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Evolutionary researchers have recently suggested that pre-modern human societies habitually practised cooperative breeding and that this feature helps explain human prosocial tendencies. Despite circumstantial evidence that post-reproductive females and extra-pair males both provide resources required for successful reproduction by mated pairs, no study has yet provided details about the flow of food resources by different age and sex categories to breeders and offspring, nor documented the ratio of helpers to breeders. Here, we show in two hunter–gatherer societies of South America that each breeding pair with dependent offspring on average obtained help from approximately 1.3 non-reproductive adults. Young married males and unmarried males of all ages were the main food providers, accounting for 93–100% of all excess food production available to breeding pairs and their offspring. Thus, each breeding pair with dependants was provisioned on average by 0.8 adult male helpers. The data provide no support for the hypothesis that post-reproductive females are the main provisioners of younger reproductive-aged kin in hunter–gatherer societies. Demographic and food acquisition data show that most breeding pairs can expect food deficits owing to foraging luck, health disabilities and accumulating dependency ratio of offspring in middle age, and that extra-pair provisioning may be essential to the evolved human life history.
Evolutionary researchers have recently suggested that our species has been organized, throughout much of its natural history, into partially kin-based resource acquisition and consumption units that engage in 'cooperative breeding' (e.g. Emlen 1995; Hrdy 1999, 2005, 2009; Kaplan et al. 2000; Wiessner 2002; Kaplan & Gurven 2005; Mace & Sear 2005). By cooperative breeding we mean that some adults exhibit costly behaviours that can usually be expected to increase the successful reproductive output of other adults. If true, the recognition that our human ancestors were cooperative breeders can potentially unite a large set of independent observations concerning the 'human-evolved adaptive complex' (Lancaster & Kaplan 2009) and may help explain important differences in prosocial behaviour, 'shared intentionality', social intelligence and cumulative cultural capacity that distinguish humans from other great apes (Hermann et al. 2007; Hrdy 2009; Hill et al. in press). However, the details of human alloparental helping patterns remain to be determined, and these patterns must be considered in the context of a more general theory about cooperative breeding in vertebrates (e.g. Koenig & Dickinson 2004; Clutton-Brock 2006) in order to account for variation across human societies. Does most help come from other breeders, or are non-breeding helpers common? What age and sex classes provide most help, and are there patterns in the different types of help provided by different classes of helpers? Do these patterns affect parental investment in different sexed offspring? Are helpers critical for successful reproduction? And, finally, why do helpers help?
Despite variation, juveniles in all hunter–gatherer societies require food provisioning to survive (Kaplan 1994). Likewise, hunter–gatherer women often acquire less food than they themselves require (Kaplan et al. 2000). These observations imply provisioning by someone other than reproductive females. The male-provisioning hypothesis (Kaplan et al. 2000) suggests that most of the food resources used to subsidize reproductive females and their offspring are provided by males (husbands and others), who acquire the majority of food energy and nearly all the protein–lipid macronutrients in foraging societies, and share those resources for a variety of reasons (Gurven & Hill 2009). Males often form long-term pair bonds with reproducing females and emotional bonds with presumed offspring that they provision and sometimes raise to adulthood, even in the absence of a female partner (Hill & Hurtado 1996). But males may also share food with females and juveniles as a form of phenotypic signalling, mating investment, contingent reciprocity with other adults or as alloparental investors with a variety of potential fitness payoffs.
An alternative view of cooperative provisioning is termed the 'grandmother hypothesis' (Hawkes et al. 1998). Based on observations that post-reproductive females sometimes acquire more food than reproductive-aged females (e.g. Hawkes et al. 1989; Hurtado et al. 1992), and that juveniles with surviving grandmothers show higher age-specific survival in many societies (Sear & Mace 2008), proponents of this view suggest that post-reproductive females are the major food providers to breeding females and their young, and that male provisioning is an incidental side effect of mating strategies, nutritionally less important than the food obtained by women and their mothers.
Human hunter–gatherers are described as highly cooperative in both food acquisition and juvenile care. They are characterized by high rates of resource transfer between most members of a residential unit (Gurven 2004), which potentially includes non-breeders, dependent juveniles and breeders with both low and high juvenile-dependency ratios. Most hunter–gatherer social units contain adults with few or no dependants, and those individuals often produce more food than individuals with multiple dependants (e.g. Hawkes et al. 1989; Hurtado et al. 1992). Thus, some adults behave as alloparental provisioners. While we focus on food provisioning in this paper, many other types of alloparental care are also commonly reported in foraging societies (e.g. Hames & Draper 2004; Hewlett & Lamb 2005), including a wide array of 'altruistic' services provided for both juveniles and reproducing adults (e.g. clearing trails and camps, building shelters and bridges, lending tools, providing firewood and water, carrying children and possessions, caring for debilitated individuals, and supplying information about edible resources; Hill 2002).
In this paper, we consider breeding pairs as social, economic and reproductive units, and examine the extent to which they are assisted by non-reproductive helpers or other breeding pairs. All food-sharing studies in foraging societies show that fathers provide a significant fraction of the food consumed by their offspring (Gurven 2004). Marriage is a human universal (universally accompanied by ritual and/or social regulation), and most hunter–gatherer females experience long-term co-residence with one or only a few males, producing most or all of their offspring together (see below and Wiessner 2009). A long natural history of pair bonding in Homo sapiens is indicated by the small relative size of human testes despite living in multi-male, multi-female social groups, and the extensive hormonal regulation of emotional bonding between males and their mates and offspring (Ellison & Gray 2009).
Thus, our goal is to determine whether food deficits are typical for hunter–gatherer nuclear families and, if so, who provisions the needy families. We provide analyses to test between the male-provisioning and the grandmother hypotheses of nourishing helpers, and we analyse demographic and production data in order to determine whether hunter–gatherers have developed a life history that obligates extra-pair provisioning. Finally, we discuss the relationship between the evolved post-reproductive phase, and the obligate provisioning required by reproducing females.
Ache foragers inhabited the tropical forests of Eastern Paraguay, making first peaceful contact with outsiders in the mid-1970s, shortly before we began our study. During the past 30 years they have lived part-time on reservation settlements, returning frequently to the forest for extended time periods (McMillan 2001; Hill & Kintigh 2009). Foraging-dependent Ache live mainly on mammalian game, honey and extracted palm starch, with fruits and other collected resources accounting for less than 5 per cent of the diet (Kaplan et al. 2000). Sexual division of labour is pronounced, with men foraging over 6 h daily while women care for children and transport household items, foraging less than 2 h daily (Hill et al. 1985; Hurtado et al. 1985). Women forage even less when married to a high-producing husband (Hurtado et al. 1992). Cooperation in all realms of food acquisition and daily life is extensive (Hill 2002). Analyses of quantitative data on food sharing demonstrates band-wide division of game with no kin bias, and extensive, but slightly kin-biased, sharing of vegetable and invertebrate foods (Kaplan et al. 1984; Kaplan & Hill 1985a,b). Both contingent reciprocity and need-based provisioning are typical of collected foods and meat sharing at reservations (Gurven et al. 2002; Allen-Arave et al. 2008). Ache demographic patterns include high fertility, long lifespans and measured positive effects on survivorship and fertility associated with the presence of some kin categories and for some age and sex classes (Hill & Hurtado 1996). Women in the Ache population show the highest rates of pair-bond dissolution of any foraging group reported, yet post-reproductive women still produced children with fewer than two men, on average, in a lifetime (Hill & Hurtado 1996, pp. 219–237). Recent research with the Ache has documented age patterns of food acquisition and growth (e.g. Kaplan et al. 2000; Walker et al. 2002; Walker & Hill 2003) that are the basis for some of the calculations presented here.
The Hiwi of Venezuela live in seasonally flooded grassland savannahs, and primarily forage for riverine resources and species that inhabit gallery forests of the region. Hiwi foragers were first pacified in 1959 and studied by us from 1984–1990. Unlike the Ache, the Hiwi did not partially adopt agriculture prior to our study period. Quantitative data on Hiwi foraging show they are mainly dependent on mammalian game, fish and roots (Hurtado & Hill 1987, 1990). As reported for the Ache, Hiwi women also work fewer hours daily when their husband is a high food producer (Hurtado et al. 1992). While food sharing is extensive, transfers to other families statistically favour kin, neighbours and reciprocity partners, and meat is typically shared more than non-meat resources (Gurven et al. 2000a). Relative to the Ache, the Hiwi show medium fertility, high mortality owing to violence, strong preferential female infanticide and rapid childhood growth with earlier age at maturity (Kaplan et al. 2000; Walker et al. 2006; Hill et al. 2007). Pair-bond stability is considerably higher among the Hiwi, with post-reproductive women reporting a mean of only 1.7 husbands in a reproductive career (Hurtado & Hill 1992).
Regardless of their causal motivator, food transfers in foraging societies buffer critical resource shortfalls for breeding pairs on three time scales. These correspond to food deficits caused by acquisition luck, health disabilities and cumulative dependency load. First, daily fluctuations in foraging success and short-term stochasticity (see electronic supplementary material) create conditions in which food transfers are required for optimal health and survival. Among the Ache, who hunt mainly small game, daily variability owing to hunting luck is moderate, and men obtain game on 50 per cent of all days (Hill & Kintigh 2009). Among the Hiwi, men obtained some meat on only 24 per cent of the days that they foraged, and the frequency of successful prey acquisition among other low-latitude hunter–gatherers appears similar to the Hiwi or lower—for example, 27 per cent of all hunting days for !Kung men (Hill & Kintigh 2009); 21 per cent of hunting days for Agta men (Headland 1986), 11 to 30 per cent on individual hunts for Efe men (Bailey 1991, pp. 84–85); and 3.4 per cent on individual hunts for Hadza big-game hunters (Hawkes et al. 2001, p. 684).
Although healthy modern adults can survive for more than two months without food, small children in hunter–gatherer societies, because of lower fat reserves, parasite infestation and allometrically higher metabolic rates, can probably only survive for approximately one week without food (see electronic supplementary material). A tabulation of the actual amount of meat obtained by Ache hunters on all days when they hunted (n = 14 364 total days on 148 hunters over a 27-year period; Hill & Kintigh 2009) shows that 4 per cent of all 7-day runs of monitored hunting for individual men resulted in no meat at all. Because hunted game provides approximately 78 per cent of the food energy consumed in Ache society (Kaplan et al. 2000), we might guess that for about two weeks per year (0.04 × 52), Ache breeding pairs require extra-pair food transfers for their juvenile dependants to remain healthy.
Second, hunters often experience longer runs of hunting failure owing to injury or illness. Recent analyses of Ache health records from 1997 to 2000 show that men in one study settlement were sick or injured in ways that would significantly limit hunting effort on 21 per cent of all days (n = 27 470 man days; see electronic supplementary material). Runs of debilitating health ranged in length from 3 to 360 days for morbidity the onset of which began during our sample period, and 11 of 29 men experienced a run of poor health lasting at least 30 days. One man in the sample was permanently disabled after falling from a tree prior to the start of the study period, and another (not in the sample) was permanently disabled from tuberculosis.
Although this health sample is drawn from reservation-based hunter–gatherers exposed to modern infectious disease as well as traditional health insults, interviews with older men suggest that similar or worse rates of compromised health plagued the Ache in the pre-contact period (rates of trauma were apparently higher, while rates of some infectious diseases appear lower). This problem is ubiquitous in all foraging populations. Bailey (1991) showed that Efe men from 1981 to 1982 were injured or sick on 21 per cent of all days sampled, and Sugiyama (2004a,b) documented frequent serious injury and long runs of disability among Yora (8% of all days) and Shiwar hunters of the Amazon, with a large impact on economic productivity (Sugiyama & Chacon 2000). Likewise, M. Gurven (personal communication, 2008) found in interviews that 75 per cent of Tsimane adults (n = 570) had been incapacitated by illness or injury in the previous three months (10% of all days).
Significant fluctuations in mean hunting return rates caused by bouts of poor health can be detected by continuous monitoring of Ache men over a multi-year period. From 1996 to 2003, 9 of the 12 best hunters in our sample experienced at least one three-month period of hunting success of less than 10 per cent of their long-term average rate (figure 1; electronic supplementary material). Health-related production failure is even more pronounced among lower-return hunters. Data from the Arroyo Bandera Ache community shows that 42 of the 49 men who resided in that study community during these 7 years experienced at least one 90-day period with 0 kg meat acquisition. Interviews suggest that most of these periods were associated with poor health (A. M. Hurtado 2007, unpublished data). Not surprisingly, Ache hunters cite the fear of disability as an important reason why they willingly conform to the conventions of band-wide and need-based food sharing. Importantly, systematic observations on the reservation confirm that Ache men who are more generous in food sharing obtain more help from others when they are sick or injured (Gurven et al. 2000b).
Tri-monthly total meat acquisition for the top three Ache hunters from 1996 to 2003 at the Arroyo Bandera settlement. Each point represents the 90-day total meat acquisition. The dotted horizontal line represents approximately 10 per cent of the mean ...
The third time scale of energy shortfall experienced by breeding pairs is associated with the human life history. Because energy harvest rates and accumulating offspring dependency loads do not follow the same age curve in hunter–gatherers (Walker et al. 2002; Gurven & Walker 2006), breeding pairs can generally expect to be net producers of food during some periods and net consumers at other times. Most importantly, because of the age structure of need, we hypothesize that those who provide food to families with energetic deficits at one point in time may not receive shares back later from the prior recipients. If true, this would imply that food providers are often 'helpers' rather than reciprocity partners. In order to test this hypothesis, and determine the age–sex structure of food provisioning, we have estimated production and consumption patterns for the Ache and Hiwi during time periods when both were dependent on foraging and displayed population age structure and family composition of full-time foragers.
The 1970 pre-contact, forest-dwelling Ache population contained 142 adult females, 167 adult males and 236 dependent children (15 years or less; Hill & Hurtado 1996). Despite high fertility and long offspring dependency, only 69 per cent of women and 54 per cent of men had any surviving dependants during that year (1970). The men and women without dependent offspring in 1970 constituted the pool of potential helpers critical to the success of the active breeders in that year. Some of the helping adults were temporarily non-reproductive, others post-reproductive and others lifelong non-reproducers (two women were sterile, two men were disfigured from Leshmaniasis, two were mildly handicapped, three were homosexual and several had personality traits that reportedly precluded their chance of mating). Ache age–sex energy acquisition and consumption patterns measured from 1980 to 2007 (Kaplan 1994; Kaplan et al. 2000; Walker et al. 2002; Hill & Kintigh 2009; electronic supplementary material) can be combined with the pre-contact population structure and demographic parameters (Hill & Hurtado 1996) in order to estimate which age groups would have been net producers or net consumers of energy in the pre-contact population (figure 2).
Measured daily energy acquisition and consumption for (a) Ache and (b) Hiwi hunter–gatherers based on observed foraging success, and weight and height of potential consumers. Male consumption, dotted line; female consumption, solid line; male ...
Given the observed mean rates of fertility, mortality and spousal age difference (Hill & Hurtado 1996), we can estimate the mean expected energy acquisition and consumption for nuclear families that experienced average demographic parameters throughout the lifespan, and mean production and consumption rates (figure 3). This net energy profile reflects the expected dependency ratio (Gurven & Walker 2006), but also includes expected net food production by family members (e.g. Kaplan & Gurven 2005). The analysis indicates that hypothetical forest-dwelling Ache families with the mean number of children and age-specific food acquisition and consumption patterns should experience net energy shortfalls across much of the female reproductive span from the age of about 30 to the late 50s. This expectation, based on population average demographic rates, can be confirmed with data on real family composition.
