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Affordable & Experienced Dentist In Flushing, Queens New York: Dentist In Flushing: Finding a budget dentist in New York City is difficult, and you must do your homework to get the best deal. While the majority of offices charge a fee for their services, it is often feasible to discover dentists who accept the majority of insurance plans at a reduced rate. Finding an economical dentist should not be difficult, but you must confirm that the dental facility takes your insurance plan.
The most cost-effective way to find a low-cost dentist in New York is to use dental discount plans. These plans can help you save anywhere from 10% to 60% on the bulk of dental procedures. There is a discount plan available to match your needs whether you are looking for a regular dentist in Manhattan or a cosmetic dentist in Flushing. Furthermore, these plans can be utilised to see participating dental care providers. Along with finding a low-cost dentist, it's vital to understand that you can still get quality care on a tight budget.
Why Is Dental Health Critical?
Oral health, according to study, is an important component of total wellness. Gum disease is a reasonably frequent bacterial infection of the mouth. As a result of this sickness, further issues such as diabetes, leukaemia, or pancreatic cancer may arise. Individuals who neglect their dental health run the risk of having other systemic disorders. Aside from the unpleasant implications of oral disease, good care also adds to general health maintenance. Indeed, it has the potential to minimise the cost burden of chronic illnesses and hospitalizations.
Aside from its obvious relationship to general health, dental health has a positive impact on overall well-being. Because our mouth is such a small part of our body, keeping it healthy is beneficial to our overall health. Periodontal disease has been linked to an increased risk of getting heart disease in studies. Furthermore, people with this condition have a twofold greater chance of dying from cardiovascular disease. Finally, dental care can assist you in leading a better lifestyle.
Individuals who are unwell or have other chronic diseases should see a dentist on a regular basis. These people typically have oral health problems. A range of ailments and eating problems can also have an impact on dental health. One of these problems is dry mouth, which can be disastrous. If you suspect you are suffering from any of these problems, it is vital that you book an appointment with a dentist as soon as possible.
Dental Problems and Their Causes
A variety of causes can contribute to dental disorders. Tooth decay and gum disease are the root causes of many of these issues. The most common of them is poor dental hygiene, which encourages bacteria growth and survival. Infections and chronic diseases may also emerge as a result of the operation. Genetics may also play a part. People who are genetically predisposed to dental problems should seek professional help.
Two of the most prevalent dental issues are crowding and gum disease. Crowding causes teeth to shift and move out of place. It may also result in the displacement of other teeth. This can lead to a variety of typical dental issues. It may also result in gum disease, a frequent dental condition. If you observe any of these signs, you should make an appointment with a dentist right away.
The enamel deteriorates when acidic plaque penetrates it. This erosion causes minute holes in the enamel to form, which is the initial step of a cavity. If this happens, the bacteria and acid will eventually get to the dentin, which is more flexible and vulnerable to acid attack. Dentin includes delicate nerves, therefore any problems here will lead to much more significant consequences. If this happens, a cavity will almost definitely form, necessitating the services of a dentist.
Dental Problems' Symptoms
If you notice that your teeth are loose or have an unusual odour, you should see a dentist very away. Gum bleeding could be an early sign of gum disease or gingivitis, or it could be a side effect of your new flossing routine. If you notice bleeding gums, you should make an appointment with a dentist very once. Furthermore, bleeding and lesions on your teeth are signs of a disease, so don't ignore them.
Another common sign of dental problems is gum disease. Gum inflammation is a sign that an abscess is forming. This infection is easily diagnosed by a dentist. In addition, if you develop new symptoms, your dentist may recommend you to a medical professional. Your dentist will aid you in addressing dental issues and preventing future problems. If you've seen any of the aforementioned symptoms, make an appointment with your dentist right once.
Tenderness and pain in the mouth are fairly common indications of tooth decay and should prompt you to see a dentist right once. An abscess can cause jaw pain. This is a jaw bone infection, and the pus may spread into it. It causes agonising agony and soreness, as well as shortness of breath. A knowledgeable dentist can diagnose and treat the condition, as well as refer you to other health care experts if necessary.
Dental Treatments
Fillings or extractions can be used to treat dental problems. Tooth decay can be caused in some cases by teeth grinding at night or by eating hard foods. During a dental exam, your dentist will look for cracks in your teeth and use a dental dye to see if any have occurred. Depending on the severity of the damage, broken teeth may necessitate many treatments. Another common problem is dental sensitivity, or sensitivity to hot or cold foods. When the enamel on your teeth wears away, certain substances in food and beverages can reach the nerves in your teeth, causing pain and suffering.
In order to avoid tooth decay, dentists use two major treatments to remove bacteria and tartar from teeth. In a non-surgical procedure, bacteria are removed from the tooth root. During a surgical procedure, the infection in the gums is removed and the tooth roots are healed. During a surgical procedure, a piece of bone is transplanted into the area around the tooth. This method has a lot of advantages. Nonetheless, there is a high danger of infection.
Two of the most common procedures are root canal therapy and soft tissue transplants. In most cases, these treatments include transplanting a little amount of tissue from another area of the mouth to the exposed root of a tooth. The success of the surgery is dependent on the severity of the problem, the patient's oral hygiene, and smoking habits. Dental diseases are addressed with frequent exams and excellent oral hygiene in addition to the grafted tissue. If an infection occurs, a dentist may prescribe medicines. This could be a mouthwash or a gel that is applied to the tooth during the surgical procedure.
Dental Problems Prevention
Eating a well-balanced diet is the most efficient way to avoid dental problems. It is vital to avoid sugary or high-carbohydrate meals in order to maintain good tooth health. Consuming calcium-deficient diets increases your risk of gum disease and jaw deterioration. While most dental problems are painless at first, you may be unaware of a problem until you see a recurring cavity. Regular dental visits are essential for overall health and should take place every six months. A dentist will screen for oral cancer and monitor your child's growth and development in addition to routine cleanings.
