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Recently, the journalist Paul Sheehan, reflecting on the Woolwich beheading of Drummer Lee Rigby, invited consideration of the view of Muslim violence in authoritative Islamic texts. In the Sydney Morning Herald of May 27, 2013, Sheehan observed that the Koran and the teachings of Muhammad seem to be a factor behind Muslim violence, and offered these critical observations:
- Many violent attacks on civilians are done in the name of Islam.
- The existence of violent Islamic sectarian conflict and the repression of religious dissent in Muslim nations give the lie to the "absurd claim" that Islam is "the religion of peace."
- Many verses in the Koran call for violence against unbelievers, and these are invoked by Muslims who murder others: "So many Muslims have been encouraged to murder civilians by such exhortations that the rate of violent incidents perpetrated in the name of Islam is staggering, a toll that shows no sign of subsiding."
A rejoinder was published the next day by Associate Professor Mohamad Abdalla, founding director of the Islamic Research Unit at Griffith University in Queensland, Australia. Abdalla rejected the proposition that Islam supports killing innocent people: "A contextual reading of the Koran or Hadith leads to one conclusion only: there is no justification for killing of innocent people…"
Sheehan, while affirming that "Most Muslims are peaceful," did not say that Islam is the only factor behind Muslim violence, and he did not claim that the killers' interpretations of religious texts were the only valid interpretation. He also nowhere used the label "innocent" to characterize victims of Muslim violence; and he did not claim that Islam supports killing "innocent" people. His point was simply that, according to some Muslims, violent verses in the Koran contribute to Muslims behaving violently.
Why did Abdalla introduce the word "innocent," and do his arguments have credibility?
Abdalla's key point is that seemingly violent texts from Islam's canon have to be read "in context." He explains that to put the Koran "in context," one must at least consider the following five factors:
- the context in which verses were "revealed" to Muhammad;
- the principle of "abrogation";
- other passages which address the same subject;
- the life of Muhammad, and
- the way the verse has been applied [by Muslim scholars].
Abdalla claims that Sheehan is not competent to pass judgement on the Koran because he lacks such knowledge. He also states, but offers no evidence to support the allegation, that taking "context" into account will result in a more moderate interpretation of these sacred scriptures.
Taking context into account, however, can actually make a "peaceful" verse quite nasty, and a violent verse even worse. There is nothing about "context" that makes it a magic wand to render peaceful and harmless every text over which it is waved. Context is neither a silver bullet against violent texts, nor is it a disinfectant for theological unpleasantness.
It also needs to be understood that radical jihadis themselves use a contextual model to interpret the Koran: they do not simply rely on context-free interpretations or on proof-texts -- quotes taken out of context to support an argument. The Bin Ladins of the world -- and theologians such as Sayyid Qutb who paved the way for them -- have been more than familiar with interpretive tools such as the "context" of revelation, "abrogation," or the life of Muhammad. Such subjects are on the curriculum in the jihad factories.
What is disappointing about Abdalla's article is that the very texts he refers to only get worse when their context is taken into account. For example, he criticizes Sheehan for citing a passage from the second chapter of the Koran: "And slay them wherever ye find them …" Abdalla writes:
Take, for example, this partial quote he cited, "And slay them wherever ye find them … " Sheehan fails to state that this is part of five-long verses (2:190-195), which must be read together. When read in context the legal implication derived stipulates that fighting is permitted only under certain strict circumstances. Additionally, the same verses prohibit transgression of limits, and it (sic) does not promote killing of innocent people but allows self-defence. It further goes on to state "if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practise oppression." Clearly, when the whole context is examined the verses do not promote killing of innocent people.
Let us take a closer look at these six verses, with the help of a great Muslim scholar, Ibn Kathir, whose commentary on the Koran has been translated into English, and is widely respected and read today by Muslims around the world. (The reader can examine the relevant part of the commentary here.)
First, here are the verses from the second chapter of the Koran:
190. And fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress not the limits. Truly, Allah likes not the transgressors.
191. And kill them wherever you find them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out. And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing. And fight not with them at Al-Masjid Al-Haram (the sanctuary at Makkah), unless they (first) fight you there. But if they attack you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.
192. But if they cease, then Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
193. And fight them until there is no more Fitnah (disbelief and worshipping of others along with Allah) and the religion (all and every kind of worship) is for Allah (Alone). But if they cease, let there be no transgression except against Az-Zalimin (the polytheists and wrongdoers).
194. The sacred month is for the sacred month, and for the prohibited things, there is the Law of equality (Qisas). Then whoever transgresses against you, you transgress likewise against him. And fear Allah, and know that Allah is with Al-Muttaqin.
195. And spend in the cause of Allah and do not throw yourselves into destruction, and do good. Truly, Allah loves Al-Muhsinin (those who do good).[Parentheses in the text.]
What is the context of this passage? It dates from the early Medinan period, when Allah had given permission to Muslims to fight against those who fought them: "fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress not the limits." (2:190) Abdalla is correct when he says that the phrase "slay them wherever you find them" (2:191) refers to fighting against those who fight Muslims: it is not a universal command to kill noncombatants or innocent people. Yet there is more to be said.
Ironically, verse 190 was one of the passages invoked by Michael Adebolajo, the killer of Drummer Lee Rigby, when he said: "we are forced by the Quran ... through many, many ayah [verses] throughout the Koran that we must fight them as they fight us." [Emphasis added.]
Adebolajo's testimony was that he killed a British soldier because British soldiers have been fighting Muslims. He would most likely agree wholeheartedly with Abdalla's interpretation of this passage, and assert with him that Islam prohibits killing "innocent people." To Adbolajo, however, Rigby was not "innocent."
The key question, then, is what constitutes "innocence" in Islam? As it happens, the expression "fitnah is worse than killing" in verse 191 provides the key to finding an answer. Ibn Kathir has this to say:
Since Jihad involves killing and shedding the blood of men, Allah indicated that these men are committing disbelief in Allah, associating with Him (in the worship) and hindering from His path, and this is a much greater evil and more disastrous than killing. Abu Malik commented about what Allah said: "And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing." Meaning what you (disbelievers) are committing is much worse than killing. Abu Al-Aliyah, Mujahid, Said bin Jubayr, Ikrimah, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ad-Dahhak and Ar-Rabi bin Anas [Muslim authorities] said that what Allah said: "And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing." [means] "Shirk (polytheism) is worse than killing." [Emphasis added. Parentheses in text. Bracketed parts, the author's.]
First let us pin down some key terms. The Arabic word fitnah originally meant a "persecution" or "trial" that undermines or shakes Muslims from their faith. This concept was widened over time to include just about anything that opposes Islam or "hinders" Muslims from following the Islamic path.
