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First famous commune on Route des Chateaux when you come from Bordeaux town. Wines here are gracious, refined and sophisticated, very aromatic and silky.
Margaux is housing no less than 21 classified chateaux, more than Pauillac, St. Julien and St. Estephe. Chateau Margaux is the only 1. Growth in this commune. There are 1413 has of vines and Margaux includes villages of Arsac, Cantenac, Labarde, Margaux and Soussans in the appellation. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most used grape variety here, followed by Merlot and Petit Verdot. The soil here is mostly fine gravel with little clay underneath.
Margaux wines are generally lighter than ones from f.i. Pauillac and St.Estephe and will go well with veal, lamb, chicken, and birds.
Places to eat - Le Savoie, 1 place Temoille 33460 Margaux, on the left side of the road just when you leave the village of Margaux, close to City Hall. Then Brasserie du Lac, 5 route de l'ile Vincent, Margaux, bistro of Relais de Margaux and intimate La Gare Gourmande, 3, Routes des Chateaux, Labarde.
Wines from Saint-Julien are generally lighter than those from Saint Estephe and Pauillac but tend to have more bodies than those from Margaux. They can be elegant and gracious and also powerful and tannic.
This commune is the smallest one of all four mentioned here, with only 900 ha of vineyards. It's home to 11 classified Growths, none of them 1. Growths, but there are five 2. Growths. Among these 3 Leovilles - Leoville Las Cases, Leoville Barton and Leoville Poyferre. The soil here is gravel on the surface and clay, sometimes blended with fine gravel in the subsoil. Also, here Cabernet Sauvignon rules with the great help of Merlot and Petit Verdot.
Saint Julien wines suit very well dishes made from lamb, veal, beef and venison.
Places to eat - Le Saint Julien, 11 rue du Saint Julien, 33250 Saint-Julien-Beychevelle. I ate there in October 2018, and it was a great experience. Highly recommended. Another place in Saint Julien to eat delicious food for small money is Chez Mémé, 30 Rue de Saint-Julien. Quick service and very popular among locals.
Like in Saint Estephe, wines are very concentrated, powerful and with a strong backbone. Cabernet Sauvignon is the king here and gives wines the scent of tobacco/tobacco leaves, mint, bacon, cigar box and graphite.
Very famous commune, mainly because it's home to three 1. Crus, Lafite, Latour and Mouton Rothschild, out of Bordeaux' 5 1.Growths. The soil here has the deepest layer of gravel in the whole of Bordeaux - up to app. 40 meters deep! There are 1200 has of planted vines.
Wines from Pauillac need strong dishes, so anything made from beef, venison and pork suits wines very well.
Places to eat - Cafe Lavinal in the Bages village, just close to Chateau Lynch Bages. Reasonable prices, tasty food and an impressive wine list. If you wish for more sophisticated cuisine and luxurious surroundings, check out Cordeillan Bages (situated close to Lynch Bages), both hotel and a restaurant. High-class French cuisine.
Home of deeply coloured wines, tannic, strong and powerful. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot rule here, and Petit Verdot provides a great addition of backbone and depth to wines when it's ripe. The best estates are situated close to 7 km long Gironde river banks, which secure a great micro-climate.
The best estates are situated close to 7 km long Gironde river banks, which secure a great micro-climate. Saint Estephe covers 1370 ha of vineyards, and soil here is mostly gravel of different sizes on the surface with clay and limestones as subsoil. There are 5 classified Growths (none 1. Growth). Cos d'Estournel, Montrose, Calon Segur, Lafon Rochet and Cos Labory, and the whole 37 Cru Bourgeois (largest number of CB in one commune for whole Bordeaux). Among the latter, Capbern, Haut Marbuzet, Meyney and Phelan Segur are great value for money.
St.Estephe wines go very well with dishes made from especially lamb, beef, venison and pork.
A place to eat - I recommend Le Peyrat, 19 Littoral, 33180 Saint-Estephe, overlooking Gironde river, close to the vineyard of Montrose. Small restaurant, mostly frequented by local people, lorry drivers and workers from neighbouring chateaux. Very few tourists know this place. Tasty food, cheap and very kind hosts. When I'm in Bordeaux and visit St.Estephe, I always go there with my friends to have lunch. I have eaten at Le Peyrat 8 times - not a single disappointment!
Produces both white and red wines. White wines are mostly made from a blend of Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon, they only undergo alcoholic fermentation to preserve their freshness and aromas. Scents of acacia flower, lemon/lemongrass, and green apple are often found in these wines. The best wines can keep for a long time - 15-20 years or longer. Red wines cover many different styles, from elegant and refined to strong and powerful.
White wines are perfect for drinking with smoked and grilled salmon, various seafood, creamy soups and light meat dishes. You can also try them with cheese. Red wines go well with beef, lamb, venison and pork, depending on the style of the wine.