Expected food acquisition and consumption for Ache nuclear families when the reproductive female of the family is of specified age. Parental consumption, solid line; total family consumption, dotted line; total family production, circles.
Table 1 shows the actual family composition of the Northern Ache in 1970 and the net summed energy production by all families in specific reproductive and age categories. The data show that real married couples should indeed have experienced energy deficits in middle age, with polygynous families requiring extensive provisioning (figure 4). Younger and older monogamous pairs with lower dependency loads could partially help subsidize the middle-aged breeders; however, unmarried males were by far the most important helpers. Post-reproductive females with no dependants and the spouses of post-reproductive females (about one-third were married) did not contribute food to ease the caloric deficit of middle-aged breeding pairs among the Ache. The population census shows that each breeding pair with dependants had on average 1.27 adult helpers or 0.82 male provisioners (80 men and 44 women without dependants, divided by 98 married women with dependants) to assist with care and food acquisition. There were also six unmarried adult males caring for dependent children with no surviving mother.
(a) Estimated mean net daily energy production for 119 monogamously or polygynously married Ache women, their mates and their dependent offspring (15 years or less), based on reported family composition in 1970 (Hill & Hurtado 1996) and age–sex-specific ...
Total net energy production by age and reproductive class, Ache population.
The Ache example is based on actual pre-contact family compositions but food production averages that were measured during the post-contact period. In our second example, family composition and food acquisition were measured simultaneously in a population that had always been dependent on foraging over a 3-year period. From 1985 to 1988, we observed Hiwi hunter–gatherers of the Venezuelan savannah and directly recorded age–sex patterns of food acquisition along with population structure, fertility and mortality (Hurtado & Hill 1987, 1990; Hill et al. 2007). The Mahenemuthu band of Hiwi consisted of 34 men, 28 women and 39 dependent children, who lived by hunting capybara, turtles and fish, and collecting roots and fruits in the gallery forests of the Venezuelan llanos. Approximately 95 per cent of all food energy obtained during the sample period came from hunting and gathering (Hurtado & Hill 1990). The ratio of helpers to breeders was similar to that of the pre-contact Ache. Only 68 per cent of the Hiwi women had any dependent offspring in 1985, and 56 per cent of the adult males had surviving dependent offspring. Thus, 9 women and 15 men acted as non-reproductive helpers for 19 breeding couples (1.26 adult helpers, or 0.79 male provisioners per breeding pair with dependants). Age–sex-specific energy acquisition patterns (figure 2b) are similar in shape to the Ache, but post-reproductive Hiwi women acquired more energy than they consumed, and hunting return rates declined more steeply with age in Hiwi men.
Table 2 shows the family composition of the Hiwi study group and the net summed energy production of all families by reproductive and age category. The data show that married couples experienced an energy deficit in middle age (figure 4b), and this continued into old age because of the steep declines in male hunting returns with age. Younger monogamous pairs with lower dependency loads and middle-aged unmarried males were the most important helpers. Post-reproductive females and their partners (one-third were married) did not contribute food to ease the caloric deficit because females were either married to low-producing men, or the women themselves were very old and unproductive.
Total net energy production by age and reproductive class, Hiwi population.
Anecdotal observations on food transfers to Hiwi families with large food deficits provide additional insight into food sharing in this group. For example, the nuclear family of one 33-year-old pregnant woman consisted of the woman, her husband (who was a poor hunter), a 10-year-old boy from a previous marriage and the 3-year-old daughter of the married couple, with a total net energy deficit of over 5000 calories per day. The 10-year-old boy was fed almost entirely by his genetic father's kin group, and the husband's close kin included four other adult non-reproducers who covered most of the remaining family energy deficit.
Extra-pair provisioning of breeders and their offspring is extensive in these two foraging societies. The detailed patterns reported here confirm the rough calculation by Kaplan & Gurven (2005) in which they suggested that young males probably subsidize the reproduction of older breeders. We should note that at any point in time some of the provisioners are not single males, but simply other mated males with a low number of needy offspring. Thus, some portion of the provisioning we observed might be termed communal breeding (and perhaps reciprocal altruism), but this depends on the payoffs to the provisioning males. Because of phenotypic variation, polygyny and male-biased adult sex ratios, males are especially likely to fail in direct reproduction and resort to helping as a form of indirect reproduction. Preliminary data analyses (unpublished) suggest that Ache residential camps are statistically biased in favour of coresidence with male kin. For unrelated males, provisioning may represent a tactic to remain as tolerated members of a social group until reproductive opportunities arise. Group augmentation may also be important for males intending to remain resident (Wiessner 2002). Recent modelling suggests that cooperative group augmentation may be favoured through between-group competition in hunter–gatherer societies (e.g. Bowles 2009). Finally, some males probably help because of their belief that they might be the genetic fathers of some offspring through extra-pair copulation (Kaplan & Hill 1985a; Hill & Hurtado 1996, pp. 438–439). But it is important to emphasize that sharing of the major staples is nearly communal among the Ache (Kaplan & Hill 1985b; Gurven et al. 2002); thus, most provisioning is kin-directed only to the extent that residential group composition is kin-biased. Most importantly, recent work has shown that a large portion of the food sharing observed among the Ache and other traditional groups is 'need-based'. Allen-Arave et al. (2008) measured the 'need' of Ache families as total family food production minus total family food consumption, and showed that difference in need alone was associated with 16 per cent of the variance in food flows between families. This need effect was strong among non-kin as well as kin. In addition, the multiple regression intercept implied that over 2000 calories were transferred on average to unrelated families who did not share with the donor family and achieved the same net food production level during the study period (100 h of observation). In other words some sharing takes place with others simply because they are members of the residential group. These observations confirm that the food provisioning is ubiquitous, generally biased in favour of helping families with large dependency loads and not limited to kin assistance. Similar patterns are reported in a half dozen other groups (Allen-Arave et al. 2008).
Although recent discussions have emphasized allomaternal and maternal grandmother roles as the main component of cooperative breeding in humans (e.g. Hawkes et al. 1998; Mace & Sear 2005), our research indicates that males are more important provisioners in the Ache and Hiwi. Hames & Draper (2004) recently suggested that the notable helper effect of female kin in previous studies may be limited to agricultural societies. If the provisioning patterns we report here are more typical of other foraging economies, it suggests that post-reproductive females contribute to increased grandoffspring survival in foragers through activities other than provisioning, or that the grandmother demographic effect may be limited mainly to farmers (e.g. Sear & Mace 2008). Post-reproductive Ache and Hiwi women contributed very little to meeting the food deficits of high-dependency families because older females made up a small portion of the population, and they not were very productive relative to younger males.
Simple life-history calculations also contradict the grandmother hypothesis of provisioning. The probability of an average reproductive-aged woman having a surviving mother to help is simply Lx+T/Lx, where Lx is survival to age x and T is mean generation time (the average age that any child is born). With a mean generation time of approximately 30 years and the average survival observed in several foraging societies (Kaplan et al. 2000), this means that the probability of a surviving maternal grandmother peaks early in marriage at around 0.7 and drops very low by the time the maximum caloric deficit is reached in the late 30s to mid-40s. Indeed, in the Ache population, only 32 per cent of women from age 36 to 45 had a surviving mother. In contrast, 59 per cent of the Ache women of that age lived in nuclear families with negative net caloric production and thus received consistent provisioning assistance from a male other than their husband. The co-residence patterns of hunter–gatherers further mitigate against grandmother provisioning because a residence pattern other than strict matrilocality lowers the probability of grandmother co-residence even further. For example, preliminary analyses from spot checks among the Ache during the pre-contact period shows that only approximately 36 per cent of adult women co-reside with their mothers even if they are alive. Multiplying the probability of mothers' survival (0.32) by the conditional probability of co-residing with her if she is alive (0.36) means that only approximately 10 per cent of middle-aged Ache women co-resided with their own mothers. Grandmothers cannot be the major food providers to their daughters at the ages when daughters will most need help.
Economic evidence also contradicts the grandmother provisioning hypothesis. Contrary to popular views, vertebrate prey makes up the most food energy and virtually all the protein–lipid in most modern foraging societies (Ember 1978; Cordain et al. 2000; Kaplan et al. 2000). In both our study populations, men are the main food providers (84% of total energy for Ache, 79% for Hiwi; Kaplan et al. 2000). In both societies the numerical importance of male helpers is augmented by intentionally male-biased adult sex ratios owing to infanticide and partial neglect of infant females (Hill & Hurtado 1996; Hill et al. 2007). Indeed, we suspect that female-biased infanticide/neglect may be a behavioural adaptation to produce a favourable cooperative breeding sex ratio in ecologies where male productivity is high. This speculation is supported by the positive relationship between overall male economic contribution and male-biased sex ratio observed in hunter–gatherer societies (Hewlett 1991).
Derived features of human life history may have coevolved with a cooperative breeding socio-economic system that transfers resources between age classes (Lee 2008). Hunter–gatherer children are born helpless, and undergo a long period of brain growth and slow body growth, which is associated with near-total resource dependency until full adult body size (Lancaster & Kaplan 2009) is obtained. The adolescent growth spurt must be subsidized by helpers because there is no sudden increase in productive ability of juveniles or their parents during teen years (Kaplan et al. 2000; Walker et al. 2006). Likewise, the high fertility rate in hunter–gatherers is only attainable by provisioning adult females and their offspring. Hunter–gatherer women typically achieve early adult fertility rates of approximately 0.3 offspring per year, whereas great ape fertility typically peaks around 0.2 offspring per year (Hewlett 1991; Kaplan et al. 2000). Moreover, female wild chimpanzees show interbirth intervals after surviving offspring that are nearly twice as long as hunter–gatherer women who are subsidized (approx. 70 months for chimpanzees in table 1 of Emery Thompson et al. 2007 versus 36 months for Ache in Hill & Hurtado 1996, p. 254). Finally, the cessation of fertility (menopause), when life expectancy is approximately 20 more years (Hill & Hurtado 1996, p. 427), is a hunter–gatherer life-history trait that only makes sense in a cooperative breeding context.
Post-reproductive human females continue to live for decades, engaging in indirect reproduction by helping their children and grandchildren to survive and reproduce (Hawkes et al. 1998; Sear & Mace 2008). But demographic gains in offspring fertility or grandoffspring survival do not appear large enough to account for the termination of reproductive function and the evolution of menopause (Hill & Hurtado 1991, 1996; Rogers 1994; Lee 2008). One interesting possibility is that reproductive senescence is favoured because of the investment patterns of helpers. Perhaps investors who will be related to newly produced offspring prefer to provision younger females of high intrinsic fertility rather than older females whose reproductive machinery has declined in efficiency owing to senescence. As a woman loses kin-based food subsidies, her reproductive output may drop low enough to favour termination of continued investment in her own reproductive function; Hill & Hurtado (1996, p. 32) show that a fertility drop to one-sixth of peak fertility would favour menopause in Ache women. One intriguing analogy comes from observations on the gamergates (female workers who develop ovarian function and reproduce upon death of the queen) of Hypergnathos saltator. In that species, gamergate fertility declines with ageing and is advertised through exoskeletal hydrocarbons, leading to a reduction in investment by helpers and cessation of reproduction by older gameragates, who then become post-reproductive helpers until the end of their lifespan (Hölldobler & Wilson 2008, pp. 336–355).
Whatever the ultimate evolutionary causes, current data suggest that the observed hunter–gatherer life history is not possible without alloparental food subsidies. This pattern may partially explain why humans have recently evolved extensive non-kin cooperation, 'other-regarding preferences' demonstrated in economic experiments, and a suite of prosocial behaviours and emotions unlike the other great apes (Hrdy 2009; Hill et al. in press). We have shown in two well-studied foraging societies that food subsidies are provided mainly by adult males. It remains to be determined whether this pattern is typical during much of our evolutionary history.
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We're not the sick man
IT gives me enormous pleasure and indeed it is a honour to be given this opportunity to address such distinguished readers of the South China Morning Post on the occasion of the National Day of the Republic of Poland.
Poland is one of the largest countries in central Europe and, with a population of over 38 million, is the largest market in this part of Europe.
As you know, three years ago my country brought about a dramatic change which started a chain reaction throughout central and eastern Europe.
Poland became the first country to break away from the communist ideology and to return to its historical and traditional political and economic values. The road towards democracy and a market economy was embarked upon by the country.
Poland, therefore, was the first country to introduce so-called ''shock therapy'' - the programme of systemic, institutional and economic change which began in January, 1990.
While the transformation process is proving to be more prolonged and difficult than anticipated, successive governments have reaffirmed their commitment to constructing a competitive, open and financially stable market economy in Poland.
Only one year ago, some sceptics in the Western press claimed that Poland had lost heart with the reforms and once again was sliding towards becoming the sick man of Europe.
I am pleased to say that the programme of political and economic stabilisation has proved to be successful. Once again we have proved those sceptics wrong.
Recently, Poland has been heralded as the most successful reforming economy in the region.
The restructuring of the Polish economy (for instance, the steel-making industry, oil refining and petrochemical industries, coal-mining industry) as well as the privatisation of Poland's state-owned sector is once again underway.
These programmes, as well as some other restructuring ones, will require substantial financial resources from abroad. After all, the world is becoming a global village.
I am sure that some of you will find my country an attractive business proposition as well as an interesting place to visit just for tourism.
More information is available at the Consulate General of Poland, Suite 1006, One Pacific Place, 88 Queensway, Central, Hongkong, telephone 840 0779 or fax 596 0062.
I trust local business will take the opportunity to get more information about Poland, as well as trade and investment opportunities in my country.
May I also be permitted to extend my best greetings and congratulations to the Polish people, including those living in Hongkong, on the occasion of the National Day of Poland and express my best wishes of prosperity for the Hongkong people.
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Weight Watchers Egg Salad
READY IN: 20mins
Recipe by xpnsve
I love egg salad and was thrilled when a friend passed this recipe along from a recent WW meeting. 3 delicious little points per serving.
Top Review by ohgee1kenobi
I really like this recipe BUT don't usee that much salt! I put maybe less than half that. A little more pepper. And two dashes of dill. Also a little more mustard. It's easy, and a go to for my lunches when I'm working. I've been doing well on the WW plan.
See Discussion:24 Reviews 2 Tweaks 1 Q&A
Ingredients Nutrition
- 4 large eggs
- 2 large egg whites, you'll have to boil these as whole eggs and discard the yolks
- 2 tablespoons fresh chives, chopped
- 2 tablespoons reduced-calorie mayonnaise (I used FF, less fat = less points!)
- 1⁄2 teaspoon Dijon mustard
- 1⁄2 teaspoon table salt
- dill
- 1⁄4 teaspoon black pepper, freshly ground
Directions See How It's Made
- Place eggs in a medium saucepan and pour in enough water to cover them; set pan over high heat and bring to a boil.
- Boil 10 minutes; drain and place eggs in an ice-water bath.
- When eggs are cool enough to handle, remove shells.
- Discard yolks from two of the eggs. Cut remaining whole eggs and whites into 1/2-inch pieces (or use an egg slicer).
- Transfer eggs to a medium bowl. Add chives, mayonnaise, mustard, dill, salt and pepper; mix until blended.
- Yields about 1/2 cup per serving.


