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please note:{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}{{distinguish|text=Brahma (the Hindu god), Brahmana (a layer of text in the Vedas), Brahmanism (the religion), or Brahmin (the caste-varna)}}{{Other uses}}File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|A drop in the ocean: an analogy for Ätman merging in Brahman]]{{Hinduism small}}In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe.BOOK,weblink The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Lochtefeld, James G., The Rosen Publishing Group, 2002, 978-0823931798, 1, 122, P. T. Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49â55 (in Upanishads), 318â319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246â248 and 252â255 (in Advaita), 342â343 (in Dvaita), 175â176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}} In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, {{ISBN|978-9042015104}}, pages 43â44For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738724}}, pages 51â58, 111â115;For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis â Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18â35 It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49â55 (in Upanishads), 318â319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246â248 and 252â255 (in Advaita), 342â343 (in Dvaita), 175â176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}} BOOK,weblink World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Brodd, Jeffrey, Saint Mary's Press, 2009, 978-0884899976, 3rd, 43â47, Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50â53}}Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 91 Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415187077}}, pages 1â4 The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.BOOK, Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism, Goodman, Hananya, State University of New York Press, 1994, 978-0791417164, 121, In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-Änanda (truth-consciousness-bliss){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, Chapter 1 and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53â55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6â7}}{{refn|group=note|"not sublatable",{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6â7}} the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as:
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
- The unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and everything beyond in this Universe; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.BOOK, Brodd, Jeffrey, World Religions, Saint Mary's Press, 2003, Winona, Minnesota, 978-0-88489-725-5,
- The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe.John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.weblink}}
Etymology and related termsSanskrit Brahman (an n-stem, nominative {{IAST|bráhmÄ}}) from a root {{IAST|bá¹h}}- "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge" is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine {{IAST|brahmán}}âdenoting a person associated with Brahman, and from BrahmÄ, the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world",{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=384}}In Vedic Sanskrit:
- Brahma (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®) (nominative singular), brahman (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤¨à¥) (stem) (neuterNot Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender). gender) from root bá¹h-, means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268â269
- Brahmana (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤¨) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems brha (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit -man- from Indo-European root -men- which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".
- Brahma (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®) (nominative singular), brahman (stem) (neuter gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. Brahm is another variant of Brahman.
- BrahmÄ (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤¾) (nominative singlular), Brahman (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤¨à¥) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva PrajÄpati BrahmÄ. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because BrahmÄ, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. BrahmÄ gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa.
- A brÄhmaá¹a (बà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA-sa|ËbɽaËɦmÉɳÉ|}}), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantrasâan integral part of the Vedic literature.
- A brÄhmaá¹a (बà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, BrahmÄá¹i. See Vedic priest.
- Ishvara, (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
- Devas, the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See Para Brahman). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.
History and literature
VedicBrahman is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas, the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the 2nd millennium BCE. For example,, page 29}}The concept Brahman is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedas.Maurice Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance, Harvard University Press, pages 656-662 For example, it is found in Rig veda hymns such as 2.2.10,Original: वयमà¤à¥à¤¨à¥ ठरà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤¾ वा सà¥à¤µà¥à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤ बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£à¤¾ वा à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¤¯à¥à¤®à¤¾ à¤à¤¨à¤¾à¤ ठति । ठसà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤à¤ दà¥à¤¯à¥à¤®à¥à¤¨à¤®à¤§à¤¿ पà¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿à¤·à¥à¤à¥à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤£ शà¥à¤¶à¥à¤à¥à¤¤ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤°à¤®à¥ ॥१०॥Source: à¤à¤à¥à¤µà¥à¤¦: सà¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤ २.२ Wikisource 6.21.8,Original: स तॠशà¥à¤°à¥à¤§à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤° नà¥à¤¤à¤¨à¤¸à¥à¤¯ बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£à¥à¤¯à¤¤à¥ वà¥à¤° à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤§à¤¾à¤¯à¤ । तà¥à¤µà¤ हà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¤¿à¤µà¤¿ पितà¥à¤£à¤¾à¤ शशà¥à¤µà¤¦à¥à¤¬à¤à¥à¤¥ सà¥à¤¹à¤µ à¤à¤·à¥à¤à¥ ॥८॥à¤à¤à¥à¤µà¥à¤¦: सà¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤ ६.२१ Wikisource 10.72.2Original: बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£à¤¸à¥à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿à¤°à¥à¤¤à¤¾ सठà¤à¤°à¥à¤®à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤µà¤¾à¤§à¤®à¤¤à¥ । दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤¨à¤¾à¤ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¥ यà¥à¤à¥à¤½à¤¸à¤¤à¤ सदà¤à¤¾à¤¯à¤¤ ॥२॥à¤à¤à¥à¤µà¥à¤¦: सà¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤ १०.à¥à¥¨ Wikisource and in Atharva veda hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131. The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example: Aitareya Brahmana 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 184.108.40.206, Taittiriya Brahmana 188.8.131.52, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya Aranyaka 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the vedÄá¹ ga (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of Brahman in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269â271. weblink There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word Brahman in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda. In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of Brahman is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271â272. weblink Barbara Holdrege states that the concept Brahman is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (Sabdabrahman),See Rigveda Chapter 1.164;Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120804265}}, pages 34â35 as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791416402}}, page 24 Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists. Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, soul)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 84â85
Upanishads(File:Mozzercork - Heart (by).jpg|thumb|Swan (Hansa, हà¤à¤¸) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.Lindsay Jones (2005), Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 13, Macmillan Reference, {{ISBN|978-0028657332}}, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."Denise Cush (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415556231}}, page 697)The primary focus on the early Upanishads is Brahmavidya and Atmavidya, that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.R. Prasad and P. D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, page 56 The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.Paul Deussen states that the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 243, 325â344, 363, 581 the "principle of the world", the "absolute",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 358, 371 the "general, universal",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 305, 476 the "cosmic principle",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 110, 315â316, 495, 838â851 the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 211, 741â742 the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 308â311, 497â499 the "knowledge",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 181, 237, 444, 506â544, 570â571, 707, 847â850 the "soul, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585â586, 838â851 the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 173â174, 188â198, 308â317, 322â324, 367, 447, 496, 629â637, 658, 707â708 the "universe within each living being and the universe outside", the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 600, 619â620, 647, 777Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "self, soul within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (ananda).According to Radhakrishnan, the sages of the Upanishads teach Brahman as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (atma jnana).Radhakrishnan, S., The Principal Upanisads, HarperCollins India, 1994, page 77The Upanishads contain several mahÄ-vÄkyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:BOOK, Jones, Constance, Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2007, Infobase Publishing, New York, 978-0816073368, 270, {| class="wikitable sortable"
- Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812444}}, pages 25â28;
- D. D. Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1443834919}}, page 250;
- Joel Brereton (1995), Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231070058}}, page 130;
- S. Radhakrishnan (1914), "The Vedanta philosophy and the Doctrine of Maya", International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 24, No. 4, pages 431â451
DiscussionThe concept Brahman has a lot of undertones of meaning and is difficult to understand. It has relevance in :
Brahman as a metaphysical conceptBrahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?Edward Craig (1998), Metaphysics, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015) Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" Maya in various orthodox Hindu schools. Maya pre-exists and co-exists with Brahmanâthe Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415245227}}, pages 47â48In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atmanâor soul, selfâwhich is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise.Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii;K. K. Chakrabarti (1999), Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791441718}} pages 279â292 Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later SamkhyaJohn C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60-62 and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.Julius Lipner (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 22â23Laurie Patton (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 45â50J. D. Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex University Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723608}}, pages 135â137 In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality Brahman.William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812512}}, page 5Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101â109 (in German), also pages 69â99;Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View, Topic III: Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, D. Krishna Ayyar (2011)In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true realityâthe Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative UpÄdÄnaâthe principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahmanâthe Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahmanâthe Brahman without attributes.JOURNAL, 10.7825/2164-6279.1250, Heirarchies{{sic, y, in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1â6|year = 2001|last1 = Rambachan|first1 = Anantanand}} The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be a part of the ultimate nirguna Brahman The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)
