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The contemplation of death
In this chapter you will learn:
- About the ancient concept of the "good death" and what it means to have a Stoic or philosophical attitude toward your own demise
- How to practice the psychological exercise, common to different philosophical schools, which Socrates called the "meditation on death" (melete thanatou)
- How facing death can transform life by helping us to value the "here and now"
- What the Stoics meant by saying that life and death are "indifferent" to us and how they trained themselves to maintain this view
Reflect that no evils afflict one who has died, that the accounts which make the underworld a place of terror to us are mere tales, that no darkness threatens the dead, no prison, or rivers blazing with fire, no river of Forgetfulness, or seats of judgement, no sinners answering for their crimes, or tyrants a second time in that freedom which so lacks fetters: these are the imaginings of poets, who have tormented us with groundless fears. Death is a release from all pains, and a boundary beyond which our sufferings cannot go; it returns us to that state of peacefulness in which we lay before we were born. If someone pities those who have died, let him pity also those who have not been born. Death is neither a good nor an evil; for only that which is something can be a good or an evil but what is itself nothing and reduces everything to nothingness, delivers us to no category of fortune. (Seneca, Consolation to Marcia, 19)
Forget all else, Lucilius, and concentrate your thoughts on this one thing: not to fear the name of death. Through long reflection make death one of your close acquaintances, so that, if the situation arises, you are able even to go out and meet it. (Seneca, On Earthquakes)
Self-assessment: Stoic attitudes toward death
Before reading this chapter, rate how strongly you agree with the following statements, using the five-point (1-5) scale below, and then re-rate your attitudes once you've read and digested the contents.
(1. Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neither agree nor disagree, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly agree)
- "Dying doesn't frighten me very much." ( )
- "It's more important to have lived a good life than a long life." ( )
- "Life and death are not intrinsically good or bad; it depends how we use them." ( )
Why is contemplating your death important?
How prepared are you to meet your own death? What does death mean to you and what role does it play in your life?
One day you will die: Nature has provided you with ample evidence of this from the example of others. The Stoics, like most ancient philosophers, believed it was important to meditate often on the prospect of your own death, questioning the fear most people have of dying. Epictetus mentions that Roman generals were followed during their "triumph", the celebration of a great military victory, by slaves who repeatedly whispered memento mori ("remember thou must die") to help them remain circumspect and avoid vanity (Discourses, 3.24). Stoics developed a wide variety of similar strategies because they considered this the most important fear (or "aversion") to overcome, through the discipline of desire and aversion.
The phrase memento mori is familiar to many people as a description of works of art, from the Vanitas paintings of the Renaissance to Damien Hirst's animals preserved in formaldehyde. These works evoke a contemplative or philosophical attitude toward our own mortality. For example, Nicolas Poussin's painting The Arcadian Shepherds depicts a tomb with the inscription et in Arcadia ego, through which Death reminds us: "Even in paradise, I will find you." Similar themes are familiar from literature. The character of Ebeneezer Scrooge in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol (1843) is confronted with his own grave by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, and the experience leads to an epiphany that transforms his moral character. This notion of contemplative meditation on the inevitability of death, and the transience of life, was common in philosophy until recent centuries. The iconic image of Shakespeare's Hamlet, a young philosophy student, holding aloft the skull of his childhood friend Yorick would probably have been recognisable to Elizabethan audiences as an allusion to the ancient practice of contemplating images of death.
The Stoics were particularly emphatic about the importance of constant training in overcoming our fear of death. Epictetus taught his students that they should contemplate the Stoic paradox that "the source of all human evils, and of mean-spiritedness and cowardice, is not death, but rather the fear of death." It's the most pernicious of all fears. If we want to make progress as Stoics, he says, we should try to dedicate all of our discussion, reading, and exercises to this fundamental goal of training ourselves to overcome the fear of death as this is the only way we can truly attain freedom and liberate ourselves from self-imposed slavery to the passions (Discourses, 3.25). According to Seneca, we should realise that, ironically, an excessive fear of dying often leads to an early death (On the Tranquillity of the Mind, 11). He actually goes so far as to say that the man who fears his own death will never do anything worthy of life. He who has learned to be unafraid of death has unlearned how to be a slave.
Near the start of the Discourses, Epictetus presents an exemplary role-model, the highly-regarded Stoic philosopher called Paconius Agrippinus who reacted with complete composure when informed of his own impending execution, sitting down to finish his lunch with friends. This is what it means to rehearse and assimilated the lessons taught by the Stoic discipline of desire and aversions, setting ourselves free from obstruction and the vicissitudes of external fortune.
I must die. If soon, then I die; whereas if a little later, I will take lunch now, since the hour for lunch has come, and afterwards I will die at the appointed time. How? As becomes the man who is giving back that which was another's. (Discourses, 1.1)
In other words, to die is to return what belongs to Nature, and was merely "on loan" to us temporarily. Death is natural and inevitable, and so on the basis of natural philosophy, we should not view it as unexpected when the day finally comes, but death should find us long- prepared to let go of life magnanimously. This practice was common to most schools of philosophy and Seneca actually provides one of the most striking accounts of it while discussing the rival Epicurean school:
[Epicurus said:] 'Practice death in advance,' or if it is easier to convey his meaning, something like this: 'It is a great thing to learn how to die.' Perhaps you think it superfluous to learn something that can only be implemented once. This is the very reason we have to practise; we must always learn anything that we cannot test to see if we know it. 'Practise death!' The man who says this is bidding us practice liberty. The man who has learned to die has unlearned how to be a slave; he is above all power, or at least beyond its reach. What do prison and guards and locked doors mean to him? He has a free way out. There is only one chain that keeps us bound, the love of life, and even if this should not be rejected, it should be reduced so that if circumstances require nothing will hold us back or prevent us from being ready instantly for whatever action is needed. (Letters, 26)
This fundamental theme runs through the whole of Stoicism. In one of the most poignant passages of the Meditations, Marcus Aurelius asserts the Stoic and Socratic view that true philosophy consists above all in "waiting for death with good grace", remembering that it is merely a natural and inevitable dispersal of atoms, and not to be feared as a catastrophe (Meditations, 2.17). Indeed, the meditation on death is the apex of all the Stoic exercises involving premeditation of adversity. By learning to adopt a philosophical attitude toward your own death, your way of acting may be fundamentally transformed, making this both a psychological and ethical training exercise. The Stoic ideal holds that the Sage, the man we should seek to emulate, "finds it a joy to live and in spite of that is not reluctant to die", accepting his mortality and facing death with dignity when the time comes (Letters, 54). Marcus therefore advises contemplating death in each action, to focus our attention on its true worth: "During every one of your actions pause at each step and ask yourself: Is death deemed catastrophic because of the loss of this?" (Meditations, 10.29). Seneca likewise imagines that we should respond to those afraid to die by saying "So are you living now?" Paradoxically, we cannot be truly "alive" when we are enslaved by fears, especially the fear of death itself (Letters, 77). We make ourselves the puppets of fortune and, in particular, we become slaves to other men by valuing what is in their power. Stoic heroes like Cato were called "invulnerable" to tyrants like Caesar because they were not willing to sacrifice their values to save their own lives.
However, the theoretical notion that death is "indifferent" is not sufficient to bring about a personal transformation. The precepts of Stoicism are meant to be turned into a firmly-grasped certainty, which requires constant practice as part of a daily regime. Seneca therefore says the aspiring Stoic should practice first and foremost to look down upon death, with indifference, something that is "effective against all weapons and every kind of enemy" (Letters, 36). We naturally love our own lives from birth and death is understandably something terrifying; otherwise we would not need to train ourselves to view it differently. However, the Stoic aims to identify more fully with her nature as a rational being, which means rising above certain things we're born fearing. Stoics therefore recommend picturing our own death regularly, perhaps even several times a day. We should think of it in slightly different ways, at different times.
Going to bed being grateful for our lives so far, for example, or awakening in the morning and planning our day as if it were our last chance to truly live. We can identify the following exercises in Stoic literature, for example:
- Mentally picturing one's own death, in various ways, as if you were able to observe it happening
- Reading about, discussing, and contemplating the "stories" of Cato and Socrates, as examples of good deaths
- Telling ourselves "tomorrow I must die" and contemplating those words at certain times
- Contemplating the transience of all material things and human mortality in general, as in the various cosmological meditations The contemplation of death therefore overlaps with other Stoic exercises and along with the "view from above" it may lie at the very heart of the discipline of desire and Stoic therapy of the passions.
For example, the contemplation of death is obviously linked to the Stoic practice of dwelling in the "here and now". Ironically, reminding ourselves of death can intensify our experience of living. The need to "seize the day" because death is certain, was an extremely common theme in classical poetry, especially where it was influenced by Stoic philosophy.
In a world torn by hope and worry, dread and anger, imagine every day that dawns is the last you'll see; the hour you never hoped for will prove a happy surprise. (Horace, Letters, 1.4)
The Stoic Persius likewise wrote:
Soon enough you'll turn into dust, ghost, and hearsay. Live with death in mind; time flies — my words reduce it. (Satires, 5)
Seneca writes: "Imagine this is your last day of life; or, if not, the next to last" (Letters, 15).