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n illegally parked car delays the firefighters, causing a woman's death. Western medicine kills Doc and Carlos' Chinese patient.The suicide of his first partner causes Sully to reflect on his own life.
Jason Wiles
Coby Bell
Anthony Ruivivar
Skipp Sudduth
Molly Price
Eddie Cibrian Jimmy Doherty
Bobby Cannavale
Josh Stewart
Edward Allen Bernero Writer
Third Watch - 1x11 - Alone in a Crowd


text:
Teenagers Face to Face With Cancer
Gravelle and John
I think we can all agree that this book is ready for weeding. Don't make me preach about time sensitive material! This book was also just grimy looking, and I doubt anyone would want to pick it up.
Teens facing cancer is an important issue that is worthy of a space on the shelf. Even if this is just teens talking about "dealing" with cancer, the medical procedures have come so far that it isn't the death sentence it used to be. Upgrade, please!
Teen Problems:
Based upon the sample pages above, it seems like an obvious time to consider reading "Me Earl and the Dying Girl" by Jesse Andrews. (It's out of stock on Amazon.) My high school librarian spouse often brings home YA literature for me to read even if I'm a library science professor with a focus on academic libraries. Reading her selections does give me some "creds" with my youth services students in my collection development course.
I don't care if cancer isn't the death sentence it used to be. I'd sincerely rather die than endure chemotherapy. These days most people die of either cancer or a heart attack, and I hope I die of a heart attack because it will be a lot faster and then I won't have to worry about cancer.
That's the number for the suicide hotline. I highly encourage you to call it if you've been having troubling thoughts. From what I've noticed you post on here, it seems like you think about dying a lot and may be depressed or have suicidal thoughts. I may be wrong about that, and I sincerely hope I am. PLEASE talk to somebody if you are dealing with depression or often feel like you want to die. I felt exactly the same way once, and sometimes I still struggle with it. But please know that there are more people that care about you than you realize and would be absolutely shattered if you were gone.
As someone who's been through chemotherapy, I'd much rather do it again than die. It wasn't a picnic, but it was by no means the horror it's sometimes made out to be.
Who is the back cover text directed at? It seems to be written to a librarian wondering if they should by it, and not a teenager who might be looking for information. I will say that when I was a teenager, and still to a degree now, if a book blurb isn't written for some category I fit into, I wouldn't read it.