Brahman as an ontological conceptBrahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontologicalthat is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), Ontology, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0415073103}} premises of Indian philosophy.Edward Craig (1998), Ontology, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015)Stephen H. Phillips (2001), Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492â506 Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a soul, a self".K. N. Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246â249, from note 385 onwards;Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattÄ, Sanskrit: anÄtman, the opposed doctrine of Ätman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}}, pages 2â4Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy NowJohn C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ätman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".M. Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Philosophy in Review, 32(3), pages 158â160Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga.Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 241â242Anantanand Rambachan (2014), A Hindu Theology of Liberation: Not-Two Is Not One, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438454559}}, pages 131â142Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438152}}, pages 298â300;Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415829809}}, pages 135â136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter." Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (sat), consciousness (cit) and full of bliss (ananda), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's soul is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).Francis Clooney and Tony Stewart (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 166â167Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology.Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, page 554 The Carvaka school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 30â31
Brahman as an axiological conceptBrahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics.R. Prasad and P. D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, pages 56â59G. C. Pande (1990), Foundations of Indian Culture, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807105}}, pages 49â50 Ananda (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony.Michael W. Myers (1998), Åaá¹ karÄcÄrya and Änanda, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553â567Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, {{ISBN|978-9042012202}}, page 225 Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.T. M. P. Mahadevan (1954), The Metaphysics of Åaá¹kara, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359â363The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values.Arvind Sharma (1999), The Puruá¹£Ärthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2, pages 223â256 A statement such as 'I am Brahman', states Shaw, means 'I am related to everything', and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.J. L. Shaw (2011), Freedom: East and West, SOPHIA, Vol 50, Springer Science, pages 481â497 Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasizes individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.Katherine L Tietge (1997), Ontology and Genuine Moral Action: Jñaña (Intuitive Perception) Ethics and Karma-Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality, Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Philosophy, Southern Illinois University (US), Archive LinkThe axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, pages 57â61 Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.Nancy Bauer (1987), Advaita VedÄnta and Contemporary Western Ethics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36â50 The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.N. A. Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254â258
Brahman as a teleological conceptBrahman and Atman are very important teleological concepts. Teleology deals with the apparent purpose, principle or goal of something. In the first chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, these questions are dealt with. It says :weblink{{Dead link
Brahman as a soteriological concept: MokshaThe orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to a sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124â125 because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita VedÄnta Up to Åaá¹kara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 210â215The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions. The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shiva or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.Betty Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And ViÅiá¹£á¹advaita: Contrasting Views Of Moká¹£a", Asian Philosophy, pages 215â224
Schools of thought
VedantaThe concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.
Advaita Vedanta{{Advaita}}Advaita Vedanta espouses nondualism. Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,AC Das (1952), Brahman and MÄyÄ in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144â154 there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-8184752779}}, see article on Brahman The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. Brahman is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of intellectual knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings. The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (Atman) gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman. The Brahman is not an outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Brahman is all that is eternal, unchanging and that which truly exists. This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "Ekam sat" ("Truth is one"), and all is Brahman.The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained by any other means besides self inquiry.Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality. Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.[Sangeetha Menon (2007), Advaita VedÄnta], Internet Encyclopedia of PhilosophyExample verses from Bhagavad-Gita include:, page 224Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 83He who finds his happiness within,His delight within,And his light within,This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. â Hymn 5.24Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifthâAnniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 266
Dvaita Vedanta{{Vaishnavism}}Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
- Jîva-Ãshvara-bheda â difference between the soul and Vishnu
- Jada-Ãshvara-bheda â difference between the insentient and Vishnu
- Mitha-jîva-bheda â difference between any two souls
- Jada-jîva-bheda â difference between insentient and the soul
- Mitha-jada-bheda â difference between any two insentients
Achintya Bheda AbhedaThe Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to Dvaitadvaita (differential monism). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of yogaâmeditation on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart)âVishnu (Narayana, also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by bhakti) as Bhagavan, Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
VaishnavismAll Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti Yoga.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Bhakti movementThe Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of BrahmanâNirguna and Saguna.Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 21 Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages xxviiâxxxiv Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages 207â211 It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita. Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge. Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutraâa treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutraâa treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-0826499660}}, pages 113â115Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality". Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791428054}}, page 2 These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.
Buddhist understanding of BrahmanBuddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (soul, permanent self, essence).{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "Upanisadic thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the Vedic period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman-Atman synthesis, this theory, which is central to Upanisadic thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman-Atman synthesis, which posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first drew breath. Merv Fowler p. 47: "For the Upanisadic sages, the real is the Self, is Atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an Atman or permanent, unchanging Self, the very kernel of Upanisadic thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."}} According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal soul (atman) or its cosmic counterpart (brahman)".Damien Keown, Buddhism (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70 The metaphysics of Buddhism rejects Brahman (ultimate being), Brahman-like essence, soul and anything metaphysically equivalent through its Anatta doctrine.BOOK, David Webster, The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon,weblink 2004, Routledge, 978-0-203-01057-0, 194â195, 93, 147, BOOK, Richard Francis Gombrich, Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub, Buddhist Studies,weblink 2008, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-3248-0, 192â193, BOOK, Mark Juergensmeyer, Wade Clark Roof, Encyclopedia of Global Religion,weblink 2011, SAGE Publications, 978-1-4522-6656-5, 272â273, According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent Absolute of the nature of Brahman."}} As an example, Fowler cites the early Sarvastivada school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism".Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34 According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism, "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe [...] was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98 According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist nirvana, conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81 Fowler asserts that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the Upanisads in a new form. The authors of the Lankavatara strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical atman of Upanisadic thought. Similarly, the claim in the Nirvana Sutra that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins considerable distress."}}
Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist textsThe spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman.Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816763}}, pages 82â83 In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mention of deity Brahma along with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism.{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422â424}}BOOK, K. N. Jayatilleke, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge,weblink 1998, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-0619-1, 68, 374, , Quote: "We may conclude from the above that the rise of Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215â219The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby polemically attacked the Vedic and Upanishadic concept of gender neutral, abstract metaphysical Brahman. This critique of Brahma in early Buddhist texts aim at ridiculing the Vedas, but the same texts simultaneously call metta (loving-kindness, compassion) as the state of union with Brahma. The early Buddhist approach to Brahma was to reject any creator aspect, while retaining the value system in the Vedic Brahmavihara concepts, in the Buddhist value system.BOOK, Gananath Obeyesekere, Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study,weblink 2006, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-2609-0, 177â179, According to Martin Wiltshire, the term "Brahma loka" in the Buddhist canon, instead of "Svarga loka", is likely a Buddhist attempt to choose and emphasize the "truth power" and knowledge focus of the Brahman concept in the Upanishads.BOOK, Martin G. Wiltshire, Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha,weblink 1990, Walter de Gruyter, 978-3-11-009896-9, 248â249, 253â255, Simultaneously, by reformulating Brahman as Brahma and relegating it within its Devas and Samsara theories, early Buddhism rejected the Atman-Brahman premise of the Vedas to present of its own Dhamma doctrines (anicca, dukkha and anatta).BOOK, Martin G. Wiltshire, Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha,weblink 1990, Walter de Gruyter, 978-3-11-009896-9, 256â265,
