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1 Cor. xiv. 1
Follow after love, yet desire earnestly spiritual gifts; but rather that ye may prophesy.
Thus, inasmuch as he had with exactness rehearsed unto them all the excellence of love, he exhorts them in what follows, with alacrity to lay hold of it. Wherefore also he said, "Follow after:" for he that is in chase beholds that only which is chased, and towards that he strains himself, and leaves not off until he lay hold of it. He that is in chase, when by himself he cannot, by those that are before him he doth overtake the fugitive, beseeching those who are near with much eagerness to seize and keep it so seized for him until he shall come up. This then let us also do. When of ourselves we do not reach unto love, let us bid them that are near her to hold her, till we come up with her, and when we have apprehended, no more let her go, that she may not again escape us. For continually she springs away from us, because we use her not as we ought, but prefer all things unto her. Therefore we ought to make every effort, so as perfectly to retain her. For if this be done, we require not henceforth much labor, nay rather scarce any; but taking our ease, and keeping holiday225225 πανηγυρίζοντες., we shall march on in the narrow path of virtue. Wherefore he saith, "Follow after her."
Then that they might not suppose that for no other end he brought in the discourse of charity, except that he might extinguish the gifts, he subjoins as follows;
Ver. 1. "Yet desire earnestly spiritual gifts; but rather that ye may prophesy."
Ver. 2. "For he that speaketh in a tongue, speaketh not unto men, but unto God: for no man understandeth; but in the Spirit he speaketh mysteries."
Ver. 3. "But he that prophesieth speaketh unto men edification, and exhortation, and comfort."
At this point he makes a comparison between the gifts, and lowers that of the tongues, showing it to be neither altogether useless, nor very profitable by itself. For in fact they were greatly puffed up on account of this, because the gift was considered to be a great one. And 209it was thought great because the Apostles received it first, and with so great display; it was not however therefore to be esteemed above all the others. Wherefore then did the Apostles receive it before the rest? Because they were to go abroad every where. And as in the time of building the tower the one tongue was divided into many; so then the many tongues frequently met in one man, and the same person used to discourse both in the Persian, and the Roman, and the Indian, and many other tongues, the Spirit sounding within him: and the gift was called the gift of tongues because he could all at once speak divers languages. See accordingly how he both depresses and elevates it. Thus, by saying, "He that speaketh with tongues, speaketh not unto men, but unto God, for no man understandeth," he depressed it, implying that the profit of it was not great; but by adding, "but in the Spirit he speaketh mysteries" he again elevated it, that it might not seem to be superfluous and useless and given in vain.
"But he that prophesieth speaketh unto men edification, and exhortation, and comfort."
Seest thou by what he signifies the choice nature of this gift? i.e., by the common benefit? and how every where he gives the higher honor to that which tends to the profit of the many? For do not the former speak unto men also? tell me. But not so much "edification, and exhortation, and comfort." So that the being powered by the Spirit is common to both, as well to him that prophesieth, as to him that speaketh with tongues; but in this, the one (he, I mean, who prophesieth) hath the advantage in that he is also profitable unto the hearers. For they who with tongues were not understood by them that had not the gift.
What then? Did they edify no man? "Yes," saith he, "themselves alone:" wherefore also he adds,
Ver. 4. "He that speaketh in tongue edifieth himself."
And how, if he know not what he saith? Why, for the present, he is speaking of them who understand what they say;—understand it themselves, but know not how to render it unto others.
"But he that prophesieth edifieth the Church." Now as great as is the difference between a single person and the Church, so great is the interval between these two. Seest thou his wisdom, how he doth not thrust out the gift and make nothing of it, but signifies it to have some advantage, small though it be, and such as to suffice the possessor only?
[2.] Next, lest they should suppose that in envy to them he depresses the tongues, (for the more part had this gift,) to correct their suspicion he saith,
Ver. 5. "I would have you all speak with tongues, but rather that ye should prophesy: for greater is he that prophesieth than he that speaketh with tongues, except he interpret, that the Church may receive edifying."
But "rather" and "greater," do not mark opposition, but superiority. So that hence also it is evident that he is not disparaging the gift, but leading them to better things, displaying both his carefulness on their behalf, and a spirit free from all envy. For neither did he say, "I would that two or three," but, "that ye all spake with tongues" and not this only, but also, "that ye prophesied;" and this rather than that; "for greater is he that prophesieth." For since he hath established and proved it, he next proceeds also to assert it; not however simply, but with a qualification. Accordingly he adds, "except he interpret;" since if he be able to do this, I mean the interpreting, "he hath become equal unto the prophet," so he speaks, "because then there are many who reap the advantage of it;" a thing to be especially observed, how this throughout, before all else, is his object,
Ver. 6. "But now, brethren, if I come unto you speaking with tongues, what shall I profit you, unless I speak to you either by way of revelation, or of knowledge, or of prophesying, or of teaching?"
"And why speak I," saith he, "of the rest? Nay, let the person who speaketh with tongues be Paul: for not even so will any good come to the hearers." And these things he saith to signify that he is seeking their profit, not bearing any grudge against them that have the gift; since not even in his own person doth he shrink from pointing out its unprofitableness. And indeed it is his constant way to work out the disagreeable topics in his own person: as in the beginning of the Epistle he said, "Who then is Paul? and who is Apollos? and who is Cephas?" This same then he doth also here, saying, "Not even I shall profit you, except I speak to you either by way of revelation, or of prophesying, or of knowledge, or of teaching." And what he means is, "if I say not somewhat that can be made intelligible to you and that may be clear, but merely make display of my having the gift of tongues;—tongues which ye do not understand, ye will go away with no sort of profit. For how should you profit by a voice which ye understand not?"
