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Covid-19 has redefined the way we work. As the majority of office-based employees shifted to working from home, organisations across Australia have used the pandemic period to experiment. They have tried new ways of flexible working, often scaling existing approaches that previously had not been applied consistently or sufficiently.
Even before Covid-19, the evidence and business case for flexible work had been building. Several studies, including research by the Australian Government's Workplace Gender Equality Agency, had connected working flexibly with improved productivity and revenue. Importantly, flexible work supports diversity and inclusion, and specifically gender equality. It unlocks women's and other caregivers' workforce participation, taps into a broader talent pool and helps achieve gender balance in leadership—which, research shows, markedly improves business profitability.
Prior to this year, companies were slowly making progress. But the enforced flexibility and remote working brought on by the pandemic have illustrated that achieving these goals is both closer than we think and critically important. Covid-19 has shown that roles and industries previously considered unsuited to flexible work can be adapted. And this is not simply a practice to support women, but one that can and should engage all employees.
Since Covid-19 ushered in greater flexibility, employee productivity and engagement have increased, according to a recent Bain & Company survey, dispelling the myth that flexibility undercuts results. Individuals cite greater team agility, zero commute time and better ability to focus on "deep thinking work" as reasons for their improved productivity. Employees have, for the most part, embraced working flexibly.
Asked if they would like work to remain more flexible beyond the pandemic, employees say yes. In a survey of more than 7,000 individuals across five industry sectors conducted by Six Ideas by Dexus from May to July of this year, 74% of respondents, regardless of tenure or gender, said they were interested in working from home at least one to two days per week on average.
Covid-19 has shown that roles and industries previously considered unsuited to flexible work can be adapted.
As organisations transition out of crisis mode and begin to plan for recovery, they have a window of opportunity to permanently embed far greater and broader flexibility—not just working from home, but reshaping the work of the future with a hybrid model in which teams are distributed across home and workplace and work flexibly in a variety of ways.
To help companies do that, this report outlines five of the most effective practices observed across corporate Australia. It draws on input from executives and other leaders about the practical solutions they are using right now to support flexibility.
We will continue this study over time, adding in-depth quantitative research as we gather evidence from real-world implementation, exploring how flexible work intersects with the long-term economic recovery and transition out of the crisis. (If you or your organisation would like to participate in this follow-up research, please contact the authors.)
In light of the Covid-19 pandemic, flexibility has moved from a topic for inclusion and diversity agendas to actual large-scale implementation in the form of working from home. This has required flexible hours, working virtually with teams and clients, and massive behavioural change from leaders at all levels of the organisation. In organisations that already had existing policies and a degree of flexible working, the transition was quicker and easier. Moving forward, as Covid-19 restrictions ease and tighten in cycles, having a foundation in place to support organisational agility will be a competitive advantage.
As organisations transition out of crisis mode and begin to plan for recovery, they have a window of opportunity to permanently embed far greater and broader flexibility.
There will be challenges, of course. For organisations, maintaining connection among a suddenly distributed workforce has sometimes been difficult, as has supporting collaboration and ensuring that corporate culture does not erode when employees are working at home. For some employees, in addition to the positives of flexibility, the pandemic period has also brought uncertainty, digital fatigue, and difficulty maintaining boundaries between work and private life. Early research shows that a disproportionate increase in household and caring responsibilities has fallen on women during this period.
Clearly, it is vitally important and valuable to create a sustainable model. Now is the time for companies to capitalise on the lessons of this pandemic period and put in place the practices that will help them reap the benefits of workplace flexibility.
Best practice No. 1: Ensure flexibility is flexible
In July, most Australian states were on the path to further lifting restrictions, but Melbourne's shift back into lockdown and Sydney's spike in cases illustrated the importance of taking a flexible approach to flexibility itself. Even without an unpredictable force like Covid-19, organisations have realised the value of a tailored, flexible approach to managing a distributed workforce.
Trust and empower individuals, leaders and teams to design and negotiate flexibility for themselves. Forward-thinking organisations have, for some time, empowered employees to think creatively and negotiate directly with their teams and leaders for a flexible work arrangement that works for them. This recognises that flexibility means different things for different people.
At the onset of the pandemic, transport operator Transdev placed more importance than ever on flexibility so that its frontline staff could meet their individual needs. The company's Australian workforce consists of around 5,000 employees, a group particularly at risk from Covid-19 since 75% of them are frontline workers, 20% are over 55 years of age, and 3% are of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent. Transdev instituted individual check-ins from its people and culture department for all frontline employees. The aim was to understand how they were coping with Covid-19, to determine whether they felt comfortable and safe fulfilling their upcoming shifts, and to give them the option to take time off, swap shifts or change rostering times.
Insurance Australia Group (IAG) uses an app called Switch that gives call centre employees credits for taking shifts at high-volume times. Individuals can then redeem credits for shifts where there is less demand. A change in shift times of mere minutes can make a big difference in someone's life. One person changed a shift by just 15 minutes in order to leave slightly earlier, allowing the employee to beat traffic and make it home in time for after-school pickups and dinner. Switch is currently used by over 350 IAG call centre consultants and, since launch, has enabled more than 6,000 shift changes, a 9% increase in employee well-being scores, a 23% decrease in absenteeism and a 30% decrease in attrition.
Remove institutional barriers. As the pandemic took hold, most organisations were forced to abandon preexisting approval processes for working from home. Many have seen the benefits and will continue this streamlined approach going forward.
Prior to Covid-19, IAG had established an automated approval process for flexible work in Australia, whereby employees could submit a request electronically, noting the type of flexible work desired. The process requires only one layer of approval. During the pandemic, this simplified approach has empowered IAG employees to choose flexible work options that work best for them. Beyond working from home, options include staggered start or finish times and compressed workweeks. Contact centre employees who want to switch shifts or work online make the request through the Switch app without needing manager approval. Switch has made flexibility more accessible, improved uptake and empowered team members to make decisions about their own work patterns.
To increase sustainable uptake of flexible work, human resources and line managers must engage in proactive outreach to educate employees on its availability and how they can make it part of their careers.
Measure and encourage flexibility broadly. Organisations have started to track both formal and informal flexibility in the workplace, putting more emphasis on the latter. Engagement surveys have asked employees whether they feel able to work flexibly and supported in doing so. Verbatim comments help organisations understand why individuals may not feel supported to work flexibly, allowing them to address barriers for individuals and teams, and to sustain the flexibility adopted during the pandemic period. To increase sustainable uptake of flexible work, human resources and line managers must engage in proactive outreach to educate employees on its availability and how they can make it part of their careers.
Measuring and transparently reporting on flexibility increases accountability and implementation. It also helps organisations understand the relationship between flexibility and achieving other organisational targets, whether related to customers, operations, or people and culture. This is particularly true of gender equality goals.
Setting targets for uptake of flexible work practices, particularly men's engagement, can lead to significant organisational change. As CEO of telecommunications and technology company Telstra, Andy Penn has committed to greater gender equality. He chairs Telstra's diversity and inclusion council and holds quarterly meetings at which a representative of each function presents its gender data and roadmap of action.
In addition, Telstra's Employee Pulse survey asks specific questions about flexibility, which are then reported by pay grade or band, location, and gender. Fully 94% of respondents have indicated that they are able to access flexible work arrangements and to balance work and personal life. This represents a significant advantage for Telstra, which last year achieved its goal of increasing the proportion of women in its overall workforce to more than 32%. After implementing a gender-equal and flexible parental leave policy in 2020, the company has seen a significant increase in the proportion of paid parental leave taken by men. In fact, over half of those who took more than two weeks of paid parental leave were men.
Best practice No. 2: Link flexibility to strategy and the customer
Flexibility enables greater organisational agility and can empower teams to identify their own ways of achieving an organisation's strategic goals. It has highlighted the need to identify new ways of measuring organisational productivity and output, and it has required some organisations to redefine the way they reward and assess performance. Many have put a greater focus on outcomes and outputs in performance management, as well as the critical inputs, like collaboration, that make them possible.
For wholesale broadband provider NBN, the nationwide shift to working from home placed unprecedented demand on its network and services. The organisation quickly realised that the only way to meet consumers' needs was to devolve solution design and implementation to teams. To support this, CEO Stephen Rue emphasised the importance of NBN's purpose and strategy in more frequent companywide communications. Further, Rue's executive team held regular town halls in each area of the business, to keep staff directly informed in a rapidly evolving situation.