Brahman in Sikhism{{multiple image
| direction = horizontalThe metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as nirguni Brahmanâattributeless, formless, eternal Highest Realityâis at the foundation of Sikhism.S. S. Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, {{ISBN|81-71563368}}, page 39 This belief is observed through nirguni Bhakti by the Sikhs.Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199699308}}, page 178A. Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415595971}}, pages 188â190In Gauri, which is part of the Guru Granth Sahib, Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman".S. S. Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, {{ISBN|81-71563368}}, page 38 Nesbitt states that the first two words, Ik Onkar, in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is".Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2.Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 Oxford University Press, pages 93â94Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 156â157, 162â163 The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the Saguna and Nirguna concepts of Brahman in Hinduism.N. Mandair (2009), Postcolonial Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Purushottama Bilimoria, Andrew B. Irvine), Springer, {{ISBN|978-9400791770}}, pages 145â146The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as Nam, Sat-naam or Naam, and Ik Oankar like Hindu Om symbolizes this Reality.William Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1998), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd edition, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723134}}, pages 70â71H. S. Singha (2009), Sikh Studies, Vol. 7, Hemkunt Press, {{ISBN|978-8170102458}}, page 47
| width1 = 130
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| footer = Ik Onkar (left) is part of the Mul Mantar in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one".Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192806017}}, Chapter 4 The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Omâalso called OmkÄraJean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN, page 67âin Hinduism.Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, {{ISBN|978-0877790440}}, page 500 The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the Highest Reality, Brahman.Rangaswami Sudhakshina (2012), Roots of Vendanta, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143064459}}, page 405David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54
| image1 = Ek_onkar.svg
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| footer = Ik Onkar (left) is part of the Mul Mantar in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one".Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192806017}}, Chapter 4 The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Omâalso called OmkÄraJean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN, page 67âin Hinduism.Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, {{ISBN|978-0877790440}}, page 500 The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the Highest Reality, Brahman.Rangaswami Sudhakshina (2012), Roots of Vendanta, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143064459}}, page 405David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54
| image1 = Ek_onkar.svg
| image2 = Om devanagari.PNG
Brahman in JainismScholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but Jiva or "Atman (soul) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and Kevala Jnana.Ray Billington (1997), Understanding Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415129657}}, page 46Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahmanâthe metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism.James Bissett, Cultural and Religious Heritage of India, Volume 2: Jainism (Editors: Sharma and Sharma), Mittal, {{ISBN|81-70999553}}, page 81 Goswami, in contrast, states that the literature of Jainism has an undercurrent of monist theme, where the self who gains the knowledge of Brahman (Highest Reality, Supreme Knowledge) is identical to Brahman itself.C. Caillat and N. Balbir (2008), Jaina Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832473}}, pages ixâx Jaini states that Jainism neither accepts nor rejects the premise of Ultimate Reality (Brahman), instead Jain ontology adopts a many sided doctrine called Anekantavada. This doctrine holds that "reality is irreducibly complex" and no human view or description can represent the Absolute Truth.P. Jaini (1998), The Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-1578-5}}, pages 90â93J. Koller (2004), "Why is AnekÄntavÄda important?", (Editor: Tara Sethia, AhimsÄ, AnekÄnta, and Jainism), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-2036-3}}, pages 400â407 Those who have understood and realized the Absolute Truth are the liberated ones and the Supreme Souls, with Kevala Jnana.
Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and BrahmanasBrahma is distinct from Brahman. Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,BOOK, R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen, Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications,weblink 2011, Pearson, 978-81-317-3085-0, 40, who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.BOOK, Jeaneane D. Fowler, Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism,weblink 2002, Sussex Academic Press, 978-1-898723-93-6, 330, Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,BOOK, Helen K. Bond, Seth D. Kunin, Francesca Murphy, Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction,weblink 2003, New York University Press, 978-0-8147-9914-7, 231, BOOK, William Sweet, Approaches to Metaphysics,weblink 2006, Springer, 978-1-4020-2182-4, 145â147, BOOK, H. James Birx, Encyclopedia of Anthropology,weblink 2005, SAGE Publications, 978-1-4522-6536-0, 1279, that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence. It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends. It is a gender neutral abstract concept.BOOK, Wendy Denier, Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions,weblink 1999, Merriam-Webster, 978-0-87779-044-0, 437, BOOK, J. L. Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics,weblink 1998, BRILL Academic, 90-04-10260-4, 256, BOOK, Denise Cush, Catherine Robinson, Michael York, Encyclopedia of Hinduism,weblink 2012, Routledge, 978-1-135-18979-2, 114â115, The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;BOOK, Edward Craig, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida,weblink 1998, Routledge, 978-0-415-18707-7, 1â4, while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.BOOK, Julius Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices,weblink 1994, Routledge, 978-0-415-05181-1, 43â44, In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),BOOK, S. M. Srinivasa Chari, Vaiá¹£á¹avism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline,weblink 1994, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-1098-3, 147, others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),BOOK, Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Siva: The Erotic Ascetic,weblink 1981, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-972793-3, 125, yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),BOOK, David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition,weblink 1988, University of California Press, 978-0-520-90883-3, 137, and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.BOOK, Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva,weblink 1992, Princeton University Press, 0-691-01930-4, 205â206, Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the saguna{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)BOOK, Arvind Sharma, Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction,weblink 2000, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-564441-8, 4, }} Brahman is Vishnu,BOOK, Mark Juergensmeyer, Wade Clark Roof, Encyclopedia of Global Religion,weblink 2011, SAGE Publications, 978-1-4522-6656-5, 1335, is Shiva,BOOK, Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva,weblink 1992, Princeton University Press, 0-691-01930-4, 171, or is DeviBOOK, David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition,weblink 1988, University of California Press, 978-0-520-90883-3, 136, respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.BOOK, William K. Mahony, The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination,weblink 1998, State University of New York Press, 978-0-7914-3579-3, 13â14, 187, Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations.BOOK, Doniger, Wendy, Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions, Merriam-Webster, Springfield, Massachusetts, US, 1999, 978-0-87779-044-0, 186,weblink James Lochtefeld (2002), Brahmin, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: AâM, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 125The Brahmanas are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421093}}, pages 67â69 They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hindu Åruti literature."Brahmana". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
See also{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
- BOOK, Jeaneane D., Fowler, Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism,weblink 2002, Sussex Academic Press, 978-1-898723-93-6, harv,
- BOOK, Klaus K., Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition,weblink 2010, State University of New York Press, 978-0-7914-8011-3, Chapter 12,
- BOOK, Michaels, Axel, 2004, Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press,
- {{Citation | last =Potter | first =Karl H. | year =2008 | title =The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita VedÄnta Up to Åaá¹kara and His Pupils | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
- {{Citation | last =Puligandla | first =Ramakrishna | year =1997 | title =Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy | place =New Delhi | publisher =D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd.}}
- {{Citation | last =Raju | first =P. T. | year =1992 | title =The Philosophical Traditions of India | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
- {{Citation | last =Sinari | first =Ramakant | year =2000 | title =Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta" | place =Delhi | publisher =Centre for Studies in Civilizations}}
External links
- The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy, Haridas Chaudhuri (1954), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 4, No. 1, pages 47â66
- The Idea of God in Hinduism, A. S. Woodburne (1925), The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 52â66
- The Western View of Hinduism: An Age-old Mistake (Brahman), J. M. De Mora (1997), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 78, No. 1/4, pages 1â12
- Concepts of God Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Compares Brahman with concepts of God found in other religions)
- Detailed essays on Brahman at Hinduwebsite.com
- content above as imported from Wikipedia
- "Brahman" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
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New Zealand Women's Sevens coach Sean Horan has named 22 players in the contracted squad for 2016.
Shakira Baker – Waikato
Michaela Blyde – Manawatu
Kelly Brazier – Bay of Plenty
Gayle Broughton – Taranaki
Sarah Goss – Manawatu
Honey Hireme – Waikato
Carla Hohepa – Waikato
Lesley Ketu – Waikato
Huriana Manuel – Auckland
Kayla McAlister – Auckland
Tyla Nathan-Wong – Auckland
Shiray Tane – Hawke's Bay
Terina Te Tamaki* – Waikato
Hazel Tubic – Counties Manukau
Ruby Tui – Canterbury
Janna Vaughan* – Manawatu
Stacey Waaka – Waikato
Jordon Webber – Waikato
Kat Whata-Simpkins – Wellington
Niall Williams – Auckland
Selica Winiata – Manawatu
Portia Woodman – Counties Manukau
*new squad member
The New Zealand Women's Sevens team next plays at the Sao Paulo Sevens tournament on 20 and 21 February. They finished fifth in the opening tournament of the World Series in Dubai and will be looking for a sharp improvement in Sao Paulo.
The team departs for a training camp in Florida in early February where they will also be based prior to the Olympic Games. The players will then spend two days in Rio De Janiero to familiarise themselves with the Olympic host city before travelling to Sao Paulo.