[3] Ver. 7. "Even things without life, giving a voice, whether pipe or harp, if they give not a distinction in the sounds, how shall it be known what is piped?"
"And why do I say," saith he, "that in our 210case this is unprofitable, and that only useful which is clear and easy to be apprehended by the hearers? Since even in musical instruments without life one may see this: for whether it be pipe or harp, yet if it be struck or blown confusedly and unskilfully, without proper cadence or harmony, it will captivate none of the hearers. For even in these inarticulate sounds there is need of some distinctness: and if thou strike not or breathe into the pipe according to art, thou hast done nothing. Now if from things without life we require so much distinctness, and harmony, and appropriateness, and into those inarticulate sounds we strive and contend to infuse so much meaning, much more in men indued with life and reason, and in spiritual gifts, ought one to make significancy an object.
Ver. 8. "For if the trumpet give an uncertain voice, who shall prepare himself for war?"
Thus from things merely ornamental he carries on his argument to those which are more necessary and useful; and saith that not in the harp alone, but in the trumpet also one may see this effect produced. For in that also there are certain measures; and they give out at one time a warlike note, and at another one that is not so; and again sometimes it leads out to line of battle and at others recalls from it: and unless one know this, there is great danger. Which is just what he means, and the mischief of it what he is manifesting, when he saith, "who shall prepare himself for war?" So then, if it have not this quality, it is the ruin of all. "And what is this to us," saith one? Truly it concerns you very especially; wherefore also he adds,
Ver. 9. "So also ye, unless ye utter by the tongue, speech easy to be understood, ye will be speaking into the air:" i.e., calling to nobody, speaking unto no one. Thus every where he shows its unprofitableness.
[4.] "But if it be unprofitable, why was it given?" saith one. So as to be useful to him that hath received it. But if it is to be so to others also, there must be added interpretation. Now this he saith, bringing them near to one another; that if a person himself have not the gift of interpretation, he may take unto him another that hath it, and make his own gift useful through him. Wherefore he every where points out its imperfection, that so he may bind them together. Any how, he that accounts it to be sufficient for itself, doth not so much commend it as disparage it, not suffering it to shine brightly by the interpretation. For excellent indeed and necessary is the gift, but it is so when it hath one to explain what is spoken. Since the finger too is a necessary thing, but when you separate it from the other members, it will not be equally useful: and the trumpet is necessary, but when it sounds at random, it is rather an annoyance. Yea, neither shall any art come to light, without matter subject to it; nor is matter put into shape, if no form be assigned to it. Suppose then the voice to be as the subject-matter, but the distinctness as that form, which not being present, there will be no use in the material.
Ver. 10. "There are, it may be, so many kinds of voices in the world, and no kind is without signification:" i.e., so many tongues, so many voices of Scythians, Thracians, Romans, Persians, Moors, Indians, Egyptians, innumerable other nations.
Ver. 11. "If then I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be to him that speaketh a barbarian." "For suppose not," saith he, "that this happens only in our case; rather in all one may see this taking place: so that I do not say this to disparage the voice, but to signify that to me it is useless, as long as it is not intelligible." Next, that he may not render the accusation unpalatable, he makes his charge alike for the two, saying, "He shall be unto me a barbarian, and I to him." Not from the nature of the voice, but from our ignorance. Seest thou how by little and little he draws men to that which is akin to the subject. Which is his use to do, to fetch his examples from afar, and to end with what more properly belongs to the matter. For having spoken of a pipe and harp, wherein is much that is inferior and unprofitable, he comes to the trumpet, a thing more useful; next, from that he proceeds to the very voice itself. So also before, when he was discoursing to show that it was not forbidden the Apostles to receive, beginning first with husbandmen, and shepherds, and soldiers, then he brought the discourse on to that which is nearer to the subject, the priests in the old covenant.
But do thou, I pray, consider, how every where he hath given diligence to free the gift from censure, and to bring round the charge to the receivers of it. For he said not, "I shall be a barbarian," but, "unto him that speaketh, a barbarian." And again, he did not say, "he that speaketh shall be a barbarian," but "he that speaketh shall be a barbarian unto me226226 ὁ ἐμοι λαλῶν, he that speaketh unto me.."
[5.] "What then must be done?" saith he. Why, so far from disparaging, one ought to recommend and to teach it; as indeed himself also doth. Since after he had accused and rebuked it and shown its unprofitableness, he proceeds to counsel them; saying,
Ver. 12. "So also ye, since as ye are zealous of spiritual gifts, seek that ye may abound unto the edifying of the Church."
211Seest thou his aim every where, how he looks to one thing continually and in all cases, the general utility, the profiting the Church; laying this down as a kind of rule? And he did not say, "that ye may obtain the gifts" but, "that ye may abound," i.e., that ye may even possess them in great plenitude. Thus, so far am I from wishing you not to possess them, that I even wish you to abound in them, only so that ye handle them with a view to the common advantage. And how is this to be done? This he adds, saying,
Ver. 13. "Wherefore let him that speaketh in a tongue pray that he may interpret."
Ver. 14. "For if I pray in a tongue, my spirit prayeth, but my understanding is unfruitful."
Ver. 15. "What is it then? I will pray with the spirit, and I will pray with the understanding also; I will sing with the spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also."