Shirk, often also translated as "idolatry" or "polytheism" literally means "association, "partnering" or "sharing." Shirk is described in the Koran as the one unforgivable sin (4:48). It is a religious term used to characterize all forms of non-Muslim belief. Non-Muslims are considered to be "associaters" who "attribute partners" to Allah. As such, because they worship others as well as Allah, they are considered to be in violation of true monotheism. Christians, for example, worship Jesus as the "son of God," and Hindus, pagans and others worship various idols. Chapter 9 verse 30 of the Koran even accuses Jews of "association":
"And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allah, and the Christians say: The Messiah [Jesus] is the son of Allah. That is their saying with their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved of old. Allah (Himself) fights against them. How perverse are they!"
What then does it mean when the Koran says that "fitnah is worse than killing"? According to Ibn Kathir, to disbelieve in Allah is to be guilty of the crime of shirk or, as he puts it, "committing disbelief." Shirk, he says, is fitnah, the crime worse than killing. Just being a non-Muslim -- a Christian, a Jew or a pagan -- is worse than murder.
This is not a peaceful verse. It has been cited, for example, by leading Muslim legal authorities such as the Grand Mufti of Jordan, His Excellency Shaykh Said Hijjawi, in order to justify killing "apostates," people who choose to convert out of Islam. Such a decision threatens Muslims' faith, and must, according to the Grand Mufti, be met with the death penalty, because the shirk, or disbelief, of apostasy is worse than killing.
It gets worse. The next half of verse 193 – "fight them until .… the religion is for Allah" is interpreted by Ibn Kathir as a command to fight (and kill) people until they convert to Islam. To support this, he cites a tradition of Muhammad, who said:
[Muhammad said:] "I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight the people until they proclaim, 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah.' Whoever said it, then he will save his life and property from me …"
Here Muhammad is claiming that Allah has commanded him to fight others until they confess Islam. If they do not, Muhammad asserts that he has the right to kill them and take their property. If they convert to Islam, they will be safe. (It is useful to bear in might that the Arabic word for "fight" actually means "fight to kill." It is derived from a root which means 'kill': the connection is instantly apparent to Arabic readers, but lost in English translation.)
Concerning the rest of verse 193 -- the part about "and if they cease," which Abdalla specifically refers to -- Ibn Kathir goes on to explain:
[The phrase] "But if they cease, let there be no transgression except against the wrongdoers" indicates that, "if they stop their Shirk [disbelief in Allah] and fighting the believers, then cease warfare against them. Whoever fights them afterwards will be committing an injustice. Verily aggression can only be started against the unjust." This is the meaning of Mujahid's [a commentator's] statement that only combatants should be fought. Or, the meaning of the Ayah [verse] indicates that, "If they abandon their injustice, which is Shirk in this case, then do not start aggression against them afterwards." … 'Ikrimah and Qatadah stated, "The unjust person is he who refuses to proclaim, 'There is no God worthy of worship except Allah'." [Emphasis added.]
Abdalla is quite correct when he says that Islam forbids killing "innocent" people. But then the question is: Who, according to Islamic scholars, is "innocent"? Ibn Kathir, a highly respected commentator in the orthodox mainstream of Muslim scholarship, teaches that non-Muslims are guilty by virtue of their disbelief in Islam, and that this disbelief is an "injustice," a crime worse than murder. To Ibn Kathir, a disbeliever is guilty by definition. If someone refuses to convert, and continues to commit shirk, he is not "innocent" and may be fought and killed. But as soon as the enemy converts to Islam, he is no longer "unjust" or guilty of disbelief, but "innocent," and must not be harmed.
When we follow Abdalla's formula for putting the Koran in context, the words of 2:190-95 do not take on a rosier hue: quite the opposite. What we find instead is that in this view, someone inside Islam is "innocent," and someone outside Islam is "guilty" and deserving of death.
We have not even begun to consider the impact of one of the other principles mentioned by Abdalla: abrogation. This is an interpretive principle which holds that verses in the Koran from later periods in Muhammad's life supersede or "abrogate" conflicting verses from earlier periods. As it happens, later in Muhammad's life the verses of the Koran became more warlike, and Muhammad's acts became more violent. So in several key instances, the more warlike verses abrogate the more peaceful verses.
Consider for example the limitation of verse 190, that Muslims should only fight those who fight against them: "And fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress not the limits. Truly, Allah likes not the transgressors." [Emphasis added.] This limitation applied in the early Medinan period of Muhammad's prophetic career, but later it was cancelled by the "verse of the sword":
"Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them, and take them (captive), and besiege them, and prepare for them each ambush." (9:5)
Concerning this verse, Ibn Kathir has this to say:
This honorable Ayah (9:5) was called the Ayah [verse] of the Sword, about which Ad-Dahhak bin Muzahim said, "It abrogated every agreement of peace between the Prophet and any idolator, every treaty, and every term." Al-Awfi said that Ibn Abbas commented: "No idolator had any more treaty or promise of safety ever since Surah Bara'ah was revealed."
According to Ibn Kathir, therefore, all peace agreements between Muslims and non-Muslims (referred to in earlier passages of the Koran) were abrogated after verse 9:5 was revealed. After 9:5, earlier "limits" on fighting non-believers no longer applied. By the "verse of the sword" the earlier doctrine of defensive jihad was set aside and replaced with a policy of aggression against non-believers.
Abdalla also rebukes Sheehan for not mentioning three passages. These are:
"… [T]ake not life, which God has made sacred, except by way of justice and law: thus does He command you, that you may learn wisdom" (Koran 6:151).
"… [T]hat if anyone killed a person -- unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land -- it would be as if he killed the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people. Then although there came to them Our messengers with clear signs, yet, even after that, many of them continued to commit excesses in the land" (Koran 5:32).
Or the hadith that states "'Whoever kills a mu'ahid [non-combatant, innocent non-Muslims will not smell the scent of paradise …" (Bukhari)
A careful consideration of the context of each verse, however, undermines Abdalla's claims that these passages are peaceful.
The first passage, chapter 6:151 of the Koran, is in fact a citation from the Torah. However, even if we read this as a command to Muslims, the phrase "except by way of justice and law" is a significant exception to the prohibition against killing. To unpack this exception, Ibn Kathir cites a tradition of Muhammad:
[Muhammad said:] "The blood of a Muslim person who testifies that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and that I am the Messenger of Allah is prohibited [i.e. Muslims should not be killed], except for three offenses: a married person who commits illegal sexual intercourse, life for life, and whoever reverts from the religion and abandons the Jama'ah (the community of faithful believers)."
There is a prohibition, a warning and a threat against killing the Mu'ahid [non-Muslims who have a treaty of protection with Muslims]. Al-Bukhari recorded that Abdullah bin Amr said that the Prophet said, "Whoever killed a person having a treaty of protection with Muslims, shall not smell the scent of Paradise, though its scent is perceived from a distance of forty years." Abu Hurayrah narrated that the Prophet said, "Whoever killed a person having a treaty of protection with the Muslims, and who enjoys the guarantee of Allah and His Messenger, he will have spoiled the guarantee of Allah [for him]. He shall not smell the scent of Paradise though its smell is perceived from a distance of seventy years."