subset: commoncrawl


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YOU might be used to grainy UFO footage apparently showing aliens are watching us, but this video has a whole other level.
It was taken by a couple if New York, who were stunned when they realised the object zooming around the sky looks like the MILLENNIUM FALCON from Star Wars.
For the uninitiated, it's the spaceship which Han Solo (Harrison Ford) and his Wookiee pal Chewbacca zip around in.
It's also one of the most instantly-recognisable things from the series of films as it's on loads of the merchandise.
Cue pretty intense excitement from this couple, as they realised how much like the legendary ship the UFO they'd spotted was.
"Me and my girlfriend were coming home at approx between 9 and 10 pm when we saw a light to our left," the guy explained on YouTube.
"This thing was a complete lit surfaced craft.
"It wasn't blinking lights the entire surface of craft was lit up and glowing."
tREKking ON THE MOORSFamily spot UFO shaped like Star Trek's Starship Enterprise while walking on Yorkshire moors
'It's Independence Day'Mystery surrounds the huge UFO allegedly spotted circling a remote village in Malaysia
The footage was taken in August and posted on Mutual UFO Netowork, and the couple can be heard discussing just what it is they're seeing.
"I dunno man, but no planes ride that low," the woman says.
"It's almost transparent, it's definitely a UFO, they're watching us."
Her boyfriend replies that there's no way they're looking at a plane as the shape is far too big.
The footage shows the object whizzing around the sky too.
This is far from the only UFO to be caught on camera recently, with this footage sparking an alien cover-up conspiracy theory.


