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If there's one thing this webcomic denizen loves more than anything else in his stories, it's superheroes. Fantastic and iconic, these figures of American lore make us want to be more than we are, they inspire us to be better, and they live their lives to make our world a safer place.
How shocked was I, then, to find someone has decided to depict these dooers-of-good well past their prime. Brock Heasley is (to my knowledge) the first creator to base an entire comic series out of a retirement home (here appropriately named Valhalla) for superheroes. With his strip, The Superfogeys, we are offered a glimpse into the life of those fantastic adventurers once their spirits and/or flesh have been made weak. What this entails is great fun, good laughs, and a cast of characters that are at once ridiculous and pitiable, extraordinary and plain, and full of life in their own particular ways.
The Comic
Cast of Characters
Things begin right where you think they would: a meeting of the minds between series regulars, Captain Spectacular and Dr. Rocket, who are instantly familiar as arch-rivals. From there on out, it's a roller-coaster of new faces, new situations (Captain Spectacular's old flame, Spy Gal, coming to Valhalla is the first major storyline) and lots of laughs. Heasley infuses each character with a separate personality, making it that much easier to focus on the stories without fear of the characters stepping all over one another.
Featuring the first few characters of the strip (final panel, from left to right: Dr. Rocket, Jerry, Spy Gal, Captain Spectacular)
the good, but static art still shows off the sharp writing. Better, more kinetic art is soon to follow.
A quick smattering of these characters include: Jerry, the Captain's sidekick and all-around aloof loser; Swifty, the resident speedster who now sports a gut, a walker, and a horribly bad temperament; Star Maiden, Captain Spectacular's ex-wife and general mental vegetable; Tangerine, a Wolverine knock-off who's just as mean and short-fused; Space-Pig, the anesthesiologist whose urine serves as a natural sedative; and Dr. Klein, the man behind Valhalla who has also been revealed to be The Third Man, the shadowy villain behind all the bad goings-on thus far.
And with this diverse, broad cast growing literally by the day, there's certain to be at least one character for every fan to love or hate.
Throughout the now 209-strip-deep run, comedy is king but somewhere along the line, you can see Heasley growing a respect and a bond with his characters, leading to more poignant and impactful moments amongst the cast. Regardless of whether or not a story brings the funny, it's easy to follow each arc as the strips are broken up into chapters, conveniently titled to convey the overall story (as evidenced by the section of the site, pictured right). So if you're looking for formative, frantic fun, Chapter 2: Bingo Night is right up your alley. If you're more in the mood for drama and big reveals, however, the current chapter, Chapter 6: Funeral for a Frenemy might be more your speed. And within each chapter there's a good dose of both comedy and drama, though characters like Swifty make sure the quips flow faster than the tears. (More about the actual chapter navigation later.)
The writing itself is never a mixed bag, even if the motivations and story beats themselves are. While you could argue that the more dramatic issues are played up too heavily for a cartoony-styled, gag-a-day formatted strip, the voices of the characters are always clear and the dialogue is consistently sharp. This means that one reader might be turned off by a dramatic turn in the plot, but never will they lose track of who the characters are and what motivations they retain.
Never is this more apparent than in the fifth story arc, "The Redemption of Dr. Rocket". This arc about the nefarious Dr. Rocket and his seeming turn towards the bright side of life reads more like a soap opera/radio drama, with shocking reveals and relationship twists in bountiful supply. There's the introduction of Tangerine, the build-up to the wedding of Captain Spectacular and Spy Gal (made more comical by the presence of the Captain's ex, the mentally-stunted, Star Maiden) and the titular supposed change in Dr. Rocket.
But throughout this entire chapter, every character rings out loud and clear. Jerry, still recovering from his gunshot wound, is the pitiful, bedridden fool; Captain Spectacular remains stoic yet simple, enjoying the journey and the simpler things in life; Swifty can be counted on for the mean-spirited quips and realist view of things; Spy Gal still has her spunk and adventurous spirit, which leads to a startling revelation; and newcomer, Tangerine, comes packaged with the fury and insecurities you might expect of a man named Tangerine who isn't inclined to exotic dancing. Together, they make the situations, which are typically the method by which humor is derived (see: sitcom) that much more potent because they know who they are and it's an immense joy to watch them bounce off one another.
The true joy of The Superfogeys comes when the characters are allowed to ricochet off one another
as seen in this scene from "The Redemption of Dr. Rocket"
The art is something that starts off good and only gets better over time. While I disagree with the smaller, more common gag strip, four-panel layout as it just doesn't allow the characters enough room to breathe, the line work and coloring here is top-notch. The style starts off a bit stiff and static, with the characters only seen from a single viewpoint and very little movement, almost suggesting a template-driven creation type. Sure, you could argue that a strip set in a retirement community shouldn't have much in the way of kineticism, but these are superheroes! Dynamic structure and exciting flow are the name of the game!
Luckily, once the stage is set and the main cast is introduced, the style starts to loosen up, offering varying perspectives and more detail per character and setting, a trait we've come to expect from any creator worth following. Really, by the time strip 209 (the most current as of this writing) rolls around, the art is of a comic book quality, easily as good, if not better, than that of many artists who regularly see work at both Marvel and DC (though the style would probably be more fitting for an indie title, the quality is present nonetheless). And that's about the highest compliment I can pay to the overall artwork. The style is exactly what I tend to enjoy and when paired with well-written, fun characters, it makes for immensely satisfying reading.
Coloring in superhero comics is typically bright and charismatic, and in this respect, The Superfogeys differs at least a little bit from the norm. While the color palette itself is bright and, well, superheroic, the tones are more muted, possibly to echo the low-key setting of Valhalla. It's nothing super-spectacular, but it gets the job done, which is all I expect from a guy who's doing the entire strip himself. The same can be said of the lettering, though this is typically only a problem if the creator decides to use Comic Sans for whatever ungodly reason (seriously, don't ever do it). Nothing exceptional, but innovation in lettering is rare, so job well done is all that can be said.
This strip, set during a flashback in the latest storyline, shows the leap in
quality and depth that the art has taken since the comic began.
By and large, the overall layout of the strip falls into this category as well, though again, is it really expected of a creator to go out-of-bounds with a typical, four-panel layout? From time to time, Heasley expands the strip to another row of panels, though nothing too outrageous comes from these casual jaunts into unexplored territory. Though I would personally like to see comics featuring The Superfogeys more akin to the Superfogeys Origins editions, which are drawn by T.L. Collins and feature a more sprawling layout, the recent deal Heasley got to have his comics on the iPhone certainly works much simpler with this standardized format. There's a whole other conversation to be had about digital comics on portable devices, so I'll just say that the increased exposure certainly can't hurt The Superfogeys and wish the strip the best.
Between the great writing and artwork that only stands to get better with each update, The Superfogeys couldn't come with a higher recommendation. And for those that don't like scanning through page after page of archives online, there's always the option of dead-tree editions, as the comic has been collected into three volumes already with a fourth on the way!
The Site
In webcomics, the site the comic is hosted on can sometimes be just as important as the comic itself. After all, I can think of several, high-quality comics that I will never read online unless a new site design is considered. So how does The Superfogeys fare in this regard?
Site Design/Layout
A slice of The Superfogeys site, complete with Twitter badge (in the left sidebar), chapter selection
(in the top-right), and the Blog posts (underneath the strip). Overall very impressive design.
The Superfogeys is part of the Th3rd World Studios family, so the site design is nothing different than the other home pages for the other comics hosted on the site. Luckily, the design is a solid one, with the standard features already in place; the comic is featured front and center in the design; a series of pages are used to flesh out the longevity of the story, including Characters, Bio, Links, and Story pages along with the typical Forum to hash out those lengthier debates that won't fit within the confines of the Comment thread (which the strip also has); and a Blog post accompanies every episode. Again, a standard of every comic these days (especially if you utilize the Comicpress WordPress theme) but still a welcome addition to the Th3rd World suite.
Other handy little widgets, like a Twitter badge hooked into Heasley's Tweets, give a bit more of a personal touch to the whole presentation and News and Latest Blog blocks at the bottom keep things up to date. Regardless of whether this is Heasley's doing or Th3rd World had it all ready to go the moment he signed on, it's a solid layout that impresses, even compared to the tried-and-true Comicpress format.
As I previously mentioned, the separate but still integrated chapter navigation drop-downs make going through the various chapters and their respective episodes a breeze. Many people might not think to judge a strip based on this, but if you're looking at a good number of strips, especially for a review such as this, or searching an archive for a specific strip (also handy when it comes to reviewing), a look-up index like this is essential. Clicking on a chapter title instantly takes you to the first page of that chapter and the second menu changes to only include the episodes associated with it. It's slick, intuitive, and non-cluttering, a big win in the navigation department.
As for navigating the strips in a back-and-forth manner? Typical links are included (First, Previous, etc.) though only above the strip. This is fine for the usual one stripe layout but when the story calls for a broader page that takes the strip below the fold, another instance of this interface would be handy so the user doesn't have to scroll back up to hit the next page. A small gripe for sure, but after ten scrolls or so, you really have a craving for that simple tool. Other than this small misstep (which is easily fixable) the navigation is a breeze and every comic with more than one chapter to its name should consider a widget like the one The Superfogeys employs.
With a great, young creator and a stellar, clean, and appealing site behind it, The Superfogeys will only move on to bigger and better things from here on. Make sure to check out the easy-to-read archives yourself and pick up a book or two to help Heasley realize that dream!