This approach gave NBN employees and teams clarity on their roles in the midst of a crisis. It made it possible for teams to think through how they could quickly achieve the best outcome for individual employees, the team itself and the customer, whilst working flexibly. The outcome was higher productivity and engagement during the crisis phase of the pandemic, enabling the organisation to quickly expand network capacity and meet the expectations and needs of consumers across Australia.
Flexibility can empower teams to identify their own ways of achieving an organisation's strategic goals.
Best practice No. 3: Model flexibility
As a result of Covid-19, sponsorship of organisational flexibility has moved from the realm of people and culture—HR and diversity and inclusion, for example—into the broader organisation. When male and female executives, board members and line managers act as role models, working flexibly themselves, they set an important example supporting a broader culture of acceptance. It signals that flexible work is a core characteristic of the organisational culture, that flexibility is possible at all levels and in all roles.
It also humanises leaders and dispels pervasive biases—in particular, that flexibility is only for women. Those biases can hinder career progression and lead to feelings of guilt. The lesson from Covid-19 is that leaders should visibly model flexible arrangements and build ongoing flexibility metrics into the executive leadership team's quarterly reporting, with the CEO holding the team accountable.
Real estate group Mirvac launched the My Simple Thing initiative in 2016, asking construction employees to incorporate one change to support flexibility in their working day or week. Examples included starting work later in order to drop off kids at school, or finishing earlier one day a week for sports training. CEO Susan Lloyd-Hurwitz created a positive aura around leaving the office early to fulfil her "simple thing." She ensured all leaders were early role models, asking every executive on her leadership team to report back in two weeks about their "simple thing" and how they were going to make it work. This leadership commitment helped build participation in the program, and today 75% of employees report they have some form of flexible working arrangement in place, facilitating better balance between work and life.
When male and female executives, board members and line managers act as role models, working flexibly themselves, they set an important example supporting a broader culture of acceptance.
Best practice No. 4: Encourage and enable team flexibility
For organisations to be truly flexible, it's not enough for individuals to embrace it; teams must, too. Organisations can take a number of steps to support teams on this journey.
Ask teams to define flexibility for themselves. Teams can embrace flexibility by creating their own norms and ways of working to support their goals. Examples might include meeting-free Mondays, no meetings over lunch or before 9 AM, or moving close of business to 9 AM the next day to support a flexible workday. Ultimately, it is about allowing individuals, their leaders and the team as a collective to make flexibility work for them.
At mining, metals and petroleum company BHP, flexible hours for one crew at Newman in Western Australia allow the operation's fleet of trucks to keep working through meal breaks. They have dubbed themselves "the bamboo crew": Like bamboo, the team is strong and flexible, yet firmly rooted. With such flexibility, BHP can recruit from a larger and more diverse talent pool, including parents who want to work part-time and people who are semiretired, in addition to those who wish to work full-time.
And when Telstra started rolling out Agile at scale, it linked the effort to the organisation's broader inclusion and flexibility strategy. Teams were encouraged to create charters defining their own norms, including start and finish times, flexible ways of working and guidelines for inclusive meetings.
Teams can embrace flexibility by creating their own norms and ways of working to support their goals.
Define effective and inclusive meeting norms. During the Covid-19 pandemic, all participants have been on the same footing in virtual meetings on Zoom, Microsoft Teams and Webex. (The CEO, after all, is as likely to have a child wander through the background as anyone else.) As organisations begin to return to the workplace, however, teams may well operate under a hybrid model, distributed across homes and workplaces and across different working schedules.
As food and beverage giant Nestlé NZ has come out of lockdown and returned to its offices in Auckland, the company is piloting new inclusive meeting norms as it rethinks the role of the office. Mirvac is undergoing a similar process.
Emerging best practices for office-based workers include the following:
- Ask for attendees' availability before scheduling meetings. (Avoid assuming people are free early mornings or late afternoons.)
- Show in calendar invitations whether a meeting is in person, virtual or a hybrid. For virtual and hybrid meetings, indicate whether it is video on or off (or a combination).
- Avoid in-person meetings on days or at times that are popular for working from home—Mondays and Fridays, for example—to encourage employees to sustain their flexible schedules.
- Lock in meeting-free periods, such as lunch from 12:30 PM to 1:30 PM daily.
- During meetings, appoint a moderator or chair to ensure equal voice to all participants, especially those not in the room. (This may require interrupting the interrupters!)
- Schedule virtual meetings if one or more team members are working from home.
Seek feedback on flexibility in pulse checks. At a team level, quick and frequent surveys of team health (pulse checks) can be used to measure individuals' engagement with flexibility. Collecting feedback on whether flexibility is working well or not, and then discussing this feedback live at weekly or monthly team meetings, puts teams in charge of shaping the way they work.
By collecting feedback during the pandemic period, management has an opportunity to listen to employees and include those insights in shaping its future model of work and flexibility. ANZ, for example, has been conducting "big retros" across its global organisation. Borrowing from the Agile vocabulary, these retrospective conversations have enabled teams to discuss what has been going well and what they need to do differently given the experience of the past few months. Approximately half of ANZ employees have participated, with 2,700 teams sharing their comments on the organisation's Yammer platform, reflecting more than 5,600 conversations.
Best practice No. 5: Support individuals to work flexibly
Provide a conducive environment for flexible work. For many individuals and teams, working from home will be a form of flexible work that suits them and fits their needs. During the crisis phase of Covid-19, organisations have supported individuals' work from home with technology and, in some cases, funds to set up and run a home office, covering everything from chairs and desks to ongoing utility costs, such as broadband. Ensuring that individuals who work at home have the right health and safety setup, and have access to best-in-class technology and collaboration tools, will continue to be critical. In the longer term, potential savings from reduced office space could be reinvested to support individuals working remotely.
For other employees, however, the home environment is not conducive to working. They may not have a dedicated workspace, may need to accommodate family members or flatmates, or have personal safety considerations. Giving people the choice of where to work is an important principle of ensuring that flexibility is truly flexible.
Some organisations looking to tap into regional talent pools are considering the creation of regional hubs or access to coworking spaces. Telstra's Agents@Home program is one example. At the onset of the pandemic, Telstra was able to scale a trial program already underway in Australia. Today more than 1,500 customer service agents are working from home, and that number is increasing each week. The company expects this approach to provide additional employment opportunities in regional Australia over time.
Leading and managing performance when teams are working flexibly is different, and a new skill for many.
Train leaders of flexible teams. Leading and managing performance when teams are working flexibly is different, and a new skill for many. Leaders must help teams redesign work, and they will need a much clearer view and articulation of the output and impact of teams and individuals in order to measure performance. These managers must connect and build empathy with individuals who may be in different locations or just working in a different way. Covid-19 has made authentic leadership more important, as managers and leaders seek to genuinely connect with and care for their employees in this time of uncertainty.
As the pandemic began, NBN quickly developed a set of guides and playbooks for leaders, supported by master classes, on topics relevant to flexible work and leading teams in this new paradigm. These include "Unify your team wherever they are working" and "Embedding new norms and ways of working virtually." There is also practical advice on everything from supporting team resilience to successfully delivering end-of-year performance reviews virtually. NBN is looking to build on the playbook and master class suite to continue to support its leaders through the next phase of managing dispersed teams.
As employees' desire to work more flexibly increases, organisations will require resources to define and set up flexible work arrangements. At Dexus, staff are staggering their transition back to the workplace under a hybrid model. The business quickly launched a guide to help team leaders and individuals design flexible work arrangements to ensure that the employee, leader, team, customer and ultimately Dexus all benefit.
Expand resources for individuals seeking to build resilience and manage uncertainty and change. During the crisis phase of Covid-19, many organisations increased the resources available to individuals, whether via well-being programs, training on virtual collaboration tools like Miro, or support for their increased caring and homeschooling responsibilities. Working flexibly under a hybrid model will bring a new set of changes and require further adaptation of job routines. Continuing to help individuals build their capacity to move forward through uncertainty will be critical. Tools like the Unmind workplace mental health platform enable employees to assess, track and understand their mental well-being over time, providing resources and training that can be customised to different cohorts.
Overall, this extraordinary period has given companies unequalled insight into both the value of flexibility and how to do it right. By following best practices, organisations set themselves up for success in the next phase of hybrid work, and beyond.