A place to eat - Les Sources de Caudalie belongs to Chateau Smith Haut Lafitte and is situated inside the property area. Sublime cuisine.
Perfect food companion
This rare and extremely harmonious cooperation between sweetness, acidity, and alcohol makes wines Sauternes & Barsac so exciting. Thanks to the remaining sugar, these wines have fresh and intense sweetness. They offer an incredibly vast range of nuances on the nose and the palate (acacia, honey, peach and tropical fruit), big body and refinement, finesse and sophisticated style. These wines are extremely well-balanced already from "birth", and this means a very long life. 40-50 years for top wines in superb vintages.
Sauternes & Barsac wines are a perfect match for food (European, overseas and oriental) because, unlike red wines, they can cope with salt, fat and even all kind of spices. The reason for that is the remarkable sweetness of these wines. It's a free choice for everyone: Foie gras, oysters (!), chicken, lobster, shrimps, cooked/steamed fish dishes in butter/crème sauce, light meat, cheese (especially goat and sheep ones) and fruit desserts are the typical and suitable choices. But dishes spiced with carrying and chilli have no problems at all with sweet white wine because sweetness in this wine merges with spices in a very distinguished way – with even more nuances to follow.
Places to eat - Fantastic Lalique restaurant situated at Lafaurie Peyraguey. I also recommend restaurant Saprien, 14 Rue Principale, 33210 Sauternes, and neighbouring Auberge des Vignes, 23, rue Principale, 33210 Sauternes, with the latter serving more rustic meals.
To get more info about Sauternes & Barsac - please click on this link: http://www.greatbordeauxwines.com/chateau-profiles/sauternes-barsac/sauternes-barsac
You will find the Saint-Emilion app. 40 km northeast of Bordeaux and just 8 km southeast of Libourne, not that far from Dordogne-river's right bank. This district consists of nine parishes: Saint-Emilion, Saint-Christophe des Bardes, Saint-Etienne de Lisse, Saint-Hippolyte, Saint-Laurent des Combes, Saint-Pey d'Armens, Saint-Sulpice de Faleyrens, Vignonet and a part of Libourne area. Vineyards of Saint-Emilion (within the appellation) cover 5.200 hectares, which is app. 5,5% of Bordeaux's total area of vineyards. Merlot dominates vineyards here and accounts for app. 55-60% of the planted area, Cabernet Franc (Bouchet) accounts for 15-30% and Cabernet Sauvignon for 5-15%.
Châteaux in Saint-Emilion are generally divided into the following groups concerning the difference in soil conditions and location.
"Graves" - a plateau which covers the land from the area south/south-west of Saint-Emilion to Pomerol and continues as a flat piece of land to the outskirts of Libourne. It's gravelly and sandy soil in different proportions, while the subsoil is, for the most part, a mixture of pebbles, sand and clay.
"Côtes" - slopes, which often are quite steep. The soil conditions here are not the same as everywhere in the area. Therefore they are divided into three categories; Top of the slope - clay mixed with little sand, lying on the bed of limestones. These limestones are incredibly important during the growing cyclus of the vines - they are porous and soak the water up during the winter and early Spring, so the vines have enough of it to "drink" when a really dry summer comes. Slope - a mixture of pebbles, sand and clay on the soil's surface and limestones in the underground layer. The slope's foot - mostly sand and gravel (both large stones and pebbles) together with little clay.
Saint-Emilion wines cover a lot of styles depending on soil conditions and location. Within the same type of soil and location, you will find traditionally made wines, semi-modern and modern ones.
Because of the diversity of styles, you can drink St.Emilion wines with many different dishes - for me personally, the best combination of food with St.Emilion's wines is veal, lamb, duck and goose, cooked, steamed or grilled.
Places to eat - I recommend the restaurant Les Belles Perdrix de Troplong Mondot at Troplong Mondot with a breathtaking view over St.Emilion. Sublime food. Hostellerie de Plaisance in the centre of the town provides a breathtaking view of the surroundings and excellent food, slightly more modern than LBPdTM.
Restaurant Logis de la Cadenne is owned by the de Bouard family from Chateau Angelus. Excellent food. There are several other restaurants in lower scala of prices, f.i. L'Envers du Decor, owned since 2016 by Perse family from Pavie, certainly worth a visit. On the border between St.Emilion and Pomerol, at Chateau La Dominique, there is an excellent restaurant at the terrace, La Terrace Rouge, 1 La Dominique, 33330 Saint-Émilion, with a great view of Pomerol and also neighbouring Cheval Blanc.