Here he shows that it is in their power to obtain the gift. For, "let him pray," saith he, i.e., "let him contribute his own part," since if thou ask diligently, thou wilt surely receive. Ask accordingly not to have the gift of tongue only, but also of interpretation, that thou mayest become useful unto all, and not shut up thy gift in thyself alone. "For if I pray in a tongue," saith he, "my spirit prayeth, but my understanding is unfruitful." Seest thou how by degrees bringing his argument to a point, he signifies that not to others only is such an one useless, but also to himself; if at least "his understanding is unfruitful?" For if a man should speak only in the Persian, or any other foreign tongue, and not understand what he saith, then of course to himself also will he be thenceforth a barbarian, not to another only, from not knowing the meaning of the sound. For there were of old many who had also a gift of prayer, together with a tongue; and they prayed, and the tongue spake, praying either in the Persian or Latin language227227 [From this phrase—a similar one occurs in the next homily—it seems that Chrysostom held the tongue to mean the power of speaking in a language not before acquired. Most modern expositors understand by it an ecstatic utterance, a view which Tertullian alone of the patristic writers held.—C.], but their understanding knew not what was spoken. Wherefore also he said, "If I pray in a tongue, my spirit prayeth," i.e., the gift which is given me and which moves my tongue, "but my understanding is unfruitful."
What then may that be which is best in itself, and doth good? And how ought one to act, or what request of God? To pray, "both with the spirit," i.e., the gift, and "with the understanding."228228 διανοίᾳ. Wherefore also he said, "I will pray with the spirit, and I will pray with the understanding also: I will sing with the spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also."
[6.] He signifieth the same thing here also, that both the tongue may speak, and the understanding may not be ignorant of the things spoken. For except this be so, there will also be another confusion.
Ver. 16. "Else," saith he, "if thou bless with the spirit, how shall he that filleth the place of the unlearned say the Amen at thy giving of thanks, seeing he knoweth not what thou sayest?"
Ver. 17. "For thou verily givest thanks well, but the other is not edified."
Observe how again here he brings his stone to the plumb-line,229229 πρὸς τὴν σπάρτην τὸν λίθον ἆγει. every where seeking the edification of the Church. Now by the "unlearned"230230 ἰδιώτην. he means the laymen, and signifies that he also suffers no little loss when he is unable to say the Amen. And what he saith is this: "if thou shalt bless in a barbarian tongue, not knowing what thou sayest, nor able to interpret, the layman cannot respond the Amen. For not hearing the words, 'forever and ever,' which are at the end231231 i.e., at the end of the Long Thanksgiving in that part of the Service for the Holy Eucharist, which is called the Anaphora. Vid. Brett's Liturgies, 1838, p. 9, 16, 37, &c., he doth not say the Amen." Then again, comforting him concerning this, that he might not seem to hold the gift too cheap; the same kind of remark as he made above, that "he speaketh mysteries," and "speaketh unto God," and "edifieth himself," and "prayeth with the spirit," intending no little comfort from these things, this also he utters here, saying, "for thou indeed givest thanks well," since thou speakest being moved by the Spirit: but the other hearing nothing nor knowing what is said, stands there, receiving no great advantage by it."
[7.] Further, because he had run down the possessors of this gift, as though they had no such great thing; that he might not seem to hold them cheap, as being himself destitute of it, see what he saith:
Ver. 18. "I thank God, speaking232232 λαλῶν. Rec. vers. "I speak." with tongues more than ye all."
And this he doth also in another place intending, namely, to take away the advantages of Judaism and to show that henceforth they are nothing, he begins by declaring that himself had been endowed with them, yea, and that in very great excess; and then he calls them "loss," thus saying, "If any man thinketh to have confidence in the flesh, I more: circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee; as touching zeal, persecuting the Church; as touching the righteousness which is the law, found blameless." (Philip. iii. 4–7.) And then, having 212signified himself to have the advantage of all, he saith, "Howbeit what things were gain to me, those have I counted loss for Christ." So also he doth here, saying, "I speak with tongues more than ye all." Do not ye therefore glory as though ye only had the gift. For I also possess it, yea more than ye.
Ver. 19. "Howbeit in the Church I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I might instruct others also."
What is that, "speak with my understanding, that I might instruct others also?" "Understanding what I say," and "words which I can both interpret to others, and speak intelligently, and teach the hearers." "Than ten thousand words in a tongue." Wherefore? "That I may instruct others," saith he. For the one hath but display only; the other, great utility: this being what he everywhere seeks, I mean the common profit. And yet the gift of tongues was strange, but that of prophecy familiar and ancient and heretofore given to many; this on the contrary then first given: howbeit it was not much cared for by him. Wherefore neither did he employ it; not because he had it not, but because he always sought the more profitable things: being as he was free from all vain-glory, and considering one thing only, how he might render the hearers better.
[8.] And here is the reason of the faculty he had of looking to the expedient both to himself and to others: viz. because he was free from vain-glory. Since he assuredly that is enslaved by it, so far from discerning what is good to others, will not even know his own.
Such was Simon, who, because he looked to vain-glory, did not even see his own advantage. Such also were the Jews, who because of this sacrificed233233 προέπιον. their own salvation to the devil. Hence also did idols spring, and by this madness did the heathen philosophers excite themselves, and make shipwreck in their false doctrines. And observe the perverseness of this passion: how because of it some of them also made themselves poor, others were eager for wealth. So potent is its tyranny that it prevails even in direct contraries. Thus one man is vain of chastity, and contrariwise another of adultery; and this man of justice, and another of injustice; so of luxury and fasting, modesty and rashness, riches and poverty. I say poverty: since some of them that were with out, when it was in their power to receive, for admiration's sake forbore to receive. But not so the Apostles: that they were pure from vainglory, they showed by their doings: in that, when some were calling them Gods and were ready to sacrifice-unto them oxen with garlands, they did not merely just forbid what was doing, but they even rent their clothes. (Acts xiv. 13, 14.) And after they had set the lame man upright, when all with open mouths were gazing at them, they said, "Why look ye so earnestly on us, as though by our own power we had made this man to walk234234 Acts iii. 14, ἢ εὐσεβεία om.?" And those, among men who admired poverty, chose to themselves a state of poverty: but these among persons who despised poverty and gave praise to wealth. And these, if they received aught, ministered to the needy. Thus, not vain-glory but benevolence, was the motive of all they did. But those quite the reverse; as enemies and pests of our common nature, and no otherwise, did they such things. Thus one sunk all his goods in235235 Aristippus. See Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 100; Cic. de Invent. ii. 58. the sea for no good purpose, imitating fools and madmen: and another let all his land go to sheep common.236236 Democritus. See Hor. Ep. i. 12. Thus they did every thing for vain-glory. But not so the Apostles; rather they both received what was given them, and distributed to the needy with so great liberality that they even lived in continual hunger. But if they had been enamored of glory, they would not have practiced this, the receiving and distributing, for fear of some suspicion arising against them. For he who throws away his own for glory, will much more refuse to receive the things of others, that he may not be accounted to stand in need of others nor incur any suspicion. But these thou seest both ministering to the poor, and themselves begging for them. So truly were they more loving than any fathers.