Musonius Rufus, likewise said: "It is not possible to live well today unless you treat it as your last day" (Fragments, 22). Marcus repeatedly dwells on this theme, continually reminding himself to live in the "here and now" as if certain death were looming on the horizon. We will make progress toward virtue and perfect our character, he says, if we can only carry out every action in life with a sense of purpose while passing through each day as if it were our last, and we could depart at any moment (Meditations, 2.11; 2.5; 7.69). As Hadot put it, the thought of our imminent death potentially "transforms our way of acting in a radical way, by forcing us to become aware of the infinite value of each instant" (2002, p. 137).
Case study: The death of Socrates
Xenophon wrote that his friend and teacher, Socrates, faced the death-sentence with absolute serenity and fortitude, and that it was "generally agreed that no one in the memory of man has ever met his death more nobly" (Memorabilia, 4.8). We've already mentioned the events surrounding the trial and execution of Socrates. The Stoics undoubtedly treat this as the example par excellence of a "good death". In reading about Socrates' preparing to meet his death, in a sense, we accompany him and prepare ourselves for our own deaths.
Plato wasn't there himself but, in an eponymous dialogue, portrays Socrates' friend Phaedo recounting his astonishment at the philosopher's composure during his final hours.
"Although I was witnessing the death of one who was my friend, I had no feeling of pity, for the man appeared happy both in manner and words as he died nobly and without fear" (Phaedo, 58e).
So what did Socrates do? Well, he acted normally. He saw his persecutors, the men responsible for his death, as simply misguided rather than hateful. The Enchiridion of Epictetus makes a point of concluding with a remarkable quotation attributed to him: "Anytus and Meletus [who brought the charges] can kill me, but they cannot harm me." (Obi-wan Kenobi echoes this in the movie Star Wars!)
In prison, awaiting execution, Socrates spent his final hours debating amiably with his friends about philosophy. Given the proximity of his own demise, he chose to explore the question of what happens to the soul after death, coolly examining several possibilities while keeping an open mind, tolerant of uncertainty. More importantly, he explains his view that philosophy is essentially a lifelong "meditation on death" (melete thanatou), as the reason for his surprising indifference. He says that those who practice philosophy in the right way are constantly training for death, and true philosophers fear dying least of all men (Phaedo, 67e).
The "contemplation of death" therefore emerged right at the most dramatic moment in the birth of Western philosophy, spoken at the heart of what Socrates called his philosophical swansong. When the time came, he calmly drank the poison and waited to die, something he'd clearly reconciled himself to, and faced with supreme equanimity and an attitude of philosophical curiosity.
Key idea: Life and death are indifferent
The Stoics did not generally believe in the immortality of the soul, which they saw as a subtle physical substance, composed of air or fire, extending through the body like the tentacles of an octopus. (Maybe a primitive precursor of our modern concept of neurological processes.)
Some Stoics perhaps believed the soul survives temporarily after the body's death, but they accepted that we are all ultimately destined to be destroyed. However, both life and death are explicitly classed as "indifferents", neither good nor bad in themselves. They may be used either wisely or foolishly, for either virtue or vice. Nevertheless, life is classed among the "preferred" indifferents, death among the "dispreferred" ones. Stoics therefore considered it natural for adult humans to prefer survival, as do animals and infants. With the acquisition of language and reason, though, our chief good becomes wisdom and the rational virtues. The mere fact of living or dying does not make us any more wise or virtuous. Both living and dying, nevertheless, may be approached with wisdom and virtue and be called "good", in that sense.
For the Stoics, we should live to achieve progress toward wisdom, rather than pursuing wisdom in order to somehow extend our lives. By contrast, it would potentially be better not to live than to live a life of folly and injustice toward others. Remember your death is certain As we saw earlier, Epictetus described a three-stage procedure, forming part of the discipline of desire (Discourses, 3.24). He advises us to rehearse saying "I knew that I was mortal" in preparation, premeditating our death. This threefold strategy can be applied to the contemplation of death as follows:
- We should remind ourselves of the inevitability of death, in preparation, so that we can never feel it is "unexpected" or be surprised when the day finally arrives
- We should recall that it is not "up to us" and therefore not an evil, but "indifferent" with regard to our ultimate Happiness and fulfilment
- Death is a natural process and we should accept it as determined by the string of causes that constitutes the whole of Nature, and our fate in life — the thought Epictetus considered "most decisive"
We'll examine these aspects in turn, beginning with the prescription that we should be continually remember the inevitability of our own death. The poems of Horace return to this theme several times: "remember your death is certain" (Odes, 2.3).
How is it possible for us to forget our own mortality? And yet it seems that we so often do. Everyone perceives ample evidence that they must die eventually, at least in terms of physical life on Earth. Nevertheless, death still makes us anxious, and we react as if it came as a surprise. To firmly grasp the certainty of death is to remove the irrational sense of shock that contributes to emotional distress. Indeed, modern research on worry suggests that when we view something feared as certain it's often less distressing than when we view it as uncertain or ambiguous.
We learn the certainty of death mainly by observing that all other people die. Hence, Marcus Aurelius several times reminds himself of the deaths of great historical figures (Meditations, 3.3; 4.48). Even great conquerors like Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar or great philosophers such as Socrates and Zeno – what has become of them?
Because death is inevitable and comes to all it was also widely referred to as the great leveller. Nobody can escape the fact that they will die eventually. Seneca says that it is a cardinal feature of nature that everyone arrives at death on an equal footing and the circumstances don't essentially matter: "Death has the same force wherever it strikes" (On Earthquakes). As Marcus Aurelius put it, death reduced both Alexander the Great and his mule- driver to the same condition (Meditations, 6.24). Again, this theme recurs in the poems of Horace, death comes knocking at the poor man's shack and the king's palace alike (Odes, 1.5).
Whether rich or poor, "it's all one; you and I are victims of never-relenting Orcus" or Death (Odes, 2.3). Shelley's Ozymandias (1818) employs a related literary device, called ubi sunt ("Where are they now?").
And on the pedestal these words appear:
"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!"
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.
Certain tombs and gravestones were designed to have this effect, reminding us not only of the deceased but of our own mortality. Seneca likewise observes that although many funeral processions went past the doors of his family and fellow Roman citizens they seldom reflected on their own mortality (Consolation to Marcia, 9). Yet we should learn from the fate that befalls others to prepare ourselves for the common lot of mankind, especially the day of our death. We can always reflect that around the world at any given time, thousands of humans and other living creatures are dying. We know that every journey has its end and should not be unprepared for the inevitability of our own demise.
In addition to the certainty of our ultimate demise, the Stoics very frequently reminded themselves that "The door is always open". This was another Stoic slogan, which clearly meant that it's always possible to voluntarily end your life.
The door stands open. Why grieve? (Discourses, 1.9)
Although there are some exceptional circumstances, perhaps, in which suicide is physically impossible, it is virtually always available as a way out. Whereas for many people this thought may seem morbid, for the Stoics it carried tremendous psychological and ethical force. We only remain here on Earth so long as we continue choosing to live — "the door is always open", should we wish to depart. Like children playing a game, we can always say "I won't play any longer" and take our leave, but if we choose to stay on in the "game" of life it's hypocritical to keep complaining because we do so voluntarily (Discourses, 1.25).
The story goes that in old age, when he was frail and unable to continue lecturing, Zeno voluntarily committed suicide, after tripping upon the ground and then beating it with his hand as he joked: "I come of my own accord; why then call me?" (Lives, 7.1). Stoics go to their death willingly when the time comes.
Key idea: Remembering death is certain (memento mori)
Contemplating your own death and learning to adopt a courageous philosophical attitude toward it is undoubtedly one of the most fundamental exercises in Stoic practice. Epictetus told his students that day by day they should keep everything that seems catastrophic before their mind's eye, but most of all death (Enchiridion, 21). This contemplative practice takes a variety of forms but permeates the whole Stoic tradition. Sometimes this may have involved written exercises, in a journal, such as we find in Marcus Aurelius' Meditations. Often, it may have involved patiently visualising death. However, there are many references to the use of repeating verbal formulae to remind oneself of death.
Epictetus mentions that triumphant Roman generals would have the words memento mori ("Remember thou must die") whispered in their ears. Somewhat notoriously, he then says that we should likewise whisper over our sleeping spouses and children: "Tomorrow you will die". However, he also instructed Stoic students to repeatedly say to themselves the words: "I knew that I was mortal" (Discourses, 3.24). In a similar vein, Seneca suggests we should tell ourselves "You may not wake up", when going to sleep, and "You may not ever sleep again", when waking in the morning, to remind us of our own mortality (Letters, 49). Elsewhere, he also says that as we go to sleep each night we should practice saying: "I have lived my life and run the course that Fortune gave" (Letters, 12). He claims that by doing so we may learn to be grateful for each new day that fate gives us.
Try it now: Contemplate the "good death" of a wise man
Read the account of Socrates' last days in Plato's Apology and Crito. Alternatively, read the account of Seneca's death from the Annals of Tacitus, Cato's death in Plutarch's Parallel Lives, or any other praiseworthy examples you can find.