Pomerol fills just a few wine drops in the world's enormous ocean of wine, but these drops are delicate, rare and expensive. Pomerol, with its 750 ha of vines divided between app. 185 winegrowers is the smallest wine-producing area in Bordeaux. The "treasure cellar" here is packed with true masterpieces of wine-making, rare and expensive wines, which in outstanding vintages like 1982, 1989, 1990, 2000, 2005, 2009 and 2010, easily can match the world's best red wines, including the very best ones from Haut-Medoc, Graves and Saint-Emilion. Pomerol lies about 30 km east of Bordeaux, between Barbanne-river in the north, St. Emilion district in the east, the town of Libourne in the south and motorway D 910 in the west. Because of its small size, the district is often called Bordeaux's "little garden". It is just 4 km long and 3 km wide!
The very best vineyards are situated in mid-and east-Pomerol, that is to say, towards St. Emilion district. The soil's surface here consists of a deep layer of gravel mixed with clay and little sand. Further to the west, this surface changes to more sandy, so wines are harder, lighter, and less nuanced than those from mid-and east-Pomerol. The subsoil (base) in Pomerol has an extraordinary and curious composition, which is only found here in the district and therefore is not especially known. It consists of the so-called "crasse de fer" and clay. "Crasse de fer" is iron-dirt or, more precisely, a very firm and solid blend of sand + small pebbles and metal, which has a very high content of iron-oxide. It gives the wines a very distinctive and characteristic flavour, something fat and metallic, which many tasters associate with truffles. This unique subsoil appears abundantly within app. 900 m wide and circle-shaped high-plateau, near the border of St.Emilion. Among the wine-growers, this high-plateau is called "Le Plateau Argileux". 70-75% of the cultivated area in Pomerol is planted with Merlot, Cabernet Franc follows next with 20-25%, and only 5% Cabernet Sauvignon is planted here. It is in Pomerol, Merlot is at its peak.
Fine qualities of Pomerol-wines step forward together with food. Younger wines go splendidly with paté (f.i. foie gras), roasted/cooked/grilled canard and veal. Wines of some age are delightful with lamb and veal during spring/summer and game during autumn/winter. The older wines easily match cheese from cow, sheep and goat - their fruit-sweetness gives perfect response to salt in cheeses. Pomerol-wines can also go with fish, especially when the fish is Bordeaux' own "version" of eel, lamproie. Lamproie is considered an exquisite delicacy in Bordeaux, especially in Pomerol and Sauternes. It is one of the very few fish, which goes well with red wine and tastes magnificently prepared with it.
Pomerol's own village, Catusseau, has got new restaurant in March 2015, La Table de Catusseau, 86 Rue de Catusseau, 33500 Pomerol. French cuisine with a twist of New Caledonian cuisine, great class and style.
Neighbour til Pomerol and both districts provide many interesting wines with splendid quality for small money. Many properties are beautifully placed on the hills and provide an extraordinary view of the Dordogne river.


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diclofenac 3% – topical, Solaraze
Medication Uses How To Use Side Effects Precautions Drug Interactions Overdose Notes Missed Dose Storage USES: This medication is used to treat a certain skin condition (actinic keratoses). Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). HOW TO USE: Use this medication on the skin only. Gently apply enough medication to cover the affected skin well, usually 2 times daily or as directed by your doctor. This medication is usually applied for 60 to 90 days. Wash your hands after using, unless you are using this medication to treat the hands. The dosage is based on your medical condition and response to treatment. Do not apply the medication in or around the eyes, open skin wounds, or infected/scraped/burned skin. If you do get the medication in those areas, flush with plenty of water. Use this medication regularly for maximum benefit. To help you remember, use it at the same times each day. Inform your doctor if your condition persists or worsens. It may take up to 30 days after finishing the medication for the skin to heal. SIDE EFFECTS: Rash, scaling, dry skin, swelling, or itching may occur at the application site. If any of these effects persist or worsen, inform your doctor or pharmacist promptly. Remember that your doctor has prescribed this medication because the benefit to you is greater than the risk of side effects. Many people using this medication do not have serious side effects. Inform your doctor immediately if you experience serious side effects, including: swelling of the ankles/feet/hands (edema), sudden/unexplained weight gain, unusual tiredness, change in urine output. Other medications similar to this medication may infrequently cause serious bleeding from the stomach or intestines. Also, related drugs rarely have caused blood clots to form, resulting in heart attacks and strokes. If you notice any of the following rare but very serious side effects, stop using this medication and seek immediate medical attention: black/bloody stools, vomit that looks like coffee grounds, chest pain, sudden vision changes, weakness on one side of the body, slurred speech. This drug may rarely cause serious liver problems. Get medical help right away if you have any symptoms of liver damage, including: dark urine, persistent nausea/vomiting/loss of appetite, stomach/abdominal pain, yellowing eyes/skin. A very serious allergic reaction to this drug is rare. However, seek immediate medical attention if you notice any symptoms of a serious allergic reaction, including: rash, itching/swelling (especially of the face/tongue/throat), severe dizziness, trouble breathing. This is not a complete list of possible side effects. If you notice other effects not listed above, contact your doctor or pharmacist. In the US -Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088. In Canada – Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to Health Canada at 1-866-234-2345.
