Track position is so key nowadays," he said. "We had a great car at both of those race tracks. Hopefully (the pole) will give us the little extra bit we need to run up front and hopefully stay up there."
Soldier honored: Samuel Deeds, a Marine from Erlanger, Ky., found out Thursday he is the winner of the Crown Royal's "Your Hero's Name Here" program, which awards individual naming rights for the July 28 NASCAR Sprint Cup race at Indianapolis Motor Speedway.
In 2005, while deployed in Iraq, Deeds came across an improvised explosive device while setting up a checkpoint. When he saw fellow Marines approaching, he exposed himself to the device to save the lives of the others. He was severely injured and underwent more than 30 surgeries.
While still recovering in 2008, Deeds saved three people who were caught in a rip tide off the coast of North Carolina.
Dominant debut: Matt Crafton will make his first career Nationwide Series start tonight in the Feed The Children 300, and his debut got off to a solid start Thursday night when he posted the fastest practice time of 172.750.
Crafton started seventh in Thursday night's UNOH 225 Camping World Truck Series Race.
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Annotated Model Grant Agreement (AGA)
The Annotated Model Grant Agreement is a practical user guide that explains the General Horizon 2020 Model Grant Agreement (GA). The document's structure mirrors that of the GA. It explains each GA article and includes examples where appropriate, avoiding technical vocabulary, legal references and jargon.
Participant Portal H2020 Online Manual
Since BBI JU follows most Horizon 2020 rules, the information found in the H2020 online manual is very relevant for BBI JU projects. For example, part of this manual is focused on grant management, and includes useful information on keeping records, amendments, reporting & payment requests, deliverables, reviews, audits, etc. Additional information about "Making the Most of Your H2020 Project" can be found in this IPR Helpdesk brochure.
BBI JU-specific information
- BBI JU has collected the most frequently asked questions (FAQs) from coordinators, and provides answers via its 'FAQ for coordinators' document. The most recent version of this document can be found here.
- BBI JU organised a webinar on 29 November 2018, focused on periodic and annual reporting. You can download the webinar presentations here. You can also watch the webinar in full again on the BBI JU Youtube channel here.
- Governing Board decision regarding the in-kind contributions to the operational costs (IKOP)
- Guidance for implementation of IKOP
Communication Guidelines for projects
Communication and dissemination activities are key deliverables for BBI JU projects. You can find the guidelines and the official logos in the links below:


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KANSAS CITY, Mo. -- Seven homicides in just 24 hours. It's keeping police on both sides of the state line busy over the holiday weekend.
Here's the information FOX 4 has gathered from police:
In Kansas City, Mo.:
Saturday at about 9:30 p.m.
1600 E. 80th Street
One person killed, found dead inside a car at 80th & Wayne.
That victim was later identified as Darren Harris, 46, of Tulsa, Okla.
Saturday at about 10:00 p.m.
28th and Myrtle
Two men killed
Those men were later identified as John W. Waldon, 31, and Andre L. Barnes, 49, ooth of Tulsa, Okla.
In Kansas City, Kan.:
Saturday at approx. 1:15 a.m.
4300 block of Lloyd
One man in his late 40s dead from apparent gunshot wounds.
He was later identified as Edwin Igo, 49, of Kansas City, Kan.
Saturday at approx. 6:45 p.m.
First Street and Walker
The victim was identified Monday at Jaiferia Barnes, 28, of Kansas City, Kan.
Sunday, at 3:45 a.m.
3rd & Waverly
One dead; three victims- one killed, one non-life threatening, one uninjured
Victim identified as Ricardo Uribe, 18, of Kansas City, Kan.
Sunday at 3:35 p.m.
48th and Parallel
One dead, identified as Jeffrey Whitmore, 43, of Kansas City, Kan.
At the latest homicide, at 48th and Parallel, Whitmore was shot outside of a laundromat. A preliminary investigation revealed that he was getting laundry out of his vehicle when he was approached by three black males, believed to be in their 20s, who proceeded to shoot him. He was pronounced dead at the scene.
Just after 6 p.m., Police Chief Terry Zeigler tweeted that KCK officers were responding to another shooting at 36th and Wood Avenue, saying the victim was on the way to the hospital, unknown condition.
Overnight, the victims of a triple shooting were dropped off at the South Patrol station. All three were immediately transported to local hospitals with life-threatening injuries. Their conditions have not been updated by police and they are not part of the death toll outlined above.
Police said the weekend homicides are not related.
Community activists are increasing calls for peace. The AdHoc Group Against Crime said Kansas City won't be any safer until the killers are taken off the streets.
They said it's time for people with information to help police solve crimes.
Damon Daniel with AdHoc said people aren't making the community any safer by allowing killers to live among them.
"There are seven families out there now -- seven mothers, and fathers, or perhaps children and siblings -- who lost their loved ones to senseless violence," Daniel said. "I'm always taken aback. I'm always broken-hearted when I hear the level of violence that has occurred in our city."
Detectives in Kansas City, Missouri say they've investigated 72 homicides so far this year. That's 21 more than this time last year.
Related: Chicago reports 51 shootings, 5 deaths from Friday to Monday


