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Interleukin-1 (IL-1) has been implicated as a participant in preterm labor that is induced by bacterial infection. Previously, we showed that serotonin-induced production of IL-1α by myometrial smooth muscle cells in vitro is also essential for the synthesis of interstitial collagenase. It is therefore likely that IL-1α production in uterine tissues has implications for both the normal physiology of involution and for the pathophysiological mechanisms of preterm labor. The objective of this study was to characterize the serotonin-induced production of IL-1α by myometrial cultures in vitro and to assess the production of IL-1α and its relationship to collagenase production in vivo during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated IL-1α protein in the nuclei and cytoplasm of serotonin-treated myometrial cells. IL-1α levels were decreased by treatment with progesterone or IL-1-receptor antagonist but were unaffected by lipopolysaccharide. Western analysis of myometrium from pregnant rats showed low levels of IL-1α during midpregnancy with increased concentrations at days 21 and 22 and postpartum. IL-1α mRNA levels also increased from days 15to 22. Levels of mRNA for IL-1β also increased, although to a lesser degree than IL-1α. Both mRNAs decreased postpartum. Conversely, mRNA for interstitial collagenase was barely detectable at term but increased postpartum. Together, these data show that serotonin stimulates IL-1α production in vitro and indicate that normal myometrium from pregnant rats is an identifiable source of IL-1 during late pregnancy. The findings are consistent with the possibility that myometrial IL-1α participates in normal labor as well as the postpartum production of interstitial collagenase.
- uterus
- smooth muscle
- parturition
- cytokine
- collagenase
interleukin-1 (il-1) collectively refers to a gene family of three related cytokines that are involved in a variety of cellular processes. The family consists of the two agonist molecules, designated IL-1α and IL-1β, and a naturally occurring IL-receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). These cytokines are produced by numerous cell types in a diverse array of tissues and exert their biological activities by binding to the same membrane receptors. Although originally studied as proinflammatory mediators that are involved in immune responses, it is now known that these molecules exert a vast array of tissue- and cell-specific biological activities (9, 10).
The majority of the scientific interest in IL-1, both clinical and experimental, has been in the roles of these cytokines in proinflammatory settings, especially in response to infection. This interest is derived mainly from the original identification of IL-1 as an acute leukocytic product capable of inducing fever. In agreement with this proinflammatory role, there is a growing body of evidence linking the production of IL-1 with labor-inducing inflammatory processes that occur within the mammalian uterus (15, 31,34). Both IL-1α and -1β, presumably the products of macrophages and lymphocytes, are detected in the amniotic fluid of women experiencing preterm labor due to uterine infection (17,32). Similarly, the human decidua also produces IL-1 isoforms in response to bacterial products or infection (35). Once present, these cytokines have been shown to cause the synthesis and release of stimulatory prostaglandins, notably PGE2 and PGF2α, from the decidua and fetal membranes (24,26, 30), an observation consistent with their participation in premature labor associated with infection. Causative support for the participation of IL-1 in preterm labor is given by the observation that exogenously administered IL-1 abruptly stimulates premature labor and delivery in pregnant mice (33).
Whereas the contribution of IL-1 to infection-induced preterm labor has been well studied, work from this laboratory has demonstrated that uterine myometrial cells themselves can produce IL-1 in response to hormonal stimulation by serotonin (13, 43). These studies were the first to demonstrate that IL-1 could be produced by cells derived from the myometrium in response to a hormone that is present and possibly increasing during late pregnancy (11). Interestingly, the induction of IL-1 mRNA in the myometrium is potently blocked by progesterone, an effect that may prevent the untimely induction of IL-1 before parturition (22, 43). More importantly, the production of IL-1 by these cells is a crucial component of a normal noninflammatory process that occurs within the uterus, that being the induction of interstitial collagenase synthesis that occurs after delivery (43). Although both IL-1α and -1β are produced by myometrial cells, we recently observed that IL-1α is the single IL-1 isoform that is specifically required for the production of collagenase (13). These studies are important because they demonstrate the necessity of the hormonal induction of a specific IL-1 isoform for a defined biological purpose in a normal uterine cell population in the absence of infection.