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There's a bear roaming the streets of Washington, D.C.
It's more metaphorical than ursine. That's how President Obama describes his recent efforts to break free of the cage that is the White House bubble. He's been venturing out on strolls — like real bears, often in search of food, but also searching for something more.
The bear was spotted Monday near the National Zoo, wearing sunglasses and walking on Calvert Street with four people who had been attending the White House Summit on Working Families.
It seems the bear was hungry: A few minutes later, the press pool was ushered into a Chipotle where President Obama sat with his shirt sleeves rolled up.
Later, he bragged about his adventure.
"I just walked over to Chipotle's for lunch. I caused a lot of havoc as you might expect," the president said. "It had been awhile since I had the burrito bowl, and it was good."
In the life of a president, walking down the street and eating fast-casual Mexican food brings a tiny taste of normalcy. It's something Obama has sought out increasingly in recent weeks.
The bear first appeared in late May. Instead of taking a motorcade the half-mile from the White House to the Interior Department for an event, Obama walked.
He wasn't truly free to roam. The president had his Secret Service detail and a handful of reporters tagging along. But, as a White House video shows, he was still able to surprise some unsuspecting tourists.
"Oh, my gosh, it's like the best day of my life," said a woman who introduced herself as Karen. "Oh, my gosh, someone's going to think you're, like, wax."
As the video continues, it is clear Obama is having fun.
"One of the things that this president misses the most is the ability to walk down the street and talk to people," said White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest. "That's particularly important to him because he is sitting in the Oval Office, right up that hallway, making the kinds of decisions that he knows have a substantial impact on the daily lives of Americans."
It seems that the president enjoyed that walk so much, he wanted to do it again. So, a couple of weeks later, he broke free from the press pool with his chief of staff to hit a nearby Starbucks.
"What'd you get to drink, Mr. President?" he was asked.
"Just some tea."
Hot tea. Nothing too adventurous. The real adventure was just walking briefly out of the spotlight.
"The president has to really insist [on getting out]. You know, it's good for his mental health, I think, to do that," says Ken Walsh, the chief White House correspondent at U.S. News and World Report and the author of Prisoners of the White House.
And, Walsh says, Obama is far from the first president to feel the itch to get out.
"Harry Truman called it 'the great white jail.' Bill Clinton called the White House 'the crown jewel in the federal penitentiary system.' And presidents tend to really, in very short order, get claustrophobic; they get very resentful," he said.
Where will the bear go next? No one knows. But there's an anonymous Twitter handle following his every bearlike move.
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.

subset: commoncrawl


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Afterwards we travelled the short distance to my parents' home and had a light tea with the much anticipated (by me at least) anniversary cake. The recipe suggestion I had gone with came from Kate Noble, who recommended the recipe she had used for her own wedding cake, no less. It originated from BBC Good Food, who entitle it 'Hot Toddy Fruit Cake', and list it as a Christmas cake. I chose it because I liked the idea of a very moist cake, and as my parents are keen tea drinkers I thought it apt to go with this recipe.
I made it a month ahead, and then fed it a couple of times with a little more whisky, and possibly some rum too. A week before D-day I added a layer of marzipan, and then a day or two before the final eating I added some royal icing coloured a splendid shade of ruby red (you should have seen my hands after adding the colouring - attractive for meeting my child from nursery...).
Finally, I added the piped wording and the piped heart embellishment, along with some edible gold glitter, the day before. I mixed some of the glitter with the icing in the piping bag but as this didn't give the full twinkle I added some more afterwards. I was actually quite impressed by my restraint with the glitter. You know, sometimes less IS more...
The cake was a perfect travel companion on the three hour trip from here to there. The weight of it stopped it from sliding about on the cake board and the simplicity of the decoration meant no tears on that front either.
Now, I should confess that I was a little nervous about the moment the cake was cut into. It had seemed very moist when I transferred it from the tin to the board, and despite reinserting a skewer several times and coming back with a dry reading, I was worried that the centre of the cake would prove to be soggy. The moment of truth came and a sigh of relief was issued. The cake had cooked perfectly, and I hadn't ruined it all with that final tot of brandy (for medicinal purposes).


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As regular readers know, I periodically publish posts sharing what some organizations list as the "most popular" sites or services. I find them interesting and sometimes useful (see The Best Places To Find The Most Popular (& Useful) Resources For Educators –2011).
Every six months or so, I also publish Postrank's listing of their determination of the "most engaging" education blogs (it changes weekly). I take all these lists with a grain of salt, but it can't hurt to see a list of who might have important roles in the online discussion about education. Obviously, the usefulness of Postrank's criteria is very debatable. At the very least, it's a source of potential new blogs to read.
You can see the entire PostRank list here. And here are the "top ten":
2. EduDemic
3. Free Technology For Teachers
5. MindShift
6. Larry Ferlazzo's Websites of The Day
8. Angela Maiers Educational Services


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Will Campaign Silly Season Endanger BART Bond This Fall?
Trigger Warning: This is a Semi-Political Post, which may feature opinions that may be upsetting to some readers. If you do not wish to read such a post, please go elsewhere, and come back later! In an election year it … Continue reading →
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How to Make a Baby from Cassidy Curtis on Vimeo.
Having a kid is such a memorable experience, but it's kind of hard to convey to folks who haven't been through it. So we made this little educational film to show you how it's done. (Don't worry, it's totally worksafe!)
For a bigger version, and some behind the scenes details, see How to Make a "How to Make a Baby".


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Jerry Siegel, co-creator of Superman, wrote "The K-Metal from Krypton" script in 1940. According to comic book historian Will Murray, it was most likely originally intended for use in Superman #8, the January/February 1941 issue. (See Murray's article in Alter Ego #37 for details) The story marked many radical shifts in the life of Superman. Murray argues that since Jerry Siegel had recently gotten married and that his life had gone through many other changes since his first Superman story, Siegel wanted to alter Superman's life in similar ways. He also points out that the events in this story had been foreshadowed in earlier ones, and gives details of possible sequels.
Joe Shuster and his studio illustrated the complete twenty-six page script, but the tale was never published, most likely for editorial reasons. Gerard Jones, in Men of Tomorrow, explains how this marked the moment that creative control of Superman's destiny was forever taken from Jerry Siegel. Jerry's K-Metal story was quickly forgotten and languished in obscurity; his desired changes to Superman never taking place until decades later, some not at all. Joe Shuster's twenty-six pages of finished artwork were lost as well. The only evidence of the story's existence appeared in 1970, when a small, grainy and barely legible reproduction of four pages appeared in Jim Steranko's History of Comics, Volume One. However, neither the story nor its plot were mentioned, the pages were only identified as being from an unpublished Superman story. Siegel's script continued to remain completely forgotten and the story's existence unknown, until 1988 when an ancient, faded, and blurred carbon-copy of the complete script was discovered in a dusty box in the back of the DC library archives by a young staff member named Mark Waid. Having read Steranko's History of Comics as a youth, he recognized the story as being that unpublished tale mentioned in the book. He immediately read the entire script and was struck dumb by its historical significance. He then restored the document by re-typing an exact duplicate, typos and all, on an identical manual typewriter as had been used by Jerry Siegel. (See Mark Waid's article in Alter Ego #26 for details) Since the finished Shuster Studio artwork pages were no longer available; and whether or not they even existed anymore, or where any surviving pages might be located, were all completely unknown; Mark made efforts at DC to have the story re-illustrated and published. These efforts did not succeed. In 1994, Mark Waid gave a copy of the script to Alex Ross who read it and was equally amazed. After the critical success that had come with his work on Kingdom Come in 1998, Alex felt that his next project should be to illustrate Jerry Siegel's K-Metal script in a style as close to Joe Shuster's as was possible. The idea was rejected for editorial reasons, so he instead created Peace on Earth. (See Alex Ross's article in Alter Ego #30 for more details) In the summer of 2003, Mark Waid's article describing the K-Metal story and his experiences discovering it were published in Alter Ego #26. Accompanying the article were reproductions of a few pages of the original Shuster Studio artwork, and a handful of script excerpts. I decided to scan the artwork pages and put them online at the former Superman Through the Ages! website, with a goal of eventually recovering the other pages and presenting the complete story on the web. To fill in the missing gaps, I scanned the script excerpts from the issue, and then hunted down a copy of Steranko's History of Comics, Volume One in order to add the four pages of artwork that had been published in it.
Soon after this all went online, I was contacted by artist Angel Criado, who wanted to complete the story by illustrating the missing pages.
Angel began his work, starting with a
pencil draft of the first page
and a few
cover concepts.
Peter Jones, who owns the original artwork for page 20, came across the Superman Through the Ages! website and discovered our efforts— so he kindly sent in a scan of his page, which I added to the partial collection. Artists Bob Rivard, Shane Foley, Randy Sargent, and Jon Bogdanove all agreed to join the project. New artwork has been created where needed and original pages have been restored when possible. Through the efforts of Charlie Roberts and Doctor Thomas Andrae, the artwork for page 7 was recovered; and Doctor Andrae also provided a copy of the original artwork for page 12.
We are thrilled to finally be able to present Siegel and Shuster's "The K-Metal from
Krypton" Article by Great Rao, 2005-2007 |
| |