Ibn Kathir is saying that although in general a Muslim person should not be killed, there are three exceptions allowed by the phrase "except by way of justice and law," (6:151). These are: if he has committed adultery, killed another, or left Islam. This verse, cited by Associate Professor Abdalla as evidence that Islam is peaceful, can, through its exceptions, be used to justify killing people who leave Islam.
Ibn Kathir then observes that the blood of a non-Muslim should not be shed if he is under a treaty of protection granted by Muslims. The underlying supposition is that if a non-Muslim is not protected by a treaty, he can be killed. His blood is not protected, but halal [permitted]: free to be shed by Muslims. The general rule is that Muslim life is sacrosanct, but the life of the non-Muslim can be taken.
Abdalla's second passage, Koran 5:32, quotes another Jewish text, this time the Talmud. But consider the context: the rest of the verse is a rebuke of the Jews -- "Most of them are still transgressing" -- and the very next verse (5:33) calls for people who fight against Muhammad to be crucified, have their hands and feet cut off on alternate sides, be banished, or be humiliated in this life, after which they will suffer worse in the hereafter. Again, this is not exactly peaceful.
Abdalla's third passage is a hadith [reports on the life and sayings of Mohammed], which states that if a Muslim kills a mu'ahid they will not smell the scent of paradise (that is, they will go to hell).
As it happens this is the very same hadith which Ibn Kathir quotes to explain Koran 6:151, when he defines when a non-Muslim's life should not to be taken.
Contrary to Abdalla's claim, the Arabic word mu'ahid does not mean a "non-combatant" or an "innocent non-Muslim." Taken literally, it refers to someone who has entered into a covenant, but here it refers to a dhimmi: a tolerated non-Muslim who has surrendered to Muslim armies and is permitted to live as a second-class citizen under the paid "protection" of Muslims. In Islam it is forbidden to kill dhimmis without just cause. However non-Muslims who refuse to surrender or convert to Islam enjoy no such protection.
To translate mu'ahid as "innocent non-Muslim" could, in fact, be considered offensive. The opposite of a mu'ahid is someone who refuses be a dhimmi: non-Muslims who refuse to surrender to Islam. The implication is therefore that non-Muslims who reject dhimmi status are guilty, and their lives are not protected in Islam. Thus Abdalla's very words, employed in an attempt to demonstrate the peaceful character of Islam, in fact reflect an underlying world view in which non-Muslims are "guilty" of the capital offense of "committing disbelief" in Islam, and only safe -- not "innocent" but merely "tolerated" -- if they adopt dhimmi status and give in to Islamic dominance.
In hermeneutics -- the understanding and interpretation of texts, especially religious ones -- context is everything. But context itself is blind to morality, and is not inherently a force for good. Unfortunately, for each and every verse Abdalla cites, a reasoned contextual interpretation makes the meaning not better but worse.
Abdalla would appear to be guilty of the very thing he accused Paul Sheehan of: "When these texts are not read in their proper textual and historical contexts they are manipulated and distorted -- by Muslims and non-Muslims alike." To cite such verses as evidence of the peaceful character of Islam is to manipulate and distort their meaning.
Abdalla might have been more careful in his exegesis and acknowledged the tradition of interpretation. He might have proposed some new, liberating perspective on these texts, and offered arguments to support his views. He might even have exposed and challenged the theological worldview of jihad and dhimmitude which has influenced commentary on these texts for more than a thousand years. But instead he just splashes whitewash over everything.
In these troubled times, when there are thousands of radicalized Muslims who show scant respect for non-Muslim life and are proud to quote the Koran to justify their violent deeds, a genuinely transparent, re-interpreted Islam might be found liberating by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Such an approach, however, must at the very least honestly acknowledge Islam's traditions of commentary on the Koran, and explain how a large number of violent texts might be viewed in a more liberating light.
Associate Professor Abdalla should know better. Although he might hope otherwise, dodgy hermeneutics contribute nothing to the Western public's understanding of Islam. Knee-jerk proof-texting of the "Islam is peace" claim will help no one; it is urgent that we engage with the pressing questions of Islam's place in the world today.
Mark Durie is an Anglican pastor and an Associate Fellow at the Middle Eastern Forum.

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Humanitarian Assistance for the Women and Children of Afghanistan (HAWCA)
HAWCA is an Afghan national NGO dedicated to working for the social wellbeing of all people with a particular focus on women and children who live in Afghanistan or in refugee communities in Pakistan. HAWCA recognises that violence against women and girls is one of the most prevalent forms of discrimination in Afghanistan. The organisation provides direct help and assistance to women facing violence and uses its experience to raise awareness within the communities of Afghanistan, with the national government and internationally. It is currently leading efforts to write Afghanistan's reports to the UN Committee on the Convention Against All forms of Discrimination Against Women. HAWCA's work in Herat Province is one example of its work. HAWCA opened a Legal Aid Centre for Female Victims of Violence, in Herat city in July 2009. Working on violence against women and children is one of the most dangerous activities a group can do in Afghanistan. By refusing to stay silent on this issue and working directly to prevent violence, as well as with victims of violence, HAWCA reminds the international community, as well as the Afghan Government, that violence against women is an impediment to development as well as a breach of women and children's human rights. HAWCA's other activities include: free literacy education for women and primary and secondary education for children, particularly in remote areas of Afghanistan; emergency assistance for victims affected by natural or people-made disasters; facilities for women-headed households to support self-sufficiency and sustainable livelihoods; information technology and language training.


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As busy parents, just meeting your family's needs each day can eclipse thoughts of the future. Add to that juggling act the cost of running a home, daycare, mortgage and car payments, and it's easy to see how setting funds aside for a child's future education can become something you'll "do later" when you have the time and money.
Is it Christmas again already? Time passes too fast when you achieve grandparent status, and George and Grace are wondering once again what to give their grandchildren. Some years ago they realized they had no idea what toys were suitable, so started giving them cash. It seemed to get frittered away on things that soon became boring or obsolete.
A new baby in the family brings many hopes, dreams and expectations. This can often include thoughts about how their lives can be better than that of their parents. And that often includes hopes about careers and the education that goes with them. It is also the time to start planning how to finance the education needed to fulfill those hopes and dreams.
College and university are more important than ever before.
Generally, two out of every three new jobs require some form of post-secondary education. According to the 2006 Census, Canadians with a university degree earned an average annual salary of $56,048 compared to $37,403 for Canadians with a high school diploma.
Yet the cost of a post-secondary education keeps growing.
You are more experienced now, your bank account is larger, and it is easier to think further ahead.
Without barely a moment's thought, you would protect your family from an immediate threat.