Maintaining good oral hygiene is essential for avoiding dental problems. It is suggested that you brush and floss your teeth twice a day. It is also recommended that you limit your intake of hard, acidic foods. Furthermore, you should avoid smoking, which can lead to cavities and other mouth problems. Abstaining from tobacco products, in addition to quitting smoking, can help protect your gums and teeth from disease. You should avoid these items if you want to keep your grin healthy and cheerful for the rest of your life.
Maintaining good oral hygiene is essential for avoiding dental problems. A well-balanced diet is essential for good dental health. You may prevent tooth decay by brushing and flossing your teeth twice a day. You should also avoid acidic and abrasive foods that might cause tooth damage. Finally, you should avoid smoking because it has been related to cancer and teeth problems. A healthy diet might help you avoid these issues and preserve good tooth health.
Cavities: Their Causes
Children's cavities are common as a result of their exposure to sugary and carbohydrate-rich diets. This forms a sticky covering on the teeth, which is then attacked by oral bacteria, causing acid to be released and eroding the tooth enamel. This decay, if left untreated, can cause discomfort, infection, and even tooth loss. As a result, it is vital to understand what creates cavities and how to avoid them. Continue reading to learn more.
Tooth neglect contributes to the development of cavities. Inadequate brushing, lack of mouthwash use, and lack of flossing are all symptoms of decay. Acidic and sugary diets have also been demonstrated to degrade enamel. As a result, regular dental hygiene regimens are crucial. You should go to the dentist at least twice a year. Visiting the dentist every six months will help you identify and correct any dental issues.
Cavities are commonly caused by poor dental hygiene. Individuals who practise poor dental hygiene may have a lack of saliva glands, which are essential to maintain adequate acid levels. Tooth decay can be caused by a number of different circumstances. Bacteria in the mouth feed on sweet and processed foods. These foods feed the bacteria that cause cavities and generate acidic waste. Tooth decay is a slow process exacerbated by poor oral care.
Treatments for Cavities
The first step toward treatment if you have a cavity is to make an appointment with your dentist. Although it is advised that you visit the dentist twice a year, you are free to determine your own schedule. Cavity discovery at an early stage is crucial because it allows for treatment without the need of intrusive treatments. You can assist prevent the formation of cavities by practising proper dental hygiene. This removes the tension and stress that comes with having a cavity.
To avoid dental pain, cavities must be treated. Your cavity will worsen further if you do not have this treatment, and it will not cure naturally. A cavity treatment can assist rebuild the tooth's structure while also relieving pain. Root caries is more common in seniors and older individuals as the gums recede, exposing the root surfaces. Sugar and acid combine to create rotting and pain in the mouth.
Cavity treatment is essential for avoiding dental pain. A dentist can diagnose a cavity and begin treatment during a normal visit. They can inspect and feel your teeth for cavities, as well as take x-rays to detect where the cavity is located. Almost everyone in the United States will acquire a cavity at some point in their lives. People with receding gums are more prone to developing these types of cavities.
Cavities: How to Prevent Them
Good oral hygiene is the most effective technique for preventing cavities. Acid is created when refined sugars and fermentable carbohydrates interact with the bacteria in your mouth. This acid is damaging to teeth because it accelerates demineralisation, exposing the dentin. Teeth that have been damaged may chip or break. The tooth's root may be exposed when the gums recede. You can help minimise your chance of developing cavities by using a fluoride-containing mouthwash.
Carbohydrates left on your teeth for an extended period of time decay into cavities. These microscopic holes expand in size over time and can eventually reach the tooth's nerves, causing substantial agony and suffering. Begin by minimising your child's time spent eating at each meal to minimise cavities. Fruit juice should be limited to one to two glasses per day, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, and should not be given to infants or toddlers after a meal. Furthermore, nocturnal feedings must be stopped as soon as possible. If your child has been fasting for an extended period of time, consider switching simple crackers with protein snacks.
Cavities are typically induced by the consumption of sugary and acidic meals. The simplest method to avoid this is to limit your child's consumption of sugary foods and snacks. In an ideal world, your child should not snack between meals. This allows the teeth to self-repair. Consider having your child's cavities filled and cared for if he or she already has them. This is the first step in cavity prevention. If you have had cavities in the past, you should be aware of ways to avoid them in the future.
Flushing Pediatric Dentist
Tooth decay is a common concern among children, causing toothaches and missed school days. Furthermore, a cavity or rotting tooth can cause substantial pain, affecting your child's ability to eat, speak properly, or engage in regular activities. It is vital that children have a complete examination and keep a healthy grin. As soon as possible after birth, your kid should consult a paediatric dentist.
You can rely on a paediatric dentist to give your child a beautiful smile and to help them maintain good oral health for the rest of their lives. These dentists have the knowledge and training to help youngsters eat a healthy diet, avoid gum disease, and prevent tooth decay. They are also prepared to deal with any oral health complications that may occur. They can also clean your teeth for you. You can ensure that your child receives dental treatment well into adulthood by selecting a paediatric dentist. Make an appointment for your child's first dentist visit around the time of their first birthday. Furthermore, a paediatric dentist may offer you advice and information on correct teeth care for your child. They will also give you a tour of the clinic so that you are familiar with how it works. If your child needs a cavity filled, you should seek the services of an expert paediatric dentist.
A paediatric dentist is a dentist who specialises in treating children and the most prevalent dental problems that they encounter as they grow. Your child's growth and development will fluctuate throughout their lives, and a paediatric dentist can help them adjust to these changes. A trip to the dentist is essential for their health and well-being, and a positive experience may result in a more positive attitude toward oral care in general.
Dental Care Services-Flushing Dentist
In the event of a dental emergency, a Flushing dentist is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. These operations include denture repair, toothache alleviation, crowning, bridging, cleanings, implant insertion, and cleaning. You can seek quick assistance from a Flushing dentist to ensure that you receive the best care available. The sooner you receive treatment, the more helpful and cheap it is. Regardless of your circumstances, making an appointment ahead of time is usually a good idea to avoid the unexpected.
Flushing dentists are accessible to give emergency dental care to members of the community. Because of the borough's population, emergency dentists are essential for its citizens, which is why several are available 24 hours a day. These institutions may treat patients of any age who are in the midst of a dental emergency. Even a few hours of treatment delay can cause substantial tooth damage. If you are in agony, contact a Flushing emergency dentist right once. Don't wait for things to get worse. If you wait more than 12 hours, the situation may worsen and irrevocable harm may result.