Assessing where your organisation stands
As organisations transition back to the workplace, our tool can help them gauge where they are in their flexibility journey and decide where to invest in order to adopt and sustain best practices (see Figure 1).
About the authors and acknowledgements
Agathe Gross is a partner with Bain & Company in Sydney and leads the firm's Australia Diversity & Inclusion program. You may contact her by email at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Sue Morphet is president of Chief Executive Women. You may contact her at email@example.com.
Libby Lyons is the director of the Workplace Gender Equality Agency. You may contact her at firstname.lastname@example.com.
The authors would like to recognise the following team members' contributions to the report: Megan Waller, associate partner with Bain & Company in Sydney; Annie Lei, consultant with Bain in Perth; Susan Metcalf, CEO of Chief Executive Women (CEW); Jenny Boddington, nonexecutive director and chair of the Business Engagement Committee at CEW; Melanie Fernandez, CEW's director of policy, advocacy and research; and Kate Lee, executive manager of engagement at the Workplace Gender Equality Agency.
Bain & Company, CEW and the Workplace Gender Equality Agency acknowledge the traditional owners of the lands on which we work and pay respect to Elders past, present and emerging.
The authors wish to thank the CEW members that contributed their insight and leading thinking to this report, particularly ANZ, Australia Post, BCG, BHP, Circle In, Clipsal Solar, Culture Confidence, Dexus and Six Ideas by Dexus, How Do You Do It, IAG, KPMG, Laing Advisory, Mirvac, NAB, NBN, Nestlé, QIC, Schneider Electric, Telstra, Transdev and Twitter.
Thanks also to Dr. Jacqui Abbott of Jacqui Abbott Consulting for her contributions to this report, and to Diversity Council Australia for its ongoing work in this area.
About Chief Executive Women
Chief Executive Women's (CEW's) almost 1,000 members hold leading roles in Australia's largest private and public organisations. They oversee more than 1.3 million employees and $749 billion in revenue. Members' organisations have a combined market capitalisation greater than $1.144 trillion and contribute in excess of $249 billion to Australia's GDP. Since 1985, CEW has influenced and engaged all levels of Australian business and government to achieve gender balance. Through advocacy, research, targeted programmes, and scholarships, CEW helps remove barriers to women's progression and ensures equal opportunity for prosperity. CEW's members work actively to realise our vision of a community where women and men have equal economic and social choices and responsibilities.
About the Workplace Gender Equality Agency
The Workplace Gender Equality Agency is an Australian Government statutory agency charged with promoting and improving gender equality in Australian workplaces. It works collaboratively with employers to help them improve their gender performance and comply with the reporting requirements under the Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012. The agency is committed to promoting and contributing to understanding, acceptance and public debate of gender equality issues in the workplace, and collaborates with employers, business, industry and professional associations, academics and researchers, equal opportunity networks, and women's groups.
This report was supported by ANZ, thought leadership partner of Chief Executive Women.


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subset: commoncrawl


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Hardest Gap In Golf?
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1For every high priest taken from among men is ordained for men in things pertaining to God, that he may offer both gifts and sacrifices for sins: 2who can have compassion on the ignorant, and on them that are out of the way; for that he himself also is compassed with infirmity. 3And by reason hereof he ought, as for the people, so also for himself, to offer for sins. 4And no man taketh this honour unto himself, but he that is called of God, as was Aaron. 5So also Christ glorified not himself to be made an high priest; but he that said unto him,
Thou art my Son,
To day have I begotten thee.
6As he saith also in another place,
Thou art a priest for ever
After the order of Melchisedec.
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I'm Michel Martin, and this is TELL ME MORE from NPR News. We're going to spend the next part of the program talking about some new conversations people are having about the way we look and talk about kids, both boys and girls. In a few minutes, we'll dip into the debate over whether we should stop calling some girls bossy as Facebook executive Sheryl Sandberg suggests we should. She says it dampens girls' desire for leadership. We're going to have a variety of opinions about that.
But first, we're going to take a closer look at some new research about the way some boys are viewed by adults. This work was recently published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. And it found that African-American boys as young as 10 years old were significantly less likely to be viewed as children than their white peers. The report suggests that this could have serious implications for the way African-American boys are viewed by the criminal justice system and by society as a whole.
The title of that report is "The Essence of Innocence: Consequences of Dehumanizing Black Children." Philip Atiba Goff is that one of the lead authors of that research. He's also an assistant professor of social psychology at UCLA, and he's with us now. Welcome. Thanks so much for joining us.
PHILIP ATIBA GOFF: Thanks for having me, Michel.
MARTIN: What inspired you to take a look at this issue? What made you think about this?
GOFF: Well, having been a young black man myself, having grown up in integrated spaces, I have had a chance to see the ways in which young black men get treated differently. But have to say, what inspired me to this research in particular was research that had been done previously showing that black boys, in particular, are seen as older than they are. And seeing the ways in which black boys get treated differently in the criminal justice system, for instance, that black boys are 18 times more likely to be tried as an adult than are white boys.
MARTIN: For the same offenses?
GOFF: For the exact same offenses. That's right.
MARTIN: So how did you go about studying this question or framing this question?
GOFF: Well, we started simple and then got more complex. We first just showed people pictures of boys of various ages and of various races, and asked them to guess how old they were. But as we kept going, we said in a criminal justice context where this matters the most, they would have information about something that the boy was suspected of. So we had them suspected of misdemeanors.
And we describe the misdemeanor like vandalism or getting into a scuffle at school or they were suspected of felonies like car theft or something like that. We have that next to the picture and just people how old does this person look. And replicating previous work by Sandra Graham, Brian Lowery, Jennifer Eberhardt, other folks who had found similar kinds of things, people saw the black children as much older than the white children of the same age suspected of the same crime.
MARTIN: At what age does this affect start to be seen? How young can a boy be before he starts to be seen as older than he really is?
GOFF: So there's some converging evidence that it starts around the age that puberty starts so at the onset of teenage years and adolescence. That's about as early as it can start. And then obviously, by the time that folks get to adulthood, then everybody gets seen kind of the same way.
MARTIN: What do you think are the consequences of this kind of perception gap?
GOFF: Well, I can think about, right now, my godchildren who are very excited to be thought of as older than they are. Every kid can't wait to become an adult. But here, I think the consequences are much less innocent and endearing than that. When adults see children, we see people that are in need of protection, people that we want to help and keep separate from the worst that society has to do. When we see adults, we don't feel that same kind of need.
And when we rob children of that protection of childhood, then they can be treated like adults in the criminal justice system, they can be punished more harshly, they can be given less of the benefit of the doubt. We try less hard to help them understand their mistakes, and we believe less that they can, overtime, fix their mistakes. So all of the good things we want to give to children are taken early from black children, and that can't happen.
MARTIN: Yeah. You call this study dehumanizing black children. Why is it - I'm curious about why you call it dehumanizing black children as opposed to simple bias. I mean, how do you - why is this not just prejudice against black people?
GOFF: Well, when we think about childhood, the essence of childhood is that children need to be protected, at least in the modern U.S. And there's a long line of literature showing that. When we see people as children, but all of a sudden, they don't need to be protected, we're removing basic, human considerations from them. And that's what we found throughout her studies. So the first set, and I think the set of studies that are getting the most attention out of this are the age over-estimation stuff.
But the stuff that's at the back end of this paper - we show that people think of childhood as a less essential category when they're thinking of childhood as something the black children have as opposed to white children. That's a form of dehumanization when you're taking basic human protections away. Prejudice is just I don't like you. Dehumanization is I can do things to you that I can't do to other people that are in the human family.
MARTIN: I'm thinking that people who follow these kinds of stories can think of a number of examples where this issue might have come into play, but I think the issue around the treatment of a minor that is on a lot of people's minds, if they know no other examples, would be the Trayvon Martin case.
GOFF: Yes.
MARTIN: Is this an example of that in your opinion?
GOFF: Well, so the scientist in me says it always depends. I can't tell you what was in George Zimmerman's mind. I wasn't there. I don't know what happened that night, but certainly, in the way that that case played out in public, we saw instances of it where all of a sudden, a 17-year-old boy was portrayed as a manly thug. He was seen sometimes by people to be older than he actually was. He was a boy in a man's body was something I heard multiple times. And you don't hear that when it's white children in the same kind of context.