The requirement for serotonin-induced IL-1α in the production of collagenase raises the possibility that myometrial-derived IL-1 may be involved in other events occurring in the uterus, including the initiation of normal labor or in uninfected or otherwise idiopathic preterm labor. With this in mind, we are continuing to explore the mechanisms whereby serotonin and progesterone regulate IL-1 synthesis in myometrial smooth muscle cells. Both the pathological implications of IL-1-induced preterm labor and the requirement for IL-1 in collagenase production make the regulation of uterine IL-1α a pivotal area for further research. In the studies presented here, we investigate the localization and regulation of IL-1 proteins in primary cultures of uterine smooth muscle cells and in the normal rat uterus during pregnancy and the postpartum period.
Cell cultures.
All experiments using cultured cells were conducted on primary isolates of rat uterine smooth muscle cells derived from 4-day postpartum uteri. Uteri were obtained, and cultures were prepared as described in detail previously (16). For all experiments, cells were plated in 75-cm2 culture flasks and allowed to reach confluence in DMEM supplemented with 30 mM HEPES and 10%(vol/vol) fetal bovine serum (FBS) that had been adsorbed with dextran-coated charcoal to remove serotonin [CS-FBS (20, 38)]. Other additions to medium are described in detail for each experiment.
Immunohistochemistry for IL-1α.
Cell cultures for immunohistochemistry were plated directly onto 20 × 20-mm glass coverslips and treated as described in detail for each experiment (see results). Uterine tissue for immunohistochemistry was rapidly frozen in optimum cutting temperature embedding compound (Triangle Biomedical, Durham, NC) and stored at −70oC until cryosections (∼10 μm) were collected on gelatinized slides. All slides/coverslips were washed twice in PBS and then incubated in 3.7% formaldehyde at 37oC for 10 min. Adherent cells/tissue were washed and incubated for 5 min in 0.5% (vol/vol) Triton X-100, washed again, then incubated for 10 min in PBS containing 10 mg/ml glycine. Slides were again washed three times, then they were incubated at room temperature for 20 min with 8% (vol/vol) goat serum. Excess goat serum was removed by gentle blotting followed by incubation for 30 min in a 1:200 dilution of rabbit anti-rat IL-1α antibody (Endogen) in 0.1% goat serum. Slides were washed twice with PBS, then incubated for 30 min with a 1:200 dilution of biotinylated goat anti-rabbit IgG (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Slides were then washed three times with PBS and incubated for 30 min in VECTASTAIN Elite ABC reagent (Vector Laboratories). Slides were washed and incubated in 3,3′-diaminobenzidine peroxidase substrate for color development followed by distilled water. Photomicrographs were taken through an Olympus IMT-2 microscope on Kodak Royal Gold film.
Tissue extracts.
For in vivo experiments, rats were euthanized by exposure to carbon dioxide, and the uterus was quickly removed. After the removal of the uterine contents, the endometrium was removed by gentle scraping with a fresh scalpel, and the myometrium was carefully dissected free from the underlying stroma, finely minced, and suspended in two volumes (wt/vol) of PBS containing 2 mM EDTA and protease inhibitors (Complete Mini, Boehringer-Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany). The tissue was then homogenized with a motor-driven homogenizer for 1 min at 4°C followed by sonication for 10 s at 4°C. Homogenates were centrifuged at 15,000 g for 15 min. Supernatants were aliquoted and stored at −70°C. Proteins in the pellet fractions were further solubilized in PBS containing 0.1% SDS, recentrifuged, and supernatants were stored at −70°C.
Western blot analysis.
Western blot analysis on tissue extracts was performed exactly as described previously (13, 22). The anti-rat IL-1α polyclonal antibody was obtained from Endogen (Cambridge, MA) and was used at a dilution of 1:200. The anti-rat IL-1β polyclonal antibody was obtained from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN) and was used at a dilution of 1:500. Alkaline phosphatase-conjugated secondary antibodies were from Sigma (St. Louis, MO).