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EZwaste Replacement Fittings, 1/2-20 Plugs, 20/pk
The 1/2-20" Plugs Pack is the replacement fittings for EZwaste Solvent Waste System's fittings. It is used to cover any unused 1/4" ports. It includes (20) 1/2-20" plugs. These plugs provide closed system necessary to prevent spills.
The EZwaste® Solvent Waste System is designed to be an affordable solution for HPLC liquid waste disposal. Each system is manufactured to safely collect waste from two HPLC machines. This system features an activated carbon filter which traps volatile organic compounds from being released into the air. This prevents chemicals from being inhaled by lab workers and provides an easy mechanism of disposal for vapor wastes. The EZwaste® Solvent Waste system also features a closed loop design which protects against leaks and spills, improving overall lab safety.
* Depending on application, carbon exhaust filter life cycle may vary


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Lyonel Laurenceau 44"x44" Metamorphosis Acrylic on Canvas #1GSN
About this artist
About this artist
Lyonel Laurenceau is born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti in 1942 and studied art at the ABC School of Paris. His excellent technique enables him to paint affecting portrait types. " His excellent technique enables him to paint affecting, portraits types" (Gerald Alexis, Peintres Haitiens). His art is referred in all major books about Haitian art.
Own a piece of art by this artist? Each piece is unique. Get the actual estimated market value of yours Now! How Does It Work?
Want to know more about the wonderful art of Haiti? BUY NOW Your Haitian Art Book!
Can't find what you are looking for? Click Here To Ask Us!


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Overview of the test
The first Arudino repeatedly sends a bunch of IR codes to the second Arduino. The second Arduino verifies that the received code is what is expected. If all is well, the second Arduino flashes the LED for each successful code. If there is an error, the second Arudino's LED illuminates for 5 seconds. The test cycle repeats forever. Debugging information is output to the second Arduino's serial port, which is helpful for tracking down the cause of errors.Hardware setup
The test hardware is pretty simple: one Arduino transmits, and one Arduino receives. An IR LED is connected to pin 3 of the first Arduino to send the IR code. An IR detector is connected to pin 11 of the second Arduino to receive the IR code. A LED is connected to pin 3 of the second Arduino to provide the test status.Details of the test software
One interesting feature of this test is the same sketch runs on the sending Arduino and the receiving Arduino. The test looks for an input on pin 11 to decide if it is the receiver:void setup() { Serial.begin(9600); // Check RECV_PIN to decide if we're RECEIVER or SENDER if (digitalRead(RECV_PIN) == HIGH) { mode = RECEIVER; irrecv.enableIRIn(); pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); Serial.println("Receiver mode"); } else { mode = SENDER; Serial.println("Sender mode"); } }Another interesting feature is the test suite is expressed very simply:
test("SONY4", SONY, 0x12345, 20); test("SONY5", SONY, 0x00000, 20); test("SONY6", SONY, 0xfffff, 20); test("NEC1", NEC, 0x12345678, 32); test("NEC2", NEC, 0x00000000, 32); test("NEC3", NEC, 0xffffffff, 32); ...Each test call has a debugging string, the type of code to send/receive, the value to send/receive, and the number of bits.
On the sender, the testmethod sends the code, while on the receiver, the method verifies that the proper code is received. The SENDER code calls the appropriate send method based on the type, and then delays before the next test. The RECEIVER code waits for a code. If it's correct, it flashes the LED. Otherwise, it sets the state to ERROR.
void test(char *label, int type, unsigned long value, int bits) { if (mode == SENDER) { Serial.println(label); if (type == NEC) { irsend.sendNEC(value, bits); } else if (type == SONY) { ... } delay(200); } else if (mode == RECEIVER) { irrecv.resume(); // Receive the next value unsigned long max_time = millis() + 30000; // Wait for decode or timeout while (!irrecv.decode(&results)) { if (millis() > max_time) { mode = ERROR; // timeout return; } } if (type == results.decode_type && value == results.value && bits == results.bits) { // flash LED } else { mode = ERROR; } } }The trickiest part of the code is synchronizing the sender and the receiver. This happens in loop(). The receiver waits for 1 second without any transmission, while the sender pauses for 2 seconds after each time through the tests. Thus, the receiver will wait while the sender is running through tests, and then will start listening just before the sender starts the next cycle of tests. One other thing to point out is if there is an error, the receiver will skip through all the remaining tests, light the LED to indicate the error, and then will wait to sync up again. This avoids the problem of one bad test getting the receiver permanently out of sync; the receiver is able to re-sync and continue successfully after a failed test.
void loop() { if (mode == SENDER) { delay(2000); // Delay for more than gap to give receiver a better chance to sync. } else if (mode == RECEIVER) { waitForGap(1000); } else if (mode == ERROR) { // Light up for 5 seconds for error mode = RECEIVER; // Try again return; }The test also includes some raw mode tests. These are a bit more complicated, since I want to test the various combinations of sending and receiving in raw mode.
Download and running
I'm gradually moving my development to GitHub at https://github.com/shirriff/Arduino-IRremote.The code fragments above have been slightly abbreviated; the full code for the test sketch is here.
To download the library and try out the two-Arduino test:
- Download the IRremote library zip file.
- Unzip the download
- Move/rename the shirriff-Arduino-IRremote-nnnn directory to arduino-000nn/libraries/IRremote. The test sketch is in examples/IRtest2.
To run the test, install the sketch on two Arduinos. The test should automatically start running. Note that it is a bit tricky to use two Arduinos at once. They will probably get assigned different serial ports, and you can switch ports using the Tools menu. If you get confused, you can plug one Arduino in at a time, and then you can be sure about which one is getting installed.
My plan is to do more development on the library, now that I have a reasonably solid test suite and I can be more confident that I don't break things. Let me know if there are specific features you'd like.
Thanks go to SparkFun for giving me the second Arduino that made this test possible.