Do you ever feel like life is too automated? Maybe you're suspicious of the cruise control feature on your car.
You have worked all your life and saved for retirement. What other planning work could possibly be left?


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Gibbons's controlled, monochromatic renderings think outside the box.
October 29 2011 4:00 AM EST
November 17 2015 5:28 AM EST
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Gibbons's controlled, monochromatic renderings think outside the box.
E. Gibbons has been working in the figurative mode since 1988, though his style moved away from a Matisse-like, pop-influenced style to his current, more neoclassical approach after a summer in Paris in 2004.
Since then, Gibbons has become known for his monochromatic oil paintings of the figure. Though he has a large portfolio of both male and female subjects, he has become more widely known and published for his classical works of male figures. His work can be seen in such books as 100 Artists of the Male Figure, Powerfully Beautiful, The Oil Paintings of E. Gibbons, and the premier edition of the quarterly journal, The Art of Man.
Gibbons is currently exhibited in six U.S. galleries, including the Artful Deposit of Bordentown N.J.; Lyman-Eyer of Provinceton, Maine; Rodger Lapelle of Philadelphia, Penn.; PHD Gallery of St. Louis, Mo.; Ellen Charapko Gallery of Fort Lauderdale, Fla.; and J&W Gallery of New Hope, Penn. He has been included in shows in London, Puerto Vallarta, Osaka, and Egypt's American Conciliate of Alexandria. His work titled A New Hope was donated to the Obama White House shortly after the inauguration.
This multifaceted artist is also a certified art teacher, Staples Invention Contest finalist, author of several books, composer of works for classical piano, and considered an origami master in some circles.
Why are you an artist?
I was raised in a poor family where crayons and butcher paper were my toys. Art was encouraged and it was an area I could shine and be noticed. Their are three generations of artists in my family, including my great grandmother who painted until she was 102.
What catches your eye?
Currently, it's the male figure in fine art. My trip to Paris in 2004 cemented this love while spending hours in the Louvre and other museums. I was brought to tears on a couple occasions, and thought, My paintings need to grab people like the works of these masters. My style changed to what you see now. I have a passion for bringing balance to the genre of the male figure that is so overwhelmed by the female figure these last 100 years.
Tell us about your process or techniques.
I work from live models who visit my studio. I sketch and draw while they are there and take back up photos to complete the work in my studio. I work in black and white by accident. I use to work in acrylics, and a friend suggested I switch to oils and said I should start with black and white to learn to push the medium. I did, but I found I like how the work read like sculpture, vintage photography, and as a painting all at once. My joke to studio visitors is that "monochromatic work always goes with the couch." That said, I do work in color from time to time by adding glazes on top of my black and white work.
How do you choose your subjects?
I am happy to paint anyone or anything. I enjoy the zen-like process. I can paint for hours and not know time has passed. I must admit though, I have enjoyed painting beautiful male figures. I grew up, I feel, as an unattractive person. I paint figures that are somehow beyond my reach. I admire their natural beauty. My process is, in some way, creating a relationship I cannot consummate. I admire from afar, creating a work of art that is perhaps a kind of love poem. This subconscious feeling I have comes through the work, giving it a heightened sense of sensuality without becoming erotic.
How do you describe your work?
I would classify my work as Contemporary Neo-Classical. The work is often highly organized around geometrical principals, and have many layers of meaning.
What artists do you take inspiration from and why?
My inspirations are varied: Hokusai for composition, Matisse for loose line quality, Ingres for subject matter, Jacque L. David for drama, and maybe a pinch of Warhol for my modular approach to the figures in my Box Series.
How did you decide on the convention of the boxed figures?
The box became a tool to force organization into my figures. My first work of this series was donated to the Leslie/Lohman foundation of New York, created in 2004. I was inspired by the work I saw in the Louvre, and sculptures placed in niches throughout the building. I liked how the hard lines of the alcove contrasted with the soft flesh of the sculptures placed within them. I thought too, my work would read as both painting and relief sculpture. The boxes allow me to compose my exhibitions. The meanings of the works can change based on their proximity to neighboring works. If a sleeping figure is next to one playing music, one may assume the sleeping figure has been lulled by a song to slumber... however if paired with a crying figure, the sleeping man may appear to be dead. The works are intended to be on their own, but I like the additional nuances that can be achieved through composition.
We love the age-range of the people in the paintings. Can you comment on that?
My diversity is purposeful. I want to represent as broad a population as possible. Though many of my male figures are youthful and attractive, that is sometimes a result of economics. They sell well. But I also enjoy painting older figures, younger ones, and am considering a series based on disabled veterans and people who are physically different, to explore other themes I have in mind. As these are less "salable," I work on them as I can in the hopes my work is noticed by a museum and I can afford to spend more time on additional concepts.
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The following new papers have been published recently by NAI members. These and other recent NAI funded research are presented on the NAI member portal and collected in the NAI Research Highlights Archive http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/research/. In this archive, you can link to the papers and any press materials that may have been generated about them. If you have an upcoming or recent publication, please tell us about it as soon as possible. We will work with your institution to produce press releases, publicize the paper on the NAI website, and pre-populate your team's annual report with your publication. Please send any information to Daniella Scalice [email protected] [Source: NAI Newsletter]


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Education Leadership Degree Programs in Iowa
What is an Education Leadership & Administration Program?
An Education Leadership and Administration Programs in Iowa (MEdL), studies the management side of education. It then applies key points to empower teachers. These programs aim to arm teachers with skills to lead schools and student outcomes.
Some programs focus on business and day to day work. These programs may ready teachers to take on school or district leadership jobs. Others discuss what students learn and how to teach them. These skills may help teachers lead change in school policy.
Popular Schools with Education Leadership and Administration Programs in Iowa
What Can You Do With a Masters Degree in Education Leadership?
A Master in education leadership & administration program may prepare you to join a work force of over 5.05 million. Most are women between the ages of 36 and 45. Of these workers, over half (56.9%) are teachers. Others are:
- 4.5% are Education Admins (Principals, Deans, Student Affairs Leaders)
- 0.2% are Education Specialists
These leaders are expected to have a certain set of skills. They need to promote how well students do on tests and help them each other goals. They are also held to both school and teacher success. To pursue the following admin roles in Iowa, you'll typically need a master's or PhD in educational leadership.
- Principal, Dean (PhD)
- School Administrator (Masters)
- School Superintendent (Masters)
- Guidance Counselor (Masters)
- Admissions Director (Masters)
- Financial Aid Director (Masters)
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) tells us the job outlook for educational leaders is expected to grow as fast as average through 2031. The growth will go up and down according to state budgets and student enrollments. Most Education Admin work in:
- Colleges and Professional Schools
- Junior Colleges
- Technical and Trade Schools
- Elementary and High Schools
State | Employment | Annual Mean Wage |
California | 5,740 | $87,230 |
Maryland | 3,040 | $100,490 |
Illinois | 2,030 | $75,320 |
New York | 1,580 | $94,400 |
Texas | 1,580 | $81,790 |
Is a Master in Education Leadership & Administration Programs Worth It?