[9.] And observe also their laws, how moderate and freed from all vain-glory. Thus: "Having" saith he," food and covering, let us therewith be content." (1 Tim. vi. 8.) Not like him of Sinope237237 Diogenes the Cynic., who clothed in rags and living in a cask to no good end, astonished many, but profited none: whereas Paul did none of these things; (for neither had he an eye to ostentation;) but was both clothed in ordinary apparel with all decency, and lived in a house continually, and displayed all exactness in the practice of all other virtue; which the cynic despised, living impurely and publicly disgracing himself, and dragged away by his mad passion for glory. For if any one ask the reason of his living in a cask, he will find no other but vain-glory alone. But Paul also paid rent for the house wherein he abode at Rome. Although he who was able to do things far severer, could much more have had strength for this. But he looked not to glory, that savage monster, that fearful demon, that pest of the world, that 213poisonous viper. Since, as that animal tears through the womb of her parent with her teeth, so also this passion tears in pieces him that begets it.
[10.] By what means then may one find a remedy for this manifold distemper? By bringing forward those that have trodden it under foot, and with an eye to their image so ordering one's own life. For so the patriarch Abraham.—nay, let none accuse me of tautology if I often make mention of him, and on all occasions: this being that which most of all shows him wonderful, and deprives them that refuse to imitate him of all excuse. For, if we exhibit one doing well in this particular, and another in that, some one might say that virtue is hardly to be attained; for that it is scarcely possible to succeed in all those things together, whereof each one of the saints hath performed only a part. But when one and the same person is found to possess all, what excuse will they have, who after the law and grace are not able to attain unto the same measure with them that were before the law and grace? How then did this Patriarch overcome and subdue this monster, when he had a dispute with his nephew? (Gen. xiii. 8.) For so it was, that coming off worst and losing the first share, he was not vexed. But ye know that in such matters the shame is worse than the loss to the vulgar-minded, and particularly when a person having all in his own power, as he had then, and having been the first to give honor, was not honored in return. Nevertheless, none of these things vexed him, but he was content to receive the second place, and when wronged by the young man, himself old, an uncle by a nephew, he was not indignant nor took it ill, but loved him equally and ministered to him. Again, having been victorious in that great and terrible fight, and having mightily put to flight the Barbarians (Gen. xiv.) he doth not add show to victory, nor erect a trophy. For he wished to save only, not to exhibit himself. Again, he entertained strangers, yet did he not here act vain-gloriously, but himself both ran to them and bowed down to them, not as though he were giving, but receiving a benefit, and he calleth them lords, without knowing who they are who are come to him, and presents his wife in the place of a handmaiden. (Gen. xviii.) And in Egypt too before this, when he had appeared so extraordinary a person, and had received back this very woman, his wife, and had enjoyed so great honor (Gen. xii.) he showeth it to no man. And though the inhabitants of the place called him prince, he himself even laid down the price of the sepulchre. (Gen. xxiii. 6.) And when he sent to betroth a wife for his son, he gave no command to speak in high and dignified terms of him, (Gen. xxiv.) but merely to bring the bride.
[11.] Wilt thou examine also the conduct of those under grace, when from every side great was the glory of the teaching flowing round them, and wilt thou see then also this passion cast out? Consider, I pray, this same Apostle who speaks these things, how he ever ascribes the whole to God, how of his sins he makes mention continually, but of his good deeds never, unless perchance it should be needful to correct the disciples; and even if he be compelled to do this, he calls the matter folly, and yields the first place to Peter, and is not ashamed to labor with Priscilla and Aquila, and every where he is eager to show himself lowly, not swaggering in the market place, nor carrying crowds with him, but setting himself down among the obscure. Wherefore also he said, "but his bodily presence is weak." (2 Cor. x. 10.) i.e., easy to be despised, and not at all accompanied with display. And again, "I pray that ye do no evil, not that we may appear approved." And what marvel if he despise this glory? seeing that he despises the glory of heaven, and the kingdom, and hell, for that which was pleasing unto Christ: for he wishes238238 [Rather he could wish, i.e., if it were proper. C.] himself to be accursed from Christ for the glory of Christ. For if he saith that he is willing to suffer this for the Jews' sake, he saith it on this account that none of those without understanding might think to take to himself the promises made to them. If therefore he were ready to pass by those things, what marvel is it if he despise human things?
[12.] But the men of our time are overwhelmed by all things, not by desire of glory only, but also, on the other hand, by insult and fear of dishonor. Thus, should any one praise, it would puff thee up, and if he blame, it would cast thee down. And as weak bodies are by common accidents injured, so also souls which grovel on earth. For such not poverty alone, but even wealth destroys, not grief only, but likewise joy, and prosperity more than adversity. For poverty compels to be wise, but wealth leads on oftentimes into some great evil. And as men in a fever are hard to be pleased in any thing, so also they that are depraved in mind on every side receive hurt.