text:
Building surveying > Pathology > Common defects
Defects interfere with the relationship between the physical building and the client's desires, perceptions and expectations. This section reflects defects that are common, difficult to diagnose, or complex to resolve, and provides a compendium of common defects.
The section also explores how to begin investigating a defect, what the most likely causes are and the common pitfalls to avoid when analysing cause and effect.
This section is maintained by Andrew Harris of Wilks Head & Eve.


text:
This really made my day. Looking forward to this album, and the best thing is to see that good ol' Roky seems to be in real great shape. So good to see.
Roky Erickson and Will Sheff of Okkervil River at Toy Joy, Austin TX from Roky Erickson w/ Okkervil River on Vimeo.


text:
French Toast with Cornflake Crunch
Be the first to review
READY IN: 35mins
Recipe by BeckyF
Serve with Bacon or sausage and pass warm maple syrup separately.
See Discussion:
Ingredients Nutrition
- 3 large eggs
- 2 large egg whites
- 1⁄2 cup fresh orange juice
- 1⁄2 cup confectioners' sugar, plus additional for garnish
- 1 tablespoon cinnamon
- 2 teaspoons pure vanilla extract
- 1 pinch salt
- 2 2⁄3 cups corn flakes
- 8 slices of day old bread brioche bread or 8 slices challah
- 3 tablespoons unsalted butter
- sliced strawberry (to garnish)
- orange section (to garnish)
Directions See How It's Made
- Put the eggs, egg whites, orange juice, confectioners' sugar, cinnamon, vanilla, and salt in a mixing bowl.
- Wisk until well mixed.
- Spread 1/3 cup of cornflakes on the center of a piece of plastic wrap.
- Dip a slice of bread quickly into the egg mixture, coating both sides.
- Place bread onto the cornflakes.
- Use a fork and press the top of the bread lightly to embed the cornflakes into the underside.
- It should be solidly coated.
- Set the bread slice aside, cornflake side down.
- Working quickly, repeat the dipping process with the remaining slices of bread, using about 1/3 cup of cornflakes per slice.
- Divide the butter between 2 large nonstick griddles or skillets.
- Melt over medium heat until it is hot.
- Transfer the slices, cornflake side down on the griddles.
- Cook until both sides are browned, about 4 minutes each side.
- (Lacking sufficient cooking surface, you can dip the slices and coat them with cornflakes as batches are cooked, keeping thte cooked slices warm in a preheated 200 degree oven.) Serve hot, cornflake side up.
- Lightly sieve confectioners' sugar over the toast.
- Garnish the plate with strawberries and orange segments.