RT-PCR analysis of IL-1α RNA.
Total RNA from rat myometrial tissue was isolated using the RNA Isolator reagent (Genosys Biotechnologies, The Woodlands, TX) as described in detail previously (22). Poly(dT)-primed cDNA synthesis was carried out on 2 μg of RNA using Superscript II RT (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, MD). Reactions (30 μl) contained 1× reverse transcriptase buffer (50 mM Tris · HCl, pH 8.3, 10 mM MgCl2, 60 mM KCl, 10 mM 1,4-dithiothreitol), 0.5 μl of RNase inhibitor (Promega, Madison, WI), 0.5 μg/μl of oligo dT, 0.5 mM dNTPs, and 0.1 mg/ml BSA and were carried out for 1 h at 42oC. Oligonucleotide primers for PCR amplification were designed using the OLIGO primer analysis software (National Biosciences, Plymouth, MN) and are shown in Table1. All primers were designed to span introns so as to detect possible contamination of the RNA samples with genomic DNA. The PCR mixture (50 μl) consisted of 5 μl of cDNA from the RT reaction, 2.5 μl of each PCR primer (final concentration 1 μM), 2.5 mM dNTPs, 1× PCR buffer (50 mM KCl, 10 mM Tris · HCl, pH 8.3, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.01% Gelatin), and 1.25 units of Taq DNA polymerase (Perkin-Elmer, Branchburg, NJ). Amplification was carried out for three cycles of 94°C for 60 s, 60°C for 2 min, 72°C for 2 min, followed by 27 cycles of 94°C for 15 s, 60°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 15 s unless otherwise specified. After 30 cycles, the temperature was held at 72°C for 3 min. The products of PCR amplification were analyzed by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels. Under these conditions, PCR amplification both of IL-1α and -1β remains in the linear range. RT-PCR analysis of GAPDH mRNA levels was modified to remain in the linear range of amplification by reducing the total number of PCR cycles from 30 to 18. The identity of a representative PCR sample for each amplified product was confirmed by bidirectional sequencing using the Taq DyeDeoxy terminator cycle-sequencing kit and an ABI model 310 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems).
Northern blot analysis.
Total RNA from rat uterine tissues was isolated as described above for RT-PCR. RNA samples were electrophoresed on 1.3% agarose gels containing 0.66 M formaldehyde and blotted to nitrocellulose, as described in detail previously (8). Probes were radiolabeled with [α-32P]dCTP (3,000 Ci/mmol) using the Random Primer Plus Extension Labeling System (New England Nuclear, Boston, MA). Autoradiographic signals were quantified by video capture and digital image processing using the BioImage system (BioImage/Millipore, Ann Arbor, MI). The IL-1α probe is a 2-kb cDNA to mouse IL-1α cloned from mouse DBA/2 P388D1 cells [pmIL1AcDNA; (23)]. It was obtained through the American Type Culture Collection (Rockville, MD). The cDNA probe for rat collagenase is a 2.6-kb clone isolated from a rat osteoblast cDNA library and contains the entire coding region for the active enzyme (UMRcase 54, see Ref.29).
Immunolocalization of IL-1α in myometrial smooth muscle cells.