MARTIN: It's interesting 'cause I think the flipside of this is I think there will be some people who would argue that black boys do act older or are tougher. And so I want to know if there's any evidence of that or even if it's an interactive phenomenon where people treat them as they're older so that they act older.
GOFF: So that's a great question and as the scientist, again, I have to say it depends, but I think there's a way to think about it slightly differently. Not that, well, they're treated as older because they deserve it. Think about a young boy at his bar mitzvah or at a high school graduation when they're still 17 or at prom or at a public speaking event. When that's a white boy in a suit acting as an adult doing a wonderful job, parents and friends think about - my goodness how grown-up you can act, which means there are situations that cause individuals to act like adults before they are adults.
We train people into being adults. In black boys' lives, what we know from developmental psychology is there are more situations that demand that they be adults than there are in the average white boys' lives. Not everybody, not every black child has this, but on average, more black boys get asked to be in more situations where they're acting like adults than white boys. And the problem is we rarely see our black children with the basic human privilege of getting to act like children.
MARTIN: I know that a lot of your research was done with police officers, mostly white police officers, to test their perceptions of black children as well as their overall propensity toward bias, right, to have negative views of black people in general as well as to test their perceptions of black children per se. I am curious to know whether black police officers demonstrated the same pattern of misperception of black children's ages and the same patterns of bias that you determined.
GOFF: That's a great question. So let me answer a question I think is embedded within that first, which is that we weren't looking to see if police officers were especially likely to show these biases, but to see what the consequences were. So police officers, unfortunately, are from the human family. They have the same biases, in this case, as the undergraduate university students and the lay public that we surveyed.
I wish we had more black police officers in our study 'cause then I could give you a good answer. But because we had so few, we weren't able to see whether there were large differences between them. And that's certainly what some follow-up research, we hope, will take a look at.
MARTIN: What would you hope to happen as a result of this research?
GOFF: Well, again, this research is about translating previous findings from the laboratory to the world. And so both the purpose of the Center for Policing Equity and my particular research lab is to kind of export, to give away the findings of social psychology to the places where the consequences are most dire. So what we're hoping to do is to find interventions that will reduce this disparity. So for instance, if officers ask the age of the person that they're stopping or they're talking to, maybe they can remember oh, this is a human child. At 16 and at 15, they may look like an adult to me.
My mind may see them as a threatening individual for all kinds of reasons, but let me help them to stay a child. Also, I think it makes sense that we all have this perception because when you said, you know, in general, people think that they act that way and that's why we treat them that way. And if that makes sense, then we need to change the ways in which we portray black men and boys. We need to portray black boys in the state of childhood so that we can protect them in that state and keep them in that state before the early onset of adulthood that all parents fear for their kids.
MARTIN: Can I ask you - since we started our conversation talking about part of it is your own experience of the world, when you saw this research, when you started digging deeply into this research, do you mind if I ask how it made you feel?
GOFF: Well, most of the research that I am most proud of had this kind of dual effect on me where I'm happy to know so that we can do something about it. And I am distressed that we didn't know earlier because it means that we're just starting some of these things now. And I think that's the conundrum of living in contemporary, American democracy is that we've come so far with so far to go. There's so many challenges we haven't met, and that can be distressing or inspiring depending on the mood that you're in when it hits you. And it usually hits me in both moods.
MARTIN: Philip Atiba Goff is an assistant professor of social psychology at UCLA. Thank you so much for speaking with us.
GOFF: Again, thanks for having me. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.


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Mechiras Chametz
How Mechiras Chametz, Selling Your Chametz, Works
It may come as a surprise to many that the sale of chametz, one of Pesach's traditional rituals, is actually a relatively recent innovation. In order to avoid the prohibition of Jewish ownership during the holiday, the Mishna proposes the solution of selling chametz to a non-Jew. However, this selling process was very different from the one we practice today. Unlike our current practice, the Mishna refers to a final and irrevocable sale through which the original owner transfers his chametz into the hands of the non-Jew and then abandons any connection to it.
During the "Middle Ages", Eastern European land laws forbade Jewish participation in the agricultural economies of many of the countries in which they resided. Consequently, many Jews chose such independent trades as the operation of taverns. These taverns manufactured and sold grain-based liquor. With their livelihoods invested in liquor inventories, Pesach threatened to wipe out the source of income of Jewish tavern keepers.
Rabbi Yoel Sirkis – "The Bach", (1560-1640) addressed this problem by permitting the sale of liquor without removing it from its premises, accomplished by renting the storage space to the non-Jew along with the sale of the chametz. Even though the sale would be reversed after Pesach, the Bach held that it was nonetheless an effective and legal sale.
Some have argued that the process of selling Chametz should only be done in a situation that involves a great loss, for example when a business would be forced to discard its Chametz inventory. Chametz for personal use, they say, should be completely discarded in observance of the mitzvah of "Tashbitu se'or mibateichem" (removing leaven from your dwellings).
The Rabbi as Agent
Contrary to a widespread misconception, Rabbis do not buy the Chametz. The individual participating in the sale appoints his Rabbi as an agent to sell his chametz to a non-Jew on Erev Pesach. The signature on the contract and the exchange of an object (e.g., a handkerchief) in a procedure known as a Kinyan Chalifin, formalizes the power of attorney.
The Sale
To overcome any possible doubts associated with the validity of the transaction, different methods of halachic acquisition are also employed:
- Kinyan Kesef: An actual transfer of money in the form of a down payment is tendered by the purchasing non-Jew.
- Kinyan Shtar: The transaction is recorded in a legal contract signed by the parties.
- Kinyan Chalifin: An exchange (barter) of property, whereby the non-Jew hands over an object of his, upon which the chametz is transferred into his ownership.
- Kinyan Chatzer: The non-Jew acquires real estate from the Jew. By dint of the real estate acquisition, the Chametz transfers as well.
- Tekiat Kaf and Kinyan Odita: A handshake and verbal affirmation signaling the completion of the transaction.
Due to these intricacies, the sale often takes place in the presence of a Beth Din of three or more rabbanim.
Many Rabbis request that their congregants list all the Chametz they have, where it is stored, and its approximate total value. Others limit their congregations to selling only mixtures of Chametz (e.g., dressings with flour, mayonnaise with vinegar that may be chametz, as well as liquors), and not pure chametz such as breads, pastas, cakes, and cereals. All of this is done in order to stress the serious nature of the process.
To accommodate individuals who plan to be away the entire Yom Tov, some Rabbis either hold a key to their home during the holiday, or the individual designates someone else to hold the key, to insure the non-Jewish purchaser access to his Chametz.
The transaction takes place on Erev Pesach, prior to the conclusion of the fifth Halachic hour of the day.
Selling Chametz in Different Time Zones
This process works smoothly when each person and their Chametz remain in the same time zone. However, what happens if the Chametz is in America, but its initial owner will be in Israel for Pesach? When the Rabbi is selling the Chametz in the US time zone, Yom Tov will have already begun in Israel, past the time that one is permitted to have Chametz in one's possession. If a person travels before Pesach, the Rabbis arrange an early sale, to take effect Thursday evening, April 2 2015. With Israel being several hours ahead, this is still prior to the prohibition of owning Chametz. (For those who plan to be away the entire Pesach and want to avoid having to search for the chametz, selling the Chametz at this time may obviate the necessity for searching for the Chametz . Consult your Rabbi for details.)
What about the final day of Pesach, when the Yom Tov concludes in the New York area and the person visiting California is still in the final day of Pesach? In this instance, the Rabbi stipulates at the time of the sale that he will only re-acquire the Chametz after Pesach ends for that individual.


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When the Navy Yard mass shooting took place in Washington on Sept. 16, my 10-year-old daughter got a one line e-mail from her best friend in Nairobi, where we used to live. It read: "r u ok."
Her friend Banita had seen the news on television in Kenya. She was worried. My daughter wrote back that she was fine. We now live in Washington, but miles away from the site of the latest mass killing here in the U.S.
In this globalized world, communications can bring quick comfort.
Just five days later, on Sept. 21, it was our turn to write: "We've just heard the horrible news from Westgate. We hope you are safely away from there. So incredibly sad and awful."
Gunmen were on a killing spree in Nairobi's upscale Westgate Mall, firing AK-47's, lobbing grenades, slaughtering innocent people.
