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Barack Obama – Narcissist or Merely Narcissistic?
The narcissist:
"To avoid such intolerable pain, some patients with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) socially withdraw and feign false modesty and humility to mask their underlying grandiosity. Dysthymic and depressive disorders are common reactions to isolation and feelings of shame and inadequacy."
Due to their lack of empathy, disregard for others, exploitativeness, sense of entitlement, and constant need for attention (narcissistic supply), narcissists are rarely able to maintain functional and healthy interpersonal relationships.
Many narcissists are over-achievers and ambitious. Some of them are even talented and skilled. But they are incapable of team work because they cannot tolerate setbacks. They are easily frustrated and demoralized and are unable to cope with disagreement and criticism. Though some narcissists have meteoric and inspiring careers, in the long-run, all of them find it difficult to maintain long-term professional achievements and the respect and appreciation of their peers. The narcissist's fantastic grandiosity, frequently coupled with a hypomanic mood, is typically incommensurate with his or her real accomplishments (the "grandiosity gap").
An important distinction is between cerebral and somatic narcissists. The cerebrals derive their Narcissistic Supply from their intelligence or academic achievements and the somatics derive their Narcissistic Supply from their physique, exercise, physical or sexual prowess and romantic or physical "conquests".
Another crucial division within the ranks of patients with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is between the classic variety (those who meet five of the nine diagnostic criteria included in the DSM), and the compensatory kind (their narcissism compensates for deep-set feelings of inferiority and lack of self-worth).
Obama displays the following behaviors, which are among the hallmarks of pathological narcissism:
Ignores data that conflict with his fantasy world, or with his inflated and grandiose self-image. This has to do with magical thinking. Obama already sees himself as president because he is firmly convinced that his dreams, thoughts, and wishes affect reality. Additionally, he denies the gap between his fantasies and his modest or limited real-life achievements (for instance, in 12 years of academic career, he hasn't published a single scholarly paper or book).
Feels that he is above the law, incl. and especially his own laws.
Talks about himself in the 3rd person singular or uses the regal "we" and craves to be the exclusive center of attention, even adulation
Have a messianic-cosmic vision of himself and his life and his "mission".
Sets ever more complex rules in a convoluted world of grandiose fantasies with its own language (jargon)
Displays false modesty and unctuous "folksiness" but unable to sustain these behaviors (the persona, or mask) for long. It slips and the true Obama is revealed: haughty, aloof, distant, and disdainful of simple folk and their lives.
Sublimates aggression and holds grudges.
Behaves as an eternal adolescent (e.g., his choice of language, youthful image he projects, demands indulgence and feels entitled to special treatment, even though his objective accomplishments do not justify it).
III. Body Language
Narcissists are an elusive breed, hard to spot, harder to pinpoint, impossible to capture. Even an experienced mental health diagnostician with unmitigated access to the record and to the person examined would find it fiendishly difficult to determine with any degree of certainty whether someone suffers from a full fledged Narcissistic Personality Disorder – or merely possesses narcissistic traits, a narcissistic style, a personality structure ("character"), or a narcissistic "overlay" superimposed on another mental health problem.
Moreover, it is important to distinguish between traits and behavior patterns that are independent of the patient's cultural-social context (i.e., which are inherent, or idiosyncratic) – and reactive patterns, or conformity to cultural and social morals and norms. Reactions to severe life crises or circumstances are also often characterized by transient pathological narcissism, for instance (Ronningstam and Gunderson, 1996). But such reactions do not a narcissist make.
When a person belongs to a society or culture that has often been described as narcissistic by scholars (such as Theodore Millon) and social thinkers (e.g., Christopher Lasch) – how much of his behavior can be attributed to his milieu and which of his traits are really his?
The Narcissistic Personality Disorder is rigorously defined in the DSM IV-TR with a set of strict criteria and differential diagnoses.
Narcissism is regarded by many scholars to be an adaptative strategy ("healthy narcissism"). It is considered pathological in the clinical sense only when it becomes a rigid personality structure replete with a series of primitive defence mechanisms (such as splitting, projection, projective identification, or intellectualization) – and when it leads to dysfunctions in one or more areas of the patient's life.
Pathological narcissism is the art of deception. The narcissist projects a False Self and manages all his social interactions through this concocted fictional construct.
When the narcissist reveals his true colors, it is usually far too late. His victims are unable to separate from him. They are frustrated by this acquired helplessness and angry at themselves for having they failed to see through the narcissist earlier on.
But the narcissist does emit subtle, almost subliminal, signals ("presenting symptoms") even in a first or casual encounter. Compare the following list to Barack Obama's body language during his public appearances.
These are:
"Haughty" body language – The narcissist adopts a physical posture which implies and exudes an air of superiority, seniority, hidden powers, mysteriousness, amused indifference, etc. Though the narcissist usually maintains sustained and piercing eye contact, he often refrains from physical proximity (he is "territorial").
The narcissist takes part in social interactions – even mere banter – condescendingly, from a position of supremacy and faux "magnanimity and largesse". But he rarely mingles socially and prefers to remain the "observer", or the "lone wolf".
Entitlement markers – The narcissist immediately asks for "special treatment" of some kind. Not to wait his turn, to have a longer or a shorter therapeutic session, to talk directly to authority figures (and not to their assistants or secretaries), to be granted special payment terms, to enjoy custom tailored arrangements – or to get served first.
The narcissist is the one who – vocally and demonstratively – demands the undivided attention of the head waiter in a restaurant, or monopolizes the hostess, or latches on to celebrities in a party. The narcissist reacts with rage and indignantly when denied his wishes and if treated equally with others whom he deems inferior.
Idealization or devaluation – The narcissist instantly idealizes or devalues his interlocutor. This depends on how the narcissist appraises the potential his converser has as a Narcissistic Supply Source. The narcissist flatters, adores, admires and applauds the "target" in an embarrassingly exaggerated and profuse manner – or sulks, abuses, and humiliates her.
Narcissists are polite only in the presence of a potential Supply Source. But they are unable to sustain even perfunctory civility and fast deteriorate to barbs and thinly-veiled hostility, to verbal or other violent displays of abuse, rage attacks, or cold detachment.
The "membership" posture – The narcissist always tries to "belong". Yet, at the very same time, he maintains his stance as an outsider. The narcissist seeks to be admired for his ability to integrate and ingratiate himself without investing the efforts commensurate with such an undertaking.
For instance: if the narcissist talks to a psychologist, the narcissist first states emphatically that he never studied psychology. He then proceeds to make seemingly effortless use of obscure professional terms, thus demonstrating that he mastered the discipline all the same, as an autodidact – which proves that he is exceptionally intelligent or introspective.
In general, the narcissist always prefers show-off to substance. One of the most effective methods of exposing a narcissist is by trying to delve deeper. The narcissist is shallow, a pond pretending to be an ocean. He likes to think of himself as a Renaissance man, a Jack of all trades. The narcissist never admits to ignorance in any field – yet, typically, he is ignorant of them all. It is surprisingly easy to penetrate the gloss and the veneer of the narcissist's self-proclaimed omniscience.
Bragging and false autobiography – The narcissist brags incessantly. His speech is peppered with "I", "my", "myself", and "mine". He describes himself as intelligent, or rich, or modest, or intuitive, or creative – but always excessively, implausibly, and extraordinarily so.
The narcissist's biography sounds unusually rich and complex. His achievements – incommensurate with his age, education, or renown. Yet, his actual condition is evidently and demonstrably incompatible with his claims. Very often, the narcissist lies or his fantasies are easily discernible. He always name-drops and appropriates other people's experiences and accomplishments.
Emotion-free language – The narcissist likes to talk about himself and only about himself. He is not interested in others or what they have to say, unless they constitute potential Sources of Supply and in order to obtain said supply. He acts bored, disdainful, even angry, if he feels that they are intruding on his precious time and, thus, abusing him.
In general, the narcissist is very impatient, easily bored, with strong attention deficits – unless and until he is the topic of discussion. One can publicly dissect all aspects of the intimate life of a narcissist without repercussions, providing the discourse is not "emotionally tinted".
If asked to relate directly to his emotions, the narcissist intellectualizes, rationalizes, speaks about himself in the third person and in a detached "scientific" tone or composes a narrative with a fictitious character in it, suspiciously autobiographical. Narcissists like to refer to themselves in mechanical terms, as efficient automata or machines.
Seriousness and sense of intrusion and coercion – The narcissist is dead serious about himself. He may possess a subtle, wry, and riotous sense of humor, scathing and cynical, but rarely is he self-deprecating. The narcissist regards himself as being on a constant mission, whose importance is cosmic and whose consequences are global. If a scientist – he is always in the throes of revolutionizing science. If a journalist – he is in the middle of the greatest story ever. If a novelist – he is on his way to a Booker or Nobel prize.
This self-misperception is not amenable to light-headedness or self-effacement. The narcissist is easily hurt and insulted (narcissistic injury). Even the most innocuous remarks or acts are interpreted by him as belittling, intruding, or coercive. His time is more valuable than others' – therefore, it cannot be wasted on unimportant matters such as mere banter or going out for a walk.
Any suggested help, advice, or concerned inquiry are immediately cast by the narcissist as intentional humiliation, implying that the narcissist is in need of help and counsel and, thus, imperfect and less than omnipotent. Any attempt to set an agenda is, to the narcissist, an intimidating act of enslavement. In this sense, the narcissist is both schizoid and paranoid and often entertains ideas of reference.