If your goal is to become a leader in education 'worth' is not the right question. If you don't earn the degree, you likely will not have the chance to apply for the job. Starting with the fact that in most states, public school principals need a license. The same is true for superintendents. It is common that the masters in educational leadership is needed for the license.
Also, there is the potential to earn more money. One study from the BLS, found that Education Admins with a master's degree earned 44% more than those with a bachelor's' degree.
Average Salaries from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Average Salary | Employment | |
Education Administrators, Preschool and Childcare Center | $53,800 | 56,430 |
Education Administrators, Elementary and Secondary School | $102,650 | 274,710 |
Education Administrators, All Other | $94,730 | 49,970 |
Top States with the Highest Employment Level for Education Administrators
State | Employment | Annual Mean Wage |
California | 16,570 | $129,030 |
Florida | 13,660 | $146,910 |
Texas | 12,810 | $108,290 |
Illinois | 9,260 | $93,090 |
Pennsylvania | 6,090 | $108,690 |
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
Metro Area | Annual Mean Salary | Employment |
Durham-Chapel Hill, NC | $115,410 | 50 |
Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk, CT | $110,020 | 100 |
San Juan-Carolina-Caguas, PR | $109,130 | 160 |
Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY | $107,600 | 50 |
Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV | $107,450 | 2,490 |
written by Rana Waxman
Masters in Educational Leadership & Administration Programs vs a PhDs
Which degree level is the right path for your goals? Both the Master's and PhD in Education Leadership offer unique courses and outcomes. A MA in Educational Leadership is often up to 36 credits. It may expose you to research based tactics. You may learn how to apply make data driven decisions related to teaching, student learning and school leadership.
College settings often want a higher level of education. Deans and school provosts may need a PhD in educational leadership. PhDs often span 54 credits, and allow you to choose an emphasis. A PhD program should teach you how to conduct research. Then apply findings to classroom, school or course content. This would allow you to identify, assess and resolve issues.
Educational Leadership Degree Guide | ||
MEd in Educational Leadership | PhD Educational Leadership | EdD – Doctor of Educational Leadership |
Length of Program: 11 courses including School Exec Internship The program may ready you to resolve disputes and manage people and money in a school setting. In tandem, students hone a personal leadership style. | Length: 23 courses, Superintendent Internship This program focuses on the research, leadership, management, and problem solving skills principals and superintendents need in today's K – 12 world. | Program Length: 17 courses including Internship The EdD aims to excel students as university faculty members, policy-makers and senior level leaders. Core education concepts like learning theory and exposes students to applied research and management. |
Sample courses:
| Courses Include:
| Some courses:
Program Accreditation: Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) | Program Accreditation: CAEP | Accreditation: CAEP |
A PhD in Educational Leadership in Iowa is a research degree. Unlike the EdD, a PhD involves forging new ideas through your own process. Through a wide range of topics, it may help you learn ethical and manager skills. Also, it may be a useful way to develop as a problem solver. PhD pathways include:
- Independent Research
- Chief Executive in College Setting
- College Faculty Position
What are masters in educational degree requirements?
To enroll in an educational leadership program, you'll often need three things. A bachelor's degree, teaching certificate and experience. In a common program, classes focus on being an agent of change. You will study a range of topics and do a final project or internship. Along the way, you may learn about your own style as a leader and how to leverage it in a chosen setting. It all depends on which program you pick.
If pursuing license is your goal, check program details to make sure the program offers a pathway. A few focused programs include:
- MS in Education – Edu Theory and Practice This type of program may help in the pursuit of National Board Certification. It may cover curriculum theory in depth. As such, one may learn to improve student outcomes.
- MS in Student Affairs in Higher Education This type of program may look at the day to day working of a college. It may help you grow skills as an admin. Some topics focus on student affairs theories and diversity. These may cover areas like advising, student activities and life on campus.
- EdS in Educational Leadership and Administration This type of program often suits students with a education leadership masters degree who want further credentials. It may ready you to lead and promote in the area of student success.
- Doctor of Management: Private Sector Higher Education Leadership Pursue senior level academic jobs in private schools. This type of program may boost skills as a manager and leader. It may cover areas like how to set policy. Also, you'll often study how take charge of resources, staff and outcomes.
What Classes Will I Take for a Masters Degree in Educational Leadership?
Some themes address admin strategies and skills. For instance, school finance and scheduling. Others may touch on student assessment, public outreach and school law. These may help you excel as a principal, administrator or researcher.
strong>Education Law and Ethics: In this class, one might look at the legal aspects of leadership. Topics may get into things like due process, search and seizure and sexual misconduct.
Curriculum Development: This class may ready you to plan and build what students study. Topics may cover both theory and methods. The goal often to find areas that need an upgrade.
Improving Instruction: Here, one may learn how to apply data to make decisions about how to teach. For example, student outcomes and how to improve them.
Educational Leader Theory: A central course which may bring up issues that modern school leaders face. You may for instance look at work place behaviors in school systems.
Accreditation is a form of quality control by an outside agency. Some schools maintain two kinds of approval. One for the school as a whole. The other, to certain programs.
It is important to look for a school to be both regionally accredited. And, for the educational leadership degree program to be accredited. For one, these schools make it possible to apply for financial aid.
Specific agencies review programs. Their interest is in what students are learning at the program level. Education is a regulated industry that follows ethics and principles. As such, accredited programs keep up the standards for teachers and industry leaders.
One such agency is CAEP, the Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation. Their goal is to set and check standards in programs that ready teachers. Another is The National Policy Board for Educational Administration (NPBEA). This alliance aims to set the bar for leaders in the school system. In many cases, earning a degree approved by one of these agencies is needed to earn a license.
How long is a Masters in Educational Leadership?
It may take about two years part time to earn a education leadership master. If you study full time it may take about one year. The number of credits varies (30 – 36) and this also impacts the length.
# of Credits | Min Months to Complete | |
University of Cincinnati | 30 | 21 months |
Queens University of Charlotte | 33 | 22 months |
Saint Mary's University of Minnesota | 33 | Less than 2 years |
Grand Canyon University | 30 | Each course is 6 weeks, completion time N/A |
How Much Does A Masters in Educational Leadership Degree Cost?
The average cost of a of a graduate degree from a public school is $18,383 per year. This means you will be able to find programs that cost more and less than the average. To give specific examples, this graph shows graduate tuition costs of 4 schools with Educational Leadership Graduate Programs as reported by the NCES. We have then compared those costs to the average college options, also as reported by NCES.