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Informal learning: theory, practice and experience. In recent years a number of researchers and policy pundits have rediscovered 'informal learning'. But is there really such a thing? We explore the theory and practice of 'informal learning'
contents: introduction · informal learning · non-formal learning · tacit knowledge · situated and distributed learning · informal education · conclusion · references · links
Informal learning should no longer be regarded as an inferior form of learning whose main purpose is to act as the precursor of formal learning; it needs to be seen as fundamental, necessary and valuable in its own right, at times directly relevant to employment and at other times not relevant at all. (Coffield 2000: 8)
We must move away from a view of education as a rite of passage involving the acquisition of enough knowledge and qualifications to acquire and adult station in life. The point of education should not be to inculcate a body of knowledge, but to develop capabilities: the basic ones of literacy and numeracy as well as the capability to act responsibly towards others, to take initiative and to work creatively and collaboratively. The most important capability, and the one which traditional education is worst at creating is the ability and yearning to carry on learning. Too much schooling kills off a desire to learn…. Schools and universities should become more like hubs of learning, within the community, capable of extending into the community… More learning needs to be done at home, in offices and kitchens, in the contexts where knowledge is deployed to solve problems and add value to people's lives. (Leadbeater 2000: 111-112)
Commentators in the UK adult education and lifelong learning field have shown an increasing interest in informal learning. Bentley (1998) has examined 'learning beyond the classroom'; Coffield (2000) 'the necessity of informal learning'; Marsick and Watkins (1990) and Dale and Bell (1999) 'informal and incidental learning in the workplace'; and McGiveney (1999) 'informal learning in the community'. However, this interest has not been reflected in any significant way thus far in policy statements and reviews. As Coffield (2000: 1) notes, for all the talk of lifelong learning and the learning society the focus remains on formal provision, qualifications and accountability.
This interest in informal learning has run alongside developments in thinking around informal education (although, significantly, there is no reference to this in any of the above studies). It also links to explorations of learning through participation in the life of a group or association – la vie associative. Within social anthropology there has also been a longstanding concern with 'informal learning'– reflected in studies such as Heath on literacy practices (1983) and Henze (1992). These have fed through into thinking about practice (Heath and McLauglin 1993 and Smith 1994). Work on the distributed cognition (Salomon 1993) and situated learning (Lave and Wenger 1991) has also helped to deepen our appreciation.
While it is surely right to explore and deepen 'learning beyond the classroom', there is some doubt as to whether the notion of informal learning is the most useful way forward. Michael Eraut, for example, has suggested that the utility of such a 'catch-all' label is not very great (2000: 12). He suggests the notion of 'non-formal learning' might be more helpful. However, as we will see, it isn't the most illuminating path either. Within much that is written and said about the area, learning and education are confused; and there is an over-concern with institutional setting or sponsorship as against process and content.
In this piece I explore informal learning as an administrative concept; the competing claims of 'non-formal education'; the significance of tacit knowledge; and the production of social knowledge through distributed and situated learning. I argue that the most useful way of exploring and developing what is a fundamental area of human endeavour, is to put 'informal learning' on one side for the moment and to focus on:
- learning in its various guises – implicit, reactive and deliberative, for example, and
- self-directed and communal forms of education.
The idea of 'informal education', I suggest, does have utility.
Informal learning – an administrative concept
We can begin to see some of the problems associated with the term 'informal learning' as soon as we glance at the definitions offered. For example, Veronica McGivney used the following in her study. Informal learning is:
- Learning that takes place outside a dedicated learning environment and which arises from the activities and interests of individuals and groups, but which may not be recognised as learning.
- Non course-based learning activities (which might include discussion, talks or presentations, information, advice and guidance) provided or facilitated in response to expressed interests and needs by people from a range of sectors and organizations (health, housing, social services, employment services, education and training services, guidance services).
- Planned and structured learning such as short courses organized in response to identified interests and needs but delivered in flexible and informal ways and in informal community settings.
Margaret Dale and John Bell (1999) define informal learning somewhat more narrowly for their purposes as:
Learning which takes place in the work context, relates to an individual's performance of their job and/or their employability, and which is not formally organized into a programme or curriculum by the employer. It may be recognized by the different parties involved, and may or may not be specifically encouraged.
The central and defining feature of informal learning in this view is context – or more accurately administrative setting and sponsorship. Crudely, learning that takes place in dedicated educational institutions such as schools is seen as formal, that which occurs beyond the school walls as 'informal'. Coombs and Ahmed used a similar distinction with regard to education. In their view, informal education is:
… the lifelong process by which every individual acquires and accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences and exposure to the environment – at home, at work, at play: from the example and attitude of families and friends; from travel, reading newspapers and books; or by listening to the radio or viewing films or television. Generally informal education is unorganized, unsystematic and even unintentional at times, yet accounts for the great bulk of any person's total lifetime learning – including that of a highly 'schooled' person. (Coombs and Ahmed 1974: 8)
We can see the similarities here with the above discussion of 'informal learning'. Significantly, it carries with it many of the same problems. Informal education is set against non-formal education – organized educational activity outside formal systems; and formal education – the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded 'education system'. The distinction made is largely administrative. Formal education is linked with schools and training institutions; non-formal with community groups and other organizations; and informal covers what is left, e.g. interactions with friends, family and work colleagues.
There is an important point for policy in this distinction. If schools and colleges have only a limited place in the learning that occurs in a society, questions must be asked about the focus on such institutions. Would funding be better deployed elsewhere? Does the current obsession with accreditation have any merit? Should researchers explore learning in everyday life in more depth? However, once this point is noted, there is little conceptual mileage in this particular division of learning.
The main problem with regard to theoretical development is that as soon as we begin to look at the characteristics of learning activities within 'dedicated' and non-dedicated learning environments we find a striking mix of educational and learning processes in each (Smith 1988: 125-126). For example, as Henze and others have shown, people teach and organize educational events as part of their everyday experience. A grandfather might show a child how to use a key to unlock a door; a mother may work with her daughter around reading – and so on. These educational events fall inside McGivney's first focus – yet in their essence they may be little different to what happens in a classroom. Both grandfather and mother may set out to teach particular skills. For this reason, any discussion of informal and formal learning, or informal and formal education must move beyond a simple focus on context or setting, and look to the processes and experiences involved in each. In the case of the latter, it can be argued that informal education is largely driven by conversation (and has formal interludes), while formal education is curriculum-driven (and has informal interludes). Setting or context is still a factor. Different settings will offer a novel mix of resources and opportunities for learning and will have contrasting expectations associated with them (Jeffs and Smith 1990: 1-23).
A further issue is that many of those commentating on informal learning do not seem to make an adequate distinction between learning and education. The latter can be characterized as setting out to foster environments for learning that involve a commitment to certain values such as a respect for truth and for persons (Jeffs and Smith 1999: 12-16 – see education). Learning can be seen as a product or thing – a memory or understanding; or as a process – as a form of thinking. What is sometimes described as informal learning is, thus, better described as self-education, or self directed learning. (Alan Tough has explored people's participation in learning projects. He began by calling this phenomenon 'self-teaching', later self-directed learning.)
'Non-formal' learning as implicit, reactive and deliberative
Michael Eraut has contributed one of the most helpful discussions of 'informal learning' in recent years. He suggests, but doesn't really make the case for, a focus on non-formal learning. The argument is that the term 'informal' is associated with so many other features of situations – such as dress, behaviour, discourse – 'that its colloquial application as a descriptor of learning contexts may have little to do with learning per se' (Eraut 2000: 12). Unfortunately, the notion of 'non-formal learning' in itself may not be any more helpful.
Firstly, we cannot ignore the tradition of thinking and administrative practice associated with non-formal education as it will tend to colour the way many professionals in the lifelong learning and adult education arena will approach the notion. Non-formal education in its classic definition by Coombs and Ahmed (1974: 8) is 'any organized, systematic educational activity, carried on outside the framework of the formal system, to provide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the population, adults as well as children'. It includes agricultural extension programmes, youth clubs and groups with substantial educational purposes and community-based programmes of health education. As Malcolm Tight notes, a simpler definition has been employed by OECD as: 'education for which none of the learners is enrolled or registered' (OECD 1977: 11, quoted by Tight 1996: 69). Such activity could be course-based or more conversational – and would run close to the second and third elements of informal learning identified by McGivney (above). This is a narrow interpretation of the territory that Eraut seeks to explore and has the danger of focusing us again on the administrative context rather than the characteristics of the learning process.
Secondly, the use of the term 'non-formal' invites dualism. We inevitably tend to contrast it with 'formal' learning. This is learning that takes place in a situation where there is:
- A prescribed learning framework;
- An organized learning event or package;
- The presence of a designated teacher or trainer;
- The award of a qualification or credit;
- The external specification of outcomes. (Eraut 2000: 12).
We may well want to question this characterization of formal learning, but presumably non-formal learning could be seen as involving a non-prescribed learning framework, internal or non-specification of outcome, no designated teachers and so on. The point that Eraut seeks to make is that we need to explore the full range of learning processes or modes that fall within the domain of 'non-formal learning'. Here he is surely right in trying to point us in the direction of processes and experiences but in so doing he undermines the case for a distinction between non-formal and formal. Some of the very processes he directs our attention to could equally be labelled 'formal'. It would seem that a focus on setting or context (informal, non-formal and formal) has only a limited usefulness – and then principally in the broad discussion of policy.
Eraut's argument gets interesting when he begins to look at the level of intention in learning. He creates a continuum with implicit learning – 'the acquisition of knowledge independently of conscious attempts to learn and the absence of explicit knowledge about what was learned' (Reber 1993 quoted by Eraut 2000: 12) on one extreme. On the other is deliberative learning where time is specifically set-aside for learning. Between the two is reactive learning. Here learning is explicit but almost takes place spontaneously and in response to recent, current or imminent situations but without any time being set aside for it. These categories come very close to Donald Schön'scategories 'knowledge in use', 'reflection on action' and reflection in action. (Eraut 1994 views Schön's last category as problematic because he believes it is also sometimes used to refer to a metacognitive awareness that is not a form of learning in itself). He asks a further question – are the events that provide the focus from the past, something happening in the present, or part of some possible future action? He then suggests that we can then produce a typology on 'non-formal learning'.
Michael Eraut's typology of non-formal learning (2000: 13) |
Time of stimulus | Implicit learning | Reactive learning | Deliberative learning |
Past episode(s) | Implicit linkage of past memories with current experience | Brief near-spontaneous reflection on past episodes, communications, events, experiences. | Review of past actions, communications, events' experiences. More systematic reflection. |
Current experience | A selection from experience enters the memory. | Incidental noting of facts, opinions, impressions, ideas.Recognition of learning opportunities. | Engagement in decision making, problem solving, planned informal learning. |
Future behaviour | Unconscious effect of previous experiences. | Being prepared for emergent learning opportunities. | Planned learning goals.Planned learning opportunities. |
This presentation is useful as soon as we unhook it from the notion of 'non-formal learning'. Eraut dismisses using the idea of self-directed learning because it can refer to what he has defined as formal and non-formal situations. However, so can his notion of deliberative learning. Indeed, implicit and reactive learning can also do so. As Eraut (2000: 26) admits, a multitude of processes and outcomes occur in formal settings like lessons in schools (as they do in informal moments like chance meetings on the street). It is probably more useful to look at learning as implicit, reactive and deliberative (plus some other possible candidates) and to explore interaction with context. Effectively, this would mean going well beyond a crude separation of contexts into informal and formal. The focus on these more substantive categories of learning allows us to connect with substantial traditions of thinking and practice and so develop a better appreciation of the experiences of learners and how their efforts might be enhanced.
Tacit knowledge
Another path into the notion of informal learning is to view it simply as implicit learning. Such learning results in what Polanyi (1967) calls tacit knowledge – 'that which we know but cannot tell'. However, as Eraut (2000: 16) again points out, a string of writers have explored how what they talk of as tacit knowledge can be made explicit (and how explicit learning can lead to tacit knowledge). It may be that no knowledge is totally implicit or explicit. Much of Eraut's discussion of 'non-formal learning' is concerned with identifying different types of situation in which tacit knowledge may be gained or used (simultaneously or otherwise). Six main situations were named:
- knowledge acquired by implicit learning of which the knower is unaware;
- knowledge constructed from the aggregation of episodes in long-term memory;
- knowledge inferred by observers to be capable of representation as implicit theories of action, personal constructs, schemas, etc;
- knowledge that enables rapid, intuitive understanding or response;
- knowledge entailed in transferring knowledge from one situation to another;
- knowledge embedded in taken-for-granted activities, perceptions and norms (2000: 28).
Tacit knowledge provides much of the basis for the way we interact with people and situations. We have a 'taken-for-granted' understanding of others. Because this is not explored in any coherent way, such knowledge can be self-perpetuating and lead to behaviour that is inappropriate, or not the most productive. This is a compelling argument for the exploration of implicit learning (and attempting to make tacit knowledge more explicit). Once revealed it can be tested and developed. Not unexpectedly there are major difficulties with this process (see the discussion of experiential learning and reflection on action). Indeed, if we follow Polanyi's definition it may not be possible at all.