- Imagine yourself in the shoes of Socrates, Cato, Seneca, or whoever you've chosen, sharing their thoughts, actions, and feelings, in the face of death.
- What might you do, in their place, if you were acting with wisdom and courage? What would you do if sentenced to drink hemlock, for example, like Socrates?
- Would you handle things in the same way or differently? Compare your actions to theirs. How would it feel?
Try to contemplate several different examples, and compare them to each other. What lessons can you draw from this thought experiment that might apply to life in general?
Key idea: "The good death"
Death is "indifferent", in itself, but we can die well by meeting our fate with wisdom and virtue so philosophers sometimes speak of the "good death". For most Stoics, undoubtedly, Socrates provided the supreme example of a philosophical attitude in the face of death. For later Stoics, Cato was also treated as an important role-model in this respect. Stoic literature is full, however, of many different examples of "good deaths".
Boethius wrote: "Some men at the price of a glorious death have won a fame that generations will venerate; some indomitable in the face of punishment have given others an example that evil cannot defeat virtue" (Consolation of Philosophy, 4.6). However, the most important aspect of the good death is the fact that it's approached with wisdom and virtuous intentions, rather than the actual consequences for other people, which are largely in the hands of fate. Even someone who dies in obscurity can have a "good death", if she can meet her fate with dignity and courage.
Try it now: Picture your own death
Take a few minutes to contemplate your own death as if it were happening now. Draw on what you've read in this chapter but also recall some of the exercises you learned in the chapter on premeditation of adversity. As you do so, recall the Stoic teaching that although it's natural to prefer to live, death is not an "evil" but rather an opportunity for virtue.
- Tell yourself that death is inevitable and necessary, ordained as your fate by Nature.
- Take time to contemplate things as objectively as possible, without any value-judgements, as if you're considering your death from a detached scientific perspective, as an inevitable natural event, stripping away the "mask" of catastrophic thinking.
- Next, try to imagine what is under your control, and the extent to which you would be able to exercise wisdom and virtue in the face of death.
- If it helps, return to the contemplation of wise men, especially the "good deaths" of philosophers such as Socrates, and imagine how the ideal Stoic Sage would respond to the same death you imagine facing. What would it be like to emulate their praiseworthy example?
An alternative approach would be to imagine witnessing your own funeral service, like Scrooge does in A Christmas Carol. Again, think about what lessons can be taken from this that might apply to life in general.
Remember this: The Stoic view of suicide or euthanasia
In the ancient world, people were more often faced with situations where suicide was considered a reasonable response, such as the threat of enslavement or torture. However, even today, many people face an old age in which the continuation of their life, through worsening physical frailty and illness, becomes a very serious moral dilemma. The Stoic position is highly relevant to the modern debate on the ethics of euthanasia (literally, a "good death"). Stoic Ethics, unlike some religions, does not consider suicide to be inherently wrong.
What matter are the judgments and intentions on which it's based. It would be wrong for someone to take their own life because of unhealthy or irrational "passions", meaning suicide caused by pathological depression would be wrong. However, in some cases suicide may be rational, if the decision is made "in sound mind" and wisely. The founders of Stoicism said that suicide was appropriate for wise, temperate, and courageous men, in many cases, but for the foolish, impulsive, or cowardly it is better to remain alive, rather than to take their own life for the wrong reasons. The Stoics believed it was rational for Socrates and Cato to take their own lives, under the exceptional circumstances facing them. According to one account, Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, "endured many hardships by reason of old age", and eventually took his own life when he was in his seventies (Lives, 7.1).
Remember death is no evil
The Stoics also argued that it is irrational to judge something "evil" once we accept that it is inevitable, because calling something evil is tantamount to saying that it must be avoided at all costs.
When death appears to be an evil, we must have ready at hand the argument that it is our duty to avoid evils, and that death is an inevitable thing. (Discourses, 1.27)
The challenging concept that "death is not an evil" was fundamental to the whole genre of "consolation" letters in the ancient world, which are found across different philosophical traditions, but were particularly associated with the Stoics. For example, in his letter to Marcia who had been grieving the death of her son Metilius for over three years, Seneca puts the argument very forcefully that death is ultimately "indifferent" with regard to having a good life (Consolation to Marcia, 19). Only what is under our direct control can be truly "good" or "bad", and our own life and death are classed as "indifferent", being not entirely under our control. The Stoics also argued that life can be used badly, so it is not life itself that is good or bad but the use we make of it. In themselves, living and dying are "indifferent"; we make them "good" or "honourable" only insofar as we approach them with wisdom and virtue. Seneca quotes the words of another Stoic who explains that "it is no great thing to live" because slaves and cattle also live, but rather it is great to live and die honourably, wisely, and courageously (Letters, 77).
Stoic philosophy, like the magic wand of Hermes, can turn anything that befalls us into gold, and even death becomes an opportunity for exercising virtue:
"What will you make of death?" Why, what else but make it your glory, or an opportunity for you to show in deed thereby what sort of person a man is who follows the will of nature. (Discourses, 3.20)
Nevertheless, the Stoics would say that it is natural and rational for humans, like all other animals, to "prefer" their own life and not their own death, as long, as this accords with virtue.
"Preference" is only possible because the future is uncertain, though. Once our death, from a particular cause, becomes certain and unavoidable, it turns to something completely "indifferent", which we have no choice but to accept. Death in general, the fact that we must ultimately die somehow, is always certain of course, and something we should accept unreservedly.
Plato's Republic, written over three centuries before the New Testament, portrays Socrates saying that myths about the underworld should be completely expunged from literature to avoid planting irrational superstitions and fears about death in the minds of children (3.386). In the Phaedo, Socrates is then asked by his friends to speak to them as though a little child remains within their minds, who is afraid of death as if it were a bogeyman, and to reassure them there is nothing to fear. He replies: "You should sing a charm over him every day until you have charmed away his fears" (Phaedo, 77e). Stoics likewise compared death to a bogeyman and to scary masks that frighten small children by their appearance. We should strip away the myths and value-judgements that make death appear like a bogeyman: "Turn it about and learn what it is; see, it does not bite" (Discourses, 2.1). Seneca uses the same analogy to describe premeditation on adversity, like removing a scary mask that frightens children, ignorant that the person wearing it is actually harmless (Letters, 24).
The Stoics therefore rejected mythological accounts of the afterlife as superstitious tales designed to frighten small children. However, they also used many philosophical arguments, which they rehearsed repeatedly in different forms and memorised to help them develop a "firm grasp" of their moral principle that death is fundamentally indifferent. One of the simplest Stoic arguments was that "death is not intrinsically bad or catastrophic, otherwise it would seem so to everyone". In other words, not everyone sees it the same way. The list below summarises various examples of this argument found in the Stoic literature.
Not everyone judges death to be bad:
- Acrobats are willing to risk death for applause
- Soldiers choose to face death for the sake of glory
- Parents will sacrifice their own lives to protect their children
- Lovers will often risk death for their loved ones
- The elderly or infirm sometimes seek death ("euthanasia") to avoid suffering
- Many people commit suicide, for various (good or bad) reasons preferring death to life
- More importantly: wise men, such as Socrates and Cato, did not see their own deaths as fearful or catastrophic
All these examples illustrate the point that people will sometimes judge other things to be more important than preserving their own life. Even the unwise will accept the risk of death in order to gain wealth, glory, or the affection of others. Marcus therefore says that a powerful way to train oneself to look down on death is remember how many foolish and vicious people have nevertheless managed risked death without fear (Meditations, 12.34). However, the wise will face death when it is necessary to do so in the service of virtue and eudaimonia, the supreme good in life. Can death be intrinsically bad, therefore, if so many people are willing to risk their lives for something they prize more highly?
This leads to the famous Stoic view that it is not actually death itself that is distressing or even harmful but rather our faulty value-judgement. The fear of death is worse than death itself because it is an irrational passion that does real harm to our mind, and prevents us flourishing.
In fact, this argument is central to Epictetus' Handbook:
It is not the things themselves that disturb men, but their judgements about these things. For example, death is nothing catastrophic, or else Socrates too would have thought so, but the judgement that death is catastrophic, this is the catastrophic thing. (Enchiridion, 5)
When facing death we must primarily have ready-to-hand in our minds a firm grasp of what is ours and what is not: "I must die: must I, then, die groaning too?" (Discourses, 1.1). These are the arguments that aspiring Stoics should exercise themselves in every single day, rehearsing them mentally and in writing, "from dawn to dusk", until they become second nature. Seneca says that the Stoic ideal is to look upon one's own death with the same expression, the same detachment and objectivity, as when one hears of a stranger's death (On the Happy Life, 20). Our own death is as "external" to our volition as the death of someone on the other side of the world, or someone's death in the distant past or distant future.
The fear of death is therefore regarded as one of the most fundamental and insidious of the irrational passions. The Stoics argue that we simply cannot imagine the ideal Sage would judge his own death to be an evil, otherwise he would potentially condemn himself to a life of cowardice and slavery. His death may be in the hands of a tyrant, and to avoid it he would then be forced to obey the demands of a wicked man. Whereas if he prizes virtue above preserving his own life, no tyrant has the power to coerce him anymore. Consider whose lives are more praiseworthy: those who fear death the most, and seek to preserve their lives at any cost, or those who "prefer" to live but are unafraid to die in the service of honour?