PRECAUTIONS: Before using diclofenac, inform your doctor or pharmacist if you are allergic to it; or to aspirin or other NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen, celecoxib); or if you have any other allergies. This product may contain inactive ingredients (such as benzyl alcohol), which can cause allergic reactions or other problems. Talk to your pharmacist for more details. This medication should not be used if you have certain medical conditions. Before using this medicine, consult your doctor or pharmacist if you have: aspirin-sensitive asthma (a history of worsening breathing with runny/stuffy nose after taking aspirin or other NSAIDs), recent heart bypass surgery (CABG). Before using this medication, inform your doctor or pharmacist of your medical history, especially of: liver disease, stomach/intestine problems (e.g., bleeding, ulcers), heart disease (e.g., history of heart attack), high blood pressure, stroke, swelling (edema, water retention), poorly controlled diabetes, blood disorders (e.g., anemia, bleeding/clotting problems), asthma, growths in the nose (nasal polyps). Kidney problems can sometimes occur with the use of NSAID medications, including diclofenac. Problems are more likely to occur if you are dehydrated, have heart failure or kidney disease, are an older adult, or if you take certain medications (see also Drug Interactions section). Drink plenty of fluids as directed by your doctor to prevent dehydration and immediately inform your doctor if you experience any unusual change in the amount of urine. Before having surgery, inform your doctor or dentist that you are using this medication. This medicine may cause stomach bleeding. Daily use of alcohol and tobacco may increase your risk for stomach bleeding, especially when combined with this medicine. Limit alcohol and stop smoking. Consult your doctor or pharmacist for more information. Your condition may worsen when exposed to the sun. Avoid prolonged sun exposure, tanning booths, and sunlamps. Wear protective clothing when outdoors. Ask your doctor whether you should use sunscreen along with this medication. Older adults may be more sensitive to the side effects of this drug, especially stomach/intestinal bleeding, kidney problems, and worsening heart problems. Before using this medication, women of childbearing age should talk with their doctor(s) about the benefits and risks (such as miscarriage). Inform your doctor if you are pregnant or if you plan to become pregnant. During pregnancy, this medication should be used only when clearly necessary. It is not recommended for use during the first and last trimesters of pregnancy due to possible harm to the unborn baby and interference with normal labor/delivery. This medication may pass into breast milk. Though there have been no reports of harm to nursing infants, consult your doctor before breastfeeding. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Your doctor or pharmacist may already be aware of any possible drug interactions and may be monitoring you for them. Do not start, stop, or change the dosage of any medicine before checking with your doctor or pharmacist first. Before using this medication, inform your doctor or pharmacist of all prescription and nonprescription/herbal products you may use, especially of: aliskiren, ACE Inhibitors (such as captopril, lisinopril), angiotensin II receptor blockers (such as valsartan, losartan), cidofovir, corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone), cyclosporine, desmopressin, digoxin, lithium, methotrexate, pemetrexed, probenecid, other products applied to skin on the treated area, tenofovir. This medication may increase the risk of bleeding when used with other drugs that also may cause bleeding. Examples include anti-platelet drugs such as clopidogrel, "blood thinners" such as dabigatran/enoxaparin/warfarin, among others. Check all prescription and nonprescription medicine labels carefully since many medications contain pain relievers/fever reducers (aspirin, NSAIDs such as ibuprofen or naproxen). These drugs are similar to diclofenac and may increase your risk of side effects if taken together. However, if your doctor has directed you to take low-dose aspirin to prevent heart attack or stroke (usually at dosages of 81-325 milligrams a day), you should continue taking the aspirin unless your doctor instructs you otherwise. Ask your doctor or pharmacist for more details. This document does not contain all possible interactions. Therefore, before using this product, inform your doctor or pharmacist of all the products you use. Keep a list of all your medications with you, and share the list with your doctor and pharmacist.