Previous studies from this laboratory demonstrated that IL-1α mRNA production in myometrial cells is clearly induced by treatment with serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] alone or in combination with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (19, 43). Recently, we also demonstrated that IL-1α protein is readily detected by Western blot analysis of myometrial smooth muscle cells (13, 22). To further characterize the localization and regulation of IL-1α in myometrial smooth muscle cells, we performed immunohistochemical detection of IL-1α protein. As depicted in Fig.1, intense immunoreactive nuclear and cytoplasmic staining was observed in cells treated with either 5-HT alone or with a combination of 5-HT and LPS. In contrast, untreated cells showed only very faint cytosolic or nuclear staining. Because our prior studies showed that serotonin-induced IL-1α mRNA was blocked by treatment with progesterone or the IL-1-receptor antagonist, we also used immunohistochemistry to examine this regulation in more detail. As depicted in Fig. 2 A, chronic treatment with either progesterone or the IL-1ra decreased both the nuclear and cytosolic levels of IL-1α immunoreactive protein induced by serotonin. In addition, progesterone and IL-1ra were able to block and reverse the serotonin-mediated induction of IL-1α protein (Fig.2, B and C). These findings demonstrate that IL-1α protein is readily detected both in the nucleus and cytoplasm of serotonin-treated cells but is inhibited in the presence of either progesterone or IL-1ra.
Western blot analysis of IL-1α and -1β in the pregnant and postpartum rat uterus.
Numerous studies both in humans and animals have implicated the involvement of IL-1 isoforms in endotoxin-induced abortion and in premature labor caused by infection. Our present findings, however, indicate that myometrial cells can produce IL-1α in response to hormonal stimuli in the absence of endotoxin or infection. For this reason, we next chose to characterize the levels of IL-1 protein in apparently normal, noninfected rat uterine tissue isolated from rats at various times during pregnancy. Our results are depicted in Fig.3. Western blot analysis with an IL-1α-specific antibody demonstrated a faint immunoreactive band that was first observed on day 16 and was markedly increased in tissue isolated at day 21 of pregnancy and 2 days postpartum (Fig. 3 A). IL-1α was only detected in cell supernatants and was not observed in the solubilized particulate fraction. Figure3 B shows the results of two other separate experiments conducted with cell supernatants from different animals. In these experiments, IL-1α protein was undetectable at days 5 and10 of pregnancy but was readily detected at day 15. As in the previous experiment, IL-1α protein in tissue supernatants appeared to increase during late pregnancy and the postpartum period. Although an IL-1β-specific antibody could readily detect a purified IL-1β standard, no IL-1β was detected in any tissue homogenates at any stage of pregnancy. These data indicate that IL-1α is the predominant resident IL-1 isoform produced in the rat myometrium during normal pregnancy and show that levels of IL-1α increase before parturition.
Immunolocalization of IL-1α in the pregnant and postpartum rat uterus.
We next used immunohistochemistry to further define the tissue distribution and temporal regulation of IL-1α in the nonpregnant, pregnant, and postpartum rat uterus (Fig.4). IL-1α-specific immunoreactivity was weak or absent in the myometrium of nonpregnant uteri but was clearly observed in the myometrium of both pregnant and postpartum animals. This immunoreactivity was evident in tissues isolated at day 15 of pregnancy and was noticeably increased at day 21of pregnancy and postpartum. In general, immunoreactive staining was much greater in the outer, longitudinal myometrium, especially atday 21 and postpartum. In contrast, IL-1α immunoreactivity in the endometrium and uterine glands was present in most tissues examined but was not observed to undergo noticable changes during pregnancy. Control experiments that used normal rabbit serum in place of primary antibody (or secondary antibody alone) showed no immunoreactive staining. These data are in agreement with the results of Western blotting depicted in Fig. 3 and indicate that a significant portion of the uterine IL-1α detected during late pregnancy is produced by the longitudinal myometrium.
Characterization of IL-1 mRNA levels from rat myometrial tissue in vivo.
We next sought to determine whether the production of IL-1 was correlated with changes in IL-1 mRNA and whether the production of IL-1α mRNA was altered before parturition. RT-PCR analysis showed that IL-1α mRNA was essentially undetectable in myometrium isolated on day 10 of pregnancy but steadily increased during late pregnancy (Fig. 5 A). Peak levels of IL-1α mRNA were observed on days 21 and22 of pregnancy, and a noticeable decrease in IL-1α mRNA occurred postpartum. IL-1β mRNA, on the other hand, was detectable early in pregnancy (day 10), also peaked at days 21and 22, and was also detectable during the postpartum period. Overall, the relative levels of IL-1α mRNA were observed to undergo more significant changes than those of IL-1β mRNA (Fig.5 B). These data demonstrate that the mRNAs for both IL-1α and -1β are significantly induced in the rat myometrium before parturition.