The Stoics also frequently mention arguments for the indifference of death based on the notion that it is merely a form of non-existence. For example, Seneca says the man who wishes to live another thousand years is as foolish as one who wishes he was born a thousand years earlier because we are returning to the same state of non-existence we were in before we were born (Letters, 77). Elsewhere he says: "Death brings no discomfort, for there would have to be someone whose discomfort it was" (Letters, 36).
No suffering is great if it has an end. Death is coming to you: it would have been worth fearing if it could coexist with you. But it must either not reach you, or pass you by. (Letters, 4)
Non-existence cannot be good or bad:
- There is no person remaining to be either helped or harmed by the "experience" of being dead
- In fact, although we may be conscious of dying, being dead is not even an experience, let alone a good or bad one
- If non-existence were truly bad then the aeons of time before we were even born would be just as awful as the ones that follow death
In addition to these arguments, the Stoics use an interesting paradox to challenge the fear of death. In his essay On Earthquakes, Seneca emphasises the folly of fearing death by earthquakes or any other specific thing, when death surrounds us and can strike in an infinite number of ways. We can as easily be killed by a single stone as an entire city collapsing on our heads. He writes: "If you wish to fear nothing, consider that all things are to be feared."
Elsewhere he says: "It is not clear where death is waiting for you, so you should wait for it everywhere" (Letters, 26). Epictetus makes the same point: "Do you want me, then, to respect and do obeisance to all these things, and to go about as the slave of them all?" (Discourses, 4.7). Death can come from any quarter, at any time. According to legend, the Greek playwright Aeschylus was killed by a tortoise dropped on him by an eagle flying overhead. You could be hit by a bus tomorrow. Our fears tend to be irrationally selective and when confronted with the stark logic of "If you worry about that you might as well worry about everything", people are often forced to concede that becoming preoccupied with hypothetical catastrophes in general is a waste of time and energy. To be everywhere is to be nowhere, and to fear everything is to fear nothing.
Remember this: Fear of death is worse than death itself
The Stoics believed that the fear of death is one of the most insidious and toxic of the irrational passions. Paradoxically, therefore, the fear of death is worse than death itself. "Death you'll think of as the worst of all bad things, though in fact there's nothing bad about it at all except the thing which comes before it – the fear of it" (Seneca, Letters, 104). The Stoics actually believed that the fear of death lies at the root of most irrational fears, and the cardinal vice of cowardice.
Marcus says that in addition to the arguments concerning the "indifference" of death there's a powerful "unphilosophical" argument, which is simply to ask ourselves: "Do we really want to emulate the sort of people who most fear their own death?" Go over the names of people who have tenaciously clung onto life and ask yourself whether they came any closer to genuine Happiness as a result (Meditations, 4.50). Epictetus had taught that the greatest harm that can befall man is "not death but rather the fear of death" and we should exert ourselves in particular to overcome this fear as doing so "is the only way in which men achieve freedom" (Discourses, 3.26).
Remember death is ordained by Nature
Epictetus said the most decisive step in the discipline of desire, regarding death, is to view it as ordained by Nature as a whole or by the divine will of Zeus. For ancient Stoics, accepting one's fate as the divine will of Zeus was the essence of piety. Modern readers may struggle with this idea, especially if they are atheists or agnostic. However, Zeus was synonymous with Nature in Stoicism and there may still be ways in which we can learn to accept seemingly aversive events, even our own death, with equanimity, by viewing them within a larger context and as being ultimately determined by Nature as a whole. Indeed, the chief doctrine of Stoicism is that we should "live in agreement with Nature", which means the same thing as accepting our fate, insofar as it is outside our control. Once we've accepted that death is the inevitable fate of all living things, the Stoics argue that it ultimately matters little whether our lives are long or short.
Not even death can bring terror to him who regards that alone as good which comes in due season, and to whom it is all one whether his acts in obedience to right reason are few or many, and a matter of indifference whether he look upon the world for a longer or a shorter time. (Meditations, 12.35)
Marcus elsewhere says that it's of no consequence whether one lives three days or three centuries, these are as one from the perspective of eternity, when you "look at the yawning gulf of time behind you, and before you at another infinity to come" (Meditations, 4.50). To put it another way, we praise others for the quality of their lives, not their duration. It would be hypocritical to judge our own lives by a different standard. It is better to die honourably than to live a long life, foolishly and enslaved to fear and desire. Epictetus uses the ancient metaphor of a "festival" to illustrate the Stoic notion that we should constantly remember that our life is on "loan" from Nature. True piety consists, not in singing hymns in a church or temple, but in maintaining a heartfelt sense of gratitude for the opportunity to live, while accepting that it is temporary, and being willing to depart when the time comes without grumbling.
Indeed, death is a law of Nature, part of the very fabric of existence. Some of the Stoics even argued that we die a little every day. Death is seen as a lengthy gradual process that begins at birth and continues throughout our entire life. Seneca therefore says that if we want to replace fear of death with philosophical calm we should contemplate the thought very deeply in our hearts that we have been travelling along the road to death since the day we were born (Letters, 4).
Just as it is not the last drop that stops the water-clock but every drop that has previously fallen, so the last hour when we cease to exist is not the only one to cause death but the only one to complete it: we reach death then but we have been coming to it for a long time. (Letters, 24)
Marcus Aurelius suggests we should contemplate our lives in terms of distinct stages, and the transition from each to the next ("each step in the ladder of change") as a kind of death. As we've grown from infants, into children, adolescents, and gone through various stages of adult life, many things have ceased or changed for us. The child dies when the man is born. We should ask ourselves: "Is there anything catastrophic here?" (Meditations, 9.21). Neither is there any catastrophe in the end of the whole process, our final demise. Viewing death as a daily event, a gradual process, rather than a single blow, grants us a lifetime of practice in coming to terms with our own mortality. Each day we take one step closer to death and we should willingly sacrifice a drop of our life to Nature, letting go of the day that has now gone, before retiring to sleep each night in preparation for letting go completely at the end of life.
Seneca advises that we should literally say such "I have lived my life and run the course that Fortune gave" each night as we go to sleep, accepting that everything happened exactly as Nature ordained, the past is behind us, and we may die tomorrow (Letters, 12). We will then meet each new day with a sense of gratitude, as a gift from Nature.
The Stoics also argue that as death is a natural and inevitable process it cannot be an evil as nothing of this kind is feared by the wise man. Marcus wrote that from the perspective of Stoic Physics, the duration of life is miniscule, the body continually prone to deterioration, and our future uncertain. He reminds himself that from the perspective of natural philosophy, death is merely a dispersal of atoms and that there is nothing terrible in the notion of one material substance being transformed into another, through a natural process. We should not be perturbed by our own inevitable death and the body's putrefaction: "For it is in the way of Nature, and in the way of Nature there can be no evil" (Meditations, 2.17). Contemplating the decay of the body objectively, in a detached "scientific" manner, as a natural philosopher would, seems to have been an important form of the Stoic exercise we've called "physical definition".
Death, like birth, is just a natural process, material elements combining, growing, decaying, and finally separating and completely dispersing (Meditations, 4.5).
"But now it is time to die." Why say "die"? Make no tragic parade of the matter, but speak of it as it is: "It is now time for the material of which you are constituted to be restored to those elements from which it came." And what is there catastrophic about that? What one of the things that make up the universe will be lost, what novel or unreasonable thing will have taken place? Is it for this that the tyrant inspires fear? (Discourses, 4.7)
In other words, if you look at "what it is to die" rationally and objectively, stripping away its phantom terrors, you will see it as merely a function of Nature, which it is childish to fear (Meditations 2.12). These natural processes of change are not entirely under our control, but ultimately in the hands of fate and external force. However, once again, what is "external" to our will is fundamentally indifferent to us according to Stoic Ethics. The Stoics forward several additional arguments about death as a natural process.
Death is a natural process, beyond our control:
- Death is simply physical decay and no physical process is intrinsically good or bad
- Our body is subject to external influences beyond our control, and so our death is ultimately in the hands of fate
- All material things are transient ("everything flows") and human mortality is just the most intimate example of this
- What is composite can always be separated, human beings are composite, therefore dissolution and death is inevitable
- You are already in the process of dying, it is not a single event but starts at birth, and occurs in stages, and so it's too late to avoid it
- Death is ordained by the whole of Nature as our fate, it's the will of Zeus and it would be "impious" to resent it
From this perspective, the contemplation of death is particularly closely-related to Stoic Physics and overlaps with the contemplation of Nature as a whole, particularly the impermanence of all material things.
Try it now: Contemplate the transience of life
Take a few minutes, if you don't mind, to really contemplate the transience of all human life and the fact that death is the common lot of all mankind.
- Name three historic individuals who achieved great "external" power or influence and contemplate that they are long dead despite their success. Consider briefly how they would have viewed their own death. For example, Marcus names Alexander the Great, Pompey, and Julius Caesar.
- Name three historic individuals you admire as having great wisdom and virtue and contemplate the fact that they are long dead despite their understanding. How would these individuals have viewed their own death? Marcus names Socrates, Diogenes, and Heraclitus.