We'd lived in Nairobi for six years, until 2010. Banita's family lived next to us. Our homes were about two miles from the Westgate Mall. We went there often.
Nairobi is one of the most modern African cities, with decent infrastructure. But when Westgate opened in 2007, four stories of high-end stores, multiplex theaters, a casino, the ante had clearly been upped significantly.
"It's like America," my son, then 7, said wide-eyed, on our first visit there.
It was like upscale malls in lot of places, Dubai and Shanghai also came to mind. Nairobi felt like it had arrived, finally hooked into the globalized world.
But the two recent shootings, in Washington and Nairobi, reminded us that a globalized world is a place where more than just the malls seem familiar. So is violence. It is a world where armed gunmen, pick off innocent people with randomness and precision.
Banita's mother wrote back. They were OK. They had planned to go to Westgate for lunch that day. Their daughters had taken a long time getting ready. By the time they arrived at the mall, the shooting had started. So they had turned around and gone home.
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- Philosophy of DePaul Journal of Health Care Law
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Philosophy of DePaul Journal of Health Care Law
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Well, why don't you use your divine influence and get us out of this?
Where is that shuttle going?
Like I'm not gonna see her again. Come on, General, let's move. Right. Chewie, let's see what this piece of junk can do. Ready, everybody? All set. Here we go again. All right, hang on. Bring me Solo and the Wookiee. They will all suffer for this outrage. Han! Luke! Are you all right? Fine. Together again, huh? Wouldn't miss it. How are we doing? The same as always. That bad, huh? Where's Leia? I'm here. Oh, dear. His High Exaltedness, the great Jabba the Hutt, has decreed that you are to be terminated immediately. Good, I hate long waits. You will therefore be taken to the Dune Sea and cast into the pit of Carkoon, the nesting place of the all-powerful Sarlacc. Doesn't sound so bad. In his belly, you will find a new definition of pain and suffering, as you are slowly digested over a thousand years. On second thought, let's pass on that, huh? You should have bargained, Jabba. That's the last mistake you'll ever make.


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November 4, 1963
Apostolic Letter of His Holiness, Pope Paul VI
to Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, and Bishops
of the Catholic World on the Occasion of the Fourth Centenary
of the Establishment of Seminaries by the Council of Trent
Venerable Brethren, Greetings and Our Apostolic Blessing:
Jesus Christ, divine model of the seminarian and priest
Just as the Word of God, the true Light, that "enlightens every man who comes into the world,"(1) wished to become man for our salvation and to dwell amongst us in order to show us His glory, "glory as of the only-begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth"(2) so also He deigned to live a hidden life for 30 years in the humble house of Nazareth in order to prepare worthily for His apostolic mission in prayer and toil, and to give us the example of every virtue. Indeed, under the loving care of His putative father Joseph and of His most holy mother Mary, the child "advanced in wisdom and age and grace before God and men."(3)
Now if the imitation of the Incarnate Word is obligatory for all Christians, it is particularly binding on those whom He calls to become His representatives before men, no less by sanctity of life than by the preaching of the Gospel and the administration of the sacraments.
Historical precedents of the institution of seminaries
Conscious of this sacred duty of the ministers of Jesus Christ to shine before men as teachers of virtue, first by example and then by word, so that they really become "the salt of the earth,...the light of the world"(4) from the first centuries the Church has shown particular care for the instruction and education of youth destined for the priesthood.
For this we have the authoritative witness of St. Leo the Great, who writes: "Rightly the venerable counsels of saintly Fathers in the choice of priests looked upon as suitable for sacred administrations only those who had proved themselves over a long period by carrying out the duties of the lesser orders, so that each man's past conduct might stand as his testimonial."(5)
A succession of general and regional councils fixed the uninterrupted traditions, making ever more precise the laws and practices which would become in the future holy norms for the entire Church. Suffice it to quote in this regard the clear directions of the III and IV Lateran Councils.(6)
Reasons for the institution of seminaries
But, unfortunately, because of the worldly mentality that spread more and more even into ecclesiastical circles, and of the pagan spirit that was being reborn in the schools where the young were educated, these norms laid down by the Church for the preparation of future priests appeared inadequate. For this reason, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the necessity was more and more appreciated both for a general reform of morals in the Church, and for preserving the young levites from the dangers that threatened them, by providing for them an appropriate formation in suitable places under the guidance of wise teachers and superiors.
Institution of seminaries by the Council of Trent
To meet this urgent and fundamental need of the Church, Cardinals Domenico Capranica and Stefano Nardini, in the 15th century, undertook to found in Rome the colleges which bore their names. So too, in the following century, did St. Ignatius of Loyola, when he founded in Rome the two celebrated colleges, the Roman and the German—one for teachers, and one for pupils.
At the same time, Cardinal Reginald Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury, having urged the Bishops of Cambrai and of Tournay to imitate St. Ignatius' example, prepared for England his famous decree on seminaries—a decree which, approved by the synod of London in 1556 and published on the 10th of February of that year, served as a model for the law which emanated a few years later from the Council of Trent for the Universal Church, in Chapter 18 of the decree "De Reformatione," approved on the 15th of July, 1563.(7)
This year, therefore, is the fourth centenary of an event of great importance for the life of the Catholic Church. Its recurrence is all the more worthy to be duly remembered in that it coincides with the celebration of the Second Vatican Council, in which the Church, while it has at heart the promotion by far-seeing decrees of the renewal of the Christian people, will likewise not fail to devote particular attention to a sphere of supreme and vital interest for the entire Mystical Body of Christ, the sphere of the young who devote themselves in the seminaries to preparation for the priesthood.
Importance of seminaries in the history of the Church and of society
It is not Our intention to retrace the course of the labors that preceded the approval of the canon about the institution of seminaries, nor to dwell on the regulations contained in it. It is unquestionably an index of its importance that it was unanimously approved by the Fathers in the 23rd session of that renowned council.
We feel rather that it is more in accordance with the purpose of a fruitful celebration of the fourth centenary of this decree to emphasize the spiritual benefits which it brought to the Church and to civil society, and then to call attention to some aspects of the ascetic, intellectual and pastoral formation of the young seminarian and priest which today require a deeper consideration.
That the institution of seminaries was destined to bring a great spiritual benefit to each diocese of holy Church was clearly foreseen by the Fathers of the Council of Trent themselves, since they voted unanimously for the relevant canon in the 23rd session. About this, Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino writes:
"Above all the institution of seminaries was approved, many being heard to say that if no other good were to come from the present council, this alone would compensate for all the labors and all the inconveniences, as the one instrument which was looked upon as effective in restoring the lost discipline, it being quite certain that in any state we shall have the sort of citizen that we bring up."(8)
Another, and even more significant, indication of the great confidence placed by the hierarchy in seminaries for the reform of the Church, and the flowering anew of the priestly life amongst the clergy, was shown by the intrepid zeal with which, shortly after the council was over, attempts were made, in the midst of all sorts of difficulties, to implement the suggestions of the wise decree. It was Pope Pius IV himself who led the way, opening his seminary on February 1, 1565. He had been preceded by his nephew, St. Charles Borromeo, in Milan in 1564; and, in a more modest form, by the Bishops of Rieti, Larino, Camerino and Montepulciano.
There followed the establishment of other seminaries by bishops who were concerned for the rebuilding of their dioceses, while a select group of men, zealous for the good of the Church, came to their aid. Among these We are pleased to recall, for France, Cardinal Pierre de Berulle, Adrien Bourdoise, St. Vincent de Paul with his priests of (the Congregation of) the Mission, St. John Eudes, and Olier with his company of St. Sulpice.
In Italy it was above all the merit of St. Gregory Barbarigo, at the end of the 17th century to have labored indefatigably for the reorganization of the seminaries of Bergamo and Padua according to the norms laid down by the Council of Trent, keeping in mind all the time the spiritual and cultural needs of his time. The example given by this most zealous pastor to the other Italian bishops is still alive in all its strength, for he knew how to combine fidelity to traditional methods with wise innovations, among which is to be remembered the study of Oriental languages, so as to provide a better knowledge of the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers of the Christian East, in view of a religious rapprochement between the Catholic Church and those separated from her.