Characterization of collagenase mRNA from rat myometrium in vivo.
Previous studies from this laboratory have focused on the ability of IL-1 isoforms to induce the production of interstitial collagenase from myometrial smooth muscle cells in vitro (13, 43). Our results presented here indicate that the rat myometrium in vivo can also synthesize IL-1α and that levels of IL-1α increase during late pregnancy. We, therefore, sought to determine whether collagenase mRNA is also produced by the rat myometrium in vivo. We used Northern blot analysis in these experiments because we have not yet undertaken a careful analysis of RT-PCR conditions that accurately represent quantitative changes in collagenase mRNA. We also reasoned that Northern blotting would represent a reasonable revalidation of the RT-PCR data obtained for IL-1α and -1β in Fig. 5. Northern blots of RNA isolated from pregnant and postpartum rats showed detectable collagenase mRNA as early as day 10 of pregnancy (Fig.6). The amount of mRNA increased slightly before parturition but was markedly increased in the postpartum period. In general, the qualitative pattern of expression of IL-1α mRNA detected by Northern blotting was similar to that observed with RT-PCR with the exception that the method was notably less sensitive. We do not believe that differences in the two detection methods are due to differences in mRNA loading, because ethidium bromide staining of the gels before blotting demonstrated that all samples contained equivalent amounts of total RNA (data not shown).
Recent work from this laboratory has focused on defining the hormonal regulation of IL-1α production in primary cultures of uterine smooth muscle cells. IL-1α is crucial in these cells as an intermediate in the production of interstitial collagenase (13). We first demonstrated that the ability of myometrial cells to produce IL-1α mRNA in vitro was dependent on stimulation by serotonin (43). Conversely, serotonin-stimulated increases in IL-1α mRNA were readily blocked by simultaneous treatment with either progesterone or the IL-1-receptor antagonist (22,43). This work was intriguing in that it provided a paradigm whereby inflammatory cytokines could be produced for a specific purpose by resident uterine cells in a noninflammatory setting. Whereas IL-1 production by macrophages and lymphocytes has long been implicated as a participant in uterine pathologies caused by infection and ischemia, these data provided evidence that cytokines could have a distinctly physiological role when induced by hormonal stimuli in vitro. The data presented in this paper expand on this model in two important ways. First, we demonstrate that IL-1α protein can indeed be detected in myometrial smooth muscle cells in vitro and that its levels correlate with our previous studies on the regulation of its mRNA. Second, we provide evidence, for the first time, that the resident myometrial cells of the noninfected rat can be a source of IL-1 in vivo and that levels of this cytokine increase before the onset of labor and the postpartum increase in collagenase production.
The results of our first experiments, using primary cell cultures, demonstrate that IL-1α protein is indeed produced by rat myometrial cells and that the production of IL-1α protein mimics the previously reported regulation of its mRNA. IL-1α protein was undetectable in cultures treated without serotonin but was readily detected in its presence. Interestingly, simultaneous treatment with bacterial LPS had neither a positive nor negative effect on IL-1α levels, in agreement with our previous studies on IL-1α mRNA in similarly treated cells (43). This observation is of interest because of the well-studied implication of IL-1 isoforms as participants in preterm labor that is induced by bacterial infection. We previously showed that IL-1α mRNA can be stimulated by LPS but that LPS treatment is not necessary for its production in the presence of serotonin (43). Our current results show that the hormonal stimulation of IL-1α protein by serotonin also represents a maximal induction that is not augmented by the presence of bacterial products.