- Contemplate how many people have died in the past, and how many will die in the future.
- Think of the demise of whole empires and civilisations, such as the Roman Empire, and that in the future your own civilisation will inevitably change and ultimately become extinct.
- Think about the demise of the planet Earth in the distant future, and perhaps even the possible end of the universe, such as the Stoics imagined in the "Great Conflagration" at the end of time.
- Contemplate the vast amount of time before you were born, during which you were non- existent, and the vast time after your death during which you will, once again, be no more.
How much difference it makes, from this perspective, whether your life is long or short? What seems most important about the way you now live your life? What other conclusions can you draw that might inform your general attitude toward life and death?
Remember this: Death is neither "good" nor "evil"
The Stoic view isn't that death is "good", that would be just as false as the view that it's "bad". Death itself is neither good nor bad, but the way we use it and our attitude toward it can be good or bad. "Life is what we make of it", and the same proverb applies to death. Some people may nevertheless feel this aspect of Stoicism is morbid. Even the 17th century philosopher Spinoza, who has been called "more Stoic than the Stoics", objected: "A free man thinks of nothing less than of death, and his wisdom is a meditation not on death but on life" (Ethica, 4.17). Others may say that it's both natural and rational to be afraid of one's own death. Life is precious, isn't it? Don't we risk valuing our own life too cheaply if we exercise ourselves in eliminating our fear of dying?
However, you don't need to actually fear death to know not to walk off the edge of a cliff any more than you need to quake in fear at the prospect of getting wet to know not to stand outside in the rain. Neither is the contemplation of one's own mortality meant as indulgence in a morbid or melancholic state. On the contrary, the purpose is precisely to confront and overcome fear or sadness caused by what is inevitable rather than to perpetuate distress or wallow in it. The ideal of the Stoic Sage, exemplified by Socrates, was both to love life and yet be unafraid of death. The Stoic's love of life is conditional, she wishes to enjoy life and health, fate permitting. However, she is also willing to face death philosophically.
Focus Points (Summary)
The main points to remember from this chapter are:
- Regular training in the contemplation of one's own death (melete thanatou) is one of the most fundamental Stoic psychological exercises, which aims to replace fear with a more calm and philosophical attitude.
- For Stoics, death is neither good nor bad, but "indifferent" with regard to eudaimonia and the good life.
- However, health and life are "preferred" to their opposites, insofar as that is compatible with virtue — we don't need to irrationally fear death to choose rational self-preservation.
- Suicide or euthanasia are morally acceptable to Stoics but only when chosen soberly and courageously and not out of confusion, fear or emotional distress.
Recommended Reading
- Seneca's Letters (4, 24, 70 and 82)
- Seneca's Consolations to Marcia, Helvia and Polybius, and On Earthquakes
Copyright (c) Donald Robertson, 2013. All rights reserved.
This is a sample chapter. You can find out more about Teach Yourself Stoicism via this link.


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Make a New Year's resolution to stargaze in 2014! January kicks off the New Year with wonderful sights for backyard astronomers to enjoy with friends and family. Don't forget to bundle up and stay warm on clear evenings as you explore the sparkling night sky. Here are a few of our top picks for January stargazers:
Jupiter at Opposition - On January 5th Jupiter will be at opposition from the Sun, which means it is directly opposite from the Sun in the sky and will rise in the east as the Sun sets. Get ready to view and image the largest planet in the solar system! Any telescope will show the 4 Galilean Moons and the major cloud bands on a clear night, but you'll need about a 90mm diameter or larger telescope for serious viewing. Bigger scopes show more detail during periods of steady skies and good "seeing". If you have a telescope with a motor drive system, Orion has options starting at very affordable prices to image the mighty gas giant planet - see our StarShoot USB Eyepiece Camera II that can image everything from the Jupiter to entire constellations.
Meteor Madness - January 2 &3 should be the peak of the Quadrantids meteor shower radiating from the constellation Bo�tes. The Moon's phase is favorable for viewing meteors after midnight. You don't need a telescope to enjoy this show, just a clear, dark sky (which is priceless).
Two New Moons - The Moon phase will be new on both January 1st and January 30th, so break out your deep space gear and get ready to tackle some deep sky objects during the weekends of January 4th & 5th and February 1st and 2nd. The last weekend in December will also have lots of dark skies without moonlight to seek out "faint fuzzies" of deep space.
Orion on the Meridian - Our namesake constellation will pass the meridian about 10PM on January 15 - so objects in that constellation are the highest in the sky for best viewing. Some of our favorite targets in or near Orion are:
- M42, The Great Nebula in Orion - Visible as the middle star of Orion's sword, this emission nebula looks amazing in everything from binoculars to the XX16g! Can you see the trapezium, the 4-star system at the center? Even viewers from moderate light- polluted areas can get a good sense of the glory of this object if you use an Orion UltraBlock filter.
- M78 - Another, much fainter, emission nebula M78 is located just left and above the left- most star in the Orion's belt.
- NGC 2174/2175 - A large emission patch and star cluster, this complex is located near the top of Orion's raised "hand". Under dark and clear skies this can be seen in larger binoculars such as Orion's 15x70 or 20x80 Astronomy Binoculars.
Adam Block/NOAO/AURA/NSF
Hind's Crimson Star - Just South of Orion is the constellation Lepus, the Hare. In Lepus you can catch a glimpse of the rare winter globular cluster M79, as well as R Leporius - a well known variable star that varies between magnitude +5.5 (just visible to the naked eye) to +11.7 with a period of about 427 days. What's interesting about this star is that because it is a "carbon star" it is very red; when it is at its brightest, the red color is unmistakable.
January Challenge Object from Orion - Just west of Rigel, the bright blue/white star that marks the western "knee" of Orion lies the Witch Head Nebula (also called IC 2118), in the neighboring constellation Eridanus. The Witch-Head is a reflection nebula that shines from reflected light off of Rigel, like the reflection nebula in the Pleiades, M45. You don't need a big telescope; a wide field of view, low power and a dark sky are needed to see this challenging nebula - we've seen it from Deep Sky Ranch in California with a 110mm refractor at low power (Hint: Don't use filters). Can you see it? Let us know on Facebook!
Rigel and the Witch Head Nebula - Photo Credit: NASA/STScI Digitized Sky Survey/Noel Carboni
All objects described above can easily be seen with the suggested equipment from a dark sky site, a viewing location some distance away from city lights where light pollution and when bright moonlight does not overpower the stars. All objects have been verified by actual observations by Orion Telescopes & Binoculars Staff at Fremont Peak State Park, and/or Deep Sky Ranch, 60 miles and 90 miles respectively from San Jose International Airport, San Jose, CA.

subset: commoncrawl


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The following conventions are used in the synopsis of a command:
brackets ([
and ]
) indicate
optional parts. Braces
and }
) and vertical lines
) indicate that you must choose one
alternative. Dots (...
) mean that the preceding element
can be repeated. All other symbols, including parentheses, should be
taken literally.
Where it enhances the clarity, SQL commands are preceded by the
prompt =>
, and shell commands are preceded by the
prompt $
. Normally, prompts are not shown, though.
An administrator is generally a person who is in charge of installing and running the server. A user could be anyone who is using, or wants to use, any part of the PostgreSQL system. These terms should not be interpreted too narrowly; this book does not have fixed presumptions about system administration procedures.


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Plex for Android 22.214.171.124353 Full Unlocked Apk for android
Plex for Android 184.108.40.206353 Full Unlocked Apk for android
Plex for Android Full is a Media & Video App for android
download last version of Plex for Android Full Unlocked for android from revdl with direct link
Plex for Android is the official app that hepls you view all your photos and videos stored on your Android device directly on your TV, desktop computer.
Plex organizes all of your video, music, and photo collections, no matter where you keep them, and lets you enjoy them on all of your screens. With the Plex Media Server (available at: https://plex.tv/downloads), you can stream all of your personal media to your Android, Android TV, and other Plex apps, as well as share it all with friends and family. Enjoy unlimited use of the free version of this app, and unlock its full functionality with a Plex Pass subscription -OR- a small one-time in-app purchase (see below).
Note: If you've already purchased the app or have a Plex Pass, you do NOT need to purchase again! We attempt to detect your previous purchase automatically. If this fails, please select "Already Paid?" on the activation screen and follow the instructions to restore your purchase.
• Unlimited casting of photos and videos from the Camera Roll on your phone or tablet to Plex apps on Android phones and tablets, Chromecast, and Android TV, among others.
• Unlimited casting of any media on your Plex Media Server (free download available at https://plex.tv/downloads) to other supported Plex Apps.
• Remote control your big screen Plex Apps.
• LIMITATION: Playing media from your Plex Media Server on the device running this app is limited (one minute for music and video, watermark on photos) until the app is unlocked.
You can remove the playback limitations on the app if you:
• Use a Plex Pass enabled account to sign into the app -OR-
• Make a small, one-time, in-app purchase of just the Android app itself
Here's a small taste of more things that Plex does to make your media experience awesome:
• Plex presents your media beautifully with artwork, rich metadata, and related content.