GradSchools.com offers 8 Graduate Schools with Education Leadership and Administration Programs in Iowa
Grand Canyon University
Purdue Global
Regent University
National University
Iowa State University
Buena Vista University
University of Northern Iowa
Upper Iowa University
Saint Ambrose University
University of Iowa
Drake University
Loras College


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Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
Quick Info
Potsdam, Prussia (now Germany)
Berlin, Germany
Carl Jacobi came from a Jewish family but he was given the French style name Jacques Simon at birth. His father, Simon Jacobi, was a banker and his family were prosperous. Carl was the second son of the family, the eldest being Moritz Jacobi who eventually became a famous physicist. Moritz Jacobi has an entry in his own right in [1]. There was a sister, Therese Jacobi, and a third brother, Eduard Jacobi, who was younger than Carl. Eduard did not pursue an academic career, but followed instead his father's profession as a banker.Jacobi's early education was given by an uncle on his mother's side, and then, just before his twelfth birthday, Jacobi entered the Gymnasium in Potsdam. He had been well taught by his uncle and he had remarkable talents so in 1817, while still in his first year of schooling, he was put into the final year class. This meant that by the end of the academic year 1816-17 he was still only 12 years old yet he had reached the necessary standard to enter university. The University of Berlin, however, did not accept students below the age of 16, so Jacobi had to remain in the same class at the Gymnasium in Potsdam until the spring of 1821.
Of course, Jacobi pressed on with his academic studies despite remaining in the same class at school. He received the highest awards for Latin, Greek and history but it was the study of mathematics which he took furthest. By the time Jacobi left school he had read advanced mathematics texts such as Euler's Introductio in analysin infinitorum Ⓣ and had been undertaking research on his own attempting to solve quintic equations by radicals.
Jacobi entered the University of Berlin in 1821 still unsure which topic he would concentrate on. He attended courses in philosophy, classics and mathematics for two years before realising that he had to make a definite decision between these subjects. He chose mathematics, but this did not mean that he could attend high level courses in mathematics for at this time the standard of university education in mathematics in Germany was rather poor. As he had done at the Gymnasium, Jacobi had to study on his own reading the works of Lagrange and other leading mathematicians.
By the end of academic year 1823-24 Jacobi had passed the examinations necessary for him to be able to teach mathematics, Greek, and Latin in secondary schools. Of course, one might have expected him to have problems obtaining a teaching position since, as we noted at the beginning of this article, he was Jewish. His brilliance appears to have been sufficient to allow this hurdle to be overcome for, in 1825, he was offered a teaching post at the Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium, one of the leading schools in Berlin. He had submitted his doctoral dissertation to the University of Berlin even before he received the offer of the teaching post, and he was allowed to move quickly to work on his habilitation thesis.
Jacobi presented a paper concerning iterated functions to the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1825. However, the referees did not consider the results worth publishing and indeed the paper was not published by the Berlin Academy. The paper was published eventually, for in 1961 it was published with a commentary in [6]. Biermann, the author of [6], quotes the opinions of the original referees and criticises them strongly. Although this was not the best start for the young Jacobi, it did not hold him back for long and his publication record over the following years would be quite remarkable for both the number and quality of the works.
Around 1825 Jacobi changed from the Jewish faith to become a Christian which now made university teaching possible for him. By the academic year 1825-26 he was teaching at the University of Berlin. However prospects in Berlin were not good so, after taking advice from colleagues, Jacobi moved to the University of Königsberg arriving there in May 1826. There he joined Franz Neumann, who had also received his doctorate from Berlin in 1825, and Bessel who was the professor of astronomy at Königsberg.
Jacobi had already made major discoveries in number theory before arriving in Königsberg. He now wrote to Gauss to tell him of the results on cubic residues which he had obtained, having been inspired by Gauss's results on quadratic and biquadratic residues. Gauss was impressed, so much so that he wrote to Bessel to obtain more information about the young Jacobi. But Jacobi also had remarkable new ideas about elliptic functions (as Abel did quite independently and at much the same time). On 5 August 1827 Jacobi wrote to Legendre who was the leading expert on the topic and this letter, together with 22 others between Jacobi and Legendre, is given in [4].
Legendre immediately realised that Jacobi had made fundamental advances in his favourite topic. One would have to say that Legendre reacted extremely well to the realisation that his position as the leading expert on elliptic functions had changed overnight with the new theory being developed not only by Jacobi, but also by Abel. Jacobi's promotion to associate professor on 28 December 1827 was mainly due to the praise heaped on him by Legendre. In a letter, sent to Jacobi on 9 February 1828, Legendre wrote:-
It gives me great satisfaction to see two young mathematicians such as you and [Abel] cultivate with such success a branch of analysis which for such a long time has been my favourite topic of study but which had not been received in my own country as well as it deserves. By your works you place yourselves in the ranks of the best analysts of our era.In 1829 Jacobi met Legendre and other French mathematicians such as Fourier and Poisson when he made a visit to Paris in the summer vacation. On the journey to Paris he had visited Gauss in Göttingen. Jacobi's fundamental work on the theory of elliptic functions, which had so impressed Legendre, was based on four theta functions. His paper Fundamenta nova theoria functionum ellipticarum Ⓣ published in 1829, together with its later supplements, made fundamental contributions to this theory of elliptic functions. However, despite Jacobi's brilliant contributions to elliptic functions he did not have the field to himself. As we have noted above, Abel was also making fundamental contributions and to some extent a competition had developed between the two. Legendre expressed this clearly in a letter he wrote to Jacobi early in 1829:-
You proceed so rapidly, gentlemen, in all these wonderful speculations that it is nearly impossible to follow you - particularly for an old man ... I congratulate myself that I have lived long enough to witness these magnanimous contests between two young equally strong athletes, who turn their efforts to the profit of the science whose limits they push back further and further.A few weeks after Legendre wrote this letter Abel died. On 11 September 1831 Jacobi married Marie Schwinck then, a few months later in May 1832, he was promoted to full professor after being subjected to a four hour disputation in Latin. Jacobi's reputation as an excellent teacher attracted many students. He introduced the seminar method to teach students the latest advances in mathematics. Jacobi had a major impact on these students and all others around him [1]:-
Such were Jacobi's forceful personality and sweeping enthusiasm that none of his gifted students could escape his spell: they were drawn into his sphere of thought, and soon represented a "school". C W Borchardt, E Heine, L O Hesse, F J Richelot, J Rosenhain, and P L von Seidel belonged to this circle; they contributed much to the dissemination not only of Jacobi's mathematical creations but also the new research-oriented attitude in university instruction. The triad of Bessel, Jacobi, and Franz Neumann thus became the nucleus of a revival of mathematics at German universities.In 1833 Jacobi's older brother Moritz joined him in Königsberg where he set himself up as an architect. During the two years Moritz spent there he became more interested in physics and left Königsberg in 1835 when he was appointed to the chair of civil engineering at Dorpat. In 1834 Jacobi received some work from Kummer who was at this time a teacher in a Gymnasium in Liegnitz. The article [20] describes how Jacobi immediately recognised Kummer's mathematical talents. Kummer had made advances beyond what Jacobi had achieved on third-order differential equations and Jacobi wrote to his brother Moritz in 1836 describing how Kummer had managed to solve problems which had defeated him.