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Before her star-studded fashion show at Amoeba Hollywood in January, Stella McCartney had a chance to do some record shopping and share her picks with us. Needless to say her Autumn 2016 preview was one of the biggest things to hit Amoeba since, well, her father, Paul McCartney, played here. Being a daughter of music royalty, McCartney had some special insight into her picks, having known or met many of the artists personally, and she shares the poignancy of the albums to her and her family.
After graduating in 1995 from Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design in London, Stella McCartney was soon appointed Creative Director of Parisian fashion house, Chloe. In 2001 she launched her own business, Stella McCartney, in conjunction with Gucci Group. Having expanded her brand into perfume, organic skincare, lingerie, children's clothing, and active wear lines, McCartney now runs seventeen stores located all over the world. She has received awards from Glamour, Elle, and the British Fashion Council, and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2013, some 48 years after her father was appointed the same.
McCartney starts her picks (after promising not to do all Beatles or Wings records) with Neil Young's After The Gold Rush. Though not as ubiquitous in England as he is in the States, McCartney grew up on Young, whom her family revered, and of whom her mother, photographer Linda McCartney, took many iconic photos. Next up in her bag is American folk musician and composer Tim Hardin, whose song "Reason to Believe" would be more widely known as a Rod Stewart hit. McCartney also picks up Art Angels, the new album by Grimes, whom she says "represents the kind of new generation of women that I want to see going forward." McCartney pulls out another family favorite, The Beach Boys' Pet Sounds, which Beatles fans might already know was a huge influence on her father and the recording of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. She also talks hanging out with Jeff Buckley, another child of music royalty, whose father, Tim Buckley, was also immortalized by her mother's photos.
But just which Radiohead song does she think is one of the sexiest in existence? And which record makes her feel like an 86 year-old? Watch the video to find out:
Stella McCartney - What's In My Bag?
Watch and comment on YouTube


text: Anil was born in upstate New York and raised near New York City. When he was four years old, he and his sister were sent by their parents to live in India for a year and half with relatives, and he became accustomed to moving between cultures. Anil got his first taste of peace and conflict work in New York, serving as a community mediator. He moved to Virginia to study peace operations and then started working for USIP on conflict management training and rule of law programs.


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Last March, a Leger Marketing survey conducted for the Privy Council of Canada revealed that 82 per cent of Canadians support a ban on the wearing of the niqab at a citizenship ceremony.
This finding likely strengthened the government's resolve to prevent such a very exceptional occurrence by proposing a ban. The Federal Court of Canada however rejected the government initiative and the Court of Appeal refused to grant the government a stay which would have permitted a delay until revised legislation would be introduced. The issue may very well end up in the Supreme Court. This should be welcomed. A top court ruling on the matter would be of considerable educational benefit to the population. The Canadian judiciary needs to offer us guidance and set precedent against which to base future deliberation on this and other related questions. As things currently stand, in the midst of an election campaign, the question is being heard in the court of public opinion.
The same Privy Council survey asked Canadians to indicate why they supported such a ban. Among the main reasons offered were the insistence on facial identification, the need to respect our cultural norms, to adopt Canadian culture and/or to follow our laws and rules. A mere two per cent of survey respondents explicitly stated that the niqab discriminates against women which is the offered the strongest rationale for the ban.
Other opinion surveys also conducted this year confirm that nearly one in two Canadians surveyed were uncomfortable when they see someone wearing a niqab. A Leger survey conducted for the Association for Canadian Studies last March found that one in three citizens feels shocked and angered when they see it being worn. But disdain and revulsion of the niqab do not justify a ban. Nor is the argument that the niqab is an affront to Canadian values. However much we may dislike the Niqab does not make wearing it at a citizenship ceremony a values violation that is offensive the meaning of being Canadian. Surveys reveal that it is the protection of fundamental rights that is the value most cherished by Canadians. We look to the judiciary to define those rights and for the time being the Federal Court has ruled that the ban constitutes a violation of them.
Ideally supporters of the ban need to demonstrate that women wearing the niqab are being compelled to do so. It is not enough to simply insist that it is the case. On this crucial point, there is uncertainty among an important segment of the Canadian population. Some 58 per cent of Canadians (69 per cent in Quebec) believe that the niqab is imposed on women by their families and communities. The rest either disagree or say they don't know. Another telling statistic is that some 51 per cent of Canadians agree that seeing someone wearing the niqab has no particular impact on them and that people should feel free to choose what they wear. Quebecers are much less favorable to that view.
A reason sometimes offered for an even wider ban on wearing the niqab is that doing so somehow constitutes a threat to the security of the population. Some one in four Canadians believes that a ban on the niqab will help fight terrorism, a view held by more than one in three Quebecers. This might be described as "niqabophobia." Yet again such fear of the niqab is an especially weak justification for a ban and to adopt one on this basis has potentially troubling implications for how society addresses such matters.
Those who oppose the ban shouldn't insist that it's so obvious a rights violation that it doesn't merit explanation. It is impudent to simply dismiss a large majority of Canadians who support the idea of a niqab ban at a citizenship ceremony, as misguided as that may be. Such response is unhelpful given the need for pedagogy and guidance on an issue with such potentially important ramifications for forthcoming debates about gender, faith and fundamental freedoms.