• Plex automatically converts your media on-the-fly to play on any device.
• Easily share your media with friends and family.
• Plex Pass feature: Sync media to your phone or tablet for offline viewing.
• Plex Pass feature: Sync media to your favorite cloud provider including Google Drive, so you can stream media even when your server is offline.
• Plex Pass feature: Online Trailers and Extras for the movies in your collection!
• Plex Pass feature: Hi-def music videos from Vevo appear alongside your music
• Mark online videos from sites like Vimeo and YouTube to be able to 'Watch Later' on all of your Plex apps.


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Metropolitan Biodiversity Program
The Metropolitan Biodiversity Program seeks to enhance understanding of biodiversity, and threats to biodiversity, in human-modified landscapes and apply this knowledge to conservation. To accomplish this, the program integrates the American Museum of Natural History's scientific resources direhoctly into conservation-related research, education, planning, and management initiatives. Both common and rare plants, animals, and habitats are of interest, with an emphasis on understudied groups such as invertebrates.
New York State Museum's Biodiversity Research Institute, the New York Natural Heritage Program, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and The Nature Conservancy — launched the New York State Biodiversity Project (NYSBP). The NYSBP works to improve our understanding of the state's biodiversity and to identify both challenges and solutions to protecting that biodiversity. In 2002, the NYSBP established a central website with links to information on New York's biodiversity, an important information clearinghouse on biodiversity for New York's citizens, lawmakers, and conservation practitioners. In 2006, together with its NYSBP partners, the Metro Program published "Legacy: Conserving New York State's Biodiversity," a book summarizing what is currently known about the biodiversity of New York State, its natural heritage, critical threats to its biodiversity, and recommendations for future research and conservation.
Metro Program Manager Liz Johnson coordinated the development and production of the 2000 CBC Spring Symposium, "Nature in Fragments: The Legacy of Urban Sprawl," cosponsored by the Wildlife Conservation Society's Metropolitan Conservation Alliance. The conference examined the phenomenon of unplanned development ("sprawl"), and its serious impact on biodiversity. "Nature in Fragments: The Legacy of Urban Sprawl," an edited volume, based in part on the symposium proceedings, was published by Columbia University Press in November 2005. Contributions by experts in planning, ecology, economics, and the social sciences have been included to reach a target audience of land-use planners and conservation biologists.
In June 2007, Protecting Nature in Your Community" was published. Aimed at municipal officials and educators specifically in New Jersey, this colorful booklet highlights the diversity and importance of the varied ecosystems, plants, and animals — and the interactions among them. Protecting Nature serves as a guide for land-use planners, government agencies, institutions, and individuals to appreciate and preserve the natural world that lives in their midst.
Recognizing the enormous instructional value of the Museum's extensive invertebrate collections, the Metro Program organizes identification workshops in collaboration with the Division of Invertebrate Zoology. Attendees have included biologists, naturalists, land managers, consultants, teachers, and others responsible (directly and indirectly) for the conservation and management of much of the New York region's biodiversity. Workshops to date have focused on butterflies and moths, dragonflies and damselflies, freshwater mussels and snails, and bees. A Web-based identification guide to local freshwater mussels has been developed, with species checklists, images, and information. Regional keys and resources about other invertebrate taxa are also available.
In conjunction with these ongoing invertebrate educational activities, the Metro Program published "Life in the Leaf Litter," a guide to the diversity of soil organisms and the crucial role that invertebrates play in woodland ecosystems (a Spanish version is also available). The booklet was based, in part, on a leaf litter survey conducted by the CBC's Metro Program and the Museum's Division of Invertebrate Zoology in Central Park's woodlands, which led to the discovery of a new genus and species of centipede, Nannarrup hoffmani.
Fall 2007 marked the release of the Metro Program's "A Seasonal Guide to New York City's Invertebrates," a guide to the world of invertebrates highlighting the important and intriguing animals that can be found in NYC's parks and natural areas.
In summer 2007, the Metro Program initiated the Great Pollinator Project in collaboration with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation's Greenbelt Native Plant Center. Fifty volunteer bee watchers were recruited to observe the bee visitation at flowers planted throughout the City. The results of their observations will give us a better idea of where in the city native bees and honeybees are most active, and will provide information for research and conservation efforts. This pollinator initiative has been designed as a pilot to develop observation and data collection protocols for refinement of future projects.
In 2012, an illustrated guide to birds commonly found in Central Park was published. Intended as a guide to birding for young naturalists, it includes information on where in the Park to see birds in various habitats: freshwater, woodlands, and open areas.


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Goldfield's Five Railroads
On November 1, 1905, there was a merger of the Tonopah Railroad and Goldfield Railroad that became the Tonopah and Goldfield Railroad. The Tonopah and Goldfield Railroad built railroad shops and a terminal near Aluminum and Fourth Streets, in May of 1910. The T & G operated until October of 1947, and had a life span of 44 years. The Las Vegas & Tonopah Railroad was built in 1906 & 1907, from Las Vegas to Tonopah, and had stops in Beatty, Bullfrog, Rhyolite, and Goldfield. The LV & T ran for 14 years, until October 31. 1918, when the Nevada Department of Highways purchased the railroad right-of-way for Highway 95.
The Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad was built starting in November 1905, and completed October 30. 1907. It ran from Ludlow, California northward via Death Valley Junction to Gold Center, just two miles south of Beatty, and then northward on the Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad. The T & T Railroad ran until June 14. 1940, a span of 33 years. The Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad was constructed starting in May 1906, probably starting at Milltown in the Goldfield Mining District, at the terminal of the T & G tracks, and was completed southward to Beatty by April 1907.
The Bullfrog Goldfield freight depot and maintenance building was situated at Fifth Avenue and Pearl Street across from the Santa Fe Saloon and is under reconstruction today. The Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad operated until January 1928. During various stages of its existence, the BGRR leased its tracks to either the T&T or LV&T. Management changed hands five times during its 21 year life span. The Goldfield Consolidated Mines Railroad was built in 1908 for the express purpose of hauling ore the 1.87 miles from the mines to the new 100-stamp mill.
Goldfield Railroad Engine No. 1 and its crew September, 1905.
From left to right: William Pooley. Robert Harper, Lavey Curran, William Kendall, George Wells. Ray Favey, Harry Kendall and probably Hal Mcleod and Favey in the cab.


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Conversely, Oleg Denysenko, Denis Forkas Kostromitin and Vania Zouraliov could do it. Contemporary Russian illustrators are bloody marvelous. |
I know the world shall continue to recede from the ideal I carry in my head. It matters not.
So D&D magic is decidedly not magical. This galls me. There is such potential for intriguing and evocative as well as conducive to the initiation of self-perpetuating action-in-the-game-world stuff in magic but I don't see it used much.
Firstly and importantly, given my long-time obsession with reward mechanics, I believe that neglecting to foreground the accumulation of spells as an important part of the magic-user's progression is missing out on part of the fun of playing that role. If a magic-user has no particular relationship with their spellbook and no motivating desire to go forth and pilfer the spellbooks of others for mystick puissance and abominable mysteries then they are functionally, in terms of relationship to the campaign setting, not so much differentiated from the other character classes.
Of course the universal focus of the bloodstained gold reward system is valuable for tying together the party's major pursuit (plunder) but there is a beauty in individually differentiated class rewards. Magic items offer this to an extent, creating a dynamic where there is an understanding that beyond the typically slow and linear creep up through the levels there will be little bonuses here and there that will create sudden flashes and leaps of extra power, magic swords and wands and rings and the like, which constitute an extra, parallel reward system. In addition to this there is another, similarly underdeveloped reward system composed of more mundane items, purchasables like hirelings and retainers and ships and castles. All are means of augmenting agency within the gameworld and all are awarded by the GM to PCs whose actions have been sufficiently entertainingly ingenious and intrepid.
-As an aside there is another intriguingly under-investigated social-aesthetic dynamic that goes on where the GM invests a portion of their effort and pride and love and care into the setting as an aesthetic object and the players petition with their interest and their care to be allowed to have agency within the gameworld. It is only through being an exceptionally good audience to and collaborators with the performative efforts of the GM that the secrets of the world reveal themselves and it is only through playing along with this fantasy, making at least the appearance of being enthralled by the GM's aesthetic virtuosity that the greatest secrets are uncovered. There is a thing about hospitality and flattery and communal aesthetic experience here that I shan't be pursuing further. Suffice to say: listen well and play along and ye shall be rewarded-
Carcosa has a very interesting and deeply integrated-and-conducive-to-action magic system. I refuse to believe that there was never any intent that the players were never supposed to be sorcerors. While I acknowledge that the rituals involving the raping and murdering of children are too abhorrent for people to enjoy playing out and are actually much more effective as means of defining who the bad guys are and defining what the hitherto evocatively defined as unspeakably blasphemous rites actually consist of, the fact that the magic system and hexcrawl are so interlinked is brilliant. The map is fairly festering with Macguffins. Aside from the obvious unpleasantnesses, playing a sorceror in Carcosa would be cool, you've got places to go and people to see from the get go. Additionally, assuming the antagonists are probably sorcerors, they've got things to do also. Given a little inside knowledge it becomes obvious that the sorceror or his minions are trying to get the Radioactive Purple Crystal from Hex 0121 to the Seething Chasm of Indeterminate Depth in Hex 9982 to summon the Quaking Eidolon of Thrausaath-Glybbe (or whatever) and there you have a clear set of objectives and something to do while sitting around the table with your friends.