Our predecessor John XXIII, of venerable memory, made special mention of this merit of the great Bishop of Padua in the homily he gave on the occasion of Barbarigo's enumeration in the catalogue of saints.(9)
From the good seed sown by the Council of Trent in the fertile fields of the Church by the aforementioned decree, there came also the flowering of seminaries or colleges with special purposes, such as those of Propaganda Fide in Rome, of the Foreign Missions in Paris, and of the various national colleges in Rome, Spain, and Flanders. Thus the entire complex of providential cenacles of ecclesiastical formation in the Church today can well be compared to the tree of the Gospel parable which, born from a tiny seed, grew and spread to such immense proportions that it could shelter in its branches the innumerable birds of the sky.(10)
We must therefore be deeply grateful to the Lord that the institution of seminaries, decided upon by the Fathers of the Council of Trent, far from being weakened in succeeding centuries, though harassed in many countries by ideologies and practices opposed to the teaching and the salutary mission of the Church, continued to develop, so as to pass beyond European frontiers and to accompany the progress of Catholicism in the Americas and even in the missionary countries.
The Holy See for its part hastened to give to the seminaries directions that were more and more in accordance with the spiritual and cultural needs of the clergy, according to the circumstances of time and place. In this field, unquestionably one of the most delicate which the Holy Spirit, who inspires all wise conciliar decisions, (11) has entrusted primarily to the Supreme Pastor of the Church, it is Our duty to recall the outstanding merits of Our venerable predecessors, among whom stand out the names of Gregory XIII, Sixtus V, Clement VIII, Urban VIII, Innocent XI, Innocent XIII, Benedict XIII, Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, Pius VI, Gregory XVI, Pius IX, Leo XIII, St. Pius X, Benedict XV, Pius XI, Pius XII, and John XXIII.
No wonder therefore that seminaries, the object of solicitous care of the Apostolic See and of so many zealous pastors throughout the Catholic world, should prosper to the glory and the advantage not only of the Church, but of civil society. This is the glorious page in the history of seminaries which Our predecessor Pius IX recalled in the apostolic letter Cum Romani Pontifices of June 28, 1853, by which he established the Pius Seminary. In that letter, he drew the attention of governments and of all those who love the true good of human society to "the way in which a right and accurate formation of clergy contributes to the safety and prosperity of religion and society, and to the defense of true and sound doctrine."(12)
Present importance of seminaries
This same blessed link which binds the religious, moral and cultural progress of peoples with the good and learned ministers of the Lord was recently stressed by
Pius XI in these memorable words: "It is such as confers on the Church dignity, efficiency, and life itself, and is of the greatest possible interest for the welfare of the human race. For the immense benefits which have been won for the world by Jesus Christ the Redeemer are communicated with men only through the ministers of Christ and the dispensers of the mysteries of God."(13)
We therefore readily endorse, after the example of Pius XII, the wise sentence pronounced by Leo XIII, of unforgettable memory, about seminaries: "With their estate the fortune of the Church is inextricably linked."(14)
Since then, on the one hand, We invite all Our brothers in the episcopate, the priests and the faithful to render due thanks to Almighty God, "giver of all good gifts," for the great benefits which have flowed from the wise institution of seminaries, We take the opportunity of the present centenary celebration to address to all a fatherly exhortation. We should like to say to all the members of the Catholic Church that they should feel themselves at one in the support of seminaries of every kind.
Undoubtedly it is on the supreme pastors of dioceses, on the rectors and spiritual directors of seminaries, on the teachers of the various subjects that the primary duty rests for the manifold work of the instruction and education of candidates for the priesthood. But their work becomes impossible, or more difficult and less efficient, if it is not preceded and supported by the fervid and incessant cooperation of parish priests and their assistants, of the Religious and laity who are dedicated to the teaching of the young; and in particular, by the cooperation of Christian parents.
Necessity and duty of creating a favorable atmosphere
Indeed, how is it possible to overlook the fact that the priestly vocation, from its beginning to its full realization, while it is of course principally a gift of God, nevertheless demands the generous collaboration of all, whether of clergy or laity? In fact, since modern civilization has spread among the faithful the esteem and the desire for worldly goods, it has lowered in many minds the appreciation of spiritual and eternal goods. How then could there arise many authentic priestly vocations in family and academic circles wherein only the values and benefits of worldly pursuits are exalted?
How few, alas, are those Christians who seriously ponder the warning of the divine Savior: "What does it profit a man, if he gain the whole world, but suffer the loss of his own soul?"(15) And how difficult it is, in the midst of the infinite distractions and seductions of the world, to make our own the thought of the Apostle: "…We look not at the things that are seen, but at the things that are not seen. For the things that are seen are temporal, but the things that are not seen are eternal."(16)
Is it not perhaps by opening one's mind and heart to the vision and hope of eternal rewards that the Lord invited the poor fishermen of Galilee to cooperate with His divine mission? For seeing the two brother fishermen, Simon and Andrew, He said to them: "Come, follow me, and I will make you fishers of men."(17)
And to Peter, who on behalf of the other disciples asked Him what would be their fate, as they had left all things for love of Him, Jesus gave the solemn assurance: "Amen I say to you that you who have followed me, in the regeneration when the Son of Man shall sit on the throne of His glory, shall also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel."(18)
In order therefore that a regard and a holy enthusiasm for the priestly life should grow and develop in the hearts of the young, it is necessary to create the requisite spiritual atmosphere, whether in the home or in the school. In other words, although few Christians are called to the priestly or the religious life, all are bound to live and act according to the spirit of supernatural faith(19) and therefore to show the highest respect and veneration to those who consecrate themselves entirely to the spiritual well-being of humanity, to their own sanctification, and to the greater glory of God. Only thus can the mind of the Lord be spread among Christian people. Only thus will the flowering of priestly vocation be made easy.(20)
Nature of vocation. Its first source: God. Necessity of prayer
The first duty then that devolves on all Christians in regard to priestly vocations is that of prayer, according to the precept of the Lord: "The harvest indeed is abundant, but the laborers are few. Pray therefore the Lord of the harvest to send forth laborers into his harvest."(21) It is clearly indicated in these words of our divine Redeemer that the primary source of the priestly vocation is God himself, in His free and merciful will. Hence He said to His apostles: "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you, and have appointed you that you should go and bear fruit, and that your fruit should remain."(22)
And St. Paul, while exalting the priesthood of Jesus above that of the Old Covenant, observed that every legitimate priest, being by nature a mediator between God and men, depends mainly on the divine benevolence: "For every high priest taken from among men is appointed for men in the things pertaining to God...And no man takes the honor to himself; he takes it who is called by God, as Aaron was one."(23)
How excellent, therefore, and a free gift is the calling to participate in the priesthood of Jesus Christ, of whom the same Apostle writes: "Christ did not glorify himself with the high priesthood...and when perfected, he became to all who obey Him the cause of eternal salvation, called by God a high priest according to the order of Melchisedech."(24)
Therefore with good reason St. John Chrysostom writes in his valuable treatise De sacerdotio: "Although the priesthood is exercised on earth it rightfully belongs to the celestial realm. For it was no man, nor angel, nor archangel, nor any other created power that arranged this function, but the Holy Spirit himself, and it was He, too, that inspired men to seek the ministry of angels."(25)
But when discussing this divine call to the priesthood (to which no one can claim any right) it is worth recalling that it concerns not only the spiritual faculties of the chosen one—his intelligence and free will—but involves also his sensitive faculties and even his very body. For the whole person must be fitted for the task of carrying out, in an efficient and worthy manner, the arduous duties of the sacred ministry, a ministry which often demands renunciation and sacrifice, sometimes even of one's own life after the example of the Good Shepherd, Jesus Christ.
We must not, however, imagine that God would call to the priesthood boys or young men who, insufficiently endowed in mind or heart, or because of obvious psychopathic weaknesses or serious organic defects, would afterwards be unable to carry out properly their various duties, or fulfill the obligations involved in the ecclesiastical life.
On the contrary it is comforting to hold the Angelic Doctor's doctrine that the Apostle's words about the first preachers of the Gospel can be applied equally to every one who is called to the priesthood. These are the words of St. Thomas: "Those whom God chooses for some task he so prepares and disposes that they may be found suitable for the task for which they are chosen in accordance with the words of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians,3, 6: `He also it is who has made us fit ministers of the new covenant."(26)
Timely development necessary and obligatory
But the duties of parents and pastors, and of all who are responsible for boys and young men are not confined to creating an atmosphere favorable to religious vocations and imploring the Lord to bestow His grace on new bands of levites. They must do all in their power to direct them to the seminary or religious institution as soon as they show clearly that they aspire to the priesthood and are suited to it. Only in this way will they be sheltered from the corruption of the world and enabled to cultivate the seed of the divine call in the most suitable surroundings.