These – the lack of empathy, the aloofness, the disdain, the sense of entitlement, the constricted sense of humor, the unequal treatment and the paranoia – render the narcissist a social misfit. The narcissist is able to provoke in his milieu, in his casual acquaintances, even in his psychotherapist, the strongest, most avid and furious hatred and revulsion. To his shock, indignation and consternation, he invariably induces in others unbridled aggression.
He is perceived to be asocial at best and, often, antisocial. This, perhaps, is the strongest presenting symptom. One feels ill at ease in the presence of a narcissist for no apparent reason. No matter how charming, intelligent, thought provoking, outgoing, easy going and social the narcissist is – he fails to secure the sympathy of others, a sympathy he is never ready, willing, or able to reciprocate.
The malignant narcissist invents and then projects a false, fictitious, self for the world to fear, or to admire. He maintains a tenuous grasp on reality to start with and this is further exacerbated by the trappings of power. The narcissist's grandiose self-delusions and fantasies of omnipotence and omniscience are supported by real life authority and the narcissist's predilection to surround himself with obsequious sycophants.
The narcissist's personality is so precariously balanced that he cannot tolerate even a hint of criticism and disagreement. Most narcissists are paranoid and suffer from ideas of reference (the delusion that they are being mocked or discussed when they are not). Thus, narcissists often regard themselves as "victims of persecution".
The narcissistic leader fosters and encourages a personality cult with all the hallmarks of an institutional religion: priesthood, rites, rituals, temples, worship, catechism, mythology. The leader is this religion's ascetic saint. He monastically denies himself earthly pleasures (or so he claims) in order to be able to dedicate himself fully to his calling.
The narcissistic leader is a monstrously inverted Jesus, sacrificing his life and denying himself so that his people – or humanity at large – should benefit. By surpassing and suppressing his humanity, the narcissistic leader became a distorted version of Nietzsche's "superman".
But being a-human or super-human also means being a-sexual and a-moral.
In this restricted sense, narcissistic leaders are post-modernist and moral relativists. They project to the masses an androgynous figure and enhance it by engendering the adoration of nudity and all things "natural" – or by strongly repressing these feelings. But what they refer to as "nature" is not natural at all.
The narcissistic leader invariably proffers an aesthetic of decadence and evil carefully orchestrated and artificial – though it is not perceived this way by him or by his followers. Narcissistic leadership is about reproduced copies, not about originals. It is about the manipulation of symbols – not about veritable atavism or true conservatism.
In short: narcissistic leadership is about theatre, not about life. To enjoy the spectacle (and be subsumed by it), the leader demands the suspension of judgment, depersonalization, and de-realization. Catharsis is tantamount, in this narcissistic dramaturgy, to self-annulment.
Narcissism is nihilistic not only operationally, or ideologically. Its very language and narratives are nihilistic. Narcissism is conspicuous nihilism – and the cult's leader serves as a role model, annihilating the Man, only to re-appear as a pre-ordained and irresistible force of nature.
Narcissistic leadership often poses as a rebellion against the "old ways" – against the hegemonic culture, the upper classes, the established religions, the superpowers, the corrupt order. Narcissistic movements are puerile, a reaction to narcissistic injuries inflicted upon a narcissistic (and rather psychopathic) toddler nation-state, or group, or upon the leader.
Minorities or "others" – often arbitrarily selected – constitute a perfect, easily identifiable, embodiment of all that is "wrong". They are accused of being old, they are eerily disembodied, they are cosmopolitan, they are part of the establishment, they are "decadent", they are hated on religious and socio-economic grounds, or because of their race, sexual orientation, origin … They are different, they are narcissistic (feel and act as morally superior), they are everywhere, they are defenceless, they are credulous, they are adaptable (and thus can be co-opted to collaborate in their own destruction). They are the perfect hate figure. Narcissists thrive on hatred and pathological envy.
This is precisely the source of the fascination with Hitler, diagnosed by Erich Fromm – together with Stalin – as a malignant narcissist. He was an inverted human. His unconscious was his conscious. He acted out our most repressed drives, fantasies, and wishes. He provides us with a glimpse of the horrors that lie beneath the veneer, the barbarians at our personal gates, and what it was like before we invented civilization. Hitler forced us all through a time warp and many did not emerge. He was not the devil. He was one of us. He was what Arendt aptly called the banality of evil. Just an ordinary, mentally disturbed, failure, a member of a mentally disturbed and failing nation, who lived through disturbed and failing times. He was the perfect mirror, a channel, a voice, and the very depth of our souls.
The narcissistic leader prefers the sparkle and glamour of well-orchestrated illusions to the tedium and method of real accomplishments. His reign is all smoke and mirrors, devoid of substances, consisting of mere appearances and mass delusions. In the aftermath of his regime – the narcissistic leader having died, been deposed, or voted out of office – it all unravels. The tireless and constant prestidigitation ceases and the entire edifice crumbles. What looked like an economic miracle turns out to have been a fraud-laced bubble. Loosely-held empires disintegrate. Laboriously assembled business conglomerates go to pieces. "Earth shattering" and "revolutionary" scientific discoveries and theories are discredited. Social experiments end in mayhem.
It is important to understand that the use of violence must be ego-syntonic. It must accord with the self-image of the narcissist. It must abet and sustain his grandiose fantasies and feed his sense of entitlement. It must conform with the narcissistic narrative.
Thus, a narcissist who regards himself as the benefactor of the poor, a member of the common folk, the representative of the disenfranchised, the champion of the dispossessed against the corrupt elite – is highly unlikely to use violence at first.
The pacific mask crumbles when the narcissist has become convinced that the very people he purported to speak for, his constituency, his grassroots fans, the prime sources of his narcissistic supply – have turned against him. At first, in a desperate effort to maintain the fiction underlying his chaotic personality, the narcissist strives to explain away the sudden reversal of sentiment. "The people are being duped by (the media, big industry, the military, the elite, etc.)", "they don't really know what they are doing", "following a rude awakening, they will revert to form", etc.
When these flimsy attempts to patch a tattered personal mythology fail – the narcissist is injured. Narcissistic injury inevitably leads to narcissistic rage and to a terrifying display of unbridled aggression. The pent-up frustration and hurt translate into devaluation. That which was previously idealized – is now discarded with contempt and hatred.
This primitive defense mechanism is called "splitting". To the narcissist, things and people are either entirely bad (evil) or entirely good. He projects onto others his own shortcomings and negative emotions, thus becoming a totally good object. A narcissistic leader is likely to justify the butchering of his own people by claiming that they intended to kill him, undo the revolution, devastate the economy, or the country, etc.
The "small people", the "rank and file", the "loyal soldiers" of the narcissist – his flock, his nation, his employees – they pay the price. The disillusionment and disenchantment are agonizing. The process of reconstruction, of rising from the ashes, of overcoming the trauma of having been deceived, exploited and manipulated – is drawn-out. It is difficult to trust again, to have faith, to love, to be led, to collaborate. Feelings of shame and guilt engulf the erstwhile followers of the narcissist. This is his sole legacy: a massive post-traumatic stress disorder.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder at a Glance
Narcissists in Positions of Authority


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While designing your dining room there are a lot of things to consider, but if you know smart shopping tips, you will be done with furniture shopping without making wrong decisions and stressing out yourself. Spacify will try to guide you through the process of decision making and purchasing with a step-by-step manual that is easy to follow and it is filled with tips.