text:
Strong Core Curriculum
The academic curriculum at St. Pius X is one that challenges students to develop basic skills and good study habits. The curriculum and instructional practices at St. Pius X School provide differentiated instruction to support all students' learning needs at various levels. The core curriculum offerings are:
Religion, Reading, Mathematics, Language Arts, Literature, Social Studies, Science, Technology, Physical Education and Music.
We also provide Library, and Electives for grades 5 through 8.
Reading Specialist
The St. Pius X Reading Specialist works with children by assessing their reading styles and skills and offers instruction for improvment. The Reading Specialist dedicates five afternoons per week to the students. The core subjects addressed are literature and reading.
St. Pius X welcomes students to a world of adventure, fantasy, mystery, and intrigue in the St. Pius X School Library.
Historical stories to inspire and gain courage in facing life's quest await them. This year, we are raising the achievement of our students by providing them with research and study skills curriculum. They gain new insights as faculty and students share their passion for reading with weekly book talks. St. Pius X school library is an invaluable resource our students draw upon time and time again.
Technology/Computer Learning
St. Pius X School's computer education starts in Kindergarten. Younger grades learn the parts of the computer and basic skills through educational software games. In third grade, students begin basic typing skills. In Middle School students are provided a foundation of skills to efficiently, effectively and responsibly utilize technology. Students will build a foundation in Microsoft Office, keyboarding, and Internet exploration. Students will reinforce basic keyboarding skills with an emphasis on Word documents, Excel spreadsheets, Internet Safety, PowerPoint presentations and research.
Physical Education
St. Pius X students are scheduled a Physical Education Class twice a week.This time provides a foundation of skills for students to develop motor skills and physical fitness while involved in activities that help develop creative thinking and skills that will empower them to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Our students participate in a choral music program that allows them to learn more about music, how it is used at Mass and they learn a variety of musical styles to perform at both Spring and Christmas concert programs. Music is taught PreK-8 weekly.
Full-Day Kindergarten Program
St. Pius X offers a full-day Kindergarten program with a curriculum that includes:
- Letter and number recognition
- Reading and phonics
- Mathematics
- Science
- Social Studies
- Religion
- Art
- Music
- Computers
- Physical Education
The Kindergarten class is staffed by a full-time certified teacher. Strong parental involvement helps to make Kindergarten a wonderful, well-rounded beginning for our students.
School-Wide Student
Learning Expectations
A St. Pius X Student lives as:
I. A Faithful Roman Catholic who:
- Knows traditional Catholic teachings and practices
- Actively participates in Catholic faith life, discipleship and service
- Makes good moral choices and decisions based on Catholic faith values
II. A Responsible Life Long Learner who:
- Continually strives for self-improvement and academic excellence
- Knows where to find and how to interpret information
- Is able to set and achieve goals
- Is able to listen actively, speak clearly, and write concisely and correctly
- Analyzes and considers alternatives through critical thinking
III.A Socially Responsible Citizen who:
- Serves as a steward using their time, talents, and treasure
- Understands and seeks to solve global issues
- Works to resolve conflicts peacefully
- Respects points of view, perspectives and cultural diversity
Contact the school for more information or to schedule a visit.


text:
Question: Casey Cordell is the owner of a digital photography service
Casey Cordell is the owner of a digital photography service in Madison, Wisconsin. The company has been profitable every year of its existence. Its debt ratio is currently 68 percent, its current ratio is 1:1, and its debt-to-equity ratio is 72.2 percent. Do these financial numbers cause any reason to be concerned? Why or why not?
View Solution:
View Solution:
Answer to relevant QuestionsWhat items on the left side (or top) and what items on the right side (or bottom) of a firm's balance sheet should receive the greatest scrutiny? In regard to each of these items, what are the most important factors that a ...As evidenced in this chapter, a firm's statement of cash flows is divided into three separate activities. Which of the activities from the statement of cash flows would be affected by a firm's decision to use Fundbox's ...How does a firm compute its profit margin? What is the significance of this ratio? What other techniques, not mentioned previously, can people who don't have prior business experience utilize to compensate for their lack of experience? Currently, Ann Schafer is a sales representative for The Pampered Chef, a direct sales organization that sells kitchen utensils and related products. Ann, who lives near Houston, Texas, is thinking about leaving her current ...
Post your question


text:
Need a Thyroid Test in Maryville, TN? Simply order online 24/7 and get a fast, affordable Thyroid Test at a lab near you (Find More Locations):
What is a Thyroid Test?
A Thyroid Test consists of lab tests to check the thyroid. People in Maryville, TN get a Thyroid Test for general screening or at the request of a medical provider.
How much does a Thyroid Test cost?
Our Thyroid Test prices include the doctor's order that you need to get tested in Maryville, TN, all lab fees and taxes, and a pdf copy of your results. For current prices, please CLICK HERE.
What does a Thyroid Test lab report look like?
For a popular Thyroid Test sample report, please CLICK HERE.
We are delighted to offer the Thyroid Test in Maryville, TN.
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text:
Sled Friends
It looks like you have an ad blocker on. Please disable your ad blocker and refresh to fully enjoy our games.
Thank you.
When the snow is thick and you've got time to spare, build a sledding buddy to wait weight to the back of your sled. Build up speed and make sure you're bundled up if you ever wipe out and get thrown into a massive snow drift!
Use your mouse to click on and through the floating hair, clothing, and accessory options for these two winter buddies.


text: I was sitting down styling, happily plodding on becoming frustrated at designing a logo when I heard 3 beeps from the washing machine alerting me that the cycle was finished. Then I got thinking (this is my madness). How great would it be if the cycle ended with a *Beep* *Beep* and has the 3rd alert was about to go off it was a great loud *HONK* with a set of speakers sliding out the sides of the washing machine. Finally the front door of the washer opens and a big fat tongue hangs out (obviously the longer the cycle) say whites the longer the tongue.\n\nWhat can I say, I'm bored, I suddenly envision myself walking barefooted over a path of chocolate muffins.\n\nWhat would be your ideal appliance? Let you mind go, this thread isn't for serious intelligent conversation. :)


text:
Allright y'all!
Name or list any red flags that you can think of to look out for when I'm considering dating a girl!
Dating red flags not a flag that is red, ok!
Just to give you a little bit of what I look for in a girl I consider dating
Her morals match as much as mine or closely.
respect and consideration.
she will not compromise my morals and beliefs.
shouldn't be to hard to find huh?
Allright go!
Most Helpful Girl
I think the ones You put up their are pretty good and important...
Don't know about You but for me it's important for him to be laid back & be able to joke about different things, even serious things. IT would be hell for me if He would be serious all the time or having myself watch out what I joke about.
and Her goals maybe? Like it doesn't make sense to date someone that want the opposite of what You want, soo...
Can't think of nothing else... the rest time will verify ^^
Humor is a must. I'm a funny guy or at least I make people laugh with my silly/ sometimes ridiculous sense of humor, I have found out that many girls I liked digged my humor but at the end result they were annoyed by me for my humor... I never went to far but I was pretty let down when I started to realize this. She has to digg my humor and jokes and silliness. That's just who I am.
Exactly! 😁 No laughing no fun 😝
Most Helpful Guy
If she immediately asks these questions, then it's a red flag:
1. "How wealthy are you?"- variations include "what kind of job do you have", "what do you do for a living", "how much do you earn", etc. If she does, then her ulterior motives are crystal clear- leave her well alone.
2. "How sexually experienced are you?"- variations include "how many girlfriends have you had", "how many people have you slept with", "how good are you in bed", etc. If she does, then she's just looking for a piece of meat, a 'stud' to fuck with, and she'll treat you like a sexual object. Begone.
3. "Are you a nice guy?"- any woman who asks this question is a hopeless case, and there's nothing you could possibly say or do in response to this question which she won't seize upon as an excuse to categorize you as one in her warped mind. Get lost.00|00|0
Thank you sir! Yeah I want to avoid this kind of girl!


text:
Learn more about E.C. BAILY & SON (WARLINGHAM) LIMITED. Check the company's details for free and view the Companies House information, company documents and list of directors.
Know about every new company document that is added!
Take advantage of our watch this company feature free of charge and have notifications sent directly to your inbox. Whenever a new document appears on this website, or if their particulars change, you will be immediately informed about such changes. To monitor these changes, all you need to do is click on watch this company.
|Fixed Assets
|£ 44,079
|Tangible Fixed Assets
|£ 44,079
|Current Assets
|£ 50,354
|Tangible Fixed Assets Depreciation
|£ 1,164
|£ 12,326
|Shareholder Funds
|£ 58,824
|Profit Loss Account Reserve
|£ 56,574
|Called Up Share Capital
|£ 2,250
|Total Assets Less Current Liabilities
|£ 58,824
|Net Current Assets Liabilities
|£ 14,745
|Creditors Due Within One Year
|£ 35,609
|Cash Bank In Hand
|£ 38,028
|Share Capital Allotted Called Up Paid
|£ 2,250
|Number Shares Allotted
|£ 2,250
|Tangible Fixed Assets Disposals
|£ 1,164
|Tangible Fixed Assets Cost Or Valuation
|£ 44,079
|Tangible Fixed Assets Depreciation Decrease Increase On Disposals
|£ 1,164
Information about the Private Limited Company E.C. BAILY & SON (WARLINGHAM) LIMITED has been prepared for information purposes only. It is not intended to be nor does it constitute legal advice. This is public information provided by the official company register.


text:
DJ Crisis #ThrowbackThursdayMIX FreakNik 95 Edition 8.16.12
- by Cordarius Dj Crisis Freeman
- 89
- 15m
- 5 years ago
Down South .
Week 4 of my Throwback Thursday Mix....This is the FreakNik 95 edition...I know yall know how FreakNik went down lol....but check it out and let me know what you think
Press play to try again.
Please update your browser or install another such as Google Chrome.
Mixcloud requires HTML5 audio with MP3 and MP4 support.