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Tuesday, July 20, 2010
ltd tee / david flores "jean-michel basquiat" box set
LTD tee, an innovative t-shirt company that always delivers new and exciting product, is proud to present their latest collaboration with artist David Flores. In honor of the late, great graffiti and Neo-Expressionist master Jean-Michel Basquiat, LTD tee is proud to present, for a limited time only (from 7/19 to 7/25), your very own piece of art history in this box set of Basquiat treats. The MSRP is $24.00 and by using the discount code "iheartartblog" at checkout, you receive 10% off this shirt! Discount is valid until 7/25.
The Jean-Michel box set contains the following:
• High quality, screen printed t-shirt
• 8" x 10" art print
• Custom screen printed box
• Artist bio on both the box and neck label
• LTD Tee Sticker packFor more information, go to ltdtee.net.
Posted by tyrus rochell at 7:52 PM
1 comment:
- Nujeru74 said...
The link to order isnt working for me?
- July 23, 2010 at 1:38 PM
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The Blessing in Showing Up
I dread routines. I absolutely hate them and I hate participating in activities that have become routine. But sometimes it's in the midst of our boring routines that we stumble upon our greatest blessings.
I am not one to show up to places just for the sake of showing up. If the purpose of me being present somewhere- anywhere- is to put in facetime, I would sooner stay home. Unfortunately once I entered ministry, facetime became a huge part of the expectation while I was in training. We were always expected to be in place- at meetings, at services, at conferences, etc.- just in case we were called upon (which we seldom were). It did however teach me discipline and the importance of being faithful.
15 years later, I can truly say that learning to be in place was an important lesson. Some of my major opportunities in ministry came about, not because I was chosen, but because I simply showed up. I regularly showed up to my former assistant pastor's preaching engagements, shortly thereafter becoming her armor bearer and ultimately accepting my call to ordained ministry under her tutelage. I kept my commitments, even for the boring mundane assignments, and eventually one of my former pastors began asking me to take on more responsibility. Even now after 8 months of showing up to everything at my current church that my time will allow, I have found myself being asked to preach and teach regularly when my pastor is out and my role has expanded to include a paid staff position.
Sometimes it's in the midst of our boring routines that we stumble upon our greatest blessings.
If you are in a season where you can't be everywhere at everything, it's okay. Just be fully present at the things you've chosen to make the center of your life. For me right now, it's ministry. For you it may be something different. Whatever it is, if it is important to you, don't miss your opportunity to grow and experience more because of half-hearted effort. I promise you there is a blessing in simply showing up consistently.


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Seashell Blueberry Scones | Mother's Day
On Mother's Day I wanted to whip up a batch of something for my Mom. With her being up at the lake house, my brother and I decided to put our heads together and we came up with scones. With some implications, the dough didn't come out as planned so we literally had to improvise. But here's our recipe and what we went through to get these delightful scones.
2 cups all-purpose flour
1 tablespoon baking powder
1/2 teaspoon salt
4 tablespoons sugar
5 tablespoons unsalted butter ( Make sure they're cold)
3/4 cup fresh blueberries
1 cup whole milk
Step 1: Preheat oven to 400 degrees Fahrenheit
Step 2: Mix dry ingredients together in a big mixing bowl.
Step 3: Cut up COLD butter into similar sizes and put into bowl. Grab a pastry cutter and star cutting into the dry ingredients. The dough should crumble and be coarse.
Step 4: Pour in the milk and mix.
Step 5: Spray madeleine pan with cooking spray and spoon in dough. ( Don't fill to the top because the dough will rise a bit)
Step 6: Drop in frozen/cold blueberries into each shell
Step 7: Bake for 15-17 minutes
Step 8: Grab some parchment or wax paper and turn over the pan and let shells cools. Before they cool sprinkle with sugar.
And you're finished!


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What's new? Well, I've moved ALL my invitations to its brand new home, ArtsyInvites.shop!
All my best-sellers are there, including some brand new products! Check them out today…
Also, if you're an artist, I'm looking for a few new affiliates. Visit ArtsyInvites today to learn more about my newly launched Affiliate Program.
That's all for now and hope to hear from you soon.


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Hello everyone! It's Zinia here again and I'm back with another scrapbook layout using the gorgeous Hustle & Heart collection designed by Amy.
For this layout, I'm focusing on the background. I wanted to create my own pattern using a mix of designs from the 6x6" paper pad. I really enjoy using the 6x6" pad cause the patterns are scaled down and they look especially beautiful when they are cut down in small pieces.
I started by cutting down a diamond piece in the size I wanted. I went a little bit random with the first piece but once I was happy with how it looked, I used it as a mask to cut the rest of the pieces in the exact same size and shape.
To do that, I traced the first diamond at the back side of my pattern papers and cut them out with my favorite scissors. You can use a trimmer if you want but I find scissors a bit faster. Plus, the shape is super simple and small that you can cut it easily with scissors without obvious imperfections.
When all the diamond pieces were cut, I started building my pattern. I used a ruler to make sure the first row was straight and then I just followed with the rest of the pieces without worrying about being very precise.
The pattern is fun and bold so even if there are small imperfections in the shape of the pieces or their placement, they won't be really visible once you have everything stuck down.
After filling the whole page with the diamond pieces, I started embellishing the layout. Since the background was really bold, I chose a few embellishments that will stand out without making the design look busy. Dimensional embellishments like the suede bows and the layered stickers will work great.
I was also really happy to see that the white thickers stood out beautifully against the colorful background so I used those for my title.
I finished the page with a few gold splatters just to add an extra touch of gold to the design.
I really hope you enjoyed this layout and you got inspired to use your Hustle & Heart supplies in fun and creative ways. Until next time, happy crafting!
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Thanks so much for sharing this layout with us, Zinia! Other Design Team member posts can be found here. Shop HUSTLE & HEART now on our shop site!
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We are only a few days away and you are still deciding how many workshops or lectures to attend and which show to see? Say no more!
The 2014 VIP Pass includes all Workshop and Lectures, and tickets to watch the Competitions and Shows. The VIP pass is the most economical way to take part in this exciting event. They are only $150 online till Thursday but disappear after that!!!
Get yours today and don't miss out on this exciting event!!!