OVERDOSE: This medicine may be harmful if swallowed. If swallowing or overdose is suspected, contact a poison control center or emergency room immediately. US residents can call their local poison control center at 1-800-222-1222. Canada residents can call a provincial poison control center. Symptoms of overdose/swallowing may include: seizures, severe stomach pain, change in the amount of urine, slow/shallow breathing. NOTES: Do not share this medication with others. Laboratory and/or medical tests (such as complete blood count, liver and kidney function tests) should be performed periodically to check for side effects. Consult your doctor for more details. Keep all doctor appointments and lab visits so your therapy can be monitored closely. MISSED DOSE: If you miss a dose, use it as soon as you remember. If it is near the time of the next dose, skip the missed dose and resume your usual dosing schedule. Do not double the dose. STORAGE: Store at room temperature between 59-86 degrees F (15-30 degrees C) away from heat. Do not freeze. Keep all medicines away from children and pets. Do not flush medications down the toilet or pour them into a drain unless instructed to do so. Properly discard this product when it is expired or no longer needed. Consult your pharmacist or local waste disposal company for more details on how to safely discard your product. Information last revised October 2013. Copyright(c) 2013 First Databank, Inc.
Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration
You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
Selected from data included with permission and copyrighted by First Databank, Inc. This copyrighted material has been downloaded from a licensed data provider and is not for distribution, except as may be authorized by the applicable terms of use.
CONDITIONS OF USE: The information in this database is intended to supplement the expertise and judgment of healthcare professionals. The information is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, drug interactions or adverse effects, nor should it be construed to indicate that use of a particular drug is safe, appropriate or effective for you or anyone else. A healthcare professional should be consulted before taking any drug, changing any diet, or commencing or discontinuing any course of treatment.
CONDITIONS OF USE: The information in this database is intended to supplement the expertise and judgment of healthcare professionals. The information is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, drug interactions or adverse effects, nor should it be construed to indicate that use of a particular drug is safe, appropriate or effective for you or anyone else. A healthcare professional should be consulted before taking any drug, changing any diet, or commencing or discontinuing any course of treatment.

subset: commoncrawl


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The Secret of Saving For Retirement for Freelancers
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text:
Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura and Elementa *Museo Galileo |
~Ernst Mach
The 49th day of the year; lots of numbers are squareful (divisible by a square number) but 49 is the smallest number so that it, and both its neighbors are squareful. (Many interesting questions arise for students.. what's next, can there be four in a row?, etc)
And Prof. William D Banks of the University of Missouri has recently proved that every integer in base ten is the sum of 49 or less palindromes. (August 2015) (Building on Prof. Banks groundbreaking work, by February 22, 2016 JAVIER CILLERUELO AND FLORIAN LUCA had proved that for any base > 4
The 49th Mersenne prime is discovered. On Jan 19th, 2016 The GIMPS program announced a new "largest known" prime, 274,207,281 -1. called M74,207,281 for short, the number has 22,338,618 digits.
3102 B.C. The Kaliyuga begins according to the Indian mathematician Aryabhata (born A.D. 476). He believed all astronomical phenomena were periodic, with period 4,320,000= 20 × 603 years, and that all the planets had mean longitude zero on this date. [College Mathematics Journal, 16 (1985), p. 169.] *VFR 1670 "Joannes Georgius Pelshower [Regimontanus Borussus] giving me a visit, and desiring an example of the like, I did that night propose to myself in the dark without help to my memory a number in 53 places: 2468135791011121411131516182017192122242628302325272931 of which I extracted the square root in 27 places: 157103016871482805817152171 proxim´e; which numbers I did not commit to paper till he gave me another visit, March following, when I did from memory dictate them to him." So wrote John Wallis. [American Journal of Psychology, 4(1891), 38] *VFR
1673: Robert Hooke writes in his Journal: "Bought Copernicus tower hill 2sh " *@HookesLondon Thony Christie points out that current first editions run about \( 2,500,000 \) GB Pounds.
1727 Leonhard Euler defends his De Sono essay in a public disputation at the law auditorium at Basal. His paper had been submitted as his "habilitationsschrift", part of his application for the Physics Professorship at Basal. Fortunately, he did not get the position, and soon departed for a position at Petersburg Academy of Science in Russia. Among other competitors overlooked for the position was Jakob Hermann. *Ronald S. Calinger; Leonhard Euler: Mathematical Genius in the Enlightenment
1772 the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters presented Alexander Wilson with a gold medal for his work on sunspots. Wilson was a Scottish surgeon, type-founder, astronomer, mathematician and meteorologist and the first scientist to record the use of kites in meteorological investigations. Wilson noted that sunspots viewed near the edge of the Sun's visible disk appear depressed below the solar surface, a phenomenon referred to as the Wilson effect. When the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters announced a prize to be awarded for the best essay on the nature of solar spots, Wilson submitted an entry which won. *Wik
1879 "I will do the same for the young women that I do for the young men. I shall take pleasure in giving gratuitous instruction to any person whom I find competent to receive it. I give no elementary instruction, but only in the higher mathematics." Benjamin Peirce to Arthur V. Gilman, president of Harvard. [Scripta Mathematica, 11(1945), 259
1879 J. J. Sylvester, in a lecture at the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, read "Rosalind", a mock-sentimental poem of four hundred lines all ending in "ind". For the first few lines of this dreadful poem, see Osiris, 1(1936), p. 106. *VFR Encyclopedia.com says that Sylvester was the author of this poem, and another which had two hundred lines rhyming with "Winn." These were products of his later residence in Baltimore. Sylvester had perhaps a better appreciation of music.