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text: HomeWhat We MakeHandcrafted BittersMeet the MakersDrink RecipesWhere to BuyWhiskey Club Hours: Tours are usually offered Monday-Friday at 1pm No Distillery tours on same days as Concerts on the Lawn or property-wide events. Upcoming Events see all events Garcia Birthday Week Sunday, July 28 Halfway to St. Patrick's Day Tuesday, September 17 Established: 1998 Housed in what was once a potato shed on the acreage of a former poor farm, the Edgefield Distillery is one of two McMenamins distilleries (the other is at Cornelius Pass Roadhouse in Hillsboro). We had been making wine at Edgefield since 1990, so it was a natural step to begin distilling brandy and grappa in 1998. The happy experiment worked, and soon whiskey was in the still. Hogshead was the first, and we never looked back, adding gin, rum and other spirits to a growing lineup crafted by Head Distiller James Whelan and his team. Spirits can be tasted at the adjacent Distillery Bar, which doubles as the "clubhouse" for Edgefield's Pub Course. All Alambic "13" Brandy Aval Pota Whiskey Coffee Liqueur Devils Bit Whiskey Edgefield Edgefield Devils Bit 2021 Edgefield Devils Bit 2022 Edgefield Devils Bit 2023 Edgefield Devils Bit 2024 Estate Pear Brandy Herbal Liqueur No. 7 Hogshead 10-Year Hogshead 14-Year Hogshead Longest Night 6-Year Hogshead Longest Night 7-Year Hogshead Whiskey Joe Penney's Gin Longshot Brandy Monkey Puzzle Whiskey Pear Brandy Pot Still Brandy Spar Lemon Flavored Vodka Spar Vodka Three Rocks Rum Three Rocks Spiced Rum McMenamins Bitters Shop Online Our distillers are alchemists as much as they are distillers. They work with all kinds of unique botanicals and natural flavors for McMenamins spirits, so it only made sense for them to apply that expertise in developing bitters that would complement our ever-evolving list of Northwest-inspired cocktails, as well as the repertoire of home bartenders. Our bitters are available in four varieties: Cherry, Citrus Hops, Chocolate and Aztec Chocolate. Matching bitters to your favorite McMenamins spirit is as easy as matching the strength of one product to another. Our Cherry Bitters play wonderfully with Hogshead Whiskey (think Manhattans!) while our Citrus Hop Bitters complement the botanicals in our Gables Gin, and Aztec Chocolate Bitters pair perfectly with your favorite tequila. If you have questions about how to use your new bottle of bitters, ask your local bartender; they're happy to help you create your new favorite elixir. McMenamins Aztec Chocolate Bitters Locally roasted cacao nibs, herbs and Mexican red peppers create a spicier version of the traditional Chocolate bitters, adding depth and intrigue to sweet or savory sips. McMenamins Citrus Hops Bitters Grapefruit zest, hops and a small amount of orris root—the fragrant rhizome of the Iris flower—make for a floral, citrusy addition to cocktails or seltzers. 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BITTERS COCKTAILS BILLY'S CHERRY SOUR Billy Wheat Whiskey, fresh-squeezed lemon, McMenamins Cherry Bitters •Glassware: Bucket •In a mixing tin combine: 1 shot lemon ½ shot simple 4 dashes McMenamins cherry bitters 1 shot Billy Whiskey • Add ice • Shake and dump • Garnish: lemon flag AZTEC BOULEVARDIER Hogshead Whiskey, Campari, sweet vermouth, McMenamins Aztec Chocolate Bitters •Glassware: Cocktail/Coupe •In a stirring vessel, combine: 1 ½ shot Hogshead Whiskey 1 shot Campari 1 shot sweet vermouth 3 dashes McMenamins Aztec Chocolate Bitters • Add ice • Stir 20-30 seconds • Strain into cocktail/coupe glass • Garnish: orange peel GABLES CASCADE RICKEY Gables Gin, fresh-squeezed lime, McMenamins Citrus Hops Bitters, topped with soda •Glassware: Collins •In a mixing tin combine: 1 shot lime ½ shot simple 4 dashes McMenamins Citrus Hops bitters 1 shot Gables • Add ice • Shake and dump • Re-ice • Top with soda • Garnish: half lime wheel HIS DUDENESS Edgefield Coffee liqueur, Vodka, McMenamins Chocolate Bitters, half & half •Glassware: Bucket •Fill bucket with ice: 1 shot McMenamins Coffee Liqueur ½ shot Fleischman's Vodka 3 dashes McMenamins Chocolate Bitters • Re-ice • Fill w/ half & half • Garnish: none David Vigil Distiller James Whelan Head Distiller Jerod Davis Distiller Drink Recipes Channel your inner mixologist and concoct one of our featured recipes using our hand crafted McMenamins Spirits. Bottles can be purchased to-go at these McMenamins locations. Measurements: 5/8 oz = ½ shot 1 ¼ oz = 1 shot Whiskey Drinks AVAL POTA HOT TODDY • Glassware: Coffee Glass (shocked) 1 ½ shot Aval Pota 2 teaspoons honey ½ shot lemon • Fill w/ Hot H20 • Garnish: lemon twist HOGSHEAD OLD FASHIONED • In a cocktail shaker, combine: 1/4 shot simple syrup (2 parts sugar, 1 parts water) 3 shakes Angostura Bitters 1 ½ shots Edgefield Hogshead Whiskey • Add ice to approximately 3/4 of cocktail shaker and stir for 30 seconds • Strain into 3/4 ice-filled rocks glass • Garnish with an orange peel (run peel around the rim of the glass) & a bar cherry on a pick POOR FARM SOUR •Glassware: Bucket •In a mixing tin combine: 1 shot lemon ½ shot simple 1 shot Hogshead • Add ice • Shake and dump • Re-ice • Float ½ shot Black Rabbit Red • Garnish: half lemon wheel, 2 straws POTA PALMER Edgefield's new apple flavored whiskey 'Aval Pota', iced tea & lemonade • Pack a Collins glass with ice and add 1 shot Edgefield Aval Pota Whiskey • Re-ice, fill w/ equal parts iced tea and lemonade MONKEY PUNCH • In a mixing pint combine: 1 shot fresh-squeezed lemon juice ½ shot fresh-squeezed orange juice ½ shot simple syrup (2 parts baker's sugar, 1 part water) 1 shot Edgefield Monkey Puzzle Whiskey ½ shot Pama Pomegranate Liqueur • Fill mixing pint with ice, shake and dump into 12-oz Collins glass • Top Collins with 7-Up • Garnish with a lemon wheel BILLY'S BLOOD & SAND • In a cocktail shaker, combine: 1 shot CPR Billy Whiskey 1 shot Sweet Vermouth 1 shot Cherry Heering 1 shot fresh-squeezed orange juice • Add ice then shake & strain into a pre-chilled cocktail glass • Garnish with orange BILLY BOULEVARDIER • In a cocktail shaker, combine: 1 shot CPR Billy Whiskey 1 shot sweet vermouth 1 shot Campari • Stir and strain into a chilled cocktail glass • Garnish with an orange twist MONKEY PUZZLE HOT TODDY • In an Irish coffee glass, combine: 1 shot Edgefield Monkey Puzzle Whiskey ½ shot lemon juice Bar spoon or two of honey • Fill with hot water Rum Drinks CABLE CAR • Mix together: ½ shot simple syrup ½ shot fresh-squeezed lemon juice ½ shot Triple Sec 1 shot Edgefield Three Rocks Spice Rum • Add ice, shake and strain into chilled cocktail glass. • Sprinkle with cinnamon and nutmeg HOT BUTTERED RUM • Glassware: Irish Coffee (shocked): 1 S Three Rocks Rum 2 teaspoons of buttered mix • Fill with Hot H2O and stir • Top w/ a thick layer of bar whip • Garnish: nutmeg & cinnamon • 1 straw on its side THREE ROCKS RUM & GINGER • Fill 10-oz glass with ice 1 shot Edgefield Three Rocks Rum • Top with ginger beer or ginger ale • Garnish with a lime wedge THREE ROCKS COFFEE • Shock an 8-oz coffee glass with hot water • Muddle 2 sugar cubes with hot coffee in the bottom of the glass and add: 1 shot Edgefield Three Rocks Rum • Fill with hot fresh coffee • Top with a layer of fresh whipped cream Liqueur Drinks MOROCCAN COFFEE • Using an orange slice, wet the rim of a 8-oz. coffee glass and then roll it in baker's sugar. Pour ¼ oz of a 151 proof rum (Bacardi or Lemonhart) Using a long lighter, light the 151 on fire, caramelizing the sugared rim. Shake a few dashes of cinnamon & nutmeg and watch the sparks fly. • Then add: 1 shot Edgefield Coffee Liqueur ¼ oz Irish Cream • Fill with fresh-roasted coffee or a double Americano • Top with a thick layer of fresh whipped cream • Garnish with another sprinkle of cinnamon & nutmeg MOJITO #7 • In a shaker tin, combine: ½ S lime ½ S simple 1 shot of Edgefield Herbal Liqueur No. 7 4 muddled mint leaves • Add Ice • Shake and strain over new ice in Collins glass • Re-ice and top with soda • Garnish with mint sprig TODDY NO. 7 • Pre-shock an 8-oz coffee glass with hot water and add: 2 oz of Edgefield Herbal Liqueur No. 7 1 tsp honey ½ oz fresh-squeezed lemon • Top with hot water • Garnish with a lemon zest twist COSMIC COFFEE • Build in a Irish Coffee glass ½ shot CPR Phil Hazelnut Liqueur ½ shot Edgefield Coffee Liqueur • Fill with hot fresh coffee • Garnish with whipped cream The Dude • Glassware: Bucket 1 S Edgefield Coffee Liqueur ½ S Vodka • Fill with Half & Half Brandy Drinks MORNING NECTAR • In a mixing pint combine: ½ shot fresh-squeezed lemon ½ shot simple syrup (2 parts baker's sugar, 1 part water) ½ shot St. Germain Elderflower Liqueur 1 shot CPR Morning Dew Brandy • Add ice and shake for 30 seconds. Strain into a chilled 8.5-oz cocktail glass. • Top with a float of Edgefield Winery Pinot Noir (about ¼ oz) • Garnish with a floating lemon disc PEAR SIDECAR • In a cocktail shaker, combine: 5/8 oz. simple syrup 5/8 oz. fresh lemon juice 5/8 oz. fresh orange juice 5/8 oz. Triple Sec 1.25 oz. Edgefield Pear Brandy • Add ice, shake & strain into Cocktail glass with sugared rim • Garnish with full orange & lemon wheels Gin Drinks PENNEY'S SIDEWALK • In a mixing pint combine: ½ shot fresh-squeezed orange juice ½ shot fresh-squeezed lemon ½ shot simple syrup (2 parts baker's sugar, 1 part water) ½ shot Triple Sec Liqueur 1 shot Edgefield Joe Penney's Gin • Add ice, shake & strain into sugar rimmed 8.5-oz cocktail glass • Garnish with lemon and orange discs BOTANICAL MULE • In a mixing tin, muddle: 4 mint leaves ½ S lemon 1 S Gables gin ½ S Herbal No 7 • Add ice, shake & strain over fresh ice into Copper Mug • Top ginger beer • Garnish long lemon twist and mint sprig Cornelius Pass Roadhouse Distillery and Edgefield Distillery spirits are available only at McMenamins. They can be enjoyed by the glass and in mixed drinks at all of our pubs and hotels. Bottles can be purchased to-go at the following locations: 23rd Avenue Bottle Shop · Portland, Ore. Anderson School · Bothell, Wash. Cedar Hills · Beaverton, Ore. CPR Distillery / Imbrie Hall · Hillsboro, Ore. Edgefield Distillery / Gift Shop · Troutdale, Ore. Elks Temple Bottle Shop · Tacoma, Wash. Gearhart Hotel · Gearhart, Ore. Grand Lodge · Forest Grove, Ore. Hotel Oregon · McMinnville, Ore. Kalama Harbor Lodge · Kalama, Wash. Kennedy School Gift Shop · Portland, Ore. North Bank · Eugene, Ore. Old St. Francis School · Bend, Ore. Roseburg Station · Roseburg, Ore. Wilsonville Old Church & Pub · Wilsonville, Ore.