Flushing dentists may be very helpful since they offer a variety of treatments, such as hygiene/gum disease treatment, oral cancer screenings, and cosmetic operations including teeth whitening, extractions, aesthetic bonding, and bleaching. You should also gather information and fill out a questionnaire about the services you need and your budget. Finding an understanding and patient professional who will listen to your issues is crucial. His top priorities are your total health and happiness, and he is the right person to handle them.
Flushing's Best Dentist
Dr. Michael A. Tyner is most likely Flushing's best dentist. He is a member of the Queens County Dental Society and holds a PhD in dentistry from Georgetown University. Dr. Michael Tyner also finished an oral cancer training programme at Sloan Kettering Memorial Hospital. Aside from his exceptional track record, he has a passionate patient following. He's well-known for his compassionate demeanour and dedication to lifelong study. Patients like his friendly demeanour, and he enjoys the opportunity to build relationships with them.
Flushing's top dentist provides a full range of dental services. If they are the most expensive, it does not always suggest that they will deliver the best service. This ensures your comfort and the proper degree of care throughout your visit.
While it can be tough to find the best dentist in Flushing, you do not have to spend a bunch to have excellent dental care. You can select a dentist who takes the majority of dental insurance coverage. Furthermore, it means that they are more likely to accept your coverage, making it easier to save money.
Dr. Michael Tyner is a cosmetic dentist in Flushing, New York. He is a general dentist who specialises in cosmetic dentistry and the treatment of gum disease. Continuing education is an important part of his practise, and he places a high priority on the building of solid connections with his patients. He is one of Flushing's most sought-after dentists, with over three decades of practice. Dr Michael Tyner has been in private practice since 1984, heading a staff of highly experienced dentists.
Dr. Michael Tyner- Your Flushing Dentist
If you've been looking for a skilled dentist for a long time, you could have found one in Flushing. This practice employs highly experienced individuals who specialise in turning patients' smiles into pieces of art. They will carefully listen to your needs and properly explain any procedures that may be necessary. If the cost of a new smile worries you, CARE CREDIT, Lending Club, and Wells Fargo all provide financing.
Dr. Michael Tyner is a gentle dentist who works hard to make dental visits enjoyable. His dental expertise has won him a reputation among his patients as a chosen physician. His highly trained team guarantees that dental equipment is sterile and that other precautions are taken, all in the interest of the patient's safety. Appointments will be planned in compliance with accepted social distance principles.
Dr. Michael Tyner uses a safe and comfortable minimally invasive method. He specialises in cosmetic dentistry, which includes high-quality teeth whitening and zoom bleaching operations that improve the appearance of teeth by bleaching them nine shades whiter in a short amount of time. You may benefit from their remarkable outcomes by scheduling a complimentary smile evaluation with Dr. Michael Tyner. He uses a range of treatments to treat TMJ (jaw and surrounding muscle joint pain) and sleep apnea disorders. In addition, he provides excellent dental care to children. Children who are fed liquid sugars on a regular basis develop caries, which leads to tooth disease. Michael's team performs paediatric operations that are safe for children. Patients are consistently pleased with the level of care they receive. With his cheerful demeanour and sensitivity when describing dental treatments, he has captured the hearts of countless families. As a result, he receives a lot of referrals from friends and family. You may entirely rely on him to take care of your dental issues if you live in the Flushing region.
Michael A Tyner DDS Pc Covers the Following Towns nearby Flushing, New York
Ridgewood, Flushing, East Elmhurst
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Skateboarding in Kabul
A nice short documentary on the fledgling skateboarding culture in Kabul, Afghanistan.
(via matt)
Update: The video on Vimeo was erased for some reason, so I switched the embed to one at YouTube.
Also, the Kabul skatepark profiled in the video is looking for donations of equipment (paging @tonyhawk, @tonyhawk to the front counter, please) and money and/or assistance with shipping (shipping to Afghanistan is challenging). They're also selling these fetching Skateistan t-shirts (and tote bags) in a variety of styles and colors.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Friday, July 13, 2012
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text:
Artist's rendering of a full size EM Launcher capable of
launching payloads into orbit. Courtesy, IEEE.
Lifeboat Foundation EM Launch Competition Overview
The intent of this proposal is to hold an electromagnetic (EM) launch competition, in which entrants design and build small-scale EM launchers that boost gliders. The entrant that launches his or her glider to the highest apogee is awarded a $1,000 prize. In addition, all approved entrants are given $1,000 to help them build their EM launchers.Background
All space development efforts are hindered by the cost of placing payloads in orbit. Reducing launch costs specifically aids space station development by allowing more mass to be placed into orbit for a given budget, increasing safety factors and redundancy, and facilitating unanticipated repair.Most of the power in any rocket is used to launch the fuel and not the payload. Electromagnetic (EM) railguns would avoid that problem and would cost "<$600/kg, compared with the Space Shuttle (>$20,000/kg), provided that acceptable launch rates can be achieved", according to Ian R. McNab, Senior Member, IEEE (Launch to Space With an Electromagnetic Railgun, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 39, No. 1, January 2003.)
Furthermore, EM launch technology could be deployed within the time of interest to the Lifeboat Foundation, as evidenced by the U.S. Navy's intent to replace steam catapults on aircraft carriers with the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System. The technology has been demonstrated to continue working efficiently at high speeds, and thus can be applied to boost of spacecraft. Mature EM launch technology would serve as a complement to the rocket designs that were produced through the X Prize, with rocket launch for passengers and EM launch for cargo.