In 1913, chemist Frederick Soddy introduced the term "isotope". Soddy was an English chemist and physicist who received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1921 for investigating radioactive substances. He suggested that different elements produced in different radioactive transformations were capable of occupying the same place on the Periodic Table, and on 18 Feb 1913 he named such species "isotopes" from Greek words meaning "same place." He is credited, along with others, with the discovery of the element protactinium in 1917. *TIS He also wrote the mathematical poem, The Kiss Precise, which includes a solution to Descartes Circle Problem. the poem begins:
For pairs of lips to kiss maybeThe complete poem and more about the history of the problem can be found here.
Involves no trigonometry.
'Tis not so when four circles kiss
Each one the other three.
To bring this off the four must be
As three in one or one in three.
If one in three, beyond a doubt
Each gets three kisses from without.
If three in one, then is that one
Thrice kissed internally.
1930 Clyde Tombaugh (1906–1997) discovered Pluto on photographic plates under the direction of V M Slipher at the Lowell Observatory at Flagstaff, Az. For 45 minutes, before he showed his superiors, he was the only person in the world who knew it existed. When he later went to college he was not allowed to take Astronomy I, the instructor thinking it unsuitable for the discoverer of a planet. (On August 24th of 2006 the International Astronomical Union decided to rescind Pluto's status as a planet and reclassify it as another entity called a "dwarf planet". ) *FFF, pg 537
2006 The game of Connect Four was first solved by James D. Allen (Oct 1, 1988), and independently by Victor Allis (Oct 16, 1988). First player can force a win. Strongly solved by John Tromp's 8-ply database (Feb 4, 1995). It was weakly solved for all boardsizes where width+height is at most 15 (Feb 18, 2006). *Wik
1201 Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi (18 Feb 1201; 26 Jun 1274 at age 73) Persian philosopher, scientist, mathematician and astronomer who made outstanding contributions in his era. When The Mongol invasion, started by Genghis Khan, reached him in 1256, he escaped likely death by joining the victorious Mongols as a scientific adviser. He used an observatory built at Maragheh (finished 1262), assisted by Chinese astronomers. It had various instruments such as a 4 meter wall quadrant made from copper and an azimuth quadrant which was Tusi's own invention. Using accurately plotted planetary movements, he modified Ptolemy's model of the planetary system based on mechanical principles. The observatory and its library became a center for a wide range of work in science, mathematics and philosophy. He was known by the title Tusi from his place of birth (Tus)*TIS 1404 Leon Battista Alberti (18 Feb 1404; 25 Apr 1472 at age 68) Italian artist and geometrist who "wrote the book," the first general treatise Della Pictura (1434) on the the laws of perspective, establishing the science of projective geometry. Alberti also worked on maps (again involving his skill at geometrical mappings) and he collaborated with Toscanelli who supplied Columbus with the maps for his first voyage. He also wrote the first book on cryptography which contains the first example of a frequency table. *TIS
. This noted architect took up the study of mathematics for relaxation. He contributed to the study of perspective. *VFR
1677 Jacques Cassini (18 Feb 1677; 16 Apr 1756 at age 79) French astronomer whose direct measurement of the proper motions of the stars (1738) disproved the ancient belief in the unchanging sphere of the stars. He also studied the moons of Jupiter and Saturn and the structure of Saturn's rings. His two major treatises on these subject appeared in 1740: Elements of Astronomy and Astronomical Tables of the Sun, Moon, Planets, Fixed Stars, and Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. He also wrote about electricity, barometers, the recoil of firearms, and mirrors. He was the son of astronomer, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Cassini (1625-1712) with whom he made numerous geodesic observations. Eventually, he took over his father's duties as head of the Paris Observatory.*TIS Cassini was born at the Paris Observatory and died at Thury, near Clermont. Admitted at the age of seventeen to membership of the French Academy of Sciences, he was elected in 1696 a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and became maître des comptes in 1706. *Wik
1745 Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (18 Feb 1745; 5 Mar 1827 at age 82) Italian physicist who invented the electric battery (1800), which for the first time enabled the reliable, sustained supply of current. His voltaic pile used plates of two dissimilar metals and an electrolyte, a number of alternated zinc and silver disks, each separated with porous brine-soaked cardboard. Previously, only discharge of static electricity had been available, so his device opened a new door to new uses of electricity. Shortly thereafter, William Nicholson decomposed water by electrolysis. That same process later enabled Humphry Davy to isolate potassium and other metals. Volta also invented the electrophorus, the condenser and the electroscope. He made important contributions to meteorology. His study of gases included the discovery of methane. The volt, a unit of electrical measurement, is named after him.*TIS