So, in this conception, magic spells are unlocked from the mysterious cosmos by the performance of particular rites. This gives the initiate access to the arcane mysteries which may then be inscribed in their grimoire and "memorised" daily, as normal. The written version is essentially enchanted, it functions as a magical scroll and may be destructively invoked in a similar manner, over and above its normal spellbook function. Once a spell is thus lost from the grimoire it is necessary to go through the whole process of ritual to regain the spell. Spells stolen from other magic-users may (after unlocking with Read Magic) be "burnt" as scrolls, additionally all written versions of spells of necessity contain the instructions for performance of the rite that unlocks the mystery.
The individual spells in the magic user spell list are divided between a number of different factions in the setting (with a considerable degree of overlap). Each jealously guards its secrets and the rites that allow their revelation. It is only possible to achieve the ability to cast every spell by begging, borrowing or stealing from a number of different sources.
Finally, language is the key to unlocking the knowledge, many languages within the setting have an association with a particular set of mysteries, knowing the language means knowing the mysteries. The languages and their associated magical disciplines are as follows;
Five Paths of Lesser Sorcery
1. Elder Druideacht - Language of Birds
2. Bastard Alchemy- Alchemists' Cant
3. Lowlander Spae-craft - Meagre Tongue (i.e. "Common")
4. Mantic Disciplines of the Old Imperium - Diviners' Cipher
5. Heathenish Witchery - Heathen Tongue
Exempli Gratia: Elder Druideacht
The degraded rites of Low Druidry are relicts of the blasphemies of the north. The fell Druideacht of the northern heathens bound together their tribes in ties of blood and law and sacrifice. Theirs was an elder pact with the powers of the wicked earth personified in primordial gods of field and fen and unquiet ancestors craving sacrifice from the darkness beyond.
There are six first level spells in the druidry spell list, a beginning initiate will have already performed three of the rites but will know the rites to access the others
-The Willing Sacrifice (Charm Person) A pristine entity (white calf with red ears, blind foal, seven-day-old kid born in the new moon's dark) is bathed in milk and crowned with a wreath of mistletoe cut with a silver sickle. Songs are sung over it of Ancient Law. Eating of its heart will reveal the mystery
-Ordeal of the Hodimadod (Detect Magic) At one of the known junctions of cosmic alignment between nexi of the embodiment of ancient lore (henges, raths, cromlech-graves, sacred groves and pools) the initiate must spend the night alone in a circle of seven knives and ritualistically strangle themselves seven times with a rope of their own hair that they swoon and fall. In the half-world between oblivion and wakefulness the mystery will be glimpsed.
-Walk Untouchable (Protection from Evil) All sprinkled with gold dust, glimmering naked and drunk on tainted mead, the initiate must enter the opened tomb of a hallowed ancestor and lay together upon the slab, eat of its fingernails and hair and plead and beg the answer to the riddles of death and life .
- Assimilation of Ink (Read Languages) From the mingled blood of a dozen initiates and the gall of a blasted oak and the venom of a murtherous humbledrum an ink must be brewed and the flayed skin of an ancient scholar adorned with the ciphered runes and the hundred forms of ogam and all the abecedaries of the Old Imperium and glyphs and ancient scripts forgotten by time. This skin must be slowly eaten and the initiate stricken with the poison for seven nights. On the eighth day the initiate rises with ink in their veins.
- Vigil of the Grey Horizon (Sleep) The initiate undergoes mystical incubation wrapped in the flayed hide of a walrus, nettle-crowned and covered in bone-soot. The initiate must hold wakeful vigil for seven nights upon a shore between earth and restless ocean until oblivion beckons in the voice of a gull. In that voice can be heard the mystery.
-Blinding the Cipher (Read Magic) Skyclad and fasted upon the dawn of Midsummer's Day the initiate must gaze into the rising sun until the world goes out of their eyes . Thereafter, they are led into a grove where ogam-staves and runestones and grimoires of mystick writings are kept and made to look upon them as their sight returns. In the dim light of returning vision the secret will glimmer among the glyphs.
et cetera
As the character progresses through the levels it will become necessary to collude with other magicians to perform the rites necessary to unlock new forms of magical power. The different paths will have entirely different ways of gaining access to essentially the same spell - spae-wives will brew philtres of love to gain the ability to charm (instead of eating the heart of an innocent sacrifice) and other paths will pursue other means. In addition to this there is always the possibility that some kind of fraternisation with elves might be possible (though unwise).


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Something about warmer weather inspires homeowners to lavish attention on their homes. While painting and decluttering are great ways to revitalize home decor, there's no better way to breathe new life into interior spaces than decorating with light.
Incorporating light into interior design can go far beyond a few strategically placed, attractive lamps and some upgraded overhead lights. It's possible to use both natural and artificial lighting to complement other decor and architectural elements.
Lighting types
Every home needs a little of each of the following types of lighting to meet your needs throughout the day:
- Task lighting focuses light into a specific area.
- Accent lighting shines a light on decorative elements.
- Ambient lighting provides general lighting for everyday activities.
- Natural lighting from above makes a home feel open and inviting, while also providing balanced light for everyday activities.
Natural beauty plus improved air quality
Enhance day lighting by lightening up window treatments to allow for as much sunshine as possible. Choose fresh paint colors that play well with the directional lighting and consider installing skylights in rooms where adding windows isn't practical or where more balanced natural light can add drama and differentiate living spaces.
Adding skylights is a relatively low-cost, but high impact home improvement that can be accomplished by a professional in a day or two or over a single weekend. Fresh air skylights can also help reduce dependence on artificial lighting and mechanical ventilation, saving money on electricity.
Skylights can work in concert with vertical windows to provide improved passive ventilation that improves air quality and energy efficiency. For example, Energy Star-qualified fresh air skylights, such as those at veluxusa.com, let you circulate air in your home with flexible features to match your needs.
Manual and electric venting models are available, but top-of-the-line, solar-powered fresh air models offer all the features of modern, no-leak skylights. They feature a solar panel that charges a hidden internal battery, which operates the control system. These skylights require no wiring, making for easy and cost-effective installation. An integrated rain sensor automatically closes the units in case of inclement weather and all Velux skylights offer three layers of water protection backed by warranties.
A variety of light-filtering, light-blocking and light-controlling solar-powered blinds are also available in a mix of designer colors and patterns to enhance decor while improving skylight energy efficiency by as much as 45 percent. The skylights, as well as the blinds, are operated by a programmable remote control and are eligible for a 30 percent federal tax credit, as are installation costs.
Lightening colors
Some hues absorb more light, making them appear darker and causing the room to look dark. Fresh paint brightens any room, but to amplify the effect choose lighter, less intense colors and remember colors appear truer when they are awash in natural light.
Continue the color upgrade through key decorating elements, such as upholstery fabric, accent rugs, window treatments and wall art.
Upgrading other light sources
While you take steps to maximize the amount of natural light that enters your home, artificial lighting is always necessary, whether at night or for a dreary day. Choose light fixtures – including floor and table lamps – that continue the bright, easy atmosphere you've already created with color and natural light.
Keep in mind the importance of layering light with a mix of sources throughout a room and choose lighting styles that fit the room's purpose.
For more ideas on lightening up your home, and to view the available types of skylights, blinds and accessories, visit whyskylights.com.


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Piemonte Italy is dedicated to providing in-depth information about the towns of villages of the Piemonte (Piedmont) region of Italy. We hope to provide information that will appeal to tourists looking to visit the beautiful Piemonte region, and also for people looking to move to Piemonte.
Piemonte is situated in the in the North West corner of the Italian peninsula and contains the provinces of Alessandria, Asti, Cuneo, Novara, Vercelli, and Turin which is the regions capital. The area forms part of an industrial triangle created by Milan, Turin and Genoa.
Piemonte or Piedmont as the English refer to it has long been regarded as Italy's little secret where Italians for many years and to this current day use the area as a holiday destination. The Winter Olympics held here in 2006 have been a great advertisement for Piemonte and has served to introduce the area to the world.
The region is world famous for its wine production where the Langhe hills are home to the great Barolo wines and nearby Asti produces its Spumante. Food lovers around the world visit the area to sample its truffles and visit Bra the capital of the Slow Food movement.
Piemonte boasts some of Europe's most breath taking landscapes which take the form of vines and rolling hills therefore making it ideal for those who enjoy sporting activity such as trekking, horse riding and cycling.
The regions snow and mountains provide spectacular settings for its ski resorts such as Claviere, Sauze d'Oux and Sestriere (it is no coincidence that the winter Olympics were held in Piedmont in 2006) and the areas proximity to the Ligurian coast make it an ideal holiday destination.
Piemonte is very accessible particularly for the Germans and Swiss and with the advent of cheap flights from London and Luton, flying to Genoa and Turin, the British are now able to participate in the delights of the area. The climate is mild therefore making it an ideal holiday location particularly during the summer months.