News Updates
This grant has been funded. Special thanks go to 2005 Guardian Award winner Ray Kurzweil and to Jim Rutt, inventor of the term "snail mail" and former CEO of Network Solutions, for their generous contributions.Dates
October 26–28, 2007 Competition at Holloman Air & Space Expo, in New Mexico, USA (X PRIZE CUP '07).Qualified Contestants
Daniel ArmelSam Barros
Gabe Colburn
Hao Le
Arthur Lueck
Ron Rhoades
Jason Rollette
Victor Sung
New Materials
EM Launch Competition Discussion GroupCall for Proposals flyer (116K)
Low resolution picture of research launcher with description (22K)
High resolution picture of research launcher with description (545K)
Picture of glider being developed to go with the launcher (37K)
Movie of an EM glider launch (355K)
Chapter 0 of contestants's guide (49K)
Chapter 1 of contestants's guide (2.4M)
Chapter 2 of contestants's guide (555K)
Chapter 3 of contestants's guide (116K)
Chapter 4 of contestants's guide (695K)
Chapter 5 of contestants's guide (675K)
Chapter 6 of contestants's guide (62K)
White paper for An Orbiting Magnetic Arrest System for Rocket-Free Transportation to Earth Orbit (288K)
Watch this page and our main page for ongoing developments with this exciting project.
The Competition
The competition will be announced through various media outlets, with emphasis on informing university students and faculty. A tutorial on design and construction of small-scale EM launchers will be made available on the web. Teams wishing to enter the competition submit proposals to be reviewed by a committee chosen by the Lifeboat Foundation. The committee selects eight groups to award $1000 each for construction of a launcher. This money is considered a seed; entrants are not limited by this amount, but rules are intended to make this amount sufficient to build a competitive launcher. Approximately six months after the entrants are selected, the contest will be held.There are minimal restrictions on the entries, as follows:
1. Energy supplied to the launcher, from capacitors, batteries, a flywheel/generator, or other power supply, is limited to 2000 J. This rule prevents unlimited expenditures on power supplies, and focuses the design work on improving the efficiency of the launcher.
2. All contestants must use the same glider, which will be supplied by the organizers at the time of contestant selection. This likewise focuses effort on launcher design.
3. Groups that use voltages higher than 120 V must submit a circuit diagram and an additional waiver.
4. The projectiles will be Estes Gnome rocket bodies ballasted to 25 g. They're 14 mm in diameter and 260 mm long, with larger diameter fins. Replacing the original fins with pop-up fins will be permitted. "Regulation" gliders will be supplied on the day of the competition, but obtaining gliders for practice is the responsibility of the competitors.
This project advances both of the Foundation's short-term goals, public education and advancement of space technology. The competitive nature of the event increases public interest, while the potential for improvement of the technology is great many known launcher configurations have not been explored in depth, and other possibilities no doubt exist. If the contest is repeated annually, the energy limit and funding can be increased each year, up to levels useful for placing payloads into orbit.
Administration will be carried out by Dr. Phil Putman in conjunction with Lifeboat Foundation. Dr. Putman will prepare the design tutorial. Volunteers will assist with staffing the competition.Budget
$8000 – Eight groups are given $1000 each for EM launcher construction.$1000 – Prize money.
$1000 – Misc. expenses, such as publicity, providing tutorial materials and gliders, and rental fees associated with the event.


text:
Alicia Keys Releases Blue Light Version of 'Girl on Fire'
One day after debuting the Inferno Version of her new song 'Girl on Fire,' Alicia Keys has released the chilled-out Blue Light Version of the same track.
Where the Inferno remix was powerful, with booming drum beats and a cameo from Nicki Minaj, the Blue Light rendition goes in a quieter direction, with mellow instrumentation and a restrained vocal.
"Like a match to a flame," Keys whispers to open the song, recalling the similar intro to Janet Jackson's 'That's the Way Love Goes.' This mix has more of a traditional R&B feel than the radio-ready Inferno Version.
Alicia can belt it out with the best of them, but here she holds back so as not to overpower the tune, even as she sings the empowering message, "She's just a girl and she's hot like a flame / She's on fire, on fire."
Rap-Up reports that Keys will perform 'Girl on Fire' in one of its three versions this Thursday (Sept. 6) at the MTV Video Music Awards. 'Girl on Fire' is the name of Keys' next album, her first since 2009′s 'The Element of Freedom.' The record is scheduled for release on Nov. 27.
Listen to Alicia Keys, 'Girl on Fire (Blue Light Version)'


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Ian Nepomniachtchi and Magnus Carlsen Draw Game Ten
The score became 6.5-3.5 in the world champion's favour.
Wednesday, December 8, game ten of the Carlsen-Nepomniachtchi World Championship match was played at the Expo 2020 Dubai. Amna Al Qubaisi, the first Emirati female racing driver, made the symbolic first move for the World Champion.
The game opened into the Petrov's Defence. With each draw bringing him closer to the match victory, Magnus Carlsen played with safety first in mind and offered the trade of queens early in the game. That day, no significant events happened over the board as the opponents would not keep from exchanging their pieces, and the positional evaluation never deviated from equality. As soon as they made 40 moves required by the regulations, the grandmasters agreed to a draw.
The overall score became 6.5-3.5 in the world champion's favour, who needs to score one point in the remaining four games to win the match. Thursday, December 9, is a rest day. Game 11 is taking place Friday, December 10, with Ian Nepomniachtchi playing the white pieces.


text:
27.2. Log-Shipping Standby Servers
Continuous archiving can be used to create a high availability (HA) cluster configuration with one or more standby servers ready to take over operations if the primary server fails. This capability is widely referred to as warm standby or log shipping .
The primary and standby server work together to provide this capability, though the servers are only loosely coupled. The primary server operates in continuous archiving mode, while each standby server operates in continuous recovery mode, reading the WAL files from the primary. No changes to the database tables are required to enable this capability, so it offers low administration overhead compared to some other replication solutions. This configuration also has relatively low performance impact on the primary server.
Directly moving WAL records from one database server to another is typically described as log shipping. PostgreSQL implements file-based log shipping by transferring WAL records one file (WAL segment) at a time. WAL files (16MB) can be shipped easily and cheaply over any distance, whether it be to an adjacent system, another system at the same site, or another system on the far side of the globe. The bandwidth required for this technique varies according to the transaction rate of the primary server. Record-based log shipping is more granular and streams WAL changes incrementally over a network connection (see Section 27.2.5 ).