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Courtyard and central gathering area in the three-building campus that Nimble has agreed to rent. The campus includes olive trees, picnic areas, fire pits and large open spaces. (Bixby Land)
SAN JOSE — Nimble Storage has leased a North San Jose office complex where it plans to employ 750 people, a deal that highlights the tech boom in the Bay Area's largest city.
Nimble leased all of a campus totaling 165,000 square feet on River Oaks Parkway between Cisco (CSCO) Way and Zanker Road that developer Bixby Land created through a $10 million renovation of the three buildings.
"It's clear there is still pretty significant tenant demand for new spaces in Silicon Valley," said Bill Halford, Bixby's president.
Nimble has 225 employees in San Jose in nearby offices totaling 55,000 square feet, so the new site allows for significant expansion and potential hiring.
"We are committed to growing our company in San Jose," said Carolyn Crandall, a vice president with Nimble. "The Bay Area and Silicon Valley have a great talent pool."
To appeal to tech companies, Bixby renovated the decades-old buildings extensively, adding modern exteriors and interiors, along with a large common area featuring an olive grove and fire pits.
The deal was arranged through commercial realty brokerages Cresa Partners and Cassidy Turley.
"The modern buildings, outstanding landscaping, the location and the amenities really appealed to Nimble," said David Tipton, a Cresa principal executive.
Bixby Land undertook a similar renovation of two Santa Clara buildings and created a campus that Infoblox leased in 2012.
"Companies are increasingly seeking office space with dynamic, collaborative work environments and high-quality amenities in order to attract and retain top talent," Halford said.


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Juan Antonio Samaranch, marquis de Samaranch
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Juan Antonio Samaranch, marquis de Samaranch (born July 17, 1920, Barcelona, Spain—died April 21, 2010, Barcelona) was a Spanish businessman and public official who served from 1980 to 2001 as the seventh president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
Samaranch was the son of a wealthy textile manufacturer. He was educated at Barcelona's Higher Institute of Business Studies, and after the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) he joined the family business and later worked in real estate development and banking. He competed in boxing and roller hockey from an early age, helping to initiate an international roller hockey championship in Barcelona in 1951. He joined the Spanish Olympic Committee in 1954, the same year that he was elected to the Barcelona city council. In 1973 he became president of the Catalan regional council, and he served as Spain's ambassador to the Soviet Union in 1977–80. Elected to the IOC in 1966, he served as head of protocol (1968–75, 1979–80), member of the Executive Board (1970–2001), and vice president (1974–78) and was elected president in 1980. In 1992 he was made marqués de Samaranch by King Juan Carlos.
Advancing the policies of his IOC predecessor, Lord Killanin of Ireland, Samaranch aggressively diversified the IOC's revenue sources from television contracts to brand-licensing schemes. He also welcomed professional athletes to Olympic sports such as tennis and basketball, arguing that Soviet-bloc countries had been sending professional athletes to the Olympic Games for years and that some nonprofessional athletes in the United States and elsewhere had already earned huge sums for commercial endorsements. An accomplished politician, he mended bridges between Soviet- and NATO-bloc countries following boycotts of the Moscow (1980) and Los Angeles (1984) Olympic Games, worked out a compromise that permitted both China and Taiwan to enter teams, allowed participation by a post-Soviet team in 1992, and opened the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1993.
In the eyes of his critics, Samaranch was arrogant and autocratic. He faced perhaps his greatest challenge when, in December 1998, allegations surfaced of widespread corruption among IOC members, who had accepted bribes in the bidding process by potential host cities. Several committee members were expelled, others resigned, and there were calls for Samaranch to resign. Samaranch succeeded in passing a 50-point reform package that addressed the conduct of the bidding process and attempted to eliminate gifts to IOC members. The thorny issue of drug use by athletes, especially the regulation of performance-enhancing drugs, was also addressed. In the summer of 2001 Samaranch was replaced as IOC president by Belgian Jacques Rogge but was elected honorary president for life.


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Last time around it was subprime mortgages, but this time it is oil that is playing a starring role in a global financial crisis. Since the start of 2015, 42 North American oil companies have filed for bankruptcy, 130,000 good paying energy jobs have been lost in the United States, and at this point 50 percent of all energy junk bonds are "distressed" according to Standard & Poor's. As you will see below, some of the big banks have a tremendous amount of loan exposure to the energy industry, and now they are bracing for big losses. And the longer the price of oil stays this low, the worse the carnage is going to get.
Today, the price of oil has been hovering around 29 dollars a barrel, and over the past 18 months the price of oil has fallen by more than 70 percent. This is something that has many U.S. consumers very excited. The average price of a gallon of gasoline nationally is just $1.89 at the moment, and on Monday it was selling for as low as 46 cents a gallon at one station in Michigan.
But this oil crash is nothing to cheer about as far as the big banks are concerned. During the boom years, those banks gave out billions upon billions of dollars in loans to fund exceedingly expensive drilling projects all over the world.
Now those firms are dropping like flies, and the big banks could potentially be facing absolutely catastrophic losses. The following examples come from CNN…
For instance, Wells Fargo (WFC) is sitting on more than $17 billion in loans to the oil and gas sector. The bank is setting aside $1.2 billion in reserves to cover losses because of the "continued deterioration within the energy sector."
JPMorgan Chase (JPM) is setting aside an extra $124 million to cover potential losses in its oil and gas loans. It warned that figure could rise to $750 million if oil prices unexpectedly stay at their current $30 level for the next 18 months.
Citigroup is another bank that also has a tremendous amount of exposure…
Citigroup (C) built up loan loss reserves in the energy space by $300 million. The bank said the move reflects its view that "oil prices are likely to remain low for a longer period of time."
If oil stays around $30 a barrel, Citi is bracing for about $600 million of energy credit losses in the first half of 2016. Citi said that figure could double to $1.2 billion if oil dropped to $25 a barrel and stayed there.
For the moment, these big banks are telling the public that the damage can be contained.
But didn't they tell us the same thing about subprime mortgages in 2008?
We are already seeing bank stocks start to slide precipitously. People are beginning to realize that these banks are dangerously exposed to a lot of really bad deals.
If the price of oil were to shoot back up above 50 dollars in very short order, the damage would probably be manageable. Unfortunately, that does not appear likely to happen. In fact, now that sanctions have been lifted on Iran, the Iranians are planning to flood the world with massive amounts of oil that they have been storing in tankers at sea…
Iran has been carefully planning for its return from the economic penalty box by hoarding tons of oil in tankers at sea.
Now that the U.S. and European Union have lifted some sanctions on Iran, the OPEC country can begin selling its massive stockpile of oil.
The sale of this seaborne oil will allow Iran to get an immediate financial boost before it ramps up production. The onslaught of Iranian oil is coming at a terrible time for the global oil markets, which are already drowning in an epic supply glut.
Just the other day, I explained that some of the biggest banks in the world are now projecting that the price of oil could soon fall much, much lower.
Morgan Stanley says that it could go as low as 20 dollars a barrel, the Royal Bank of Scotland says that it could go as low as 16 dollars a barrel, and Standard Chartered says that it could go as low as 10 dollars a barrel.
But the truth is that the price of oil does not need to go down one penny more to have a catastrophic impact on global financial markets. If it just stays right here, we will see an endless parade of layoffs, energy company bankruptcies and debt defaults. Without any change, junk bonds will continue to crash and financial institutions will continue to go down like dominoes.
We are already experiencing a major disaster. Things are already so bad that some forms of low quality crude oil are literally selling for next to nothing. The following comes from Bloomberg…
Oil is so plentiful and cheap in the U.S. that at least one buyer says it would pay almost nothing to take a certain type of low-quality crude.
Flint Hills Resources LLC, the refining arm of billionaire brothers Charles and David Koch's industrial empire, said it offered to pay $1.50 a barrel Friday for North Dakota Sour, a high-sulfur grade of crude, according to a corrected list of prices posted on its website Monday. It had previously posted a price of -$0.50. The crude is down from $13.50 a barrel a year ago and $47.60 in January 2014.
While the near-zero price is due to the lack of pipeline capacity for a particular variety of ultra low quality crude, it underscores how dire things are in the U.S. oil patch.