1832 Octave Chanute(18 Feb 1832, 23 Nov 1910) U.S. aeronaut whose work and interests profoundly influenced Orville and Wilbur Wright and the invention of the airplane. Octave Chanute was a successful engineer who took up the invention of the airplane as a hobby following his early retirement. Knowing how railroad bridges were strengthened, Chanute experimented with box kites using the same basic strengthening method, which he then incorporated into wing design of gliders. Through thousands of letters, he drew geographically isolated pioneers into an informal international community. He organized sessions of aeronautical papers for the professional engineering societies that he led; attracted fresh talent and new ideas into the field through his lectures; and produced important publications. *TIS The town of Chanute, Kansas is named after him, as well as the former Chanute Air Force Base near Rantoul, Illinois, which was decommissioned in 1993. The former Base, now turned to peacetime endeavors, includes the Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, detailing the history of aviation and of Chanute Air Force base. He was buried in Springdale Cemetery, Peoria, Illinois. *Wik
1838 Ernst Mach (18 Feb 1838; 19 Feb 1916 at age 77) Austrian physicist and philosopher who established important principles of optics, mechanics, and wave dynamics. His early physical works were devoted to electric discharge and induction. Between 1860 and 1862 he studied in depth the Doppler Effect by optical and acoustic experiments. He introduced the "Mach number" for the ratio of speed of object to speed of sound is named for him. When supersonic planes travel today, their speed is measured in terms that keep Mach's name alive. His lifetime interest, however, was in psychology and human perception. He supported the view that all knowledge is a conceptual organization of the data of sensory experience (or observation). *TIS
1844 Jacob Lüroth (18 Feb 1844 in Mannheim, Germany - 14 Sept 1910 in Munich, Germany) Lüroth was taught by Hesse and Clebsch and continued to develop their work on geometry and invariants. He published results in the areas of analytic geometry, linear geometry and continued the directions of his teachers in his publications on invariant theory. In 1869 Lüroth discovered the "Lüroth quartic". This came out of an investigation he was carrying out into when a ternary quartic form could be represented as the sum of five fourth powers of linear forms.
Some of his work on rational curves, published in Mathematische Annalen in 1876, was extended to surfaces by Castelnuovo in 1895. In 1883 Lüroth published his method on constructing a Riemann surface for a given algebraic curve.
Lüroth also worked on the big problem of the topological invariance of dimension. He made some useful progress but this difficult problem was not completely solved until the work of Brouwer in 1911.
Among his other work, Lüroth undertook editing. He was an editor of the complete works of Hesse and of Grassmann. He also has some fine results on logic, a topic he worked on in collaboration with his friend Ernst Schröder.
Von Staudt's ideas of geometry interested Lüroth and he further developed von Staudt's complex geometry. He published Grundriss der Mechanik in 1881. This mechanics book makes heavy use of the vector calculus. *sau
1871 George Udny Yule (18 Feb 1871 in Morham (near Haddington), Scotland - 26 June 1951 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England) graduated in Engineering from University College London and then studied in Bonn. He worked with Karl Pearson on the statistics of regression and correlation. He took a post with an examinations board before being appointed to a Cambridge fellowship. He is best known for his book: Introduction to the Theory of Statistics.*SAU
901 Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani (born c. 836, 18 Feb 901) was a Mesopotamian scholar and mathematician who greatly contributed to preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to (positive) real numbers, integral calculus, theorems in spherical trigonometry, analytic geometry, and non-euclidean geometry. In astronomy he was one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, writing Concerning the Motion of the Eighth Sphere. He believed (wrongly) that the motion of the equinoxes oscillates. Including observations of the Sun, eight complete treatises by Thabit on astronomy have survived. In mechanics he was a founder of statics. He wrote The Book on the Beam Balance in which he finds the conditions for the equilibrium of a heavy beam. *TIS 1851 Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (10 Dec 1804; 18 Feb 1851) German mathematician who, with the independent work of Niels Henrik Abel of Norway, founded the theory of elliptic functions. He also worked on Abelian functions and discovered the hyperelliptic functions. Jacobi applied his work in elliptic functions to number theory. He also investigated mathematical analysis and geometry. Jacobi carried out important research in partial differential equations of the first order and applied them to the differential equations of dynamics. His work on determinants is important in dynamics and quantum mechanics and he studied the functional determinant now called the Jacobian. *TIS He died from smallpox, in his 47th year.*VFR