Now begins the responsibility of the superiors, the spiritual director and the teachers: the responsibility, namely, of discerning in these young men, in a more exact manner, the signs that they have been chosen by Christ as His future ministers, and of assisting them to prepare themselves worthily for their exalted mission. This complex work of physical, religious, moral and intellectual education that must be carried out in the seminary is well outlined in the canon of Trent: "Nurture them, and train them in piety and knowledge."(27)
Priestly vocation and right intention
We come now to a question of the utmost importance: which of the signs of priestly vocation is the most characteristic and indispensable, so as to merit the special attention of those engaged in the instruction and formation of young seminarians—in particular the spiritual director? The answer is unquestionably a right intention, which may be described as the clear and determined desire to dedicate oneself completely to the service of the Lord. This answer is confirmed by the conciliar decree which lays down that only those young men be admitted to the seminary "who by their character and good will inspire the hope that they will dedicate their whole lives to the priestly ministry."(28)
Thus Our predecessors Pius XI, in his celebrated encyclical, Ad catholici sacerdotii, did not hesitate to declare, when speaking of the intention required in the candidate for the priesthood: "He must look to the priesthood solely from the noble motive of consecrating himself to the service of God and the salvation of souls. He must likewise have, or at least strive earnestly to acquire, solid piety, perfect purity of life and sufficient knowledge such as We have previously explained. Thus he shows that he is called by God to the priestly state."(29)
Moral certitude about priestly vocation and the bishop's call
It is sufficient, then, that the young men, before they be accepted into the seminary, show at least the beginnings of that intention and character that is required for the sacred ministry and the obligations attached to it. But before they be admitted to Orders, and especially the priesthood, the candidates must show, to the bishop or the religious superior, the evidence of mature decision and of progress in sanctity, in learning and in discipline that will inspire in their superiors the moral certitude that before them stands the chosen one of the Lord."(30)
The responsibility of the Ordinary in this matter is indeed tremendous, for it is he who must pronounce the final judgment on the signs of vocation in the candidate. He alone has the right to call to the priesthood and thereby set the Church's seal on a divine call that has gradually grown to maturity.
On this matter, the Catechism of the Council of Trent rightly declared: "Those who are called by the legitimate ministers of the Church are said to be called by God."(31) Confronted with the regrettable defections of some ministers of the sanctuary, which could have been prevented by a greater severity in selection and training, the shepherds of dioceses will do well to keep in mind the severe warning which St. Paul gave Timothy: "Do not lay hands hastily upon anyone, and do not be a partner in other men's sins."(32)
Other elements necessary for the proper development of a vocation
We have recalled briefly the essential element of priestly vocation, which is the clear, definite and enduring intention to embrace the priestly state, through a desire especially for the glory of God, the salvation of one's own soul, the souls of one's brethren and of all who have been redeemed by the Precious Blood of our divine Savior. It will not be out of place now to refer to the other factors involved in the total preparation of the future minister of the altar.
This problem, which is of the utmost importance in the life of the Church, has been dealt with repeatedly by Our predecessors and all are well acquainted with their most recent pronouncements, such as the encyclical Ad catholici sacerdotii(33) of Pius XI; the exhortation Menti Nostrae(34) of Pius XII; the encyclical Sacerdotii Nostri Primordia(35) of John XXIII.
In addition, the ecumenical council has under examination a constitution "On the formation of seminarians," the approval of which will bring up-to-date the provident regulations of Trent and of the various documents of the Apostolic See which followed. This new document is destined to give a great impetus to the work of enlisting candidates for the priesthood, and to that other more important and demanding task of directing properly the ascetical, liturgical, intellectual and pastoral formation of these candidates.
While We look forward with confidence to the learned deliberations of the council on the question of seminaries, We feel compelled by Our supreme pastoral office to invite all who are engaged in the education of young aspirants to the priesthood to give careful consideration to certain dangers which threaten the efficacy of the system of training now in use in the seminaries; let them consider also which aspects of that training must be developed with greater care.
Dangers and errors
Just as the open field is at the mercy of every sower of poisonous weeds, so the mind of the adolescent today is more than ever exposed to dangers. His intelligence is threatened by a critical attitude to everything and everyone. His will revolts—even from earliest years—against any restraint imposed by natural law or by ecclesiastical or civil authority, and seeks untrammeled freedom of action.
In this way the higher faculties are weakened in their striving towards supreme truth and good. So it is not surprising that the sensitive powers, both internal and external, reject the necessary control of right reason and good will. For the faculties of reason and will have been cut off from the continuous and efficacious influence of grace and the supernatural virtues. This is why the adolescent in his conduct and his speech falls short of those ideals of humility, obedience, modesty and chastity that befit his dignity as a rational being and, more particularly, as a Christian, whose very body has become through grace a member of Jesus Christ and a temple of the Holy Spirit.
The adolescent who displays such a superficial and confused attitude of mind will surely develop into the type of man who claims many rights and accepts few obligations. Therefore this attitude of mind presents a really serious obstacle to the development of priestly vocations which must be based on solid conviction and a spirit of generosity. One must combat vigorously everything which threatens the healthy education of the young, and especially of those whom Christ has called to continue His work of redemption. But with what weapons can one carry on this battle?
Remedy: the development of natural and supernatural virtues
In the first place, parents and teachers must cultivate in their children and pupils from the very earliest years the spirit of prayer, humility, obedience, dedication and sacrifice. This applies especially to those whose character appears more docile, more generous and more suited to the ideals of the priesthood. The superiors and teachers in the seminary have the responsibility of preserving and developing in their students those gifts which we have mentioned above, but they must also see to it that the candidate to Holy Orders, as he progresses in years, acquires and cultivates those qualities of soul that must be regarded as essential to a solid and complete moral formation.
The qualities of most fundamental importance, in Our view, are the spirit of reflection and of right intention in one's conduct, the free personal choice of good, even of the greatest good, and the control over the will and senses. This self-control will enable one to resist the promptings of self-love, the evil example of others, the temptations that arise from a nature weakened by original sin, from the world and the spirit of evil which still furiously attacks the chosen ones of the Lord in an effort to bring about their ruin.
Moreover, in his dealings with others the man who wants to bear witness before the world—with Christ and for Christ—to that truth which brings freedom(36) must be trained in the virtue of truth in word and action, and so must cultivate sincerity, loyalty, integrity, fidelity He must follow Paul's exhortation to his beloved Timothy: "Recall these things to their minds, charging them in the sight of the Lord not to dispute with words, for that is useless, leading to the ruin of listeners. Use all care to present thyself to God as a man approved, a worker that cannot be ashamed, rightly handling the word of truth."(37)
Christian and priestly education must accompany natural development
The task then is to root out from the soul of the adolescent the insidious buds of sin and vice, and in their place to plant and tend the seeds of virtue. In this work one ought to rely on those good qualities that are inherent in human nature, so that the spiritual edifice rests on the solid basis of the natural virtues. In this respect the wisdom of Aquinas was never more appropriate: "Since grace does not destroy nature, but perfects it, natural reason must be subject to faith, just as the natural tendency of the will is guided by charity."(38)
Nevertheless, one must not exaggerate the importance of good qualities and natural virtues, as though the true and lasting success of the priestly ministry depended principally on natural resources. Nor must one forget that it is impossible to train young people perfectly in these same natural virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance, humility, meekness and the other virtues connected with them, if recourse can only be made to the principle of right reason and the methods of natural sciences such as experimental psychology and pedagogy.
For Catholic doctrine teaches that without the healing grace of our Savior it is impossible to fulfill all the commandments of the natural law or to acquire perfect permanent virtue.(39) From this undisputed principle there follows a great practical conclusion: The formation of the man must proceed step by step with that of the Christian and the future priest, so that the natural energies are purified and strengthened by prayer, by the grace which comes from frequent reception of Penance and the Eucharist, and by the influence of the supernatural virtues which receive protection and assistance from the natural virtues.