A chart that I saw posted on Zero Hedge earlier today can help put all of this into perspective. Whenever the price of oil falls really low relative to the price of gold, there is a major global crisis. Right now an ounce of gold will purchase more oil than ever before, and many believe that this indicates that a new great crisis is upon us…
The number of barrels of oil that a single ounce of gold can buy has never, ever been higher.
All over the planet, big banks are absolutely teeming with bad loans. And to be honest, the big banks in the U.S. are probably in better shape than some of the major banks in Europe and Asia. But once the dominoes start to fall, very few financial institutions are going to escape unscathed.
In the coming days I would expect to see more headlines like we just got out of Italy. Apparently, Italian banks are nearing full meltdown mode, and short selling has been temporarily banned. To me, it appears that we are just inches away from full-blown financial panic in Europe.
However, just like with the last financial crisis, you never quite know where the next "explosion" is going to happen next.
But one thing is for sure – the financial crisis that began during the second half of 2015 is raging out of control, and the pain that we have seen so far is just the beginning.


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Best Accommodation in Seocho-gu
Local Recommendations from our My Guide Seoul team
Seoul has everything you can possibly imagine from conventional hopitality at its finest to frugality at its best. But in terms of accommodation, the city also offers stunning theme-design motels to boutique hotels, guesthouses and hostels.
Popular accommodation areas in Seoul are near major shopping districts such as Myeongdong or Dongdaemun and near Insadong however, location may not be the deiciding factor in choosing your accommodation since public transportation in Seoul is cheap and taxis too. If you want an authentic experience try a traditional Korean hanok housing experience? Or perhaps you've heard about the infamous love motels with their crazy wonderland designed rooms? Don't worry, we've got you covered. The theme-design motels in Seoul are extremely sought after by Seoulites for their glitzy decor and sometimes amazing amenities such as in-room karaoke rooms, swimming pools and pool tables. Also a hit among travelers are the popular boutique guesthouses or the hip boutique hotels. Be aware that some cater to women only. Most of them are located in some of the trendier areas of seoul like Garuso-gil Street and Cheongdam, south of the river.


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Press Release - Presentation of the Recommendations of the International Tribunal on Evictions for the Case of Wildlife Conservation evictions, Laikipia County, Kenya
As human rights violations have been proven, the government of Kenya must stop evictions of Maasai people and persecution and murdered of human rights defenders in Laipikia County and establish a negotiating and working table to implement the Recommendations of the International Tribunal on Evictions. Monitoring under the World Zero Evictions Days in October this year and involving the United Nations.
Confirmed systematic violation of Kenya's legal obligations
The Jury of the 6th
Session of the International Tribunal on Evictions (ITE), held in Venice, Italy, from 28 to 30 September 2017, listened for two days to the testimonies, reports and recommendations of the residents and communities of the 5 continents affected by the evictions and human rights violations caused by the development of speculative tourism. The Session, at the beginning of the World Zero Evictions Days and the United Nations World Sustainable Tourism Day, was opened with the message of UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Adequate Housing Leilani Farha, who emphasized the relevance and the obligations of States to comply in particular with Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and confirmed its recognition and support for the International Tribunal on Evictions.
Special attention was paid to the systematic violations in the Laikipia County, Kenya, under the "wildlife conservation" banner, presented by the representatives of the communities, who provided material evidence on this subject.
Analysis of the case, confirmed by the subsequent investigation, shows that the loss of local residents' shelter, housing and land, as well as loss of access to resources upon which their livelihood depends upon, triggers additional human rights violations of the legal obligations contracted by Kenya with the ratification of the International Covenants on Human Rights.
The Kenyan government has aggressively protected the commercial tourist interests of a few property owners through military violence against herders, belonging to the Maasai people who historically lived on the land, while human rights advocates, defenders and activists have been murdered, arrested or intimidated.
Therefore the ITE confirms the verdict of the systematic violation over the well-being of local communities, over 500 families with 40% women and 20% children affected, leading to clear violations of both national laws and International Covenants on human rights.
The Recommendations: concrete measures to stop military activities and evictions, compensate those affected, put an end to the criminalization of human rights defenders
The ITE Recommendations was sent to the Kenyan government urging national and local authorities to respect, protect and fulfill the Human Rights framework of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, ratified by Kenya on 1 May 1972, including the General Comments and Statements of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Urges the Kenyan authorities respect the Constitution of Kenya 2010, through art 19, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 60, 61, and to respect the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples through art 8, 10 and 26.
The ITE therefore called upon the Kenyan government to reaffirm its commitment to upholding the rights of Kenya's indigenous peoples, ahead of private, commercial and foreign interests and implement it.
To this purpose concrete measures must be carried out. First, the immediate suspension in the area of all evictions, military activities and intimidations against local population, human rights defenders and journalists. Then compensate fairly the communities for the losses and establish an independent Truth Commission on the violences carried out by private militia and on the criminal prosecutions of human rights advocates and defenders.
To establish a dialogue process, an inter-institutional table must be established with all parties concerned.
The follow-up of the Recommendations, in which the UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Housing and the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of the Human Rights defenders will also be involved, will take place on the occasion of the World Zero Evictions Days in October 2018.
For Further informations:
International Tribunal on Evictions - Session on tourism - 28-30 September 2017
International Tribunal on Tourism-Related Evictions
Transforming Tourism initiative
Soha Ben Slama, Coordinator of the International Tribunal on Evictions (ITE), ite.coordinator @habitants.org
Cesare Ottolini, International Alliance of Inhabitants (IAI), email@example.com


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When Martin I became pope in 649, Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine empire and the patriarch of Constantinople was the most influential Church leader in the eastern Christian world. The struggles that existed within the Church at that time were magnified by the close cooperation of emperor and patriarch.
A teaching, strongly supported in the East, held that Christ had no human will. Twice, emperors had officially favored this position: Heraclius by publishing a formula of faith, and Constans II by silencing the issue of one or two wills in Christ.
Shortly after assuming the office of the papacy—which he did without first being confirmed by the emperor—Martin held a council at the Lateran in which the imperial documents were censured, and in which the patriarch of Constantinople and two of his predecessors were condemned. In response, Constans II first tried to turn bishops and people against the pope.
Failing in this and in an attempt to kill the pope, the emperor sent troops to Rome to seize Martin and to bring him back to Constantinople. Already in poor health, Martin offered no resistance, returned with Calliopas, the exarch of Constantinople, and was then submitted to various imprisonments, tortures, and hardships. Although condemned to death and with some of the imposed torture already carried out, Martin was saved from execution by the pleas of a repentant Paul, patriarch of Constantinople, who was himself gravely ill.
Tortures and cruel treatment having taken their toll, Martin died shortly thereafter. He is the last of the early popes to be venerated as a martyr.
The real significance of the word martyr comes not from the dying but from the witnessing, which the word means in its derivation. People who are willing to give up everything, their most precious possessions, their very lives, put a supreme value on the cause or belief for which they sacrifice. Martyrdom, dying for the faith, is an incidental extreme to which some have had to go to manifest their belief in Christ. A living faith, a life that exemplifies Christ's teaching throughout, and that in spite of difficulties, is required of all Christians. Martin refused to cut corners as a way of easing his lot, to make some accommodations with the civil rulers.


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Dear friends,
My friend Flor Diaz was released from the Arauca City prison last month and was finally able to return to her home here in Arauquita. We went out on the Arauca River with her youngest children, Viviana and Fernando, on March 10 to watch the herons returning to roost for the evening. There were hundreds of herons in the trees along the river and it was wonderful to enjoy that beauty and freedom with her.
Flor spent three years and four days in prison for "rebellion." She was the secretary general of the Arauca Peasant Association and she told me that she was imprisoned because of her work in support of human rights. "I can't ignore the suffering of others," she said.
Marcela, her oldest daughter, was 18 years old when Flor was detained by the secret police on February 14, 2006. Marcela had to assume the responsibility for her three siblings: Viviana (who was just 8 years old), Fernando and Edwin. "It was very hard when they would call me and tell me there wasn't any food in the house," Flor said. "I would ask myself, 'What can I do?'"
Flor worked for 14 years as a health practitioner in the rural communities of Arauca and also served as a catechist. She continued with her vocations while she was in prison. She would care for the other prisoners when they were ill, and she also helped organize prayer and mass.
"Suffering makes you strong," Flor said. "If you've never suffered, you can't be strong. I would get very disappointed when I received bad news about my case. I would argue with God: 'You abandoned me! I don't want anything more to do with you!' But then I would remember the gift of my children."
Flor's first grandchild, Camila, was born on December 20, 2006. "I saw her for the first time on January 21, 2007," said Flor. Marcela would take Camila to visit Flor in prison every three months. "For the first two years of her life, 'Grandmother's house' was the largest mansion in Arauca," Marcela said jokingly.
Being in prison for three years was a very hard experience but it's also an adjustment being outside of prison after all that time. "I couldn't see long distance," Flor said, because there aren't any open views in the prison. "I also wasn't used to the noise in town. All I heard in my cell was the sound of the fan."
Flor told me about a conversation she had recently with a fellow prisoner who had also just been released. They talked about the process of adjustment. Flor said to him, "I'm not doing well either (she's unemployed and in debt), but I am free."