Knowing therefore these things, let us not shun poverty, let us not admire riches: but prepare our soul to be sufficient for all estates. For so any one building an house doth not consider how neither rain may descend, nor sunbeam light on it, (for this were impossible,) but how it may be made capable of enduring all. And he again that builds a ship doth not fashion and design any thing to keep waves from breaking against it, or any tempest from rising in the sea: (for this too were impossible:) but that 214the sides of the ship may be ready to meet all. And again, he that cares for the body doth not look to this that there may be no inequality in the temperature, but that the body may easily endure all these things. So accordingly let us act in respect of the soul, and neither be anxious to fly poverty nor to become rich, but to regulate each of them for our own safety.
Wherefore, letting alone these things, let us render our soul meet both for wealth and poverty. For although no calamity, such as man is subject to, befall, which is for the most part impossible, even thus, better is he that seeks not wealth, but knows how to bear all things easily than he that is always rich. And why? First, such an one hath his safety from within, but the other from without. And as he is a better soldier who trusts to his bodily powers and skill in fighting, than he that hath his strength in his armor only; so he that relies on his wealth, compared with him that is fenced in by his virtue, is inferior. Secondly, because even if he do not fall into poverty, it is impossible that he should be without trouble. For wealth hath many storms and troubles; but not so virtue, but pleasure only and safety. Yea, and it puts a man out of the reach of them that lay snares for him, but wealth quite the contrary, rendering him easy to be attacked and taken. And as among animals, stags and hares are of all most easily taken through their natural timidity, but the wild boar, and the bull, and the lion, would not easily fall in the way of the liers-in-wait; just so one may see in the case of the rich, and of them that live voluntarily in poverty. The one is like the lion and the bull, the other like the stag and the hare. For whom doth not the rich man fear? Are there not robbers, potentates, enviers, informers? And why speak I of robbers and informers, in a case where a man suspects his very domestics?
[13.] And why say I, "when he is alive?" Not even when dead is he freed from the villainy of the robbers, nor hath death power to set him in safety, but the evil doers despoil him even when dead, so dangerous a thing is wealth. For not only do they dig into houses, but they even burst open tombs and coffins. What then can be more wretched than this man, since not even death can furnish him with this security, but that wretched body, even when deprived of life, is not freed from the evils of life, those that commit such wickedness hastening to war even with dust and ashes, and much more grievously than when it was alive? For then, it might be, entering his storehouse, they would remove his chests, but abstain from his person, and would not take so much as to strip the body itself but now the accursed hands of the tombbreakers do not even abstain from these, but move and turn it about, and with much cruelty insult it. For after it hath been committed to the ground, having stripped it both of its covering of earth and of that which its grave-clothes constitute, they leave it thus to be cast out.
What foe then so deadly as wealth, which destroys both the soul of the living, and insults the body of the dead, not suffering it even to lie buried in the ground, which is common even to the condemned and to them that have been taken in the vilest crimes? For of them the legislators having exacted the punishment of death, inquire no further; but of these, wealth even after death exacts a most bitter punishment, exposing them naked and unburied, a dreadful and pitiable spectacle: since even those who suffer this after sentence and by the anger of their judges, do not suffer so grievously as these. For they indeed remain unburied the first and second day, and so are committed to the ground; but these, when they have been committed to the ground, are then stripped naked and insulted. And if the robbers depart without taking the coffin too, there is still no thanks to their wealth, but in this case also to their poverty. For she it is that guards it. Whereas most assuredly, had we intruded wealth with even so much as this, and leaving off to form it of stone, had forged it of gold, we should have lost this also.
So faithless a thing is wealth; which belongs not so much to them that have it, as to them that endeavor to seize it. So that it is but a superfluous argument which aims to show that wealth is irresistible, seeing that not even on the day of their death do its possessors obtain security. And yet who is not reconciled with the departed, whether it be wild beast, or demon, or whatever else? The very sight being enough to bend even one who is altogether iron, and quite past feeling. Wherefore, you know, when one sees a corpse, though it be an enemy public or private whom he sees, yet he weeps for him in common with his dearest friends; and his wrath is extinguished with life, and pity is brought in. And it would be impossible, in time of mourning and carrying out of burial, to distinguish an enemy from him who is not such. So greatly do all men revere their common nature, and the customs which have been introduced respecting it. But wealth not even on obtaining this, remits her anger against her possessors; nay, it renders them that have been no way wronged enemies of the dead; if at least to strip the dead body be an act of persons very bitter and hostile. And nature for her part reconciles even his enemies to him then: but wealth makes foes of them that have noth215ing to accuse him of, and cruelly intreats the body in its utter desolation. And yet in that case there are many things which might lead one to pity, the fact of its being a corpse, its inability to move, and tending to earth and corruption, the absence of any one to help: but none of these things soften those accursed wretches, because of the tyranny they are under from their base cupidity. For the passion of covetousness, like some ruthless tyrant, is at hand, enjoining those inhuman commands and having made wild beasts of them, so brings them to the tombs. Yea, like wild beasts attacking the dead, they would not even abstain from their flesh, if their limbs were any way useful unto them. Such is our enjoyment of wealth; to be insulted even after death, and deprived of sepulture which even the most desperate criminals obtain.
[14.] Are we still then, tell me, to be fond of so grievous an enemy? Nay, I beseech you, nay, my brethren! but let us fly from it without turning to look: and if it come into our hands, let us not keep it within, but bind it fast by the hands of the poor. For these are the bonds which have more power to hold it, and from those treasuries it will never more escape; and so this faithless one abides for the time to come faithful, tractable, tame, the right hand of Mercy producing this effect on it.