text: At the end of the day, it is all about the consumer. The beauty of the smartphone market is choice. While we are an Android focused blog, we try not to bash on Apple and iOS unless it really deserves to be said. In this instance, I am quite happy about what Apple has just released to the Play Store. The app is called 'Move to iOS' and does, or is supposed to do, exactly what the title states. Which is allow you to move all your photos, messages, Google Account info, contacts, bookmarks and free apps from your Android 4.0 running device to a compatible Apple iPhone device (iOS9). Any paid apps will land in your iTunes/App Store wishlist to re-purchase. It is like Samsung Smart Switch, which is another great tool to pull everything off an iPhone to a Samsung phone, or go from Samsung to Samsung. Similarly, Move to iOS creates a device-to-device Wi-Fi network connection to migrate all the data over. Simply install the app, open it up and pull out your iPhone. You should get a screen pop-up to enter the security code that appears on the Android phone.


text:
Skip to comments.Terahertz turns up fresco's hidden artwork
Posted on 04/12/2013 1:36:17 AM PDT by neverdem
The analysis revealed the image of an upturned face underneath the fresco © Bianca Jackson and Dominique Martos-Levif
A collaboration between analytical scientists and the Louvre in France has revealed a hidden work under one of the museums frescoes. The research is an example of the broadening field of terahertz spectroscopy, using wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation between microwave and infrared.
The fresco, Trois hommes armes de lances, is part of the Louvres Campana collection pieces that once belonged to Giampietro Campana, an excavator and collector of ancient artifacts in the 19th century. Campana was known to restore the pieces he obtained but in this case, it appears he went a step further. This particular fresco was produced in the mid-19th century, either by Campana or one of his protégés, Bianca Jackson, a researcher from Rochester University, US, told the the 245th ACS National Meeting & Exposition in New Orleans, US. With this history, the curators had good reason to believe that the fresco might be holding some secrets. However, although a suite of methods had been applied to the fresco, none had revealed any underlying artwork. X-ray radiography showed the fresco was composed of different segments, and [x-ray fluorescence] suggested that there were some pigments present that were not seen on the surface, but they failed to get an image, says Jackson.
Having exhausted other possibilities, the curators invited Jackson to analyse the work using terahertz spectroscopy, a relatively new application of the technique. Everything had been done so they asked us as sort of a last ditch effort, she says. As it turned out, compared with the other techniques, terahertz spectroscopy was uniquely suited to the task. X-ray is a transmission technique, so when youve got three to four inches of plaster and a paint layer thats a few tens of microns, the signal of the paint is lost, explains Jackson. Infrared reflectometry is usually pretty good with thin layers but in this case the preparation layer was too thick. Terahertz radiation, however, can penetrate the layers, and is reflected back at the interface of different layers, giving a depth profile of the sample. After painstakingly sampling sections of the fresco, Jackson eventually detected a small variation in the signal, revealing what appears to be the image of a face underneath the top painting.
Jacksons discovery is itself the product of a failed attempt to uncover the underlying layers of the Mona Lisa, which continue to evade analytical investigations. They cant find the underdrawing because they believe its sanguine an iron oxide pigment. Iron oxide is actually one of the worst pigments for terahertz spectroscopy to detect, but in doing the background work I found out that you get very good contrast between pigments and plaster so I started looking at frescoes.
David Heaps, principal scientist with Advantest, who build terahertz spectroscopy instruments, sees this as an exciting example of the way the technique is rapidly growing and finding new applications. It hasnt been used much up to now because the technology hasnt been readily available. Now its coming to fruition its like the wild west of spectroscopy.
Parkinson's disease protein gums up garbage disposal system in cells
Engineered extremophile brews bulk chemical
Yeast to make malaria drug on demand
FReepmail me if you want on or off my health and science ping list.
|GGG managers are SunkenCiv, StayAt HomeMother & Ernest_at_the_Beach
Thanks neverdem.
Amazing technology.
Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works.


text:
Girls, Do you think guys look more attractive in business suit?
Have an opinion?
What Girls Said 17
Suit, hell yeah.
Business suit, hell no.
You get the diff, right?11|00|0
Depends on the guy. Versatility is what's hot - not always looking the same...11|00|0
i don't think so but i know that business suit will give a more classy look to the person00|00|0
Definitely, but that doesn't mean they should always wear a suit, I like guys who can dress down and still look good.11|00|0
Not to me, I find men a lot cuter when casual!! I only want to see him business saavy when suited up for our wedding... I'd enjoy removing that suit and tie ;-)00|00|0
Yes I do!11|00|0
guys in suits are just... 🔥 🔥 🔥 🔥00|00|0
Of course! Helloooooo @suitandtie 💙21|10|0
Yoooooooooo 😎
Not every man can pull off a business suit. It depends on the guy. Some guys look better casual while others look better in other styles.11|00|0
Hell yeah.11|00|0
Yeaa but only if it fits him properly!! Saggy or American style business suits are gnarly11|00|0
I say yes to this question.11|00|0
maybe. I suppose it would depend on the guy.11|00|0
Hell yessds11|00|0
A well fitted one, sure.11|00|0
Definitely HOT. I don't know why, but when they take off the jacket, loosen the tie and roll up the sleeves, it's even HOT ER!22|00|0
yes its hot when they loosen their shirt collar and their neck is naked
Learn more
Select as Most Helpful Opinion?
You cannot undo this action. The opinion owner is going to be notified and earn 7 XPER points.


text:
edenproject.comContact usCookies policy
We care about how things are made and always source responsibly, so you can enjoy shopping knowing you're making a difference. Everything we sell has a story to tell and we hope you enjoy discovering the different stories and ideas behind everything we stock..
Save 10% on Eden tickets when you book online.
Celebrate our planet and make your own garden beautiful this summer.
We have put together lots of ideas for you to enjoy being outside for more than just our short summers!
Everything we sell has to pass our rigorous buying criteria, which means your purchases help us to make a difference.
Eden is an educational charity and social enterprise. We use profits from our shop to run transformational social and environmental projects. We also provide unforgettable learning experiences and valuable research into plants and conservation.
Thanks for your support.


text:
Vintage Renewed Chopped Jeans - S/M
Brand SABELLA'S VINTAGE
Vintage Renewed 00's Chopped Jeans
Perfectly renewed jeans with raw flared hem, 4 front pockets and mid rise comfy fit! You'll never wanna take these off and they will literally go with EVERYTHING!
7 For All Mankind, Cotton/Spandex, 29
Very Good vintage condition, distressed to perfection.
Our model Katie is 5'9" with 32B bust, 25" waist, and 32" hips. She usually wears size Small; this item was not pinned on her and would best fit sizes S/M depending on desired fit, smaller sizes may have to belt!
Waist: 32" mid rise measurement so would fit smaller true waist sizes (26-29)
Rise: 10"
Inseam: 26"
Length: 35"
Style With
Cropped tank, platform boots and choker


text:
Suzanne Rosenbeck
Friedel Muller-Landau
Wendy Whetsel – Town Board Liaison
The Committee for the Conservation of the Environment (CCE aka Environmental Commission) was originally developed for wetlands protection. This Commission gradually expanded to include all areas affecting the Town's environment. Recently, a presentation was given describing the proposed Wildlife Habitat and Biodiversity Protection District. You can download information about the district below.
If you would like to get involved or get further information, please contact Secretary Carl Sandberg at (845) 528-5823. Your interest and help is welcome. The meetings are open to the public. Check the Calendar for time and place.
NY State Department of Environmental Conservation
Click HERE to download summary of laws regulating Tree Cutting in Putnam Valley.
Click HERE to download the brochure (pdf file) describing the proposed Wildlife Habitat and Biodiversity Protection District.


text:
Sign in
OTEC supports a broad range of associations, sectoral organizations and non-profit stakeholders with training solutions, project management expertise and advisory services in the strategic pursuit of their goals.
Service Excellence Series
Service Excellence Dynamics eLearning Course
Leadership Excellence Series
Train the Trainer Series
emerit Occupational Standards and Certifications
Additional OTEC Training Solutions
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To see some of the organizations we have worked with click here.
To learn more about how OTEC can support your association/not-for-profit organization contact:
2014 © OTEC All Rights Reserved


text:
It only takes a minute to get started. Fill out our simple sign up form and login to the website.
This step is discretionary but will greatly enhance your chances of having members look at your profile. Write about yourself, your interests and upload some good photos of yourself.
Use our website's state-of-the-art search to uncover members who satisfy your criteria. Or just scan through listings and uncover daters that take your fancy.
Located someone who looks right? Send them a message or just a wink and see what comes of it. With a little luck you'll be on your way to discovering your ideal match.
And start dating