As we were alongside the river, Flor explained "Oil and war are the cause of poverty here. What do we get from supplying the war machine?: widows and poverty. We're going to stop supplying that machine. It already has enough. Let's look at the situation of poverty and invest that money to meet the needs of the people."
In love and solidarity,


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get your self along when we play em in december i worked there on the construction
shuttering carpenter mate
I don't know what happened...guess my post got deleted for some odd reason. when before the match do supporters usually rally at the drayton arms? this will be my first red match..hoping to bring the American spirit that our current assclown owners aren't living up to.
Your first match is Arsenal away?
You've seriously missed the point there. However...We play Bolton at home 4 days later, I'll swap if you want?
If he scores more goals than Torres this season ill change me name to Carol.
Not sure on a ticket for myself but i'm going nevertheless, excuse to get pissed for the run up to christmas and have a good laugh, and hopefully twat the cockney twats
lol...ill be back in the US by then dude. Nice try though. haha
I'm not arsed, I'll be at both anyway, just seems a waste for you to have tickets for one of our bigger games when you think it's unfortunate.
You took it the wrong way. Its a huge match, yes, but for my first LFC match I'd rather have the Anfield expreience and a seat in the kop. Dont you agree?
Good ground but atmosphere from the home fans isnt the best
Pyro is IN


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Humans report a wide range of neurobiological rewards following moderate and intense aerobic activity, popularly referred to as the 'runner's high', which may function to encourage habitual aerobic exercise. Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are endogenous neurotransmitters that appear to play a major role in generating these rewards by activating cannabinoid receptors in brain reward regions during and after exercise. Other species also regularly engage in endurance exercise (cursorial mammals), and as humans share many morphological traits with these taxa, it is possible that exercise-induced eCB signaling motivates habitual high-intensity locomotor behaviors in cursorial mammals. If true, then neurobiological rewards may explain variation in habitual locomotor activity and performance across mammals. We measured circulating eCBs in humans, dogs (a cursorial mammal) and ferrets (a non-cursorial mammal) before and after treadmill exercise to test the hypothesis that neurobiological rewards are linked to high-intensity exercise in cursorial mammals. We show that humans and dogs share significantly increased exercise-induced eCB signaling following high-intensity endurance running. eCB signaling does not significantly increase following low-intensity walking in these taxa, and eCB signaling does not significantly increase in the non-cursorial ferrets following exercise at any intensity. This study provides the first evidence that inter-specific variation in neurotransmitter signaling may explain differences in locomotor behavior among mammals. Thus, a neurobiological reward for endurance exercise may explain why humans and other cursorial mammals habitually engage in aerobic exercise despite the higher associated energy costs and injury risks, and why non-cursorial mammals avoid such locomotor behaviors.
Goal-oriented behaviors that impose risks or high energy costs are often motivated by neurobiological rewards, which are thought to condition fitness-enhancing activities (Panksepp et al., 2002). Humans frequently report such neurobiological rewards (commonly termed the 'runner's high') during and after distance running that include both central effects (improved affect, sense of well being, anxiety reduction, post-exercise calm) and peripheral effects (reduced pain sensation) (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004; Ogles and Masters, 2003; Sachs and Pargman, 1979). Central and peripheral rewards likely play a major role in humans' motivation to run (Ogles and Masters, 2003), and increase their ability to sustain high aerobic intensities over long distances (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). A neurobiological reward to encourage exercise may be especially important because high levels of aerobic activity are more energetically costly than walking (Cotes and Meade, 1960; Margaria et al., 1963; Menier and Pugh, 1968) and have a higher potential for both traumatic and overuse injuries (Johnson et al., 2000; Pinchbeck et al., 2004; Prole, 1976).
The hypothesis that neurobiological rewards motivate human endurance exercise (Ekkekakis et al., 2005; Sher, 1998) is consistent with evidence that humans are highly adept endurance athletes (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984). For example, humans possess anatomical specializations and demonstrate endurance athletic performance (e.g. speed and distance traveled at aerobic intensities) that are similar to those of other mammals that habitually engage in endurance exercise, including long-distance running (i.e. cursorial mammals) (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984). However, to date, no studies have examined the possibility that other cursorial mammals receive these same neurobiological rewards. This study tests the hypothesis that high levels of aerobic activity in humans and other cursorial mammals lead to neurotransmitter signaling associated with central and peripheral rewards. Additionally, we explore the possibility that inter-specific variation in exercise-induced rewards may play a role in the non-cursorial behaviors of some taxa.
Experimental research into these rewards is often hampered by the overall concept of the runner's high (see Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004), as it is often equated with generalized euphoric sensations in the popular press. Dietrich and McDaniel suggested a definition more amenable to hypothesis testing, where the runner's high is a change in any of the following observable phenomena: pain sensation, anxiolysis, sedation or feelings of well being (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). This definition includes quantifiable outcomes, allowing researchers to explore the neurobiological mechanisms that may be responsible for the runner's high. Recent work has supported a strong role for endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling in the rewards associated with endurance exercise (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). The two recognized eCBs, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), are endogenous ligands for the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, which were originally identified as the pharmacological targets of the principal psychoactive ingredient of marijuana, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (Piomelli, 2003). Because of high expression levels in brain regions relevant to affective processing, activation of CB receptors produces psychological rewards such as reduced anxiety, euphoria and a general feeling of well being (Piomelli, 2003).
The two eCBs (AEA and 2-AG) are released both centrally and peripherally in an activity-dependent manner to modulate the release of classical neurotransmitters (Piomelli, 2003). As a key example, eCBs released within the mesolimbic dopamine system lead to overall activation of dopamine neurons by relieving the influence of inhibitory, CB1-expressing GABAergic terminals onto those neurons (Lupica and Riegel, 2005). This leads to enhanced dopamine release in target areas, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a major brain area involved in behavioral reward (Cheer et al., 2007). Through this and perhaps other mechanisms intrinsic to the NAc, eCBs are thought to act as a 'hedonic' signal (Mahler et al., 2007), triggering neurobiological rewards that are similar to those described by runners (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004), and which likely contribute to the development of habitual reward-directed behaviors (Gerdeman et al., 2003; Lupica and Riegel, 2005). In addition to these effects on neural systems of incentive within the brain, analgesic effects of eCBs occur both within the CNS and in the periphery, via CB receptors expressed on peripheral nerve fibers (Agarwal et al., 2007; Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). Exercise-induced reductions in pain sensation lead to feelings of effortlessness associated with the strict definition of the runner's high and improve exercise performance by allowing individuals to run longer distances (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). Both the psychological and analgesic effects of CB receptor activation mirror athletes' descriptions of the neurobiological rewards associated with exercise (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004).
Recent work supports direct links between eCB signaling and exercise in humans. Sparling and colleagues reported significant increases in plasma levels of AEA (but not 2-AG) after moderate-intensity aerobic activity (running or cycling at ∼70–80% of maximum heart rate) (Sparling et al., 2003). Although their study measured plasma levels, eCBs are highly lipophilic, which allows them to readily cross the blood–brain barrier (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004; Sparling et al., 2003). Thus, circulating levels of AEA or 2-AG are thought to lead to central effects because eCBs produced peripherally can cross the blood–brain barrier and activate CB receptors in brain reward centers (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004; Solinas et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 1997). Several studies have demonstrated this by showing that intravenous injections of eCBs (both AEA and 2-AG) activate CB receptors in the brain and lead to reward-seeking behaviors (e.g. self-administered injections) in animal models (Justinova et al., 2005; Justinova et al., 2011; Solinas et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 1997).
Recent work in experimental evolution (i.e. selection experiments in rodents) suggests that eCB-induced rewards for exercise can be a target of natural selection and may explain habitual engagement in voluntary exercise in mammals. In female mice bred for high levels of voluntary wheel running over 15 years, administration of rimonabant (a selective CB receptor antagonist) led to significantly reduced levels of running compared with administration of a placebo, as well as with control mice given rimonabant (Keeney et al., 2008). Thus, selection used the eCB system to reward high amounts of voluntary running in these mice (Keeney et al., 2008), and these rewards encouraged increased levels of habitual voluntary exercise. However, it is unknown whether this system is linked to exercise in other mammals.
In this study, we measured plasma levels of eCBs in two cursorial species [humans (Homo sapiens L.) and dogs (Canis familiaris L.)] and one non-cursorial species [ferrets (Mustela putorius L.)] following 30 min of treadmill running to determine whether there is variation in exercise-induced eCB activity among mammals. On separate days, we measured plasma eCB levels in humans, dogs and ferrets after 30 min of low-intensity activity (treadmill walking for humans and dogs, resting for ferrets; see Materials and methods) to determine whether eCB signaling is intensity dependent. We predicted eCB signaling would be strongest following running, and should be stronger in humans and dogs than in ferrets.
Our sample included recreationally fit humans (N=10), mixed-breed dogs (N=8) and ferrets (N=8) (see Table 1). Non-human taxa were chosen to match classical definitions of cursorial and non-cursorial evolutionary history based on morphological adaptations to endurance running (Jenkins, 1971). Humans and dogs were recruited from the local community. Only human subjects who were recreationally fit (i.e. could run 30 min continuously) were included in this study. Subjects received minimal treadmill training and experiments were conducted when subjects could run continuously at prescribed speeds for 30 min. The period of training for both dogs and ferrets ranged from one to three sessions and consisted only of positive reinforcement methods. All methods were approved by the University of Arizona IACUC and IRB.