In 1834 Jacobi proved that if a single-valued function of one variable is doubly periodic then the ratio of the periods is non-real. This result prompted much further work in this area, in particular by Liouville and Cauchy.
Jacobi carried out important research in partial differential equations of the first order and applied them to the differential equations of dynamics. He also worked on determinants and studied the functional determinant now called the Jacobian. Jacobi was not the first to study the functional determinant which now bears his name, it appears first in a 1815 paper of Cauchy. However Jacobi wrote a long memoir De determinantibus functionalibus Ⓣ in 1841 devoted to this determinant. He proved, among many other things, that if a set of functions in variables are functionally related then the Jacobian is identically zero, while if the functions are independent the Jacobian cannot be identically zero.
In [15] McCleary describes one of Jacobi's most impressive results:-
One of the prettiest results in the global theory of curves is a theorem of Jacobi (1842): The spherical image of the normal directions along a closed differentiable curve in space divides the unit sphere into regions of equal area. The statement of this theorem is an afterthought to a paper in which Jacobi responds to the published correction by Thomas Clausen (1842) of an earlier paper by Jacobi (1836).In July 1842 Jacobi and Bessel attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Manchester as representatives of Prussia. Jacobi's wife accompanied the two mathematicians. They returned to Königsberg via Paris where Jacobi lectured at the Académie des Sciences. In the following year Jacobi became unwell and diabetes was diagnosed. He was advised by his doctor to spend time in Italy where the climate would help him recover. However, Jacobi was not a wealthy man and Dirichlet, after visiting Jacobi and discovering his plight, wrote to Alexander von Humboldt asking him to help obtain some financial assistance for Jacobi from Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
We should make a small digression to say why Jacobi was not a wealthy man despite having inherited a small fortune from his wealthy father. A severe business depression throughout Prussia (in fact it was a Europe wide depression), had led to a bankruptcy in which Jacobi had lost all his money. Let us now return to Dirichlet and Alexander von Humboldt's attempts to help obtain support for Jacobi's trip to Italy.
Jacobi had frequently corresponded with Alexander von Humboldt. The correspondence began in 1828 but only after 1839 did they correspond regularly and the 44 surviving letters between the two men make fascinating reading (see [5] and also [7]). Dirichlet's request to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, supported strongly by Alexander von Humboldt, was successful and Jacobi received a grant to allow him to spend time in Italy. He set off for Italy with Borchardt and Dirichlet and, after stopping in several towns and attending a mathematical meeting in Lucca, they arrived in Rome on 16 November 1843. Schläfli and Steiner were also with them, Schläfli being their interpreter.
The climate in Italy did indeed help Jacobi to recover and he began to publish again, his health having prevented him working for some time before this. In fact Jacobi's interests in mathematics were very wide and while in Rome he took the opportunity to satisfy his interest in the history of mathematics working on manuscripts of Diophantus's Arithmetica which were kept in the Vatican. Although his health had improved it was felt that the climate of Königsberg was too extreme for him to return there, so a dispensation was obtained from Friedrich Wilhelm IV to allow him to transfer to Berlin. He was given a supplement to his salary to help offset the higher costs of living in Berlin, and also to help him with his medical expenses.
He was in Berlin by June 1844 and although his health prevented him from giving frequent lecture courses, he did lecture at the University of Berlin. In [21] a lecture course which he gave in 1847-48 is discussed by Pulte:-
Jacobi in his lectures on analytical mechanics (Berlin, 1847 - 1848) ... gave a detailed and critical discussion of Lagrange's mechanics. Lagrange's view that mechanics could be pursued as an axiomatic-deductive science forms the centre of Jacobi's criticism and is rejected on mathematical and philosophical grounds. ... Jacobi's criticism is motivated by a changed evaluation of the role of mathematics in the empirical sciences.In [22] Pulte shows that Jacobi only came to hold these views on analytical mechanics only later in his life, for earlier he had ignored the physical interpretation of mechanics in favour of a purely axiomatic and mathematical approach.
By 1848 conditions were bad in the German Confederation. Unemployment and crop failures had led to discontent and disturbances. The news that Louis-Philippe had been overthrown by an uprising in Paris in February 1848 led to revolutions in many states and fighting in Berlin. Republican and socialist feelings meant that the monarchy was in trouble. Jacobi made a political speech in the Constitutional Club in Berlin which managed to upset both the monarchists and the republicans. As a consequence Jacobi's request to be allowed to join the staff of the University of Berlin was refused by the Prussian government.
By the summer of 1849 the revolution was completely defeated. The Prussian government, still feeling aggrieved at Jacobi, took away the supplement to his salary which allowed him to live in Berlin. He had to move, and chose the small town of Gotha. He lived there with his family and a few months later accepted a chair at the University of Vienna. The Prussian government suddenly realised what they would lose if they forced Jacobi to leave Prussia, so they made concessions which meant that Jacobi could lecture at the University of Berlin while his family remained in Gotha. It was not a good deal for Jacobi and the fact that he accepted it means that he was strongly attached to his own country.
Jacobi planned to spend the university vacations with his family and he spent the summer of 1850 with them in Gotha. In January 1851 he contracted influenza, then he contracted smallpox before he had regained his strength. He died a few days after contracting smallpox.
Scriba, in [1], compares Jacobi with Euler:-
Jacobi and Euler were kindred spirits in the way they created their mathematics. Both were prolific writers and even more prolific calculators; both drew a great deal of insight from immense algorithmical work; both laboured in many fields of mathematics (Euler, in this respect, greatly surpassed Jacobi); and both at any moment could draw from the vast armoury of mathematical methods just those weapons which would promise the best results in the attack of a given problem.
References (show)
- C J Scriba, Biography in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York 1970-1990). See THIS LINK.
- Biography in Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jacobi
- K Biermann, Jacobi, in H Wussing and W Arnold, Biographien bedeutender Mathematiker (Berlin, 1983).
- E Knobloch, B Mai (trs.) and H Pieper (ed.), Korrespondenz Adrien-Marie Legendre-Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (Stuttgart, 1998).
- H Pieper (ed.), Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und C G Jacob Jacobi (Berlin, 1987).
- K-R Biermann, Eine unveröffentlichte Jugendarbeit C G J Jacobis über wiederholte Funktionen, J. Reine Angew. Math. 207 (1961), 96-112.
- K-R Biermann, Der Briefwechsel zwischen Alexander von Humboldt und C G J Jacobi über die Entdeckung des Neptun, NTM Schr. Geschichte Naturwiss. Tech. Medizin 6 (1) (1969), 61-67.