text:
Miles O'Brien
President Obama is passionate, and vocal, about combating climate change. As his tenure draws to a close, science correspondent Miles O'Brien reviews the administration's environmental policy — from the 2009 "cap-and-trade" climate bill, to the 2015 Paris accord, to executive orders on greenhouse gas emissions — in assessing the president's legacy. Continue reading
Over a thousand years ago, Polynesians followed the stars in the Mauna Kea sky on their path to Hawaii. Those stars are now of interest to astronomers, who believe the mountain's summit is the perfect spot to build a giant, cutting-edge telescope. But native Hawaiians view that peak as a sacred space. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien reports for the second in our series about the controversy. Continue reading
On May 17, 2006, PBS NewsHour science correspondent Miles O'Brien got the chance to fly with his boyhood hero, astronaut and pilot John Glenn, for a story he was working on about the future of aviation. Continue reading
Former astronaut and senator John Glenn has died at age 95. In every chapter of his life, whether on Earth or above it, Glenn accumulated achievements — serving as a Marine fighter pilot in two wars and later launching into space exploration. After retiring from politics, he continued to advocate for NASA. Hari Sreenivasan speaks with science correspondent Miles O'Brien about this American icon. Continue reading
A trio of scientists won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for creating some of the world's tiniest machines. Their nanorobots use extremely controlled movements to perform tasks that the creators hope will one day be useful in the world of medicine. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien joins Hari Sreenivasan to discuss these mini machines and the other science and medicine Nobels awarded this week. Continue reading
Scientists have discovered a potentially habitable new world, a mere four light years away from Earth. They call the planet "Proxima B," and it may feature characteristics that are just right for human life. Nonetheless, it has some major differences from Earth — a year on the planet lasts only 11 days. Hari Sreenivasan speaks with WGBH's science correspondent Miles O'Brien for background. Continue reading
Hawaii's Kilauea has been erupting for over 30 years, making it the longest-flowing volcano on earth. Because of this remarkable activity, it is also currently the most researched. Geologist Mike Garcia has studied Kilauea for decades and believes that analyzing the chemical composition of pieces of the volcano may yield clues to its future behavior. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien reports. Continue reading
Lenny and Amy's 5-year-old son has epilepsy. When conventional medications caused terrible side effects, they started giving him a daily drop of cannabis oil, with dramatic results. But it's a calculated risk: While there is anecdotal evidence of cannabis' effectiveness, scientists face research roadblocks because it's a schedule 1 controlled substance. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien reports. Continue reading
Confined spaces, low gravity and high concentrations of oxygen mean any unexpected fire on a space station could well be a death sentence, especially since fire extinguishers aren't very effective away from Earth. So NASA scientists are trying to develop a new kind of firefighting tool by starting their own space fires and studying how they unfold. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien reports. Continue reading
Over the weekend, astronauts aboard the orbiting International Space Station added a module like none other. Think an RV that expands out the back with extra space for sleeping quarters. In the case of the ISS, it was an inflatable Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM). It's made of a material stronger than kevlar and could be a game-changer. Science correspondent Miles O'Brien reports. Continue reading


text:
Bird Barricade Companies
Need help finding the right suppliers? Try XPRT Sourcing. Let the XPRTs do the work for you
D&S SPECIALTY PRODUCTS, the parent company of FLY-BYE Bird Control Products was established in 1987. The company started as a one-man operation and quickly grew to a thriving, family run business. We have kept up that momentum since the beginning, now we are a full service bird and pest control manufacturer and distributor employing the best technical and support sales ...
based in Kirkland, WASHINGTON (USA).
Sensor Systems Ltd. has been our objective to source and supply a comprehensive range of instrumentation and equipment for Research and Development and Industrial usage, Providing an elegant and cost effective solution for our clients particular needs. We strive to offer the best solution, derived from our experience and knowledge acquired over the years on the products ...
based in Lincoln, AUSTRALIA.
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Search Results
Nathaniel Matthiasis a member on the following 1 album:
Appears as:"Jerry Matthias"
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Lead Me Out of the Dark free piano sheet music by Crown the Empire
About the song
"Lead Me Out of the Dark" is the title of a song by American metalcore band Crown the Empire, a song first used on their debut EP called "Limitless", then re-released on the deluxe reissue of their debut album, "Fallout", a deluxe edition which incorporated the second vocalist's voice, Dave Escamilla, into the songs.
The album was received with mixed critics, some calling it generic and simply post-hardcore, or feeling disappointed about the lyrics, but the vocals and the different sounds used were well received, with the exception of Alternative Press, which criticized the usage of dubstep-like sounds.
We are sharing the piano sheet for "Lead Me Out of the Dark", and we hope you enjoy it.
The song is a slow song and hardly falls into the metal or metalcore category, seeing at the usage of piano and the clean vocals are the dominant elements.
The lyrics also combine well into a well-written piece of art, presenting the confession of a young man towards his loved one, promising that he will be better and he just needs another chance, to be "led out of the dark".
It is a song that can be appreciated by every music listener that can appreciate well-written music, it is simply a chilling song with no screams or heavy guitar riffs, so it should be easy to enjoy it without criticizing it too much.
Crown the Empire really has some nice songs that are worth putting in our playlists and we hope that we can further their fame via our website, they are doing a fine job with this not so popular genre.
The sheet music for "Lead Me Out of the Dark" by Crown the Empire is listed below. If you have anything else that you would like featured on PianoForge, let us know via the Request section.
|Crown the Empire
|The Fallout
|November 19, 2012
|Post-hardcore, Metalcore, Electronicore
|Track length:
|Rise Records
|Joey Sturgis


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My son recommended I look into buying this coin and I am really pleased with the purchase I made. He was right, it is a beautiful and valuable coin.
- Value (low premium over spot)
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- Collectible (lower mintage)
- Easy to Sell
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Here at FADS we are dedicated to providing great furniture ranges for your home in a variety of styles and we endeavour to work closely with our customers to find out what we are missing.
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Relax in comfort with the beautifully crafted Hertford Brown Faux Leather Chair that will add an attractive yet warm appeal to your home. The Hertford Chair has a versatile design that can be used as an armchair in your living room or as a feature chair in your hall way, dining room or bedroom.
The charming Hertford Chair is upholstered in a charming smooth brown faux leather material with a fabulous button back design and a thick plush padded seat pad that will provide a comfortable, supportive feel. The Hertford Chair is supported by four gently curved birchwood legs to complete the opulent grand design of the chair.
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My love story with Spanish began almost 22 years ago when I took my very first Spanish class. I never thought that it would have developed into the daily passion it has. I have this burning desire to continually fill my mind with as much of this language and of Spanish culture that I possibly can.
I have the incredible opportunity of co-leading a group of 10 amazing people from Journey Church and the Charlotte area on a service project to Huánuco, Perú from August 3-9, 2013. My Spanish speaking skills will be utilized for possible translation between our group and native Spanish speakers in Perú as well as conversations with the residents of the Hovde House in Huánuco, Perú.
"This house serves one of the most vulnerable communities of children in Perú, victims of sexual abuse and domestic violence. Perú has one of the highest rates of child abuse (and rape) in the world; Huánuco, a city of 250,000 people in a wider region of 800,000 is severely affected by this atrocity, often 'explained' by the prevalence of alcoholism, illiteracy, corruption, and the lack of rule of law.
This house currently provides temporary shelter to approximately 40-50 young women who have suffered sexual abuse, and for some of them, it's a safe place to raise their unexpected children. These girls receive counseling, education, skills training, and love from qualified staff, while our partner organization, Paz y Esperanza, fights for justice in court against their perpetrators. Only after their homes and communities are safe again, do the girls go home." (from www.hovdefoundation.org)
We individually need to raise $1800. I would appreciate any gifts you can give whether monetary or in your thoughts and prayers for our trip. I look forward to being able to share with you the incredible work that is happening in Perú! Please also follow me on facebook for updates and pictures!