Running speed for human subjects (see Table 1) was selected to elicit heart rates similar to those used previously (Sparling et al., 2003). Walking speed in humans was selected to match preferred walking speed as calculated by Froude number [velocity2/(hindlimb length × gravitational acceleration)≈0.25 at preferred walking speed), a dimensionless speed that accounts for differences in body size among subjects (see Table 1) (Alexander and Jayes, 1983; Minetti, 2001). While Froude numbers of 0.25 roughly correspond to preferred walking speed (Minetti, 2001), we note that this was not self-selected by subjects but was calculated based on each subject's anatomy. Heart rate for running speed averaged 72.5±2.54% (mean ± s.d.) of maximum heart rate and walking speed corresponded to a mean (±s.d.) of 44.6±1.25% of maximum heart rate [where maximum heart rate was calculated using the age-based equation from Tanaka et al. (Tanaka et al., 2001)]. Heart rates for running trials are well below the ventilatory threshold (the transition from aerobic to anaerobic exercise) known to influence psychological responses to exercise (Ekkekakis et al., 2004). Speed for non-human runners was chosen to match Froude numbers used by human subjects, such that subjects all walked and ran at dynamically similar speeds. All subjects (humans, dogs and ferrets) ran at Froude numbers of ∼0.70 for 30 min (trotting gaits for ferrets and dogs). Dogs and humans walked at Froude numbers of ∼0.25 for 30 min. Ferrets were unable to walk consistently on the treadmill at any speed, so we compared data from running trials with data collected after a 30 min control trial where ferrets sat quietly in a small cage.
Blood samples (0.5 ml) were collected by venipuncture before and after each of these trials using a syringe filled with 1 ml of Krebs-Tris buffer/EDTA (4.5 mmol l–1). Samples were immediately centrifuged in Accuspin tubes (Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA) at 800 g, for 10 min. Methods for eCB extraction (both AEA and 2-AG) and quantification by GC/MS isotope dilution are described in detail elsewhere (Hardison et al., 2006).
Psychological state was assessed before and after all human trials using a standard questionnaire that measures positive affect [positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS) scale (Watson et al., 1988)]. Positive affect (PA) describes the enthusiasm, energy and pleasurable engagement of an individual (Watson et al., 1988), and is an important component of feelings of well being (Reed and Ones, 2006). As with many psychological instruments, there are limitations to the PANAS that should be taken into account when interpreting our results. For example, researchers have suggested that this scale is limited to only the high activation ends of PA (e.g. excited or enthused) (see Egloff, 1998; Mossholder et al., 1994; Russell and Carroll, 1999). Thus, the low-activation ends of PA (e.g. calm or serene) may not be fully captured using this instrument. Despite this limitation, the PANAS has been used in many previous studies to effectively capture exercise-related changes in affect (Reed and Ones, 2006).
Subjects performed only one trial per day. Because day-to-day fluctuations in baseline eCB levels are normal and known to occur in healthy individuals (Vaughn et al., 2010; Zoerner et al., 2009), we investigated the change in circulating eCBs from pre- to post-exercise values on a given day only. Differences between AEA and 2-AG levels before and after exercise were assessed using paired t-tests. A Pearson product-moment correlation was calculated between the post- and pre-exercise difference in eCBs and the post- and pre-exercise difference in PA.
Both humans and dogs showed a significant increase in plasma levels of AEA following a 30 min treadmill run; however, neither taxon showed increased AEA levels following a lower intensity 30 min walk (dogs showed a significant decrease in AEA following walking trials; see Fig. 1 and Table 2). In ferrets, plasma AEA levels were unchanged following either a 30 min run or a 30 min rest period (see Fig. 1 and Table 2, and Materials and methods). Similar to Sparling and colleagues' (Sparling et al., 2003) results in humans, no taxon showed a significant change in levels of 2-AG following any exercise trial (Table 2). The difference between pre- and post-exercise levels of AEA in humans was positively correlated with the difference between pre- and post-exercise PA (r=0.96, P<0.0001; Fig. 2). The correlation remained significant after removing the possible outlier (highest AEA and PA change; r=0.77, P<0.05).
This is the first study to show that there is inter-specific variation in neurotransmitter signaling following exercise and that this variation may explain differences in habitual locomotor behaviors among mammals. In humans and dogs, but not ferrets, running activates the eCB system, which likely improves aerobic exercise performance and encourages a high frequency of aerobic activity in these cursorial taxa. In humans, increased eCB signaling following exercise is significantly correlated with improved PA, confirming the role of eCBs in generating positive psychological effects. eCB signaling does not increase following low-intensity activity in humans and dogs, suggesting that these rewards are not simply triggered by locomotion but are tied to higher exercise intensities. In fact, eCB levels decreased in dogs following the 30 min walking trial. This result suggests that dogs may not have any specific affective response to walking under these experimental conditions. In ferrets, a taxon that does not generally engage in cursorial activity (see King and Powell, 2007), and is not morphologically adapted to endurance exercise behaviors (Jenkins, 1971), exercise does not result in an increase in eCB signaling. This inter-specific variation suggests that eCB signaling plays a functional role in the aerobic behaviors of cursorial mammals.
eCBs can aid cursorial mammals by improving high-intensity athletic performance through both central and peripheral actions. Centrally, CB receptors are primarily expressed in presynaptic terminals, where activation by eCBs leads to a decrease in the synaptic release of classical neurotransmitters (Piomelli, 2003) and produces psychological effects similar to those described by runners in this study (Chaperon and Thiebot, 1999; Diaz, 1997; Piomelli, 2003). It is important to note that this study measured peripheral eCB levels only, and thus we cannot be sure that our measurements fully reflect changes in eCBs within the central nervous system. However, the strong correlation between changes in AEA and changes in PA following exercise shown here (Fig. 2) suggests that post-running AEA levels measured peripherally in plasma are reflective of increased AEA in the central nervous system (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). This is possible because eCBs are highly lipophilic and physiological studies suggest that they readily traverse the blood–brain barrier (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004; Glaser et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 1997). For example, peripheral intravenous injection of AEA in rodents leads to increased AEA and dopamine levels in brain reward regions (Solinas et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 1997). Additionally, intravenous injections of eCBs activate CB receptors in the brain and lead to reward-seeking behaviors (e.g. self-administered injections) in animal models (Justinova et al., 2005; Justinova et al., 2011; Solinas et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 1997).
Improvements in PA such as those measured here are a major factor in human runners' motivation to habitually engage in aerobic exercise (Bryan et al., 2007; Kwan and Bryan, 2010; Schneider et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2008), suggesting that one role for eCB-induced rewards is to encourage a high frequency of aerobic activity. These effects are not limited to elite athletes. Many studies have shown that aerobic exercise has a positive psychological effect in healthy populations of non-athletes (Reed and Ones, 2006), and the improvements in mood and PA play a role in how well individuals adhere to exercise programs (Ekkekakis et al., 2005). Additionally, exercise improves psychological well being in non-athletic individuals with depressive or anxiety disorders (Scully et al., 1998). Thus, these broadly felt rewards are likely essential for the enjoyment of exercise and may explain why mammalian taxa engage in cursorial behaviors despite the higher energy costs and associated injury risks (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Johnson et al., 2000; Pinchbeck et al., 2004; Prole, 1976).
In addition to central effects on psychological state, eCBs may act at peripheral CB receptors to decrease nociceptor activity (Agarwal et al., 2007) and produce exercise-induced analgesia (Sparling et al., 2003). This reduction in pain sensitivity is an important component of the runner's high (i.e. feelings of effortlessness) as defined by Dietrich and McDaniel (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004), and one that improves aerobic exercise performance by allowing individuals to continue running for long distances. Exercise-induced analgesia is a widespread phenomenon that occurs in both athletes and non-athletes following moderate and high-intensity exercise (Hoffman and Hoffman, 2007; Koltyn, 2002). eCBs reduce pain throughout the body because peripheral nerves that are active in sensing pain pathways contain dense concentrations of CB receptors (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004), which function to inhibit the release of neurotransmitters (Gerdeman, 2008; Piomelli, 2003). Peripheral analgesia by eCBs is also achieved through the actions of CB receptors to inhibit the release of inflammatory mediators (Hohmann and Suplita, 2006; Ibrahim et al., 2003). In addition to acting at peripheral sites, CB receptors are found at central sites implicated in pain modulation such as the dorsal horn of the lumbar spinal cord and the rostral ventromedial medulla of the brainstem (Hohmann et al., 1999; Meng et al., 1998), suggesting that circulating eCBs may also lead to a central reduction in pain perception.
Thus, the measured increases in AEA levels in the circulating bloodstream likely produce both peripheral (i.e. analgesic) and central effects that support their role in encouraging aerobic activity and improving exercise performance (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). As eCBs function similarly across mammals (Chaperon and Thiebot, 1999), our results suggest that both humans and dogs achieve a psychological and physiological benefit from increased AEA signaling during and after running. The intensity-dependent nature of eCB activity in humans and dogs suggests that neurobiological rewards function to encourage higher exercise intensities than those required at walking speed.