But this is not enough! As the Apostle warns us, the natural energies of mind and will must be ruled by faith and charity, so that all our actions carried out in the name of Our Lord Jesus Christ may merit an eternal reward."(40)
Education in a spirit of sacrifice and the imitation of Christ
It is clear that all We have said must be kept in mind by those who are called to be with our divine Savior victims of love and obedience for the salvation of mankind, and to lead a life of virginal chastity, and of exemplary detachment, interior and exterior, from the empty riches of this world, in order that their ministry may be more worthy and more fruitful. For they will be called upon one day not only to place all their talents at the service of the sacred ministry, but even to sacrifice many lawful desires, and endure hardship and persecution in carrying out faithfully and generously the work of the Good Shepherd.
Every true minister of Jesus Christ must be able to say with St. Paul: "To the weak I became weak, that I might gain the weak. I became all things to all men, that I might save all. I do all things for the sake of the Gospel, that I may be made partaker thereof."(41) Such in fact has been the rule of life of many bishops and priests whom the Church by canonization proposes as an example to all the clergy.
This in broad outline is the exalted mission of training and spiritual formation that is entrusted to the rector and spiritual director of the seminary under the supreme guidance of the bishop. But their work depends for its completion on the collaboration of the various professors who are responsible for the full development of the intellectual faculties of the candidate for priesthood.
The fruit of this intelligent and harmonious collaboration between superiors and professors will be the total formation of the young man, not only as a human being and a Christian but above all as a priest, whose whole personality must be penetrated by the light of divine revelation. For it is divine revelation which ensures that "the man of God may be perfect, equipped for every good work."(42) It is worth recalling the warning of Chrysostom: "The soul of the priest must shine forth like a light which illuminates the whole world."(43)
The cultural formation of the young priest must certainly include an adequate knowledge of languages and especially of Latin (particularly for those of the Latin rite). His familiarity with history, science, mathematics, geography and art must be equal to that of the educated classes among whom he lives.
But the chief treasure of the mind of the priest must be the possession of that human and Christian wisdom which is the fruit of a solid philosophical and theological formation according to the methods, doctrine and principles of St. Thomas in complete accordance with the teachings of divine Revelation and the Church's teaching authority.
Among the essential or complementary studies in his theological training there must be included Biblical exegesis, according to the laws of Catholic hermeneutics, canon law, Church history, sacred liturgy, archaeology, patrology, history of dogma, ascetical and mystical theology, hagiography, etc.
Participation in the life of the diocese
As he approaches major Orders, and in the first years of his priesthood, the student must be introduced to the problems of pastoral theology, and take an increasingly active part in the life of the diocese.
This will include a participation in the liturgy, catechetical instruction, the direction of Catholic Action amongst the youth, and apostolic work on behalf of the missions. In this way the future pastor of souls will gradually become acquainted with his particular field of activity, and receive a suitable preparation for it. Another valuable part of this preparation will be an adequate knowledge of Gregorian chant and sacred music.
All this will enable him to give a greater unity to his studies with his future pastoral ministry in mind, in the conviction that all his activity must have as its ultimate aim the coming of the kingdom of Christ and God, in accordance with the wise admonition of St. Paul: "For all things are yours...and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's."(44) Thus, at the present time, when the interests of God are being more and more neglected in the various fields of human activity, the priest must shine forth in the world as another Christ and a "man of God."(45)
Exemplary sanctity
Holiness and learning must therefore be the distinguishing mark of him who is called to become an ambassador of the Word of God, Redeemer of the world. He must possess holiness in an exceptional degree, superior to that of the laity and nonordained Religious, as St. Thomas rightly observes: "Because the religious state does not necessarily include ordination, it is clear that ordination confers a greater dignity. By ordination one is entrusted with the most exalted office as an instrument of Christ in the sacrament of the altar."(46)
Therefore a very fervent devotion to the Blessed Sacrament must be manifested by the life of him who aspires to be its consecrator and dispenser. This devotion to the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ ought to be harmoniously completed by devotion to the Most Holy Name of Jesus and to His Most Sacred Heart.
Praise and exhortation
To conclude this exhortation, We wish to address a word of paternal encouragement to all who are engaged in a spirit of zeal and self-sacrifice in the work of recruiting and educating candidates for the priesthood in the secular clergy or religious orders. A special word of praise must go to those who carry on this work in those areas where there is a great shortage of vocations, and where the work of securing new ministers for the sanctuary is most difficult and often dangerous.
Our approval is directed next to those who, following the directives and exhortations of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities, strive by their writings and discussions to perfect for the greater good of the Church the methods of seminary training in view of the particular need of time and place, and the progress of pedagogy, but with due respect for the proper purpose and spirit of the priestly life.
Prayer and fraternal charity
We turn to you, beloved sons, who like the apostles in the Cenacle are gathered in earnest prayer within the seminary walls. As you prepare under the maternal gaze of the Queen of the Apostles to receive the superhuman power of consecrating the Body and Blood of the Lord and of remitting sins, as well as the abundant grace of the Holy Spirit, which will enable you to fulfill worthily the ministry of reconciliation,(47) We say with St. Paul: "Let every man remain in the calling in which he was called."(48) Docility and fidelity to the divine call are indispensable for anyone who wishes to cooperate more intimately with Jesus Christ in the salvation of souls and to assure himself a more splendid crown of glory in eternity. Treasure this inestimable gift which the Lord has given you, and serve Him from your earliest years in joy and exultation.(49)
Finally, venerable brethren, it is Our earnest desire that you do all in your power to apply in your dioceses, to yourselves and to the faithful in your care - especially to your ecclesiastical students - these instructions, whose only inspiration has been love of the Church. As a pledge of Our desire, We impart to all a fatherly apostolic blessing.
1. John 1,9.
2. John 1, 14.
3. Luke 2, 52.
4. Matt. 5, 13-14.
5. Epist. 12, Pl. 54, 650.
6. Mansi, Ampliss, Council. Collect. XXII, 227, 999, 1013.
7. Cf. Roccaberti, Bibliotheca maxima Pontificia, XVIII, 362; L. Pastor, Storia dei Papi, VI, 569; VII, 329.
8. P. Sforza Pallavicino, Istoria del Concilio di Trento, ed. di A.M. Zaccaria (Roma, 1833), IV, 344.
9. Cf. A.A.S., LXII (1960), 458-9.
10. Cf. Matt. 13, 31-32.
11. Cf. Acts 15, 28.
12. Pius IX P.M. Acta, I (1846-54), 473.
13. Apostolic letter "Officiorum omnium," A.A.S., XIV (1922), 449.
14. Apostolic letter "Paternae providaeque," Acta Leonis (1899) p.194; cf. Pius XII, A.A.S., XXXVII (1945) p. 207.
15. Mark 8, 36.
16. 2 Cor. 4, 18.
17. Matt. 4, 19.
18. Matt 19, 28.
19. Cf. Hebrews 10, 38.
20. Cf. 1 Cor. 2, 16.
21. Matt. 9, 37-38.
22. John 15, 16.
23. Hebrews 5, 14.
24. Hebrews 5, 5,9.
25. De sacerdotio, Lib. III, n. 4: PG, XLVIII, 642.
26. Summa Theol., III, q. 27, a, 4, c.
27. Mansi, Ampliss. Concil. Collect., XXIII, 147.
28. Mansi, 726, 38-39.
29. Litt. encycl. "Ad catholici sacerdotii," Dec. 20, 1935, A.A.S XXVII (1936), 40.
30. Cf. 1 Kings 16, 6.
31. Catech. Concil. Trid., III, "de Ordine," 3.
32. 1 Timothy 5, 22.
36. Cf. John 18, 36; 8, 32.
37. 2 Timothy 2, 14-15.
38. Summa Theol., I, q. 1, a. 8, c.
39. Cf. Summa Theol., I-IIae, q. 109, a.4, c.
40. Cf. Col. 3, 17; 1 Cor. 13, 1-4.
41. 1 Cor. 9, 22-23.
42. 2 Timothy 3, 17.
43. De sacerdotio, lib. VI, n. 4: PG, XLVIII.
44. 1 Cor. 3, 22-23.
45. 1 Timothy 6, 11.
46. Summa Theol., II-IIae, q. 184, a. 8,c.
47. Cf. 2 Cor. 5, 18.
48. 1 Cor. 7, 20.
49. Cf. Ps. 99, 2.
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