We also need to recognize the reverse process – that of making explicit knowledge tacit. Here we may learn and develop routines and habits to deal with situations. This can range from developing the ability to touch-type to being able to respond to situations quickly – for example dealing with a medical emergency. In the case of the latter we may quickly fall into a pattern of actions without any significant deliberation. We respond to certain characteristics of a situation. Competence in a field depends on our abilities to both name and explore what could be described as 'tacit knowledge', and to 'unthinkingly' make use of it in appropriate circumstances.
From the brief discussion above it can be inferred that there is little mileage in simply renaming implicit learning as informal learning. First, there is a strong body of literature that deals explicitly and successfully with tacit knowledge – and it would seem pointless to re-label a phenomenon that has a comprehensive literature. Second, the production of tacit knowledge involves implicit, reactive and deliberative learning. To focus down on one of these is to miss a, perhaps 'the', significant point. It is the interrelation of these modes of learning, and the mix of informal and formal education, that demands our attention.
Situated learning
This leads on to a fourth avenue of exploration – viewing informal learning as an expression of situated learning (see learning). This takes us beyond understandings of learning as being internal, or 'within the skin', of individuals (see discussion of atomized notions of the self) towards an understanding that takes in the social. When looked at in conjunction with the processes Eraut outlined with respect to non-formal learning <href="#nonformallearning">abovepowerful possibilities emerge.
A useful starting point is the notion of distributed cognition that gained some currency in the early 1990s. Much of the experimentation and theorizing concerning cognitive processes and development has treated cognition as being 'possessed and residing in the heads of individuals' (Salomon 1993: xii). Those interested in distributed cognition have looked to the tools and social relations 'outside' people's heads. They are not only 'sources of stimulation and guidance but are actually vehicles of thought… It is not just the "person-solo" who learns, but the "person-plus", the whole system of interrelated factors' (ibid.: xiii). People think in relationship with others and use various tools. Different cognitions will emerge in different situations.
So it is that we can talk of 'situated learning'. It can be seen as involving participation in communities of practice.
Learning involves the whole person; it implies not only a relation to specific activities, but a relation to social communities – it implies becoming a full participant, a member, a kind of person. In this view, learning only partly – and often incidentally – implies becoming able to be involved in new activities, to perform new tasks and functions, to master new understandings. Activities, tasks, functions, and understandings do not exist in isolation; they are part of broader systems of relations in which they have meaning. (Lave and Wenger 1991: 53)
Novices enter at the edge – their participation is on the periphery. Gradually their engagement deepens and becomes more complex. They become full participants, and will often take on organizing or facilitative roles (see our discussion of learning in associations). Knowledge is, thus, located in the community of practice. Furthermore, in this view 'it makes no sense to talk of knowledge that is decontextualized, abstract or general' (Tennant 1997: 77).
Four propositions are common to the range of perspectives that now come together under the banner of situated learning:
- High-level or expert knowledge and skill can be gained from everyday experiences at work, and in community or family.
- Domain-specific knowledge is necessary for the development of expertise (i.e. much of expertise relies on detailed local knowledge of a workplace, locality or industry).
- Learning is a social process.
- Knowledge is embedded in practice and transformed through goal-directed behaviour. (Tennant 1999: 170).
From the above we can see how discussions of informal learning becomes linked with situated learning. The focus on communities of practice rather than dedicated learning environments; the interest in implicit learning; and the concern with relationship and conversation can lead us in that direction. In terms of the administrative or institutional definition of informal learning (see <href="#informallearning">above) there is an immediate problem, however. We can approach learning that takes place in the community of practice that is the school as situated. Moreover, as with 'tacit knowledge', there is now a vibrant literature that deals explicitly and successfully with situated learning – and it would be misleading to re-label the phenomenon.
Self-education and informal education
Thus far, the argument has been that the notion of informal learning only has a limited use as a means of highlighting the extent of learning and education activity beyond the school. As a basis upon which to develop significant theory or to deepen practice it has little to recommend it. Indeed, it could be argued that it diverts attention away from what are more productive lines of enquiry. The question inevitably arises – can a similar argument be made around the distinction between informal and formal education?
The answer is 'Yes', if we use definitions of informal, non-formal and formal education that draw upon the sort of administrative concerns articulated by Coombs and Ahmed (1974). However, if we look to a more sophisticated appreciation of informal and formal education, then the answer is 'No'. The key dimension, in many respects, is intention. Education is a conscious activity; learning isn't necessarily. People may not have a clear idea of the knowledge or skill they want to acquire, but they are committed to a process. This focus on intention in education allows us to explore different ways of organizing and articulating this. My own preference is to separate those approaches that depend upon the planning and sequencing of learning (via something like a curriculum) and those that are essentially dialogical or conversational (and hence hold little prospect of pre-organizing if we to stay true to their nature). The former can be seen as formal, and the latter as informal, education. As John Ellishas argued it is best to see these as a continuum (see below)
Street educators probably work more towards X; schoolteachers toward Y. This means both have a mixture of formal and informal practice. Put another way – both are facilitators, both are teachers. Much of the work of youth workers, for example, will be around conversation (a). However, they will also be running small projects and groups, perhaps organizing residentials (b). Here they may sit down with those involved and talk through the programme. They decide together what they will do – they negotiate a curriculum. Workers may also be interested in water-sports. Here they may well organize a course on safety – where they decide the content and the process (c) (Jeffs and Smith 1999).
Educators that are largely working around conversation can be seen as informal, those working through set curricula are formal. It could be argued that those largely working with negotiated curricula are either engaged in non-formal because of the 'bottom up' approach to planning content and process (following Fordham [1995]) or in some form of self-education.
One of the interesting features of this simple model is that it can be applied to self-education and self-directed learning. These terms tend to be used interchangeably – although the latter has gained significantly in popularity in the last decade or so. However, they are different. While both are concerned with conscious attempts to learn, self-education also carries with it a commitment to certain values like respect for others, the search for truth and so on. Self-directed learning need not. If we think in terms of the above model, then it can be seen that people might seek to 'teach themselves' through conversation, through constructing some sort of learning plan, or by following programmes of learning constructed by others (for example, teaching themselves French via a language course on CD and book).
My basic line of argument here has been that once the obvious point is made that much learning takes place beyond the formal confines of the classroom, then the usefulness of the notion of 'informal learning' quickly fades. Part of the reason for this has been the eagerness of policymakers, academics and practitioners to substitute the learning for education (lifelong learning rather than lifelong education; adult learning rather than adult education and so on – see lifelong learning). A focus on learning is important, but when it is at a cost of thinking about education (and the values it carries), then a grievous disservice is done to all involved. Learning is a process that is happening all the time; education involves intention and commitment. Education is a moral enterprise that needs to be judged as to whether it elevates and furthers well-being.
Four key areas of endeavour would appear to merit our sustained attention:
- Exploring tacit knowledge. Much that has been written about informal learning (especially in the workplace) is, perhaps, better approached as the revealing or unearthing of tacit knowledge, or the re-packing of expertise into tacit knowledge. In notions such as 'situated learning', reflection on action and skill acquisition (after Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1986) we have some suggestive possibilities. These fundamental processes require our attention.
- Supporting self-education. The development of a range of accessible and usable opportunities for self-education is an obvious implication for policy and practice. Perhaps the most significant aspect here is the need to approach people as both learners and educators. This means moving away from seeing learners as consumers of different packages and opportunities, into viewing them as creators and constructors of learning. This entails cultivating communities animated by dialogue, democracy and respect for truth – and seeing education and learning not as individual acts but as an aspect of living together.
- Strengthening associational life. A follow-on from the above, is the need to develop more democratic and elevating forms of group and organizational life. Not only do we need to attend to the significance of situated learning and distributed cognition, we also must look to building relationships and interactions that allow us to flourish and to grow, and to take responsibility for our lives and our part in the world.
- Developing informal education. A further aspect is the need to focus attention on informal education and the place it has alongside formal education. Working with groups and associations, developing local forms of educating and learning, requires a special mix of dispositions, skills and knowledge.
What we can see here is that the discourse around 'informal learning' is significant. However, while it opens up some interesting possibilities, for example around tacit learning, it leads away from others. We need to put education back in the equation.
Further reading and references
Coffield, F. (2000) The Necessity of Informal Learning, Bristol: The Policy Press. 80 + iv pages. Useful collection of material arising out of ESRC Learning Society Programme. Includes Coffield on the significance of informal learning; an excellent piece by Michael Eraut on non-formal learning – implicit learning and tacit knowledge in professional work; Field and Spence on informal learning and social capital; Barron et al on implicit knowledge, phenomenology and learning difficulties; Davies on the impact of accreditation; and Fevre etal on necessary and unnecessary learning.
P. H. Coombs and M. Ahmed (1974) Attacking Rural Poverty. How non-formal education can help, Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. See, also, Coombs, P. H. with Prosser, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973) New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth, New York: International Council for Educational Development. There were several reports involving Coombs that popularized the institutional split between informal, formal and non-formal education.
Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think 2e, New York: D. C. Heath. Classic and highly influential discussion of reflective enquiry, with Dewey's famous five elements: suggestion, problem, hypothesis, reasoning, testing. For a discussion that focuses on learning communities see, J. Dewey (1915) The School and Society, 2e., Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Marsick, V. J. and Watkins, K. E. (1991) Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace, London: Routledge. Interesting exploration of the nature of informal education which is grounded in an examination of a number of specific examples of practice.
Batsleer, J. (2008) Informal Learning in Youth Work. London: Sage.
Bekerman, Z., N. C. Burbules and D. Silberman Keller (2006) Learning in Places – the informal education reader, New York: Peter Lang.
Bentley, T. (1998) Learning beyond the Classroom: Education for a changing world, London: Routledge.
Boud, D. and Garrick, J. (eds.) (1999) Understanding Learning at Work, London: Routledge.
Cross, Jay (2006) Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dale, M. and Bell, J. (1999) Informal Learning in the Workplace. DfEE Research Report 134, London: Department for Education and Employment. Summary: DfEE Research – Informal learning in the workplace
Davies, L. (2008) Informal Learning. Aldershot: Gower.
Dreyfus, H. L. and Dreyfus, S. E. (1986) Mind Over Machine. The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Ellis, J. (1990) 'Informal education – a Christian perspective' in T. Jeffs and M. Smith (eds.) Using Informal Education, Buckingham: Open University Press. Full text is in the archives.
Eraut, M. (1994) Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence, London: Falmer Press.
Eraut, M. (2000) 'Non-formal learning, implicit learning and tacit knowledge in professional work' in F. Coffield The Necessity of Informal Learning, Bristol: The Policy Press.
Garrick, J. (1997) Informal Learning in the Workplace, London: Routledge.
Green, L. (2008) Music, Informal Learning and the School. A new classroom pedagogy. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Heath, S. B. (1983) Ways with Words. Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heath, S. B. and McLaughlin, M. W. (eds.) (1994) Identity and Inner-City Youth: Beyond ethnicity and gender, New York: Teachers College Press.
Henze, R. C. (1992) Informal Teaching and Learning: a study of everyday cognition in a Greek community, Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. (1990) (eds.) Using Informal Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Leadbeater, C. (2000) Living on Thin Air. The new economy, London: Penguin.
McGiveney, V. (1999) Informal Learning in the Community. A trigger for change and development,Leicester: NIACE. 99 + xii pages. Report of a short DfEE-funded study that focuses on the role of informal learning in 'starting people on a learning pathway'.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1977) Learning Opportunities for Adults Vol IV: Participation in Adult Education, Paris: OECD.
Polanyi, M. (1967) The Tacit Dimension, New York: Doubleday.
Reber, A. S. (1993) Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge. An essay on the cognitive unconscious, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Salomon, G. (ed.) (1993) Distributed Cognition: Psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 275 + xxi pages. Fascinating collection of articles exploring debates around distributed cognition.
Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith.
Schön, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. (1988) Developing Youth Work. Informal education, mutual aid and popular practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Smith, M. K. (1994) Local Education. Community, conversation, action, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Tennant, M. (1997) Psychology and Adult Learning 2e, London: Routledge.
Tennant, M. (1999) 'Is learning transferable?' in D. Boud and J. Garrick (eds.) Understanding Learning at Work, London: Routledge.
Tight, M. (1996) Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training, London: Routledge.
DfEE Research – Informal learning in the workplace – summary of Dale and Bell's (1999) study.
John Ellis – Informal education: a Christian perspective
Acknowledgement: The picture "Shadow Work" is by Tony Hall and is reproduced under a Creative Commons licence (Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 Generic)- flickr: http://www.flickr.com/photos/anotherphotograph/3389627948/
How to cite this piece: Smith, Mark K. (1999, 2008). 'Informal learning', The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. [https://infed.org/mobi/informal-learning-theory-practice-and-experience/. Retrieved: insert date]
© Mark K. Smith 1999, 2008