Property prices at the moment are very favourable compared to Tuscany and taking into consideration all of the above factors the region is now experiencing an increase in market activity particularly in the beautiful Langhe wine growing area where Alba is its capital.
Alessandria | Asti | Biella | Cuneo | Novara | Turin | Verbano-Cusio-Ossola | Vercelli
28th May 2006 - Photos of Bossolasco and information about Levice Marsaglia Pezzolo Valle Uzzone
14th May 2006 - Information about Torre Bormida
13th May 2006 - Photos of the Bergolo
26th April 2006 - Information about Cissone , Clavesana, within Cuneo added.
25th April 2006 - Information about Diano D'Alba, Montelupo, Lequio Berria, Borgomale, Benevello, Rodello, Mombarcaro , San Benedetto Belbo within Cuneo added.
24th April 2006 - Photos of the Alba Vinum wine festival
17th April 2006 - Information about Mango, Camo, Barbaresco,Neviglie, Castiglione Tinella, Cossano Belbo, Santo Stefano Belbo within Cuneo added.
2nd April 2006 - Information about Bergolo, Cortemilia, Dogliani, Treiso, Cravanzana, Prunetto , Niella Belbo, Neive within Cuneo added.
27th March 2006 - Information about Alba, Bossolasco and Monesiglio within Cuneo added, and information about the Langhe (Langa) area.
10th March 2006 - Photo of Barolo in the Province of Cuneo added
Abruzzo | Basilicata | Calabria | Campania | Emilia-Romagna | Friuli-Venezia Giulia | Lazio (Latium) | Liguria | Lombardia (Lombardy) | Marche | Molise | Puglia (Apulia) | Sardegna (Sardinia) | Sicilia (Sicily) | Trentino-Alto Adige / Südtirol (Trentino-South Tyrol) | Toscana (Tuscany) | Perugia (Umbria) | Valle d'Aosta (Aosta Valley) | Veneto
Copyright 2006 Piemonte-Italy.info | Sitemap


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The LifeKeeper Communication Manager (LCM) provides reliable communication between processes on one or more SIOS Protection Suite servers. This process can use redundant communication paths between systems so that failure of a single communication path does not cause failure of SIOS Protection Suite or its protected resources. The LCM supports a variety of communication alternatives including TCP/IP and shared disk connections.
The LCM provides the following:
- SIOS Protection Suite Heartbeat. Periodic communication with other connected SIOS Protection Suite systems to determine if the other systems are still functioning. SIOS Protection Suite can detect any total system failure that is not detected by another means by recognizing the absence of the heartbeat signal.
- Administration Services. The administration functions of SIOS Protection Suite use the LCM facilities to perform remote administration. This facility is used for single-point administration, configuration verification and sanity checking of administrative actions.
- Configuration and Status Communication. The LifeKeeper configuration database (LCD) tracks resource status, availability and configuration through the LCM facilities. These facilities allow the LCD to maintain consistent resource information between the primary and secondary systems.
- Failover Recovery. If a resource fails on a system, the LCM notifies SIOS Protection Suite to recover the resource on a backup system.


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Simon Billenness founded the CSR Strategy Group to offer non-profits, trade unions, and socially responsible investors expertise in creating and implementing effective campaigns to fundamentally change behavior of politicians and major corporations. We are experienced advocates for environmental sustainability, human rights, good corporate governance, and social justice.
Recent Posts
How Universities Can Join the Movement to End Genocide
How can you make your university take action to end genocide?
Students and faculty have an honorable tradition of organizing to uphold human rights. By organizing to persuade your university to enact a policy to end genocide, you are following in the footsteps of similar campaigns, such as the South Africa anti-apartheid movement (1980s), Free Burma movement (1990s), Save Darfur campaign (2000s), and fossil fuel divestment movement (today).
International Campaign for the Rohingya and STAND, the student-led movement to end mass atrocities, have developed a campaign for students and faculty to press their university to enact a comprehensive campus policy to help end genocide. The campaign focuses on harnessing how the university uses the power of its investments and the power of its purchasing.
Universities as investors
Educational institutions invest trillions of dollars, primarily through their endowments. As shareholders, universities are partial owners of thousands of publicly traded companies. Through those ownership stakes, unviersities can put pressure on corporations to stop doing business with governments engaged in genocide. This kind of shareholder activism can be more powerful than selling – or divesting – stock in companies.
Does your university own stock in Chevron? It likely does because Chevron is a very widely held company. For two years, shareholders of Chevron filed a shareholder resolution putting pressure on the oil company, the largest U.S. investor in Burma (Myanmar), to adopt a policy of not doing business with government engaged in genocide or crimes against humanity. In 2017 and 2018, that resolution received the votes of approximately 6% of shareholders at Chevron's annual shareholder meeting.
In response to this pressure, Chevron has raised issues of human rights directly with the Burmese government. This year, shareholders reached an agreement with Chevron to drop the resolution in return for a dialogue with Chevron over what companies can do to pressure governments engaged in or at risk of commiting genocide and/or mass atrocities.
International Campaign for the Rohingya is working with shareholders owning over $50 billion in assets to put pressure on all of the oil companies in Burma. This shareholder group has also pressed major jewelry retailers not to buy gems that profit the Burmese army. This Fall, investors will engage Western Union, which is in partnership with a bank controlled by Burma's army.
How can you successfully press your university to join the growing number of shareholders taking action to end genocide? You can start by asking your university treasurer some key questions.
- What stocks does the university own? Does it own Chevron or Western Union?
Many educational institutions, especially public universities, make public their stock holdings. Many others will simply provide that information on request. Some will only reveal their holdings after feeling pressure from a campaign asking for disclosure.
Zero in on your university's direct holdings of shares. Those are shares that your university owns outright and can vote in favor of shareholder resolutions such as the one at Chevron.
- Does the university have a policy guiding how it votes its shares?
Some universities have developed a policy guiding how they vote their shares on resolutions raising environmental, social, and governances (ESG) issues. Ask for a copy of the current policy and request that it include a provision that the university vote in favor of resolutions asking companies to adopt a policy of not doing business with governments engaged in genocide or crimes against humanity.
- How has the university voted its shares in the past?
Some universities publish a report showing how they voted on each shareholder resolution. Whether this is public or not, find out whether your university held Chevron stock in 2017 and, if so, how it voted those shares on the resolution in 2017 and 2018 pressing the company to adopt a policy of not doing business with governments engaged in genocide or crimes against humanity.
- Does the university work with other shareholders to promote corporate responsibility?
Some universities are members of US SIF – The Forum for Sustainable and Reponsible Investment, the Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility, the Principles for Responsible Investment, or the Council of Institutional Investors. If your university is a member, ask what help and resources they are receiving to address issues concerning ending genocide.
- Would the university adopt a formal policy of using its investments to help end genocide?
Ask your university to join the growing "No Business With Genocide" campaign. International Campaign for the Rohingya is working with a growing coalition of investors and NGOs. We are ready to work with you and your university to develop policies and practices that help end the genocide of the Rohingya.
- How can students and faculty influence the university's investment policies and practices?
Some universities, such as Harvard, have an advisory committee on shareholder responsibility that helps develop policies and practices. Ask to participate.
If your university lacks such an avenue to influence its investments, launch a campaign to pass a resolution in your student government, faculty council, and/or board of trustees. Develop petitions and hold rallies. Meet with your university administration. Use every pressure point to persuade your university to step up and help end genocide.
The Responsible Endowments Coalition publishes how-to guides for students and faculty on university endowments, divestment, and shareholder advocacy. Read them to prepare yourselves on how to best influence your university to help end genocide.
Universities as purchasers
Universities buy billions of dollars of goods and services from corporations from around the world. That enormous purchasing power can be used to press companies to adopt a policy of not doing business with governments engaged in genocide and/or mass atrocities.
Again, there are powerful examples of how students and faculty have successfully influenced their university's purchasing policy. The Conflict-Free Campus Initiative (CFCI) is a joint initiative of the Enough Project and STAND, the student-led movement to end mass atrocities. By encouraging universities, which are large purchasers of electronics and powerful spokespersons, to commit to measures that pressure electronics companies to responsibly invest in Congo's minerals sector, students are voicing the demand for conflict-free products from Congo.
How can a university use its purchasing power to help end genocide?
A university can, in its purchasing RFPs and contracts, require contractors to disclose any company policies regarding doing business with governments engaged in genocide and/or crimes against humanity.
A university can also in its purchasing RFPs and contracts further require contractors, within two years, to have a written and formally adopted company policy stating that they will not do business with governments engaged in genocide and/or crimes against humanity.
These provisions can apply to any contractor with the university with annual revenues of a certain amount, such as $100 million or greater.
Taking Action
This article was previously published by the International Campaign for the Rohingya.
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text: Online First, the immediate online pre-published of all accepted papers. Articles in Online First are these have been initially reviewed, initially accepted and initially typeset. But they haven't being peer-viewed and proofreaded, also, the final date of publication hasn't been scheduled. Individual articles and its content may differ from the final version of publication, subject to the final version.