It should be noted that log shipping is asynchronous, i.e., the WAL
records are shipped after transaction commit. As a result, there is a
window for data loss should the primary server suffer a catastrophic
failure; transactions not yet shipped will be lost. The size of the
data loss window in file-based log shipping can be limited by use of the
parameter, which can be set as low
as a few seconds. However such a low setting will
substantially increase the bandwidth required for file shipping.
Streaming replication (see
Section 27.2.5
allows a much smaller window of data loss.
Recovery performance is sufficiently good that the standby will typically be only moments away from full availability once it has been activated. As a result, this is called a warm standby configuration which offers high availability. Restoring a server from an archived base backup and rollforward will take considerably longer, so that technique only offers a solution for disaster recovery, not high availability. A standby server can also be used for read-only queries, in which case it is called a hot standby server. See Section 27.4 for more information.
27.2.1. Planning #
It is usually wise to create the primary and standby servers so that they are as similar as possible, at least from the perspective of the database server. In particular, the path names associated with tablespaces will be passed across unmodified, so both primary and standby servers must have the same mount paths for tablespaces if that feature is used. Keep in mind that if CREATE TABLESPACE is executed on the primary, any new mount point needed for it must be created on the primary and all standby servers before the command is executed. Hardware need not be exactly the same, but experience shows that maintaining two identical systems is easier than maintaining two dissimilar ones over the lifetime of the application and system. In any case the hardware architecture must be the same - shipping from, say, a 32-bit to a 64-bit system will not work.
In general, log shipping between servers running different major PostgreSQL release levels is not possible. It is the policy of the PostgreSQL Global Development Group not to make changes to disk formats during minor release upgrades, so it is likely that running different minor release levels on primary and standby servers will work successfully. However, no formal support for that is offered and you are advised to keep primary and standby servers at the same release level as much as possible. When updating to a new minor release, the safest policy is to update the standby servers first - a new minor release is more likely to be able to read WAL files from a previous minor release than vice versa.
27.2.2. Standby Server Operation #
A server enters standby mode if a
file exists in the data directory when the server is started.
In standby mode, the server continuously applies WAL received from the
primary server. The standby server can read WAL from a WAL archive
) or directly from the primary
over a TCP connection (streaming replication). The standby server will
also attempt to restore any WAL found in the standby cluster's
directory. That typically happens after a server
restart, when the standby replays again WAL that was streamed from the
primary before the restart, but you can also manually copy files to
at any time to have them replayed.
At startup, the standby begins by restoring all WAL available in the
archive location, calling
. Once it
reaches the end of WAL available there and
fails, it tries to restore any WAL available in the
If that fails, and streaming replication has been configured, the
standby tries to connect to the primary server and start streaming WAL
from the last valid record found in archive or
. If that fails
or streaming replication is not configured, or if the connection is
later disconnected, the standby goes back to step 1 and tries to
restore the file from the archive again. This loop of retries from the
, and via streaming replication goes on until the server
is stopped or is promoted.
Standby mode is exited and the server switches to normal operation
pg_ctl promote
is run, or
is called. Before failover,
any WAL immediately available in the archive or in
will be restored, but no attempt is made to connect to the primary.
27.2.3. Preparing the Primary for Standby Servers #
Set up continuous archiving on the primary to an archive directory accessible from the standby, as described in Section 26.3 . The archive location should be accessible from the standby even when the primary is down, i.e., it should reside on the standby server itself or another trusted server, not on the primary server.
If you want to use streaming replication, set up authentication on the
primary server to allow replication connections from the standby
server(s); that is, create a role and provide a suitable entry or
entries in
with the database field set to
. Also ensure
is set
to a sufficiently large value in the configuration file of the primary
server. If replication slots will be used,
ensure that
is set sufficiently
high as well.
Take a base backup as described in Section 26.3.2 to bootstrap the standby server.
27.2.4. Setting Up a Standby Server #
To set up the standby server, restore the base backup taken from primary
server (see
Section 26.3.4
). Create a file
in the standby's cluster data
directory. Set
to a simple command to copy files from
the WAL archive. If you plan to have multiple standby servers for high
availability purposes, make sure that
is set to
(the default), to make the standby server follow the timeline change
that occurs at failover to another standby.
restore_command should return immediately if the file does not exist; the server will retry the command again if necessary.
If you want to use streaming replication, fill in primary_conninfo with a libpq connection string, including the host name (or IP address) and any additional details needed to connect to the primary server. If the primary needs a password for authentication, the password needs to be specified in primary_conninfo as well.
If you're setting up the standby server for high availability purposes, set up WAL archiving, connections and authentication like the primary server, because the standby server will work as a primary server after failover.
If you're using a WAL archive, its size can be minimized using the
parameter to remove files that are no
longer required by the standby server.
utility is designed specifically to
be used with
in typical single-standby
configurations, see
Note however, that if you're using the archive for backup purposes, you
need to retain files needed to recover from at least the latest base
backup, even if they're no longer needed by the standby.
A simple example of configuration is:
primary_conninfo = 'host=192.168.1.50 port=5432 user=foo password=foopass options=''-c wal_sender_timeout=5000''' restore_command = 'cp /path/to/archive/%f %p' archive_cleanup_command = 'pg_archivecleanup /path/to/archive %r'
You can have any number of standby servers, but if you use streaming
replication, make sure you set
high enough in
the primary to allow them to be connected simultaneously.
27.2.5. Streaming Replication #
Streaming replication allows a standby server to stay more up-to-date than is possible with file-based log shipping. The standby connects to the primary, which streams WAL records to the standby as they're generated, without waiting for the WAL file to be filled.
Streaming replication is asynchronous by default
Section 27.2.8
), in which case there is
a small delay between committing a transaction in the primary and the
changes becoming visible in the standby. This delay is however much
smaller than with file-based log shipping, typically under one second
assuming the standby is powerful enough to keep up with the load. With
streaming replication,
is not required to
reduce the data loss window.
If you use streaming replication without file-based continuous
archiving, the server might recycle old WAL segments before the standby
has received them. If this occurs, the standby will need to be
reinitialized from a new base backup. You can avoid this by setting
to a value large enough to ensure that
WAL segments are not recycled too early, or by configuring a replication
slot for the standby. If you set up a WAL archive that's accessible from
the standby, these solutions are not required, since the standby can
always use the archive to catch up provided it retains enough segments.