Exercise-induced eCB signaling increases following higher intensity aerobic activities in humans and dogs, but not in the non-cursorial ferrets. This study is the first to explore inter-specific variation in exercise-induced neurotransmitter signaling and, thus, represents a novel method for examining how and why mammals engage in different types of locomotor behaviors. Our results show that neurobiological differences among mammalian taxa may explain variation in their habitual locomotor behaviors.
Although this study is based on a limited taxonomic sample, we believe that our results point to a possible neurobiological explanation for how different locomotor behaviors may evolve. The shared exercise-induced eCB signaling pathway in humans and dogs, but not in the non-cursorial ferrets, is consistent with anatomical and biomechanical studies pointing to selection for increased levels of aerobic activity in humans (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984). It is important to interpret the results of this study in the context of previous work showing that human endurance exercise performance matches that of mammals traditionally defined as cursorial (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984). For example, humans can habitually run distances and at speeds comparable to other cursorial mammals, and humans share many anatomical traits with quadrupedal cursors that improve endurance athletic performance (e.g. increased limb length, increased semi-circular canal size, increased joint surface areas) (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984). Our results show that humans also share a neurobiological trait with a cursorial mammal that improves endurance exercise performance and may explain the known psychological benefits and analgesic effects of exercise in humans (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004; Scully et al., 1998). Given evidence from recent experiments that the eCB system is a target of selection which encourages exercise in mammals that undergo experimental evolution for high levels of voluntary running (Keeney et al., 2008), we suggest that eCB signaling represents a possible evolutionary explanation for the neurobiological rewards associated with exercise in humans.
Our study does have some limitations that should be noted when interpreting our results. First, we measured eCB signaling in a relatively small number of taxa. Thus, we suggest that future studies analyze a larger number of non-cursorial and cursorial taxa to fully understand the variation in exercise-induced neurobiological rewards across mammals. Second, our experiments did not test for a specific mechanical trigger of eCB signaling. Although we used running behaviors to determine exercise-induced eCB signaling across taxa, Sparling and colleagues showed that eCBs are released in humans following both cycling and running at moderate aerobic intensities (Sparling et al., 2003). Neurobiological rewards are likely tied to high levels of endurance activity, but may not be triggered by a specific mechanical behavior per se. From an evolutionary perspective, these levels of aerobic activity are likely achieved in different taxa during high-intensity running behaviors, suggesting selection may have acted to encourage these intensities during legged locomotion. Third, our human sample was made up of recreationally fit subjects; however, we do not know whether our results are generalizable to more sedentary human populations. We suggest that, for tests of evolutionary hypotheses, fit individuals make better models of earlier human groups, as our ancestors lived active hunter–gatherer lifestyles (Malina and Little, 2008). Nonetheless, further research examining the role of fitness level in eCB activity in humans is necessary. It is possible that more sedentary groups cannot adequately exercise at the intensities required to elicit a significant eCB elevation, and do not gain similar psychological benefits from exercise at lower intensities. This possible intra-specific variation in physical fitness may explain why some individuals do not enjoy exercise. Finally, while we showed that eCB activity is correlated with PA, and therefore feelings of well being in our human sample, we did not measure other aspects of the runner's high as defined by Dietrich and McDaniel (Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004). While eCB activity is linked to reductions in pain sensitivity, anxiolysis and sedation (Piomelli, 2003; Dietrich and McDaniel, 2004), future work should examine these traits in more detail to determine whether exercise-induced eCBs lead to changes in all aspects of the runner's high.
Despite these limitations, our results lay the foundation for a more thorough understanding of the psychological and physiological effects of exercise in cursorial mammals, including humans. It is possible that neurobiological rewards induced by eCB signaling are an ancient human trait that evolved to encourage aerobic activity (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004; Carrier, 1984; Malina and Little, 2008), and that the rewards explain the evolution of differences in voluntary locomotor activity more broadly across mammals. Future studies are needed to fully support this evolutionary hypothesis; however, our results provide the framework for a novel way to examine the evolution of endurance exercise in humans and other mammals. The fact that running, and endurance exercise in general, remains an enjoyable and psychologically beneficial recreational activity for tens of millions of humans today suggests that we still may respond to a neurobiological trait that evolved early in our lineage.
We thank Sarah Daley, Michael Bernas, Michael Rand, Peter Gordon and Miguel Diaz for their help with animal care and data collection, and Daniel Lieberman and Herman Pontzer for discussions of the project and comments on the manuscript. John Allen provided advice on psychological testing. We thank two anonymous reviewers for constructive comments that greatly improved this manuscript. The staff of the Clinical and Translational Science Research Center at the University of Arizona assisted with human data collection.
This project was supported by the National Science Foundation [BCS 0820270] and a Wenner Gren Foundation Hunt Fellowship to D.A.R.


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save the Blue Tier
The George River - Northeast Tasmania - a(nother) catchment in crisis ...
The George River is the largest river that flows off Tasmania's east coast. With a total length of approximately 50 km the George rises on the slopes of Mt's. Albert and Victoria, Rattler Range, Star of Peace and the Blue Tier and flows into Georges Bay just north of St. Helens. The entire catchment area is roughly 40,000 hectares - this area includes the farming settlements of Pyengana, Goshen, Goulds Country and Priory. The major tributaries of the George are the North and South George which meet in the middle of the Pyengana Valley, forming the main branch of the river, the Groom and Ransom which flow from the Blue Tier and join the George at Goshen, as does the Powers Rivulet which rises from Billy of Tin Tier and Littlechild's Creek which has its catchment area between the Blue Tier and Mt. Pearson and joins the George at Priory.
The early settlers mined tin in much of the George River catchment
area between about 1880 and 1930 ... but
for the past 100 years beef and dairy farming, small sawmills and
cheese making have been the mainstay of the communities.
Almost 15 years ago the first farms were converted to plantation (E. nitens) in the headwaters of the North and South George River ... at the time the local community expressed concerns about the use of chemicals in the catchment ... a concoction of herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, wetting agents and fertilisers were aerially sprayed and contaminated many of the small water courses which form the headwaters of the river system. Community concerns have gone largely unheard and the problem has continued to this day. It is not known what the long-term effects of the ongoing chemical contamination will be on the community or the wildlife. In addition, chemicals that are no longer used by the plantation industry are still present in the soil for many years - and wash into the watercourses with each heavy rain.
Since plantations came to this area we have learnt that not only are they chemical dependant but also draw up to 40% more ground water than a mixed age native forest - plantations that replace our forests and farmland take water away from downstream users - farmers, fishers and domestic water supplies. It is believed that plantations use an estimated 2-Mega litres/hectare/year rising to 3 Ml/ha/yr for pasture conversion. Decreased flow rates also effect the minute aquatic life that maintain river health, with the chemical contamination endangering all species. Combined with the effects of climate change this spells disaster for the George River. There is absolutely no planning of this, or of the implications.
Today vast areas of the George River system have been converted from either native forest or farmland to plantation.
In the North George catchment an estimated 25% (1,600ha) of the private land has been converted to E. nitens plantation with a further 1,500 hectares of State Forest either already in plantation or unprotected and therefore available to the logging industry ... this could eventually mean that half of the catchment area ends up in plantation ... as well, the remaining 1,900 ha of private land - made up of pasture and remnant native forest - is not protected against plantation establishment. Clear-felling (and conversion to plantation) of native forest has been occurring recently in the North George catchment on the slopes of the Star of Peace - some of the last unprotected rain forest in the northeast.
The South George catchment is in a similar state with an estimated 1,700 ha of plantation on private land and 3,200 ha of unprotected State Forest.
Of the approximate 40,000 hectares an inadequate 7,200 hectares is in Reserves in the entire George River catchment with 32,800 hectares unprotected. The total plantation estate, on private land, within the catchment area, is estimated at 4,400 hectares with many other properties holding Private Timber Reserve status, but not yet converted. This river system is clearly under stress - and as the flow rate decreases the chemical contamination becomes more concentrated.
Community groups throughout the northeast have lobbied for the protection of the entire George River catchment for many years but the fragmentation of the native forest is worsening and the plantation establishment accelerating at an alarming rate.
The Northeast Highlands National Park proposal seeks to safeguard the water catchment of the George and other major river systems, preserve biodiversity, stop fragmentation of native forest, recognise the significance of glacial refugia, recognise the role of intact forest as a carbon sink and store and the role it plays in producing clean air and water, conserve valuable historical and culturally significant sites and protect the native wildlife and their habitat.
The National Park document may be downloaded from link above.
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So, I was interested in seeing if I could get Iona to wear some more common clothes around the house. I pretty much just leave her there most of the time anyway, so there's no point in her being always dressed for battle.
I couldn't seem to get her to un-equip her standard armor, and she wouldn't put on regular clothing or lesser armor while it was equipped. So, after I finished leveling and perking up my pickpocketing, I stole the Steel Armor straight off her back. After that, I gave her some more suitable house attire (via "Follow me..." -> "I need to trade...") which she gladly put on. However, when I later left and returned to the house, I found her wandering around in her undergarments!
I checked her inventory, and found the clothes I'd given her were still there and her armor wasn't. So, she had no good reason not to be dressed in what had been handed to her. Later, I figured out this continues to happen even if I leave a full set of Legendary-quality Dragonscale Armor with her.
And, later on... I found out this is also the case with Lydia and Jordis. They'll all wear their clothes immediately after being given them. But if I leave them at home, I'll return to find them bare.
Is this a known bug? Is there any way around it without using the PC-only console?