- S S Demidov, On the history of the theory of first-order partial differential equations : C G J Jacobi's 'first method' (Russian), Istor.-Mat. Issled. 26 (1982), 137-153.
- P G Lejeune Dirichlet, Gedächtnissrede auf Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, in Nachrufe auf Berliner Mathematiker des 19. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1988), 6-34.
- B N C Fradlin, Jacobi's contribution to the development of mathematics and mechanics (on the occasion of the 175th anniversary of his birth) (Russian), in Mathematics : Questions concerning methods, history and methodology (Tula, 1983), 114-119.
- C G Fraser, Jacobi's result (1837) in the calculus of variations and its reformulation by Otto Hesse (1857) : A study in the changing interpretation of mathematical theorems, in History of mathematics and education : ideas and experiences (Göttingen, 1996), 149-172.
- T Hawkins, Jacobi and the birth of Lie's theory of groups, in S S Demidov et al. (eds), Amphora : Festschrift for Hans Wussing on the occasion of his 65th birthday (Basel- Boston- Berlin, 1992), 289-313.
- T Hawkins, Jacobi and the birth of Lie's theory of groups, Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 42 (3) (1991), 187-278.
- Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, Bull. de l'Académie impériale des sciences de St Petersbourg 21 (1876), 267-279.
- J McCleary, On Jacobi's remarkable curve theorem, Historia Math. 21 (3) (1994), 377-385.
- M Nakane, C G J Jacobi's contribution to the construction of the Hamiltonian formalism (Japanese), J. Tsuda College No. 24 (1992), 175-186.
- A Natucci, Le origini della teoria delle funzioni ellittiche. (Nel I° centenario della morte di Carlo Gustavo Jacobi 18 febbraio 1851, Atti Accad. Ligure 9 (1952), 40-54.
- H Pieper, Abel und Jacobi gehören in der Geschichte der Mathematik zusammen wie Leibniz und Newton, Mitt. Math. Ges. DDR 2-3 (1980), 133-144.
- H Pieper, Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, in Mathematics in Berlin (Berlin, 1998), 41-48.
- H U Pieper, C G J Jacobis über den Mathematiker E E Kummer, NTM Schr. Geschichte Natur. Tech. Medizin 25 (1) (1988), 23-36.
- H Pulte, Jacobi's criticism of Lagrange : the changing role of mathematics in the foundations of classical mechanics, Historia Math. 25 (2) (1998), 154-184.
- H Pulte, After 150 years: news from Jacobi about Lagrange's analytical mechanics, Math. Intelligencer 19 (3) (1997), 48-54.
- M N Saltykow, L'Oeuvre de Jacobi dans le domaine des équations aux dérivées partielles du premier ordre, Bull. Sci. Math. 63 (1939), 213-228.
- D Stander, Makers of modern mathematics : Carl Gustave Jacob Jacobi, Bull. Inst. Math. Appl. 24 (1-2) (1988), 27-28.
Additional Resources (show)
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Honours (show)
Cross-references (show)
- History Topics: African men with a doctorate in mathematics 1
- History Topics: General relativity
- History Topics: Matrices and determinants
- History Topics: Orbits and gravitation
- History Topics: The abstract group concept
- Societies: Paris Academy of Sciences
- Other: 1893 International Mathematical Congress - Chicago
- Other: 1904 ICM - Heidelberg
- Other: 2009 Most popular biographies
- Other: Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (A)
- Other: Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (E)
- Other: Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (H)
- Other: Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (J)
- Other: Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (M)
- Other: Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus
- Other: Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
- Other: Most popular biographies – 2024
- Other: Popular biographies 2018
Written by J J O'Connor and E F Robertson
Last Update January 2000
Last Update January 2000


text:
Paul McCartney Once Again Walks Across Abbey Road
It sounds like a setup for a joke: Why did Paul McCartney cross the road?
To get to a gig on the other side, apparently -- which wouldn't be such a big deal, were it not for the fact that the road he crossed was Abbey Road, at the same crossing photographer Iain Macmillan captured for the iconic cover of the Beatles' Abbey Road album in 1969.
McCartney was heading to Abbey Road Studios, where he would play a surprise show in support of his forthcoming album, Egypt Station.
His trek on the crosswalk was captured on cellphone video by his daughter Mary, who posted it on Instagram.
One should notice he did not go barefoot, as he did on the Abbey Road cover (which fueled rumors of his death among Beatles fans at the time); Macca opted for wearing sandals with socks this time around.
Watch Paul McCartney cross Abbey Road again:
McCartney fans might recall a previous road crossing at the same spot, which was captured and used as the cover of his 1993 live album, Paul Is Live.
McCartney is revving up the promotion machine for Egypt Station, which is scheduled for release Sept. 7. Two songs from Egypt Station -- "I Don't Know" and "Come On to Me," -- were released in advance of the album.
McCartney was also a guest on The Late Late Show With James Corden, singing Beatles songs with the host during a "Carpool Karaoke" segment filmed in Liverpool. During the program, McCartney also played a gig at a small pub, which made him eager to do some more intimate shows before his world tour kicks off in Canada Sept. 17.


text:
Keeping frail seniors at home has been a priority of B.C. health ministers for years, but delivery of home care and day activity programs to support that declined in 2018, B.C.'s Seniors Advocate says.
The number of seniors receiving home support services decreased by 1.4 per cent, despite a four per cent increase in the B.C. population over 65 and a five per cent increase in those over 85, according to the latest senior services monitoring report, released Wednesday.
Adult day program access also declined by six per cent in 2018, adding up to a 17 per cent drop in program days delivered in the past two years. "Not surprisingly, there is a 23 per cent increase in the wait list," the report says.
"The ability to live as independently as possible for as long as possible depends on a number of key factors," Seniors Advocate Isobel Mackenzie said. "Appropriate housing, sufficient income, adequate transportation, accessible health care and assistance with personal needs must all be available if seniors are to live safely and with dignity."
Health Minister Adrian Dix added $75 million to the budget for respite care and adult day programs last year, in an effort to ease the pressure on family members supporting seniors in their homes.
"The reduction in home support clients is puzzling, as we should be seeing those numbers increase," Mackenzie said.
RELATED: Still too many seniors in care facilities, on drugs
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Rising housing costs have also made it more difficult for seniors to remain at home. Property tax deferrals have risen by 53 per cent in the past four years, with more than 57,000 seniors deferring taxes in 2017-18 and more than $200 million in property taxes paid to municipalities by the province to date.
For seniors who rent, there was a seven per cent increase in use of rent subsidies through the Shelter Aid for Elderly Renters program, and a 34 per cent increase in the total subsidies paid.
For seniors who need residential care, the average waiting time has improved, with 71 per cent getting admitted to a care facility within 30 days. But the rate varies between regional health authorities, with a low of 45 per cent for Island Health and a high of 90 per cent for the Vancouver Coastal health region.
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