As I have said then, if it ever come to us, let us hand it over to her; but if it come not, let us not seek after it, nor fret ourselves, nor count its possessors happy; for what sort of a notion of happiness is this? Unless thou wouldest also say that those who fight with beasts are to be envied, because those high-priced animals are shut up and reserved by the proposers of such contests for themselves: who however not daring themselves to approach or to touch them, but fearing and trembling because of them, hand over others to them. Something like this, I say, is the case of the wealthy, when they have shut up their wealth in their treasuries as if it were some savage beast, and day by day receive from it innumerable wounds: in this latter unlike to the beasts: since they, when thou leadest them out, then, and not till then, hurt such as meet them: but this, when it is shut up and preserved, then destroys its possessors and hoarders.
But let us make this beast tame. And it will be tame, if we do not shut it up, but give it into the hands of all who are in need. So shall we reap from this quarter the greatest blessings, both living in the present life with safety and a good hope, and in the day that is to come standing with boldness: to which may we all attain, through the grace and mercy, &c. &c.
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Information and Web Technologies (ICADIWT 2016)
National Taipei University, Taipei
(March 29-31, 2016)
Proceedings will be published in IOS Press series (Frontiers in
Artificial Intelligence and Applications (FAIA)
The Seventh International Conference on the Applications of Digital
Information and Web Technologies (ICADIWT 2016) is a forum for
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Internet Technologies
Web Applications
Internet Software
Data Access and Transmission
Digital Communication Software
Digital Networks
Web Communication Interfaces
Internet Content Processing
Internet of Things
Internet of Everything
Data Communication
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Web Systems Engineering Design
Intelligent Agent systems
Semantic Web Studies
Adaptive Web applications and personalization
Navigation and hypermedia
Digital signal processing
Communication and control systems and networks
Hardware and software solutions
Innovative eHealth, Applications and Products
Medical Image Analysis and Biomedical Visualization
Computer-Aided Diagnosis
Telemedicine, Telehealth and Remote Monitoring
Human factor
Software reliability
Computational Intelligence
Data mining and Knowledge discovery
Education, e-learning
The accepted full papers will be published in the IOS series (Frontiers
in Artificial Intelligence and Applications (FAIA))and submitted for
inclusion in many indexes. Accepted full papers will be submitted for
indexing to multiple abstract and indexing partners. The papers will be
indexed in many databases as given at
http://www.frontiersinai.com/?q=indexing (papers in EI will be indexed
as Journal Article)
All the accepted papers will be published in Scopus and or SCI indexed
Journal of Computer and System Sciences/ (ISI/Scopus)
Journal of Digital Information Management (Scopus/EI)
International Journal of Computational Science and Engineering (Scopus
and EI Indexed)
Decision Analytics
International Journal of Big Data Intelligence
International Journal of Applied Decision Sciences (Scopus/EI)
International Journal of Management and Decision Making (Scopus/EI)
International Journal of Strategic Decision Sciences
International Journal of Enterprise Information Systems (Scopus/EI)
Important Dates
Submission of papers January 01, 2016
Camera ready February 28, 2016
Registration February 28, 2016
Conference Dates March 29-31, 2016
Honorary Chair
Dalton Lin, National Taipei University, Taiwan
Jang-Ping Sheu, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
Vincenzo Piuri, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
General Chairs
Yao-Liang Chung, National Taipei University, Taiwan
Jolanta Mizera-Pietraszko, Opole University, Poland
General Co-Chair
Tong-Ying Juang, National Taipei University, Taiwan
Advisory Chair
Rong-Lin Shen, National Taipei University, Taiwan
Nen-Fu Huang, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
Tsern-Huei Lee, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan
Program Chairs
Simon Fong, University of Macau, Macau
Jung-Shyr Wu, National Central University, Taiwan
Tsung-Nan Lin, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
Program Co-Chairs
Adrian Florea, University "Lucian Blaga" of Sibiu, Romania
Chih-Lin Hu, National Central University, Taiwan
submissions at http://www.socio.org.uk/icadiwt/paper-submission/
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Courtesy katiew via FlickrThe peculiar story of a "suppressed" report at the Environmental Protection Agency continues to grow, despite the fact that the agency appears to have done nothing worse than holding its employees to professional standards.
The charge spreading through the news media is that the EPA quashed an internal report because it didn't fit with the agency's official position that climate change endangers public health. Al Carlin and John Davidson of the EPA's National Center for Environmental Economics wrote the report, disputing the scientific consensus that human activities are driving global climate change and calling on the EPA to halt its plans to regulate greenhouse gas emissions.
"We have become increasingly concerned that EPA and many other agencies and countries have paid too little attention to the science of global warming," says their report [PDF].
The story was first advanced by the conservative Competitive Enterprise Institute, which opposes addressing climate change and has run a scientifically laughable hooray-for-CO2 campaign in the past. Last week CEI released internal emails between Carlin and his boss that it claimed proved political meddling inside the EPA.
"It [the report] was an inconvenient study," Sam Kazman, CEI general counsel, told me in an interview last Wednesday. "The administration had already decided on a certain course of action, and this would not help."
But the emails reveal little more than a rather tedious employee-management dispute. Carlin's boss, Al McGartland, tells Carlin that his report won't be included in the EPA's official findings and asks him to get back to work on other issues. EPA Press Secretary Adora Andy noted that Carlin's education and work expertise are largely in economics, not climatology. That's why his comments on climate science were not included.
"Certain opinions were expressed by an individual [Carlin] who is not a scientist and was not part of the working group dealing with this issue," she said.