To use streaming replication, set up a file-based log-shipping standby
server as described in
Section 27.2
. The step that
turns a file-based log-shipping standby into streaming replication
standby is setting the
to point to the primary server. Set
and authentication options
) on the primary so that the standby server
can connect to the
pseudo-database on the primary
server (see
Section 184.108.40.206
On systems that support the keepalive socket option, setting tcp_keepalives_idle , tcp_keepalives_interval and tcp_keepalives_count helps the primary promptly notice a broken connection.
Set the maximum number of concurrent connections from the standby servers (see max_wal_senders for details).
When the standby is started and
is set
correctly, the standby will connect to the primary after replaying all
WAL files available in the archive. If the connection is established
successfully, you will see a
in the standby, and
a corresponding
process in the primary.
22.214.171.124. Authentication #
It is very important that the access privileges for replication be set up
so that only trusted users can read the WAL stream, because it is
easy to extract privileged information from it. Standby servers must
authenticate to the primary as an account that has the
privilege or a superuser. It is
recommended to create a dedicated user account with
privileges for replication. While
privilege gives very high permissions, it does not allow the user to
modify any data on the primary system, which the
privilege does.
Client authentication for replication is controlled by a
record specifying
in the
field. For example, if the standby is running on
host IP
and the account name for replication
, the administrator can add the following line to the
file on the primary:
# Allow the user "foo" from host 192.168.1.100 to connect to the primary # as a replication standby if the user's password is correctly supplied. # # TYPE DATABASE USER ADDRESS METHOD host replication foo 192.168.1.100/32 md5
The host name and port number of the primary, connection user name,
and password are specified in the
The password can also be set in the
file on the
standby (specify
in the
For example, if the primary is running on host IP
, the account name for replication is
, and the password is
, the administrator
can add the following line to the
file on the
# The standby connects to the primary that is running on host 192.168.1.50 # and port 5432 as the user "foo" whose password is "foopass". primary_conninfo = 'host=192.168.1.50 port=5432 user=foo password=foopass'
18.104.22.168. Monitoring #
An important health indicator of streaming replication is the amount
of WAL records generated in the primary, but not yet applied in the
standby. You can calculate this lag by comparing the current WAL write
location on the primary with the last WAL location received by the
standby. These locations can be retrieved using
on the primary and
on the standby,
respectively (see
Table 9.91
Table 9.92
for details).
The last WAL receive location in the standby is also displayed in the
process status of the WAL receiver process, displayed using the
command (see
Section 28.1
for details).
You can retrieve a list of WAL sender processes via the
view. Large differences between
and the view's
might indicate that the primary server is under heavy load, while
differences between
on the standby might indicate
network delay, or that the standby is under heavy load.
On a hot standby, the status of the WAL receiver process can be retrieved
via the
view. A large
difference between
and the
indicates that WAL is being
received faster than it can be replayed.
27.2.6. Replication Slots #
Replication slots provide an automated way to ensure that the primary does not remove WAL segments until they have been received by all standbys, and that the primary does not remove rows which could cause a recovery conflict even when the standby is disconnected.
In lieu of using replication slots, it is possible to prevent the removal
of old WAL segments using
, or by
storing the segments in an archive using
However, these methods often result in retaining more WAL segments than
required, whereas replication slots retain only the number of segments
known to be needed. On the other hand, replication slots can retain so
many WAL segments that they fill up the space allocated
limits the size of WAL files
retained by replication slots.
Similarly, hot_standby_feedback on its own, without also using a replication slot, provides protection against relevant rows being removed by vacuum, but provides no protection during any time period when the standby is not connected. Replication slots overcome these disadvantages.
18.104.22.168. Querying and Manipulating Replication Slots #
Each replication slot has a name, which can contain lower-case letters, numbers, and the underscore character.
Existing replication slots and their state can be seen in the
Slots can be created and dropped either via the streaming replication protocol (see Section 55.4 ) or via SQL functions (see Section 9.27.6 ).
126.96.36.199. Configuration Example #
You can create a replication slot like this:
postgres=# SELECT * FROM pg_create_physical_replication_slot('node_a_slot'); slot_name | lsn -------------+----- node_a_slot | postgres=# SELECT slot_name, slot_type, active FROM pg_replication_slots; slot_name | slot_type | active -------------+-----------+-------- node_a_slot | physical | f (1 row)
To configure the standby to use this slot,
should be configured on the standby. Here is a simple example:
primary_conninfo = 'host=192.168.1.50 port=5432 user=foo password=foopass' primary_slot_name = 'node_a_slot'
27.2.7. Cascading Replication #
The cascading replication feature allows a standby server to accept replication connections and stream WAL records to other standbys, acting as a relay. This can be used to reduce the number of direct connections to the primary and also to minimize inter-site bandwidth overheads.
A standby acting as both a receiver and a sender is known as a cascading standby. Standbys that are more directly connected to the primary are known as upstream servers, while those standby servers further away are downstream servers. Cascading replication does not place limits on the number or arrangement of downstream servers, though each standby connects to only one upstream server which eventually links to a single primary server.
A cascading standby sends not only WAL records received from the primary but also those restored from the archive. So even if the replication connection in some upstream connection is terminated, streaming replication continues downstream for as long as new WAL records are available.
Cascading replication is currently asynchronous. Synchronous replication (see Section 27.2.8 ) settings have no effect on cascading replication at present.
Hot standby feedback propagates upstream, whatever the cascaded arrangement.
If an upstream standby server is promoted to become the new primary, downstream
servers will continue to stream from the new primary if
is set to
(the default).
To use cascading replication, set up the cascading standby so that it can
accept replication connections (that is, set
and configure
host-based authentication
You will also need to set
in the downstream
standby to point to the cascading standby.
27.2.8. Synchronous Replication #
PostgreSQL streaming replication is asynchronous by default. If the primary server crashes then some transactions that were committed may not have been replicated to the standby server, causing data loss. The amount of data loss is proportional to the replication delay at the time of failover.