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Leonardo Fleck
CSF-Brazil Board Chair, Program Officer, Conservation and Markets Initiatives, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Palo Alto, CA, USA
Leo is a Program Officer at the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the largest private philanthropy working on environmental conservation globally. At Moore, Leo helped to create the foundation's conservation and markets initiatives, a multi-year, multi-million dollar effort to help decouple food production from ecosystem degradation at scale, through the use of market-based approaches and more collaborative grant-making structures. Leo co-leads the initiative focused on eliminating deforestation and habitat loss from beef and soy supply chains in South America. He also supports the Climate and Land Use Alliance (CLUA), a global alliance of donors working to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation, with strategy development and portfolio coordination.
Previously, Leo worked as CSF-Brazil's Country Program Manager and Senior Conservation Economist. An alumnus of CSF's training program, Leo led international teams in innovative projects that led to measurable conservation impact, and taught CSF courses across the Americas. He also worked as a Consulting Professor at the UNA University Center in Brazil, teaching corporate sustainability to Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) students and was a contributor to the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity initiative (TEEB). He had extensive field experience in the Brazilian Amazon region, as a researcher for the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Institute.
Leo earned a Biological Sciences Degree and a diploma in Business Administration from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul) in Brazil, a M.B.A. from the UNA University Center in Brazil, and a Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Conservation Biology from the University of Kent in the U.K., where he received the Maurice Swingland Prize.
Marcelo Araújo
Professor, Federal University of Recôncavo da Bahia (UFRB), Brazil
Marcelo holds a Licence's Degree in Agronomy from the Federal University of Bahia (UFBA - 1990) and a Master's Degree in Agricultural Engineering from the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP - 1997) in Brazil, with a focus on environmental planning. He was a Researcher at the Instituto de Estudos Socioambientais do Sul da Bahia (IESB, Institute for Socio-Environmental Studies of Southern Bahia), an environmental and technical-scientific non-governmental organization, where he worked in the areas of biodiversity conservation, environmental management, solidarity-based economy and sustainable rural development. He was a Visiting Professor at the Santa Cruz State University (UESC) and the Faculty of Technology and Sciences (FTC). From 2000 to 2006, he was Coordinator of the Management Committee of the Ecological Corridors Project, under the Pilot Program for the Conservation of Brazilian Tropical Forests (PPG7). From 2011 to 2015, he was Director of Environmental Research at the Environment Department of the State of Bahia (SEMA-BA), where he worked in the areas of project management and research promotion. Today, he is an Assistant Professor at the Federal University of Recôncavo da Bahia (UFRB), working in the areas of planning, environmental management, political ecology and geotechnology.
Maria José Gontijo
General Coordinator, International Institute for Education in Brazil (IEB), Brasília, Brazil
Maria José is the Founder and General Coordinator of the Instituto Internacional de Educação do Brasil (IEB, International Institute for Education in Brazil), one of the most prestigious NGOs dedicated to capacity building in Brazil. Before IEB, she worked in the private sector and in institutions such as the Fulbright Commission and SUNY-Brazil Advanced Developing Country Training Program.
Beto Mesquita
Senior Consultant, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Beto Mesquita is a Forest Engineer with a PhD in Environmental and Forests Sciences by Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, and a Master's Degree in Biodiversity Conservation by CATIE (Center for Tropical Agricultural Research and Education) in Costa Rica. He has been working for non-profit organizations for 24 years, leading projects on protected areas, forest restoration, landscape planning and multi stakeholders initiative. He has been a Researcher and Coordinator of Ecotourism and Protected Areas at Instituto de Estudos Socioambientais do Sul da Bahia (IESB, Institute for of Socio-Environmental Studies of Southern Bahia) and Coordinator, Program Director and finally, Executive Director at Instituto BioAtlântica (IBio, BioAtlantic Institute), and Director for the Atlantic Forest and Director of Landscape Strategy at Conservation International in Brazil.
His specialties are private land conservation - his Master's and Doctoral's subjects -, forest restoration - as former general coordinator at Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact and one of the articulators of the Amazon Restoration Alliance -, ecological corridors, multi-stakeholder dialogues and initiatives. He is the author of dozens of publications and book excerpts on these topics.
He is a member of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) and the Brazilian Network of Ecological Restoration. Besides from CSF-Brazil's one, he is also on the boards of the National Confederation of Private Natural Heritage Reserves, 'O Eco' website, and Instituto Sul Mineiro de Estudos e Conservação da Natureza (ISMECN, Institute of Southern Minas Gerais of Studies and Nature Conservation).
Eric Stoner
Independent Environmental Consultant, Brasilia, Brazil
Eric Stoner holds Master of Science (MS - 1972) and Doctoral (PhD - 1979) Degrees in Soil Science (Remote Sensing) from Purdue University, with an Undergraduate Degree in Agronomy from The Pennsylvania State University (1970), in the USA. He grew up on a small poultry farm in Lancaster, Pennsylvania and raised strawberries to pay his way through college.
After completing his MS Degree, Eric served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Campo Grande, Mato Grosso state, Brazil (1972-74), taking part in early mapping of the Cerrado biome (Brazilian Savannah) with Landsat images, leading to a position with the Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE, Institute of Spatial Research - 1974-76).
Returning to Purdue, he worked at the Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing (LARS), leading to a position in digital satellite mapping of cropland with NASA's Earth Resources Laboratory at Stennis Space Center in Mississippi (1979-83).
In 1983, Eric returned to Brazil as On-site Coordinator of Cornell University's TropSoils (tropical soil) Management Research Program, based at Embrapa Cerrados (the Brazilian Agricultural Research Agency on Cerrado biome) in Planaltina, Distrito Federal.
Later, he served as Team Leader for the United States Agency for International Development Brazil (USAID-Brazil) Environment Program based at the U.S. Embassy in Brasília (1991-2011), expanding USAID's support for Brazilian NGOs seeking innovative socio-environmental solutions to deforestation in the Amazon. Currently, he works as an Independent Consultant on environmental matters.
Eric's hobbies include windowsill gardening and photography. Combining his interest in indigenous affairs and photography, this image was selected as one of the top 15 photos from Brazil on Flickr in 2017:
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October 4, 2010Read: Luke 5
"And he withdrew himself into the wilderness and prayed." --Luke 5:16
The understatement of the year would be to say that we at PrayFit have been blessed. Your faithfulness, encouragement and prayers have overwhelmed us. We're humbled by your response to our automatic e-mail feed and we want to publicly give the Lord all the glory. We thank Him for who He is, for what He's done, for what He's doing right now, and for what He will do in the weeks and months ahead.
With that promise, we are going to follow His lead into our own wilderness for time of prayer, rejuvenation and renovation! Over the next few weeks, we will be doing some traveling, speaking at churches and conferences beginning in Tyler, Texas at the Fit City Challenge where we will be delivering the keynote speech. Not only will we be sharing the PrayFit message, but we will be pre-selling our first book, helping parents, kids and teens live healthier, fuller lives. If you haven't pre-ordered the book on Amazon for yourself or as a gift, please do so by clicking here.
If you want to book the PrayFit team to visit your church, community center or sports team over the next few months, please e-mail us at email@example.com for more information!
In the meantime, please keep us in your prayers -- as always, you'll be in ours.
In Jesus' name, we train.
Team PrayFit


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Everyone hates Mondays but perhaps it's because we are not prepared for the week ahead! Try some of these tips and see if you can start off the week on the right foot! Make them part of your Sunday ritual!
1. Have a slow morning.
Don't rush to get out of bed and when you finally do...make your favorite breakfast!
2. Write a to-do list for the week.
If you're feeling overwhelmed, this will give you clear vision of what's to come. You might be surprised as what actually has to get done vs. what you think you need to get done.
3. Schedule things on your calendar.
After writing your to-do list, grab your calendar and schedule time to actually DO the things on your list!
4. Meal Prep.
This is a big one! It will save you time, stress, money and quite possibly inches on your waistline! Trust me...you will thank yourself later!
5. Plan your outfits.
Again, it will save you time and worries in the morning. This will also make you think about what you are wearing. Do you have items you never wear? Maybe you can put together a couple of pieces you never thought of before!
6. Make time for self-care.
Sunday is the perfect day to schedule in some time for yourself and reset the week! Two words...bubble bath!
7. Go to bed early.
It's important to have a good night's sleep so you have enough energy to tackle the week ahead!
Try this next week and come back and comment on how your week went! I'd love to hear your feedback!