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Question: A Rod Fishing Supplies had sales of 2 500 000 and cost of
A-Rod Fishing Supplies had sales of $2,500,000 and cost of goods sold of $1,710,000. Selling and administrative expenses represented 10 percent of sales. Depreciation was 6 percent of the total assets of $4,680,000. What was the firm's operating profit?
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Answer to relevant QuestionsArrange the following income statement items so they are in the proper order of an income statement:Taxes Earnings per shareShares outstanding Earnings before taxesInterest expense Cost of goods soldDepreciation ...Precision Systems had sales of $820,000, cost of goods of $510,000, selling and administrative expense of $60,000, and operating profit of $103,000.What was the value of depreciation expense? Set this problem up as a partial ...Quantum Technology had $669,000 of retained earnings on December 31, 2013. The company paid common dividends of $35,500 in 2013 and had retained earnings of $576,000 on December 31, 2012. How much did Quantum Technology earn ...Amigo Software Inc. has total assets of $889,000, current liabilities of $192,000, and long-term liabilities of $154,000. There is $87,000 in preferred stock outstanding. Thirty thousand shares of common stock have been ...Why is trend analysis helpful in analyzing ratios?
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Apartment Hoża VIP
Størrelse75 m²
Etage3(med elevator)
- Køkken
- Vaskemaskine / tørretumbler
- Parkering tilgængelig
- Elevator i bygningen
- Balkon/terrasse
- Håndklæder
- Opvaskemaskine
Oversigt over boligen
|Hoża, 00-682 Warsaw, Polen
|Inden for få timer
|Kalenderen er opdateret
|Få måneder siden
The Apartment has a bedroom fitted with a double bed. The living room has a sofa bed for two, a TV and dinning table. The kitchen is fully equipped. The bathroom has a toilet and a shower.
Very convenient public transportation options – trams, metro, buses.
HusreglerThe reception at Nowowiejska Street 1/3 flat 4 is open to 17:00. If you expect to arrive outside of reception opening hours you are kindly requested to inform the property in advance. Later, keys can be collected at 58/60 Hoża Street.
Please inform owner in advance of your expected arrival time.
|Ugentlig pris for op til 6 gæster
|Månedlig pris for op til 6 gæster
|Check-in efter
|Check-in før
|Efter aftale
|Check ud før
Anmeldelser af denne bolig
This was a close but no cigar type of story. The location was perfect for us and the apartment was roomy enough and the beds were comfortable, but the host missed on the details. The coffee carafe was broken and when we phoned to ask for it to be replaced, the host seemed surprised that we had a coffee maker. (The carafe never was replaced.) The kitchen was next to useless because of insufficient plates, cutlery and cooking implements. Also, the bathroom drains in the sink and she shower needed plunging as they did not empty properly. Basically, this could have been a very good experience if the owner would pay attention to details.
Gennemgang af Lejlighed Pulawska !!!!
Ankomst efter 17 ur kørte glat over porter af ejerlejlighed.
Placeret på hovedvejen med sporvogn.
Lejlighed godt designet, men udstyret var fattige (ingen kaffe, ikke nok retter, kun en rulle toiletpapir)
Bewertung für Appartement Pulawska!!!!
Ankunft nach 17 Uhr lief problemlos über den Pförtner der Wohnanlage.
An Ausfallsstraße mit Straßenbahn gelegen.
Wohnung gut gestaltet, aber die Ausstattung war schlecht (keine Kaffeemaschine, zuwenig Geschirr, nur eine Rolle Toilettenpapier)
It was a really pleasure stay in this flat. It was well equipped, clean and roomy. We felt save there. It took about a 10 minute walk to the Cultural Palace, to the Old City about 20 minutes. The flat is placed in a friendly neighbourhood.
We had some difficulties with the check in, because the guard, who should give us the keys, could not communicate with us (No english). In the beginning we did not get a key for the garage.But we could solve those problems via phone with Jakub.
Nice apartment, big bedrooms and calm. Very well situated, close to cenrtal station and a big shopping centre. Undergroud car park very convenient.
20/25 min walk from old town.
Living room could be more friendly
One of the best trip we've done into our life. We're 6 French friends (3 boys 3 girls) who wanted to move to Poland and this appartment has been a really nice surprise for us. This is modern, there is a lot of space (75 m2 !!). It's located in a residencial street with the big center of Warsaw just near. Shops, monuments historical, bars, discotechs and restaurant are not far at all.
The appartment permit also to have a safety feeling because it's located in a private residence with always a security guard.
Jakub is really nice and seems to trust us on the cleaning.
As a conclusion : a very nice place for visiting the town !
Anmeldelser af denne værts andre boliger
Apartamento completamente nuevo y muy bien equipado, aunque mas bien seria para tres personas, ya que tiene una cama doble y un sofa cama. El anfitrión se molesto en abrirnos antes de la hora acordada y nos dejo salir mas tarde, muy amable. Tiene una parada de metro a 5 minutos y caminando el centro estara a 30 minutos.
L'appartamento si trova in pieno centro, molto ampio e luminoso. Nulla da eccepire tranne la mancanza di un armadio e il divano letto nel soggiorno non proprio comodo. Ah, c'erano solo due forchette
The location was perfect, close to good restaurant and bikes.The kitchen was poorly equipped for 5 people and the pillows should be replaced. We appreciated our stay.
Nous avons passé un long week-end (4 jours) dans cet appartement. Un peu excentré du centre ville, mais la station de tram est au pied de l'immeuble. Quartier calme et agréable, commerces à proximité. Très bel appartement, spacieux, bien équipé. A recommander.
We spent a long weekend (4 days) in this apartment. A little out of the city center, but the tram station is at the foot of the building. quiet and pleasant area, shops nearby. Very nice apartment, spacious, well equipped. To recommend.
- Kvalitetssikrede boliger
- Alle værter verificeres via telefon
- Sikker betaling med SSL-kryptering


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#8 Replacment Countersink
#8 Replacement Countersink
Model: #AR1894 | Home Depot Sku #: 776222Buy at The Home Depot
Help prevent splitting wood when driving screws with the Ryobi Speed Load Plus Steel Replacement Countersink. This steel countersink features 3 sharpened edges and is great for pre-drilling a 7/64 in. pilot hole.
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Cal North Junior Cup Festival is an event established to introduce teams to the Cal North Cup Series. Any eligible Cal North team in the U9-U12 age group may enter an application. Priority for acceptance being given to the teams that are designated by their district for a spot in the event and the remaining slots being filled on a first-applied, first accepted basis. After applying, teams may be designated by their District to participate in one of the three divisions within Junior Cup Festival. The three different Divisions are Founders' Cup Division for U10 and U12 recreational teams, Association Cup Division for entry-to-mid-level competitive U9, U10, U11 and U12 teams (recommended for teams playing in Copper, Silver and Silver Elite leagues), and State Cup Division for the mid-to-top level U9, U10, U11 and U12 competitive teams (recommended for teams playing in Silver Elite, Gold and Premier level leagues). Teams not designated will be placed on a space available basis.
- Level of Play:
- Founders' Cup Division
Recreational Teams only
- Association Cup Division
Recreational teams or Competitive teams that compete in league play and tournaments at the Silver Elite or lower level. Association Cup Division is recommended for entry-level to mid-level competitive teams. Teams that qualified for the State Cup quarterfinals, semifinals or championships in the 2015/2016 season are not eligible for Association Cup and must select the State Cup Division of competition.
- State Cup Division
Recreational teams or Competitive teams. State Cup Division is recommended for teams that competed in Silver Elite or higher level league and tournament play.
- Open To:
- Cal North member teams only. Teams designated by their district through a selection or qualification process will be given first priority. Other teams will be placed on a space available basis.
- Age Groups:
- Founders' Cup Division
U10 and U12
- Association Cup Division
U9, U10, U11, and U12
- State Cup Division
U9, U10, U11, and U12
- Competition Dates:
- Preliminary Round and Championship Games
December 10-11, 2016
- Location:
- U9 and U10 boys and girls teams- Morgan Hill Outdoor Sports Center (map, field layout) | P: 925.426.9582
- U11 and U12 boys and girls teams – Cherry Island Soccer Complex (map, field layout) | P: 925.426.6739
- Application Deadline:
- November 15, 2016
- Entry Fees:
- $325
Payments, including checks, e-checks and credit card information entered in the online application, will not be processed until/unless the team is accepted.
- Additional Info:
- Read more about Junior Cup Festival.
- See schedules & results, and list of teams that have applied.
- Cup Directives, Rules and Regulations
Received Applications
U10 Founders' Cup
U9-U11 Association Cup
U9-U11 State Cup


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Fabric Shop / Craft & Quilting / Clothworks /
Clothworks Cultivate Your Joy Pink - Quilting Cotton - cu
The Clothwork cotton is printed in 15 colours, in the design of 'Cultivate Your Joy' by Peg Conley. Although it is a very pretty design, the title is a pearl of wisdom too. I'm sure the quality of this fabric will bring joy to many.
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BOSTON - Leandro Barbosa may have been the last addition to the Celtics roster, but it certainly wasn't due to a lack of interest.
In addition to past inquiries into his availability when he played for Phoenix, the C's reached out to Barbosa's camp on July 1 - the first day of free agency.
Although it's still early, the wait has been worth it thus far. Barbosa had a team-high 16 points in the C's season-opening loss to Miami.
The C's would love for him to deliver a similarly strong performance in the home opener Friday night against the Milwaukee Bucks.
"He's a guy that we liked and followed and evaluated for a long time," said Danny Ainge, Boston's president of basketball operations.
The addition of Barbosa on Oct. 18 was a bit surprising when you consider the depth that Boston has in the backcourt.
In addition to Rajon Rondo and Courtney Lee starting, the C's also have Jason Terry and Avery Bradley who is out recovering from shoulder surgeries.
C's coach Doc Rivers made it clear to Barbosa that the backcourt in Boston would be crowded and that his playing time would be limited.
It didn't matter to Barbosa, who signed a one-year deal for the veteran's minimum.
"That will be Doc's call," Barbosa said. "I'm here just to help."
The C's could have certainly used another ball-handler with Bradley out, but Ainge stopped well short of saying that Barbosa's signing filled a void on the Celtics roster.
"We weren't desperate," Ainge said. "We liked what we had. But Leandro, he's a very good player."


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BAIKONUR, Kazakhstan — A Russian rocket blasted off from a cosmodrome in Kazakhstan lighting up the frigid Central Asian steppe today, shuttling an American, a Russian and a Japanese to the International Space Station.
Standing in the early morning cold, the astronauts' family and friends watched as the Soyuz craft soared atop a tower of bright orange flames.
The Soyuz TMA-17's three astronauts will take the orbiting laboratory's permanent crew to five, although there have been up to six there temporarily.
Timothy J. Creamer, Soichi Noguchi and Oleg Kotov are to join the current inhabitants, American Jeff Williams and Russian Maxim Surayev, who have been alone on the space station for three weeks.
Noguchi is heading back to space for his second time and has become the first professional Japanese astronaut to fly aboard the Soyuz.
This was a "spectacular launch, a great Christmas present," NASA spokesman Rob Navias said after space officials confirmed the rocket had entered into orbit. "A great way to finish the year."
A NASA television Webcast showed the crew giving a thumbs up as the vessel hurtled skyward.
One minute into the launch, the rocket reached a speed of around 1,640 feet per second.
The Soyuz will travel for about two days before docking with the space station 220 miles above Earth.
One of the main goals of the expedition will be to deliver a full-fledged module to the space station, complete with a seven-window cupola for prime Earth gazing, Navias said.