Synchronous replication offers the ability to confirm that all changes
made by a transaction have been transferred to one or more synchronous
standby servers. This extends that standard level of durability
offered by a transaction commit. This level of protection is referred
to as 2-safe replication in computer science theory, and group-1-safe
(group-safe and 1-safe) when
is set to
When requesting synchronous replication, each commit of a write transaction will wait until confirmation is received that the commit has been written to the write-ahead log on disk of both the primary and standby server. The only possibility that data can be lost is if both the primary and the standby suffer crashes at the same time. This can provide a much higher level of durability, though only if the sysadmin is cautious about the placement and management of the two servers. Waiting for confirmation increases the user's confidence that the changes will not be lost in the event of server crashes but it also necessarily increases the response time for the requesting transaction. The minimum wait time is the round-trip time between primary and standby.
Read-only transactions and transaction rollbacks need not wait for replies from standby servers. Subtransaction commits do not wait for responses from standby servers, only top-level commits. Long running actions such as data loading or index building do not wait until the very final commit message. All two-phase commit actions require commit waits, including both prepare and commit.
A synchronous standby can be a physical replication standby or a logical
replication subscriber. It can also be any other physical or logical WAL
replication stream consumer that knows how to send the appropriate
feedback messages. Besides the built-in physical and logical replication
systems, this includes special programs such
as well as some third-party replication systems and custom programs.
Check the respective documentation for details on synchronous replication
18.104.22.168. Basic Configuration #
Once streaming replication has been configured, configuring synchronous
replication requires only one additional configuration step:
must be set to
a non-empty value.
must also be set to
, but since this is the default value, typically no change is
required. (See
Section 20.5.1
Section 20.6.2
This configuration will cause each commit to wait for
confirmation that the standby has written the commit record to durable
can be set by individual
users, so it can be configured in the configuration file, for particular
users or databases, or dynamically by applications, in order to control
the durability guarantee on a per-transaction basis.
After a commit record has been written to disk on the primary, the
WAL record is then sent to the standby. The standby sends reply
messages each time a new batch of WAL data is written to disk, unless
is set to zero on the standby.
In the case that
is set to
, the standby sends reply messages when the commit
record is replayed, making the transaction visible.
If the standby is chosen as a synchronous standby, according to the setting
on the primary, the reply
messages from that standby will be considered along with those from other
synchronous standbys to decide when to release transactions waiting for
confirmation that the commit record has been received. These parameters
allow the administrator to specify which standby servers should be
synchronous standbys. Note that the configuration of synchronous
replication is mainly on the primary. Named standbys must be directly
connected to the primary; the primary knows nothing about downstream
standby servers using cascaded replication.
cause each commit to wait for confirmation that the standby has received
the commit record and written it out to its own operating system, but not
for the data to be flushed to disk on the standby. This
setting provides a weaker guarantee of durability than
does: the standby could lose the data in the event of an operating system
crash, though not a
However, it's a useful setting in practice
because it can decrease the response time for the transaction.
Data loss could only occur if both the primary and the standby crash and
the database of the primary gets corrupted at the same time.
cause each commit to wait until the current synchronous standbys report
that they have replayed the transaction, making it visible to user
queries. In simple cases, this allows for load balancing with causal
Users will stop waiting if a fast shutdown is requested. However, as when using asynchronous replication, the server will not fully shutdown until all outstanding WAL records are transferred to the currently connected standby servers.
184.108.40.206. Multiple Synchronous Standbys #
Synchronous replication supports one or more synchronous standby servers;
transactions will wait until all the standby servers which are considered
as synchronous confirm receipt of their data. The number of synchronous
standbys that transactions must wait for replies from is specified in
. This parameter also specifies
a list of standby names and the method (
) to choose synchronous standbys from the listed ones.
The method
specifies a priority-based synchronous
replication and makes transaction commits wait until their WAL records are
replicated to the requested number of synchronous standbys chosen based on
their priorities. The standbys whose names appear earlier in the list are
given higher priority and will be considered as synchronous. Other standby
servers appearing later in this list represent potential synchronous
standbys. If any of the current synchronous standbys disconnects for
whatever reason, it will be replaced immediately with the
next-highest-priority standby.
An example of
a priority-based multiple synchronous standbys is:
synchronous_standby_names = 'FIRST 2 (s1, s2, s3)'
In this example, if four standby servers
are running, the two standbys
will be chosen as synchronous standbys
because their names appear early in the list of standby names.
is a potential synchronous standby and will take over
the role of synchronous standby when either of
is an asynchronous standby since
its name is not in the list.
The method
specifies a quorum-based synchronous
replication and makes transaction commits wait until their WAL records
are replicated to
at least
the requested number of
synchronous standbys in the list.
An example of
a quorum-based multiple synchronous standbys is:
synchronous_standby_names = 'ANY 2 (s1, s2, s3)'
In this example, if four standby servers
are running, transaction commits will
wait for replies from at least any two standbys of
is an asynchronous
standby since its name is not in the list.
The synchronous states of standby servers can be viewed using
184.108.40.206. Planning for Performance #
Synchronous replication usually requires carefully planned and placed standby servers to ensure applications perform acceptably. Waiting doesn't utilize system resources, but transaction locks continue to be held until the transfer is confirmed. As a result, incautious use of synchronous replication will reduce performance for database applications because of increased response times and higher contention.
PostgreSQL allows the application developer to specify the durability level required via replication. This can be specified for the system overall, though it can also be specified for specific users or connections, or even individual transactions.
For example, an application workload might consist of: 10% of changes are important customer details, while 90% of changes are less important data that the business can more easily survive if it is lost, such as chat messages between users.
With synchronous replication options specified at the application level (on the primary) we can offer synchronous replication for the most important changes, without slowing down the bulk of the total workload. Application level options are an important and practical tool for allowing the benefits of synchronous replication for high performance applications.
You should consider that the network bandwidth must be higher than the rate of generation of WAL data.
184.108.40.206. Planning for High Availability #
specifies the number and
names of synchronous standbys that transaction commits made when
is set to
will wait for
responses from. Such transaction commits may never be completed
if any one of the synchronous standbys should crash.