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We started our solar business in 2010 with primarily off-grid solar systems, both small and large. In 2014, we moved from small off-grid systems to larger grid-tied systems as we proved that economics of solar are attractive.
We provide turnkey solar power solutions to businesses whether they want to buy the solar system or just buy solar power. We also provide operations and maintenance services post-installation.
We provide our services across India, however, we are currently focusing on Maharashtra where the commercial and industrial grid tariffs are very high thereby making solar, a wise choice.
We have installed over 200 solar rooftop systems across India ranging from Rajasthan to Kerala and from Gujarat to Jharkhand. Our experience ranges from 1KWp off-grid battery backup solar systems in rural areas to 100KWp of GT solar rooftop systems in urban areas. We have a network of over 30 locations across India with experienced installation and service teams to cater to local requirements
We also have partnered with high-quality, cost-efficient sub-contractors in civil and electrical works to help us execute jobs seamlessly for our customers.


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Breed: Thoroughbred
Color: Grey
Gender: Mare
Height: 16.1hh
HOTY/RHOTY Thrilling X Country Road
Bred by: Sanna P.
Earnings: $526,100
51,000 euros
Race Record:
8th. SAI's Takin Sebastian Home Racemeet, prospect racing 3rd. RR Spring Back Racemeet, racing
prospect class 3 2nd. RR All Hyped Up Racemeet, racing prospect class 1 7th. WF Round the Twist Racemeet, maiden,
dirt, juveniles, 6f 5th. RR Spring Fling Racemeet, maiden, dirt, 5f 2nd. Rockstar Flat Racing Cup, MSW over dirt,
6f 2nd. Alberta Racemeet, Camrose maiden, 2yo+, dirt, 6f
4th. British Columbia Racemeet, Burnaby Maiden, 2yo+, dirt, 6f
8th. WF Spookapalooza Racemeet, maiden, dirt, juveniles, 6f 2nd. RR Midnight Blues Racemeet,
maiden, dirt, 8f
1st. Serendipity Farms, Digitalized Racemeet, maiden, 2yo+, dirt, 6f 2nd. Serendipity Farms, Phone Book
Racemeet, maiden, 2yo+, dirt, 6f 6th. Allu Express LJ, 2-3yo maiden, 2400m 2nd. SAI's Welcome Back Racemeet,
maiden, dirt, 5f 1st. Allu Express LJ, 2-3yo maiden, 2400m
2nd. SME & AraQ Race Board LJ, maiden
7th. Stormsky LJ, maiden, 9f5th. SME & AraQ Race Board LJ, maiden 7th. Sasnak
Thoroughbreds LJ, maiden, 2yo fillies, dirt, 8f 2nd. SME & AraQ Race Board LJ, maiden, 2yo fillies -1st. SME
& AraQ Race Board LJ, maiden, 2yo
5th. SAI's Winter Is Here Race, ungraded, dirt, 5f
5th. WF Fantasy Racemeet, G3, dirt, 8f 1st. SAI's Take a Break Race, G3, dirt, 8f 4th. WF
Thoroughbred Christmas Cup 2007, G2, dirt, 12f 1st. SAI's Flower Box Race, G3, dirt, 8f2nd. WF Pierre No l Classic
2007, G2, dirt, 12f
Show Record:
Brood Fee: $700


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Mouk - Kabuki
Children'sClosed Captions AvailableRated: G11 mins
5:25pm Saturday, December 08 2012
Mouk, Episode 58 - Kabuki
Series Synopsis
An animated series that follows the adventures of friends Mouk and Chavapa - two globe trotters who travel around the world riding their bikes.
Episode Synopsis
Episode 58 - Kabuki
Mouk and Chavapa are in Tokyo. Mouk and Chavapa will see for the first time the art of Kabuki, the oldest form of theatre in Japan...
Future Episodes
- 5:25pm Friday, December 07
- 5:25pm Saturday, December 08
- 5:25pm Sunday, December 09
- 5:25pm Monday, December 10
- 5:25pm Tuesday, December 11
- 5:25pm Wednesday, December 12
- 5:25pm Thursday, December 13 (R)


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Bring on the Brights!
As I mentioned in the blog from last week, there would be a ying and a yang between last week (neutrals)
and this week (brights). I really do love the richness of varying shades of nudes, but because I can never
seem to limit myself to one style or trend I personally gravitate towards an eclectic wardrobe.
As the power clash of colors from winter moves quickly into spring... go bold! Everyone knows that things
like color and florals work well in the spring and the warmer months to come but how you wear them can
be updated, fresh and new. Just as I suggested you mix your neutrals, I will say the same to you now with
vibrant hues whether solid or print.
There are two great ways to mesh shades together: one is monochromatic, and the other is a mishmash of
colors. For monochromatic, take a color you like, any color, and use varying shades of that color to create your
look. Take a fuchsia pant, with a blush pink top and a magenta heel. For blue maybe you have a royal blue knit
with a metallic navy skirt and a turquoise heel. Beyond mixing the colors together mix your fabrics. Fabrics create
such a richness to your outfit. So adding colors that play off of light such as leather, patent, metallic, silk and so
on with knits, denim, cotton etc add even more depth to your ensemble. With creating a mishmash look try and
stay focused here as you don't want to get dressed, look in the mirror and realize you are Rainbow Bright's twin.
So be careful in how you culminate your colors. Once again pick a shade you like, perhaps marigold and think
what you can pair with this color that will pop and compliment the shade. So, if you choose marigold maybe you
want to mix French blue and add a pop of fuchsia in the shoe. Or you can mix that luscious shade with a great
lavender and add a fun touch turquoise in a bold necklace or belt.
I will reiterate what I said last week about laying the pieces out before you begin getting dressed, to save yourself
the dressing and undressing routine, to see what colors and fabrics mix and match well together. Once you have
found something you are happy with then get dressed and lastly accessorize.
I do want to say that if mixing colors is a bit out of your comfort zone add the pop in your accessories; it feels
safer and more manageable. So, the example here would be if you wear a fuchsia dress maybe wear a red
shoe and a marigold earring. You are still mixing your colors and achieving the trend without going as bold as
mixing these shades within the clothing. Another way to play it a little safer is by using more neutrals with your
accessories. So again, if we take an example of a tangerine blouse pair it with a metallic navy skirt, white booties
and a leopard belt. Adding white, leopard, camel and navy will allow you to mix colors and prints in a more
conservative way.
So, I have a challenge for you and that is to step slightly out of your comfort zone OR jump in the deep end
altogether and be daring and bold with your color choices for spring. Mix your hues and your prints in exciting
and fun ways to give your wardrobe a breath of fresh air!
XO Tamara
example of how to wear:
the monochromatic color trend
Shop The Post