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2418 Scottsboro Highway · Guntersville, Alabama (Marshall County)
ONLINE ONLY Bidding Closes Tuesday, October 18th · 7 PM
We're offering (3) buildings and a detached storage building situated on 1.79 acres± conveniently located to Lake Guntersville as a whole. The office building could easily be converted into a larger rental property. The (2) 2-bedroom cabins with boat storage awnings are perfect for visitors participating in lake activities. Boat access is less than 0.5 mile away.
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Mickey Fowler, CAI, CES, AMM, AARE; ALSL466, TNSL1442, TNFIRM2315, GASL1394
Daniel Culps, CAI; ALSL5070, TNSL5890
David Vess, AA3068
8719 Highway 53 · Toney, AL 35773
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Regular price $8.00 Sale
An acrylic-based pigmented water-resistant inks (on most surfaces) with a 3 or 4 star rating for permanence high degree of lightfastness and are fully intermixable. Alternatively dilute colors to achieve subtle tones very similar in character to watercolor. Such washes will dry to a water-resistant film on virtually all surfaces and successive layers of color can be laid over. Works well through airbrushes and technical pens. 1 oz. Turquoise.


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Besides the holy water which is used by the Church in so many of her rites of blessing, and besides the water employed in the washing of feet and hands and in the baptismal font, water has its recognized place in the ritual of every Mass and in a certain number of pontifical and extraordinary offices which include some form of washing.
With regard to the water mingled with the wine in the Mass, the Fathers from the earliest times have tried to find reasons why the Church uses a mixed chalice though the Gospel narrative implies that Christ consecrated pure wine. St. Cyprian (Ep. lxiii, 13) discussing this question sees an analogy to the union of Christ with His faithful people, but, as the Council of Trent points out (Sess. XXII, De Missa, vii), there is besides this a reference to the flowing of blood and water from Christ's side, from which the Church, the dispensatrix of the sacraments, was formed, like a new Eve from the side of the new Adam. It was probably in allusion to the former symbolism (i.e. the union of the people with Christ) that the earlier "Ordines romani" directed the choir (schola cantorum) to present water at the Offertory of the Mass. We may note also that it has long been the practice of the Greek Orthodox Church to pour a little hot water into the chalice immediately before the Communion, and though there seems no reliable evidence for any such custom in the early centuries, the absence of this usage among the Latins is made by the Greeks a serious ground of reproach. In the purification of the chalice, water is again used in the second of the ablutions, but the present practice according to which the ablution of wine and water is drunk by the priest did not always obtain in the Middle Ages. On the other hand there was a very general custom of providing water, or wine and water, for the communicants to drink as a "purification" after Communion. In fact this is prescribed in the existing rubrics of the Missal (Rit. ser., X, 6), though the "Caeremoniale episcoporum" on Easter Day speaks of a purification of wine alone. Further, a strictly liturgical use of water is also made in such offices as the laying of the foundation stone of a church and the consecration of a cemetery, though here the blessing consists only of the five prayers commonly used for making ordinary holy water. In the blessing of a bell, however, and in the dedication of a church special features occur. In the case of the bell an entirely new prayer, "Benedic, Domine, hanc aquam", is inserted, and with the water thus consecrated the bell is afterwards completely washed inside and out. For the consecration of a church a special lustral water is prepared after the bishop has entered the building, and the various ingredients, viz. salt, water, ashes, and wine, before being mixed together, are blessed with prayers which differ entirely from those employed in the case of holy water for common use. This lustral water is sprinkled while the bishop seven times makes the circuit of the altar and three times that of the interior of the church. The rite of washing the high altar on Maundy Thursday is performed in the Roman basilicas and some other churches with a certain solemnity, and was in old times an even more noteworthy function than at present. For this purpose wine and sometimes rose water were employed as well as the pure element. Again at the opening of the holy doors in the Roman basilicas when the year of jubilee begins, the penitentiaries, provided with sponges and towels, wash and wipe the threshold, after the previously obstructed door has been unwalled. Less strictly liturgical is the use of water which is blessed with various special formulae for devotional purposes. The official "Rituale romanum" contains a number of such blessings, for example "Modus benedicendi aquam" with other similar formulae in honour of St. Adelhaid, St. Willibrord, St. Vincent Ferrer etc., particularly. The purpose of this is generally medicinal and there is in particular a long blessing of the "water of St. Hubert" against the bite of a mad dog.
The reader may be referred to the books mentioned in the article HOLY WATER; cf. Also SCHROD in Kirchenlexikon, s.v. Weihwasser; THALHOFER, Liturgik (Freiburg, 1883-93); and for the Middle Ages especially FRANZ, Die kirchlichen Benediktionem (Freiburg, 1909). See further the commentaries of CATALANI, Pontificale Romanum (Paris, 1850); and Rituale Romanum (Rome, 1757); and THURSTON, The Laity and the Unconsecrated Chalice in The Month (October, 1911).
APA citation. (1912). Liturgical Use of Water. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15564a.htm
MLA citation. "Liturgical Use of Water." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15564a.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Thomas M. Barrett. In Thanksgiving for the Water of Life.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. October 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.