"Nevertheless, several of the opinions and ideas proposed by this individual were submitted to those responsible for developing the proposed endangerment finding. Additionally, his manager allowed his general views on the subject of climate change to be heard and considered inside and outside the EPA and presented at conferences and at an agency seminar. The individual was also granted a request to join a committee that organizes an ongoing climate seminar series, open to both agency and outside experts, where he has been able to invite speakers with a full range of views on climate science. The claims that his opinions were not considered or studied are entirely false."
The next day the CEI released a draft of the actual report—an odd move because it contradicts the think tank's version of the story. For one, the document shows that the two economists were not working in their native field. And as for the report's scientific merits, consider this evaluation from NASA's Gavin Schmidt, an actual climatologist. He writes on RealClimate.org:
Their main points are nicely summarised thus: a) the science is so rapidly evolving that IPCC (2007) and CCSP (2009) reports are already out of date, b) the globe is cooling!, c) the consensus on hurricane/global warming connections has moved from uncertain to ambiguous, d) Greenland is not losing mass, no sirree…, e) the recession will save us!, f) water vapour feedback is negative!, and g) Scafetta and West's statistical fit of temperature to an obsolete solar forcing curve means that all other detection and attribution work is wrong. From this "evidence", they then claim that all variations in climate are internal variability, except for the warming trend which is caused by the sun, oh and by the way the globe is cooling…
… what solid peer reviewed science do they cite for support? A heavily-criticised blog posting showing that there are bi-decadal periods in climate data and that this proves it was the sun wot done it. The work of an award-winning astrologer (one Theodor Landscheidt, who also thought that the rise of Hitler and Stalin were due to cosmic cycles), a classic Courtillot paper we've discussed before, the aforementioned FoS web page, another web page run by Doug Hoyt, a paper by Garth Paltridge reporting on artifacts in the NCEP reanalysis of water vapour that are in contradiction to every other reanalysis, direct observations and satellite data, a complete reprint of another un-peer reviewed paper by William Gray, a nonsense paper by Miskolczi etc. etc. I'm not quite sure how this is supposed to compete with the four rounds of international scientific and governmental review of the IPCC or the rounds of review of the CCSP reports …
… Finally, they end up with the oddest claim in the submission: That because human welfare has increased over the twentieth century at a time when CO2 was increasing, this somehow implies that no amount of CO2 increases can ever cause a danger to human society. This is just boneheadly stupid.
So in summary, what we have is a ragbag collection of un-peer reviewed web pages, an unhealthy dose of sunstroke, a dash of astrology and more cherries than you can poke a cocktail stick at. Seriously, if that's the best they can do, the EPA's ruling is on pretty safe ground.
Here's a reprint of Grist's original story, followed by a short update from last week:
Wouldn't it be terrible if the Obama administration turned out to be manipulating science to fit its own ideology? Especially after Obama declared, to much fanfare, that "the days of science taking a back seat to ideology are over"?
Yeah, that would make a helluva story: "Look, the new guy is just like the old guy!"
Well yeah, but it hasn't happened yet, at least not in the way the Competitive Enterprise Institute claims in a release it sent this morning under the headline "BREAKING: EPA Suppresses Internal Global Warming Study."
The free-market think tank, which has a history of intellectually hi-larious denialism, says the "Environment (sic) Protection Agency" silenced an internal dissenter in the course of its endangerment finding, a process that concluded in April that greenhouse-gases threaten public health and can be regulated under the Clean Air Act.
According to CEI, the dissenter wanted to include "a significant internal critique of the agency's global warming position" but was stifled because the report didn't fit the political conclusion the EPA had already reached. The group published four EPA emails as evidence of political maneuvering within the agency.
And what do the emails reveal? That there's nothing to this story. An EPA economist wanted to give scientific opinion, which wasn't accepted—most likely because it's outside his area of expertise and training.
The dissenter, Alan Carlin, works as a research analyst in Washington at the EPA's National Center for Environmental Economics (NCEE), which conducts a variety of economic analysis, including cost-benefit studies, risk assessment, and economic impact modeling. In short, it does number crunching, not scientific research.
Carlin's personal website, Carlin Economics, reports that he received a B.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in economics and joined the EPA in 1971. It also includes links to his publications, the most recent of which support solar radiation management—a form of geoengineering—and oppose reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
If Carlin wanted to comment on the scientific causes of climate change, there's little in his work experience or education to suggest it's within his expertise. In an email, his supervisor at the EPA told him to stick to his own work [PDF].
The EPA said Carlin has had plenty of opportunities to present his thoughts—on both science and economics.
"Certain opinions were expressed by an individual [Carlin] who is not a scientist and was not part of the working group dealing with this issue," said EPA spokesperson Adora Andy.
"Nevertheless, several of the opinions and ideas proposed by this individual were submitted to those responsible for developing the proposed endangerment finding. Additionally, his manager allowed his general views on the subject of climate change to be heard and considered inside and outside the EPA and presented at conferences and at an agency seminar. The individual was also granted a request to join a committee that organizes an ongoing climate seminar series, open to both agency and outside experts, where he has been able to invite speakers with a full range of views on climate science. The claims that his opinions were not considered or studied are entirely false."
But what was it that Carlin wanted to attach to the endangerment ruling? Sam Kazman, the Competitive Enterprise Institute's general counsel, told me Carlin's work cites research showing global warming has been caused by ocean and solar cycles, not by human-caused emissions. Kazman refused to share the document.
"On the question of whether we have a copy of any version of the report—sorry, but at this time all I can say is no comment," Kazman wrote in an email.
So there's your nothingburger of a story. The CEI tried to seed this false controversy in hopes that it would grow into a media kerfuffle that would slow down the EPA's climate work or the energy and climate bill advancing toward a vote in the House this week.
One gullible blogger already took the bait. Any others who make the same error shall have their blogging license suspended for 90 days and their Twittering privileges permanently revoked. It is hereby declared.