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The news of Tesla CEO Elon Musk settling with US financial regulators sent the company's stock soaring Monday morning.
The charges come after Musk claimed in August via a series of tweets that he was planning to take the electric vehicle maker private, and implied that such a move was imminent with "funding secured". Under the settlements, which are contingent on court approvals, Musk will step down as Tesla chairman and will be replaced by an independent chairman.
Steven Peikin, co-director of the SEC's Enforcement Division said the resolution is meant to prevent further market disruption and harm to Tesla investors.
"As a result of the settlement, Elon Musk will no longer be Chairman of Tesla, Tesla's board will adopt important reforms - including an obligation to oversee Musk's communications with investors - and both will pay financial penalties", Steven Peikin, Co-Director of the SEC's Enforcement Division, said in a statement. He'll also not be eligible to be elected into the Chairman position for three years, Time reports.
According to the SEC's complaint, Musk's misleading tweets caused Tesla's stock price to jump by over six percent on August 7, and led to significant market disruption. "The resolution is meant to prevent further market disruption and harm to Tesla's shareholders", said SEC enforcement division co-director Steven Peikin.
Loup Ventures Managing Partner Gene Munster noted that the SEC settlement is the best outcome possible from Elon Musk's "funding secured" fiasco. His tweets implied that the only remaining barrier to the privatisation would be a shareholder vote.
The stock had dropped 14% on Friday after he'd turned down the initial settlement terms.
The agreement with the US Securities and Exchange Commission will come as a relief to investors, who had feared a lengthy legal fight. The open board chairperson role creates an opportunity for Tesla to potentially put someone in place that is capable of influencing Musk and helping Tesla reach sustainability.
Analysts from Cowen wrote in a note over the weekend that while the settlement would likely lead to a near-term bump for Tesla shares, it could leave Musk open to future litigation - including class-action lawsuits that have already been filed.


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We are super excited to host a student event as part of our Student Outreach Programme, sponsored by Experian. There will be free food and drinks for all, some interesting talks from ex-students and local business people, and the chance to meet and hang out with students from Nottingham Trent University and the University of Nottingham. We hope to see you there!
Getting there
There is car parking at the venue.
There is bike parking at the venue - bring a bike lock!
Public Transport
From Jubilee Campus
The venue is very close to Jubilee Campus - you can shorten your walk by catching the Hucknall or Phoenix Park trams from Gregory Street to the NG2 stop.
Here's a map
From Clifton Campus
Catch the Navy Line 41 bus from Fabis Drive (Stop CL41) and get off at Crossgate Drive (Stop ME10).
Here's a map
From the city centre
Take the Toton Lane tram from any city centre tram stop to stop NG2
Here's a map
Tickets are free but you need to register for them in advance of the event.
From Uni to Work and Back Again
by Anna Dodson
Anna will be talking about how she found the transition from Uni into working in a tech role in Nottingham, and how regularly attending meetups has made her better at her job and making new friends has made her a better software developer.
About Anna
Anna is a software developer at Linney, working on digital marketing for global brands. Regular meetup attendee, previous Hack Soc member and complete and utter swag hag.
Introduction to Alexa Skills
by Steven Pears
In this talk we'll look into what makes up a skill that works with Amazon Echo and the Alexa assistant. We'll look at the configuration and code required to build a Skill using .NET Core, some tips to write a more usable skill, and the differences between when you're writing them for yourself and for your business.
About Steven
Steven has been enjoying .NET since the beta landed on his desk next to his folder full of MSDN CDs. Somehow maintaining gainful employment while at the same time loving regular expressions, working with local newspaper companies and construction software created a path that led him to Nottingham where he now works for Experian.
Came for the campus, stayed for the community
by Jamie Tanna
After falling in love with the gorgeous campus at the University of Nottingham, Jamie found he had to come to Nottingham. And when he discovered the vibrant, buzzing tech community, he found he had to stay. In this talk, Jamie will take you on his journey to coming to Nottingham, and the decisions that led to him staying. As part of that, Jamie will discuss how his decision to join Capital One's graduate scheme over a "regular role" elsewhere was a difficult one, and how he's found it since.
About Jamie
Jamie graduated from the University of Nottingham with a degree in Computer Science in August 2016.
Jamie now works as a Graduate Software Engineer at Capital One, working in the Customer Domain Services team as part of the Platform Services group. He's currently learning how to work in his first Agile software development team with a strong focus on "build it, support it", and is getting to play with great tools such as Chef and Amazon Web Services.
Jamie regularly participate in hackathons, where he loves spending the weekend learning something new and building something awesome (or useless!).
When he's not working, blogging, hacking, speaking at or attending events, he can be found playing a variety of games on Steam, thoroughly enjoying Total Mayhem in Overwatch, and playing a bit more stealthily on Ghost Recon: Wildlands.
What I wish I knew before graduating
by Martyn Rushton
University teaches you about databases, programming practices and how to write a CV, but not what working in tech is actually like. In this talk we will cover the roles available to tech graduates, skills you should have and challenges you will face during your first year.
About Martyn
Founder of Sheffield Hallam Programming (SHUProg), winner of the SAP international hackathon in Germany and BBC Sheffield inspirational beard of 2015. Martyn currently works in the Front End team at Experian, he enjoys using Node.JS to integrate with APIs and actively avoids styling tasks. Outside of work Martyn is usually found training for triathlons, drinking local coffee or working on open source projects.
Introduction to CI and TravisCI
by James Gonzalez
In this talk James will explain the importance of CI (continuous integration) and how it helps you discover the results of what your code will do before you deploy. He'll discuss the key fundamentals behind a successful CI implementation and share what they're doing with CI at Experian.
About James
James is an AWS DevOps Consultant for Experian. He's worked with DevOps/CICD since around 2011. His main focus right now at Experian is the implementation of TravisCI and improving how Experian manages and deploys its code.
Attend and tweet on the #TechNott hashtag to be in with a chance of winning!


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Day 10 (for me)
>> Friday, June 11, 2010
Here's my picture back into the project. This was at the Indy 500 practice races the Friday of Memorial Day weekend. Most of my pictures were just of the cars (because Tony stole my camera)...but this was one shot that stood out to me. The fans are completely invested. It's a whole different world at the race track.
-Lauren Vitiello