1856 Baron Wilhelm von Biela (19 Mar 1782, 18 Feb 1856 at age 73) Austrian astronomer who was known for his measurement (1826) of a previously known comet as having an orbital period of 6.6 years. Subsequently, known as Biela's Comet, it was observed to break in two (1846), and in 1852 the fragments returned as widely separated twin comets that were not seen again. However, in 1872 and 1885, bright meteor showers (known as Andromedids, or Bielids) were observed when the Earth crossed the path of the comet's known orbit. This observation provided the first concrete evidence for the idea that some meteors are composed of fragments of disintegrated comets.*TIS
1877 Charles Henry Davis (16 Jan 1807; 18 Feb 1877) U.S. naval officer and scientist who published several hydrographic studies, was a superintendent of the Naval Observatory (1865–67, 1874–77) and worked to further scientific progress. Between his naval duties at sea, he studied mathematics at Harvard. He made the first comprehensive survey of the coasts of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine, including the intricate Nantucket shoals area. He helped establish and then supervised the preparation of the American Nautical Almanac (1849) for several years. Davis was a co-founder of the National Academy of Sciences (1863), and wrote several scientific books.*TIS
1899 (Marius) Sophus Lie (17 Dec 1842; 18 Feb 1899) was a Norwegian mathematician who made significant contributions to the theories of algebraic invariants, continuous groups of transformations and differential equations. Lie groups and Lie algebras are named after him. Lie was in Paris at the outbreak of the French-German war of 1870. Lie left France, deciding to go to Italy. On the way however he was arrested as a German spy and his mathematics notes were assumed to be coded messages. Only after the intervention of French mathematician, Gaston Darboux, was Lie released and he decided to return to Christiania, Norway, where he had originally studied mathematics to continue his work. *TIS
1900 Eugenio Beltrami (November 16, 1835, Cremona – February 18, 1900, Rome) was an Italian mathematician notable for his work concerning differential geometry and mathematical physics. His work was noted especially for clarity of exposition. He was the first to prove consistency of non-Euclidean geometry by modeling it on a surface of constant curvature, the pseudosphere, and in the interior of an n-dimensional unit sphere, the so-called Beltrami–Klein model. He also developed singular value decomposition for matrices, which has been subsequently rediscovered several times. Beltrami's use of differential calculus for problems of mathematical physics indirectly influenced development of tensor calculus by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita.*Wik
Beltrami studied elasticity, wave theory, optics, thermodynamics, and potential theory, and was among the first to explore the concepts of hyperspace and time as a fourth dimension. His investigations in the conduction of heat led to linear partial differential equations. Some of Beltrami's last work was on a mechanical interpretation of Maxwell's equations. *TIS
1944 Charles Benedict Davenport (1 Jun 1866, 18 Feb 1944 at age 77) American zoologist who contributed substantially to the study of eugenics (the improvement of populations through breeding) and heredity and who pioneered the use of statistical techniques in biological research. Partly as a result of breeding experiments with chickens and canaries, he was one of the first, soon after 1902, to recognize the validity of the newly discovered Mendelian theory of heredity. In Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (1911), he compiled evidence concerning the inheritance of human traits, on the basis of which he argued that the application of genetic principles would improve the human race. These data were at the heart of his lifelong promotion of eugenics, though he muddled science with social philosophy. *TIS
1957 Henry Norris Russell (25 Oct 1877; 18 Feb 1957) American astronomer and astrophysicist who showed the relationship between a star's brightness and its spectral type, in what is usually called the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and who also devised a means of computing the distances of binary stars. As student, professor, observatory director, and active professor emeritus, Russell spent six decades at Princeton University. From 1921, he visited Mt. Wilson Observatory annually. He analyzed light from eclipsing binary stars to determine stellar masses. Russell measured parallaxes and popularized the distinction between giant stars and "dwarfs" while developing an early theory of stellar evolution. Russell was a dominant force in American astronomy as a teacher, writer, and advisor. *TIS
1967 Julius Robert Oppenheimer (22 Apr 1904, 18 Feb 1967 at age 62) was an American theoretical physicist and science administrator, noted as director of the Los Alamos laboratory during development of the atomic bomb (1943-45) and as director of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (1947-66). Accusations as to his loyalty and reliability as a security risk led to a government hearing that resulted the loss of his security clearance and of his position as adviser to the highest echelons of the U.S. government. The case became a cause célèbre in the world of science because of its implications concerning political and moral issues relating to the role of scientists in government. *TIS
Credits :
*CHM=Computer History Museum
*FFF=Kane, Famous First Facts
*NSEC= NASA Solar Eclipse Calendar
*RMAT= The Renaissance Mathematicus, Thony Christie
*SAU=St Andrews Univ. Math History
*TIA = Today in Astronomy
*TIS= Today in Science History
*VFR = V Frederick Rickey, USMA
*Wik = Wikipedia
*WM = Women of Mathematics, Grinstein & Campbell