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How anti-sodomy laws were sunk
If you love John Grisham's fictional legal thrillers, you'll be riveted to Dale Carpenter's real-life page-turner Flagrant Conduct: The Story of Lawrence v. Texas. Carpenter is a law professor at the University of Minnesota and is involved with LGBTQ legal issues.
Told from the perspectives of the plaintiffs, arresting officers, attorneys, judges and prosecutors, Flagrant Conduct is a detailed account of the 2003 landmark case of Lawrence v. Texas in which the U.S. Supreme Court overturned its 1986 decision in the Bowers v. Hardwick sodomy case, making same-gender sexual activity legal throughout the country.
I remember this case vividly. A bogus call to the Houston, Texas police about a burglary from a prying neighbor resulted in the police entering the home of John Lawrence and Tyron Garner. The men were allegedly engaging in consensual sex. Reports vary wildly on what the officers saw, with one reporting the men were not even in the same room.
The men were arrested and held overnight in jail. They were charged with violating the state's anti-sodomy law. Both men pled no contest to the charge. The man who called the police to report a domestic disturbance, Robert Eubanks, was later charged with filing a false police report and spent 15 days in jail.
Writing in favor of the ruling, Justice Kennedy stated that "The petitioners are entitled to respect for their private lives. The State cannot demean their existence or control their destiny by making their private sexual conduct a crime. Their right to liberty under the Due Process Clause gives them the full right to engage in their conduct without intervention of the government. It is a promise of the Constitution that there is a realm of personal liberty which the government may not enter."
It was great to awaken on the morning of June 27, 2003, to read the headlines stating that the highest court of this land struck down the Texas law that had criminalized sexual relationships between consenting adults. The Supreme Court's 6-3 decision was momentous — especially given the conservative composition of the court and the reactionary times in which we reside.
To see photos of John Lawrence and Tyron Garner of Houston — the two men who spurred the case — giving the nation a victory smile signaled, at least legislatively, a shift in protecting the private lives of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) Americans.
However, for some Americans the photo of Lawrence and Garner wasn't disturbing just because they were two gay men. The silent issue in the Lawrence v. Texas case was race. While race was not on trial, it was certainly the elephant in the room. The interracial component of Garner's and Lawrence's relationship disgusted some folks — Black and White — just as much, if not more, as their homosexuality. Many have speculated that the false call to the police was motivated by racism.
For many of these same Americans, this victory was seen as a signed decree sanctioning sexual depravity. Newsweek that year reported on its "ick factor," the revulsion some heterosexuals feel toward the way we LGBTQ people engage in sexual intimacy. (Obviously, the Will & Grace theory — based on the television sitcom of two gay characters that aired from 1998-2006, that the most important indicator of supporting LGBTQ civil rights is whether one knows, has frequent contact or sees frequently someone who is LGBTQ — had no effect on them.)
While Carpenter successfully depicts that the legal heart of Lawrence v. Texas is about privacy, that all sexual relationships — heterosexual and LGBTQ — between consenting adults should be safe from unwarranted intrusions into our homes by the government. Many still feel, however, that the moral soul of the issue is that an act of "sodomy" is an abomination to God.
Sodomy was a crime defined, according to 18th century British commentator William Blackstone, "not fit to be named." And sodomy laws once targeted both heterosexuals as well as homosexuals.
The invention of "sodomy" is rooted in Christian theology. The anti-sodomitic theological tradition derives from a homophobic and misogynist reading of the Sodom and Gomorrah narrative in Genesis 19. As one of the most quoted scriptures to argue for compulsory heterosexuality, the Sodom and Gomorrah narrative has become authoritatively damaging not only to LGBTQ people, but to women as well, because women are the real victims we read about in the text. And LGBTQ people are the scapegoats who are read into the text.
Overturning Texas' sodomy law marked a new era not only for LGBTQ people, but also for all Americans. The sanctity of our private sexual lives must be protected, because the issue of our private lives is a matter of justice not only to be argued openly in the courtrooms, but also is a justice issue to be acted out privately in our bedrooms.
Here's the melodramatic twist in this landmark case that Carpenter discloses: the plaintiffs, John Lawrence and Tyron Garner, weren't lovers.
As a matter of fact, in an act of jealous rage and drunkenness on the night of September 17, 1998, Tyron Garner's White lover, Robert Eubanks, phoned police warning that a Black man was "going crazy with a gun" in John Lawrence's apartment.
In other words, as The New Yorker writer, Dahlia Lithwick, wrote in her article "Extreme Makeover," "the case that affirmed the right of gay couples to have consensual sex in private spaces seems to have involved two men who were neither a couple nor having sex. In order to appeal to the conservative justices on the high court, the story of a booze-soaked quarrel was repackaged as a love story. Nobody had to know that the gay-rights case of the century was actually about three or four men getting drunk in front of a television in a Harris County apartment decorated with bad James Dean erotica."
When police arrived they arrested Garner because he was African American and Lawrence because it was his apartment.
Both Lawrence and Garner have died, but their landmark case will live on in legal perpetuity. What won't be remember about them that Carpenter's Flagrant Conduct reminds us is that they were accidental plaintiffs with little to lose in admitting they violated Texas's sodomy laws.
Rev. Irene Monroe is a Huffington Post blogger and freelance journalist. A native of Brooklyn, Rev. Monroe is a graduate from Wellesley College and Union Theological Seminary at Columbia University, and served as a pastor at an African American church before coming to Harvard Divinity School for her doctorate as a Ford Fellow.
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1979-1983 Daihatsu Sirion Plug and Play Air Suspension Kit
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Our air ride suspension kits have been specifically engineered to provide your vehicle with a perfect match of handling, style, functionality, and extreme durability.
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The Links Pottery at Linktown, near Kircaldy, Scotland, had various owners, but is usually known as Methvens. It originated in 1714 as a brick works and was owned by William the father of the celebrated 18th century architects Robert and James Adam. In 1773 the company was bought by its manager, David Methven. Various members of the Methven family took charge over the following years, and in 1892 the pottery was bought by an ex-employee, A R Young who had become a partner some twenty years earlier.
The company tended to copy successful ranges of other manufacturers and achieved very high output, much of which went for export. Creamware was produced from the mid-nineteenth century, and was usually printed or painted.
Several brand names were used including Airlie Ware, Auld Heather Ware and Abbotsford Ware, the latter being a copy of the very successful Wemyss Ware.
Methvens closed in 1928.
Further Reading: | Scottish Ceramics by Henry E Kelly |