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El Fénix - December to now
In December, many of you helped make the El Fénix Community Wet Mill project possible.
Here is an overview post about what we have been up to so far in 2017.
In the past three months we have:
- Planted 4,000 Tabi and 1,500 Gesha varietal trees.
- Purchased thousands of Pink Bourbon and Gesha seedlings.
- Placed nearly 397 name plaques on little trees for all those who were part of our December Kickstarter.
- Cleared the land and drawn up the official blueprints for the construction of the mill.
Over the next few months, a lot will be happening up at the Fénix. First, we will be collecting the harvest from the matured trees on the farm and sending the green coffee to Kickstarter supporters who had chosen this as their reward. Then, we will begin replacing the matured trees with the newly acquired seedlings. Next, the big lots from the Kickstarter are going to get their name plaques put into the ground. And finally, we will begin the heavy construction and cement pouring for the wet mill.
Thank you to all who have cheered us on and to those who are El Fénix Founders.
The Raw Material Team


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The high-concept fragrance house Régime des Fleurs, which founders Alia Raza and Ezra Woods consider as much an art practice as a brand, fittingly debuted in a gallery setting. The name of the jewel-like first collection, Fait Main—French for handmade—alludes to their painstaking production process (small-batch, hand-poured scents in vivid custom-painted flacons) and also to their status as self-taught perfumers specializing in fragrances that they describe as "naive opulence" or "exquisite folk art."
Today, Régime broadens its scope with a handsome candle collection and a five-piece perfume line called Pour Tous—or, in the brand's adopted lingua franca, "for all." "We think that we see the world in a particular and unique way, and we want to share that with as many people as possible," Woods explains of their decision to create the more accessible range. For the first time, the founders also enlisted outside help: the Robertet nose Mathieu Nardin, a native of the French perfume capital, Grasse.
In contrast to the freewheeling creative exercise that is Fait Main, "Pour Tous is all inspired by the emotions and drama that are inherent in the botanical kingdom," Raza explains—a distillation that extends to the spare (and notably non-neon) packaging. One highlight is Falling Trees, a woodsy scent that nods to the wellness practice of forest bathing and riffs on what it would be like if "a tree's entire life flashed before its eyes," says Woods, while Willows—a restrained iris fragrance lightened up with tonka bean and mimosa—strikes the same neutral, comforting tone as the interiors in Nancy Meyers movies, they explain. (It was also inspired by a flowering tree they once stumbled upon that smelled inexplicably like a baked potato.)
Meanwhile, the four-piece candle collection, Artefacts, is the sort of thing one actually would find in a Nancy Meyers movie. "We wanted a matte, stately bisque porcelain feel to them," Raza explains of the vessels' kinship with antique busts or statue fragments. The name takes after Régime's rarefied online boutique, where one can pick up a clay vessel from Biblical-era Jericho ($1,800) or a Neoclassical carved-marble medallion ($6,500). The new category has been a way to explore fragrance not typically suited to skin (like Naiad, which blends Egyptian mint, jasmine auriculatum, and vetiver). And with the two Francophiles set to leave Los Angeles for a months-long Paris residency in January, the candles might be just the thing to create a sense of home away from home.


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After having the hard nipples and the hairy pussy licked, Kurumi Katase gives a very good blowjob. She is fucked with a finger and very fast with the dong. This brunette is nailed from behind and missionary, and she gets cum all over her face.» Click Here to Download the full video «
Kurumi Katase has the crack screwed so hard
Added August 7, 2019 at 6:43 am
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Final Assembly of the year
3SS Goodbyes
3SS Water Balloon Champions!
Mr. Popper's Penguins
The last read aloud this year in 3SS was Mr. Popper's Penguins. We then enjoyed watching the film version. Here are a few sample reflections from 3SS students comparing the book with the film.
After reading Jaguar Jewel, Simon and Keishiro reflected on the book by creating a CommonCraft video. Please enjoy and feel free to share your thoughts.
We were able to talk with our grade 3 friends from Tokyo International School again today via Skype. We listened as they took turns reading a personal narrative they composed. We loved their word choice and really felt connected to their writing. We look forward to hearing more!
We miss you Chika!
Today 3SS Skyped with Chika, who moved back to Japan a few months ago. We were so excited to see her again and hear all about her new school. We miss her dearly and hope to keep in touch!
The students in 3SS chose a right to illustrate and explain in this class VoiceThread presentation.
Just click the yellow close x and the presentation should advance automatically. If not, click the forward arrow.
Fraction Centers
Below you will find pictures from different fraction activities. Please choose one to comment on. Think about which one you enjoyed the most, what did you do during the activity, how did the activity help you?