The best solution for high availability is to ensure you keep as many
synchronous standbys as requested. This can be achieved by naming multiple
potential synchronous standbys using
In a priority-based synchronous replication, the standbys whose names appear earlier in the list will be used as synchronous standbys. Standbys listed after these will take over the role of synchronous standby if one of current ones should fail.
In a quorum-based synchronous replication, all the standbys appearing in the list will be used as candidates for synchronous standbys. Even if one of them should fail, the other standbys will keep performing the role of candidates of synchronous standby.
When a standby first attaches to the primary, it will not yet be properly
synchronized. This is described as
mode. Once
the lag between standby and primary reaches zero for the first time
we move to real-time
The catch-up duration may be long immediately after the standby has
been created. If the standby is shut down, then the catch-up period
will increase according to the length of time the standby has been down.
The standby is only able to become a synchronous standby
once it has reached
This state can be viewed using
If primary restarts while commits are waiting for acknowledgment, those waiting transactions will be marked fully committed once the primary database recovers. There is no way to be certain that all standbys have received all outstanding WAL data at time of the crash of the primary. Some transactions may not show as committed on the standby, even though they show as committed on the primary. The guarantee we offer is that the application will not receive explicit acknowledgment of the successful commit of a transaction until the WAL data is known to be safely received by all the synchronous standbys.
If you really cannot keep as many synchronous standbys as requested
then you should decrease the number of synchronous standbys that
transaction commits must wait for responses from
(or disable it) and
reload the configuration file on the primary server.
If the primary is isolated from remaining standby servers you should fail over to the best candidate of those other remaining standby servers.
If you need to re-create a standby server while transactions are
waiting, make sure that the commands pg_backup_start() and
pg_backup_stop() are run in a session with
, otherwise those
requests will wait forever for the standby to appear.
27.2.9. Continuous Archiving in Standby #
When continuous WAL archiving is used in a standby, there are two
different scenarios: the WAL archive can be shared between the primary
and the standby, or the standby can have its own WAL archive. When
the standby has its own WAL archive, set
, and the standby will call the archive
command for every WAL segment it receives, whether it's by restoring
from the archive or by streaming replication. The shared archive can
be handled similarly, but the
test if the file being archived exists already, and if the existing file
has identical contents. This requires more care in the
, as it must
be careful to not overwrite an existing file with different contents,
but return success if the exactly same file is archived twice. And
all that must be done free of race conditions, if two servers attempt
to archive the same file at the same time.
is set to
, the
archiver is not enabled during recovery or standby mode. If the standby
server is promoted, it will start archiving after the promotion, but
will not archive any WAL or timeline history files that
it did not generate itself. To get a complete
series of WAL files in the archive, you must ensure that all WAL is
archived, before it reaches the standby. This is inherently true with
file-based log shipping, as the standby can only restore files that
are found in the archive, but not if streaming replication is enabled.
When a server is not in recovery mode, there is no difference between


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The Obama administration admonished colleges and universities — "No more turning a blind eye" — as it released guidelines designed to stem sexual assaults on campuses and help the victims.
A White House task force on sexual assault recommends in a report to be released Tuesday that schools identify trained, confidential victim's advocates and conduct surveys to better gauge the frequency of sexual assault on their campuses, since these types of crimes are underreported.
It says the Justice Department will help develop training programs in trauma care for school officers and assess different models for schools to use to adjudicate such cases, since some sexual assault survivors are wary of a legal process that can open them up to potentially painful or embarrassing questions by students or staff.
It also promises greater transparency. A new website, notalone.gov, will post enforcement actions and offer information to victims about how to seek local help and information about filing a complaint, the White House said late Monday.
The task force is providing a checklist for schools to use in drafting or reevaluating sexual misconduct policies, including ideas a school could consider when defining what is or isn't sexual consent.
"Prevention and education programs vary widely, with many doing neither well," the task force said. "And in all too many instances survivors of sexual violence are not at the heart of an institution's response: They often do not have a safe, confidential place to turn to after an assault, they haven't been told how the system works and they often believe it is working against them. We heard from many who reached out for help or action, but were told they should just put the matter behind them."
The task force, appointed by President Barack Obama in January, was making its recommendations following a 90-day review that included dozens of in-person and online meetings with victims, advocates and higher education representatives. It was made up of Obama's Cabinet members, including Education Secretary Arne Duncan and Attorney General Eric Holder.
"Colleges and universities need to face the facts about sexual assault — no more turning a blind eye or pretending it doesn't exist," said Vice President Joe Biden, who was to make remarks Tuesday when the task force findings were released. "We need to give victims the support they need — like a confidential place to go — and we need to bring the perpetrators to justice."
While 1 in 5 female students is assaulted, the White House said in announcing the task force that the review was also about protecting male victims and engaging men in discussions about preventing such assaults.
Within higher education, many campuses have been working to make improvements, but the issue is complex and some college administrators have sought answers from the federal government about how to interpret federal law. Research has shown that most campus sexual assault victims know their attackers, alcohol or drugs are often involved and only 12 percent of college women attacked report it to police.
A key tool the government has against campus sexual assault is Title IX, which prohibits gender discrimination at schools that receive federal funds. The 1972 law is better known for guaranteeing girls equal access to sports, but it also regulates institutions' handling of sexual violence and is increasingly being used by victims who say their school failed to protect them. Fifty-one campuses currently have such an ongoing investigation involving sexual violence, the Education Department said.
Title IX requires that schools proactively work to prevent sexual crimes, promptly investigate complaints and discipline the accused if it's more likely than not that violence occurred. The school can't retaliate against students who file complaints and must ensure that victims can continue their education free of ongoing harassment.
Complaints have ticked up in the past couple years, after the Education Department publicized guidance on Title IX's sexual assault provisions in 2011. The department can withhold federal funding from a school that doesn't comply, but so far has not used that power and instead negotiated voluntary resolutions when they find violations.
Another law that campus sexual assault cases fall under is the Clery Act, which requires colleges and universities to annually report crime statistics on or near their campuses, to develop prevention policies and ensure victims their basic rights.
Associated Press writer Nedra Pickler contributed to this report.
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