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Orba Smooth Black
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Made from a black Nylon and Polyester fabric with a creased appearance, this pouch is designed to follow and interact with the form of your silhouette. A playful twist in the material at the base of the bag creates a sense of movement and produces interesting folds in the fabric.
A smaller internal zippered pouch creates a central divider in the main volume, creating three separate organisational compartments.
- capacity: 1.5 L (1.59 qt)
- color: Black
- composition: 63% Polyester; 37% Nylon
- features: Water Repellent
- loading weight: 1.65 Lb (0.75 kg)
- material: Creased Black
- sku: 28829
- style: Crossbody; Pouch
- height: 5.91 " (15 cm)
- width: 8.66 " (22 cm)
- weight: 0.26 Lb (0.12 kg)
- Avoid contact with any type of chemical cleaning agents as those can result in fabric damage and discolouration.
- Clean with a damp cloth to remove dust and other dirt.
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Waiting On" Wednesday is a weekly event, hosted by Jill at Breaking the Spine, that spotlights upcoming releases that we're eagerly anticipating.
Dating the Prince of Darkness has its challenges . . .
Leila's psychic abilities have been failing her, and now she isn't sure what the future holds. If that weren't enough, her lover Vlad has been acting distant. Though Leila is a mere mortal, she's also a modern woman who refuses to accept the cold shoulder treatment forever–especially from the darkly handsome vampire who still won't admit that he loves her . . .
Like choosing between eternal love and a loveless eternity . . .
Soon circumstances send Leila back to the carnival circuit, where tragedy strikes. And when she finds herself in the crosshairs of a killer who may be closer than she realizes, Leila must decide who to trust– the fiery vampire who arouses her passions like no other or the tortured knight who longs to be more than a friend? With danger stalking her every step of the way, all it takes is one wrong move to damn her for eternity . . .
What are you waiting on this week?


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Some Indian officials have baulked at Apple's demands for concessions before it assembles iPhones there, raising doubts about a spring deadline to launch a key project in Prime Minister Narendra Modi's campaign to lure foreign investors.
The country is still keen for the U.S. tech giant to produce its signature smartphones there, and Information Technology Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad said on Wednesday that India would keep an "open mind" in negotiations. "We will very much like Apple to come and have a base in India," he said.
But Apple Inc's long list of demands, including tax concessions and several other policy exceptions, still faces resistance from officials who consider it excessive and unfair on foreign companies already operating in India. Their caution underlines how Modi's ambition to make India a global manufacturing hub, in order to drive the economy and create jobs for millions of people entering the workforce each year, will not be easy.
"We have not done this for anyone," said a senior government official whose department is one of several involved in evaluating the Apple proposal. "If we do this, we must see a lot of value addition." Another official involved in the review said the government should make policies for the industry, not individual companies.
"Apple is coming here because it sees a lucrative market, this is not a favour being done to India." Competitors such as South Korea's Samsung Electronics and China's Xiaomi have already set up manufacturing in the country. Apple did not respond to a request for comment.
Letter Spells out Demands
Modi met Apple CEO Tim Cook last May and discussed iPhone production in India. Where any plant would be located and how many people it might employ have yet to be finalised, although it would likely involve thousands of jobs. Attracting such a household name would be a valuable advertisement for a country shaking off a reputation for stifling bureaucracy, but officials are wary of tailoring rules to individual investors.
"What Apple is trying to do, if it happens, I think it will be available to everybody in the industry. I don't see the government of India making discriminatory policies," said Arvind Vohra, chief executive at Gionee India, part of Chinese smartphone maker Gionee.
It is setting up a local manufacturing plant under India's existing rules. From Apple's point of view, the ambitious timeline agreed by Modi and Cook reflected its need to capture more of the fast-growing Indian market, where it has only about 2 percent share as iPhone sales in the United State and China have slowed.
In a letter sent to the prime minister's office on Oct. 13 and seen by Reuters, it called on the government to "make the environment attractive" for it to make phones for the Indian market as well as for export. On the matter of duties, it said high import taxes on smartphones could lead to retaliation from trading blocs.
"This would increase the cost of India manufactured smartphones and in turn limit India's ambition of becoming a smartphone hub for the rest of the world." Despite the reluctance of some officials, Modi could intervene to get the Apple project back on schedule. In June, the government relaxed local sourcing rules for foreign retailers like Apple barely a month after the finance ministry turned down the company's request for a waiver.
The company and its partners have reportedly won significant concessions before in other markets.
Meeting Next Week
On Jan. 25, the departments of industry, information technology and electronics, and finance will meet Apple executives to consider the conditions set out by the firm in India, government officials said. In May, Modi and Cook agreed to work towards a "package" of four projects: assembling iPhones, opening Apple stores, importing certified pre-owned iPhones and refurbishing them in India, according to the letter.
Apple said its initial focus was to set up manufacturing of iPhones in India over two phases, the first of which was to be introduced by spring this year. But after conducting due diligence on what it would take to get the project going, it determined its entry was "dependent on government support on a number of pre-requisites."
The Cupertino, Calif.-based company listed a set of seven demands. Among them, it sought duty exemption on raw materials for manufacturing, components and capital equipment for 15 years for both domestic and export markets. Apple also sought a change in rules that would govern how it could import defective iPhones to repair and export them again, a move it said was crucial for it to keep supporting and repairing older models of the iPhone.
Currently, Indian rules restrict such imports to phones that are no older than three years. Apple asked for the government's help in quickly processing a request for a ruling from Indian tax authorities on transfer pricing agreements between its affiliates. It also identified India's customs procedures as a hurdle to manufacturing and asked the government to make them less onerous. "For trusted traders inspections need to be less intrusive – this means less boxes opened," Apple wrote. "The complete process should not require more than thirty minutes."


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Product overview: Fluke 80PK-3A Surface Probe
Fluke temperature probes expand the functionality of Fluke thermometers. The 80PK-3A Type K Thermocouple Surface Probe is designed for measuring the temperature of flat or slightly convex surfaces, with an exposed junction to allow direct contact with the surface being measured. The probe can be used with any temperature-measuring instrument that is designed to accept type K thermocouples and has a miniature connector input.