UPDATE 6/26: The Competitive Enterprise Institute released a draft of the "suppressed" report, which confirms the EPA's explanation: The agency didn't think much of the report because it's authored by an economist claiming to be a climatologist.
"We have become increasingly concerned that EPA and many other agencies and countries have paid too little attention to the science of global warming," write authors Al Carlin and John Davidson of the EPA's National Center for Environmental Economics. They go on to criticize the EPA's reliance on climate science from the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Surprising absolutely no one, opponents of emissions regulation have pounced on the supposed scandal, saying it's reason to reject the Waxman-Markey climate bill. Leading bill opponent Joe Barton (R-Texas) mentioned the report during floor debate on Friday and Rep. James Sensenbrenner (R-Wisconsin), at a press conference, called it "a case of the American public denied the right to know this contrary scientific evidence."


text:
Detecting Signs of Intrusion
- 1 Overview
- 2 Ensure That the Software Used to Examine Systems Has Not Been Compromised
- 3 Monitor and Inspect Network Activities
- 4 Monitor and Inspect System Activities
- 5 Inspect Files and Directories for Unexpected Changes
- 6 Investigate Unauthorized Hardware Attached to the Network
- 7 Look for Signs of Unauthorized Access to Physical Resources
- 8 Review Reports of Suspicious System and Network Behavior and Events
- 9 Take Appropriate Actions
- Chapter 6 Checklist
Intruders are always looking for new ways to break into networked computer systems. They may attempt to breach your network's perimeter defenses from remote locations or try to infiltrate your organization physically to gain access to information resources. Intruders seek old, unpatched vulnerabilities as well as newly discovered vulnerabilities in operating systems, network services, and protocols; and they take advantage of both. They develop and use sophisticated programs to penetrate systems rapidly. As a result, intrusions and the damage they cause can be achieved in seconds.
Even if your organization has implemented a number of the more popular information security protection measures, such as firewalls and intrusion detection systems, it is essential that you closely monitor your information assets and transactions involving these assets for signs of intrusion. Monitoring may be complicated, because intruder attack methods are constantly changing, and intruders often hide their activities by changing the systems they break into. An intrusion may have already happened without your noticing because everything seemed to be operating normally.
The practices contained in this chapter are designed to help you detect intrusions by looking for unexpected or suspicious behavior and "fingerprints" of known intrusion methods.
6.1 Overview
These practices are intended primarily for system and network administrators, managers of information systems, and security personnel responsible for networked information resources.
The practices are applicable to your organization if its networked systems infrastructure includes any of the following:
Host systems providing services to multiple users (file servers, time-sharing systems, database servers, web servers, etc.)
Local area or wide area networks
Direct connections, gateways, or modem access to and from external networks, such as the Internet
The practices do not address the following issues:
Protecting user privacy while in the process of detecting signs of intrusion
Using security monitoring and reporting services provided by outside (third-party) organizations
6.1.1 The Need for Detecting Signs of Intrusion
If you do not know that an intrusion or an intrusion attempt has occurred, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine later if your systems have been compromised. If the information necessary to detect an intrusion is not being collected and reviewed, you cannot determine what sensitive data, systems, and networks are being attacked and what breaches in confidentiality, integrity, or availability have occurred. As a result of an inadequate ability to detect signs of intrusion, your organization may face the following problems:
Inability to determine either the full extent of the intrusion and the damage it has caused, or whether or not you have completely removed the intruder from your systems and networks. This will significantly increase your time to recover.
Legal action. Intruders make use of systems they have compromised to launch attacks against others. If one of your systems is used in this way, you may be held liable for not exercising adequate due care with respect to security.
Lost business opportunities, coupled with loss of reputation.
If you are adequately prepared and have the necessary policies and procedures in place to detect signs of intrusion, you can mitigate your risk of exposure to such problems.
6.1.2 An Approach for Detecting Signs of Intrusion
The practices in this chapter assume that you have implemented the detection preparation practices described in Chapter 5. The general approach to detecting intrusions is threefold:
Observe your systems for anything unexpected or suspicious.
Investigate anything you find to be unusual.
If your investigation finds something that isn't explained by authorized activity, immediately initiate your intrusion response procedures as described in Chapter 7.
While this process sounds simple enough, implementing it is a resource-intensive activity that requires continuous, automated support and daily administrative effort. Furthermore, the scale of intrusion detection practices may need to change as threats, system configurations, or security requirements change. In all cases, however, four areas must be addressed:
The integrity of the software you use to detect intrusions
Monitoring of the behavior of your systems and the traffic on your networks
Physical forms of intrusion to your computer systems, offline data storage media, and output devices
Follow through, including the investigation of reports by users and other reliable sources (such as incident response teams) and action following unexpected activities
As you look for signs of intrusion, keep in mind that information from one source may not appear suspicious by itself. Inconsistencies among several sources can sometimes be the best indication of suspicious behavior or intrusions.
Table 6.1 Detecting Signs of Intrusion Practice Summary
Approach |
Practice |
Reference |
Integrity of intrusion detection software |
Ensure that the Software Used to Examine Systems Has Not Been Compromised |
Section 6.2; page 234 |
Behavior of networks and systems |
Monitor and Inspect Network Activities Monitor and Inspect System Activities Inspect Files and Directories for Unexpected Changes |
Section 6.3; page 237 Section 6.4; page 243 Section 6.5; page 251 |
Physical forms of intrusion |
Investigate Unauthorized Hardware Attached to the Network Look for Signs of Unauthorized Access to Physical Resources |
Section 6.6; page 254 Section 6.7; page 257 |
Follow through |
Review Reports of Suspicious System and Network Behavior and Events Take Appropriate Actions |
Section 6.8; page 258 Section 6.9; page 261 |


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