The repressive actions of progesterone and IL-1ra on -1α mRNA have also been demonstrated in vitro (43). In the studies presented here, we show that these effects are also borne out at the level of IL-1α protein. Simultaneous treatment with either progesterone or IL-1ra inhibits or reverses the ability of serotonin to stimulate IL-1α-protein production. Therefore, in the presence of both a repressor and an inducer of IL-1 production, the repressor clearly dominates over expression of the protein. For IL-1ra, this repression indicates the importance of autocrine stimulation of IL-1 for the continued production of IL-1 protein by myometrial cells in vitro. Similarly, the repression mediated by progesterone could have profound implications on the production of IL-1 by the myometrium in vivo during mid- to late pregnancy, when progesterone is maintained at high levels. Previously, we demonstrated that the ability of progesterone to repress IL-1α mRNA production is receptor mediated and likely involves a protein-dependent increase in the instability of IL-1α mRNA (22). We are actively engaged in further defining this mechanism and determining whether a similar effect of progestins exists in vivo.
Immunohistochemical analysis of IL-1α in rat myometrial cell cultures demonstrated prominent serotonin-dependent increases in both nuclear and cytosolic staining. The reason why this staining pattern is distinctly heterogeneous, however, is not entirely clear. Prior immunohistochemical studies with anti-smooth muscle actin have demonstrated that our cultures are essentially entirely of smooth muscle origin (6). It is possible that the combined nuclear and cytosolic staining pattern is therefore linked to cell-cycle progression and, in a nonsynchronous culture system, results in a heterogeneous pattern of expression. This is in agreement with numerous other studies that have demonstrated cytoplasmic and nuclear localization of IL-1α (7, 25, 27, 42). Mizel et al. (27) demonstrated rapid internalization of 17 kDa IL-1α from the culture medium of murine fibroblasts or lymphoma cells and showed that it localized to the nucleus within 2–6 h. Other studies (25, 42) demonstrated that pro-IL-1α (28–35 kDa) also localizes to the nucleus, possibly due to a specific signal that is present within the first 115 amino acids of the IL-1α propiece. Although our studies did not differentiate pro-IL-1α from mature IL-1α in the nucleus, it is clear from our results that IL-1α was at least partially directed to the nucleus. Prior work from our lab also showed that IL-1α production from myometrial cells was crucial for the autocrine induction of both collagenase and IL-1 mRNAs (13). Although speculative, it is possible that it is in the nucleus that IL-1α participates in the hormonal induction of collagenase gene expression or the expression of its own mRNA.
The results of Western blot analysis of crudely fractionated myometrial tissue indicate that IL-1α is predominantly freely soluble and varies in molecular weight from ∼17 to 28 kDa. Although numerous studies have demonstrated immunoreactive IL-1α in cell membranes (5,21), we failed to detect IL-1α immunoreactivity in resolubilized membrane fractions. Previously, we also failed to detect IL-1α in conditioned medium from serotonin-treated myometrial cells, even after that medium was concentrated up to 100-fold (13). Thus our findings indicate that IL-1α is predominantly located in a soluble intracellular pool within these cells. Indeed, most cells do not process and secrete IL-1α. Rather, the 17-kDa "processed" form is thought to derive from cleavage of the 30-kDa pro-IL-1α by extracellular proteases after its release from damaged cells (9, 18, 41). It is also interesting to note that we failed to detect the presence of IL-1β protein in these studies, although we previously demonstrated IL-1β mRNA in vitro (43). In many cell lines, pro-IL-1β is rapidly cleaved by the IL-1β-converting enzyme and secreted. This may explain our failure to detect IL-1β immunoreactive protein in crude myometrial extracts (9).
Western blot analysis of myometrial tissue from pregnant rats showed that IL-1α protein was present as early as day 15 of pregnancy and increased in concentration during late pregnancy and the postpartum period. This observation is intriguing because the initial rise in IL-1 concentration occurs during midpregnancy when progesterone concentrations should inhibit IL-1 expression. During this stage of pregnancy in the rat, the uterus is undergoing dramatic structural and morphological changes to accommodate the rapidly developing embryo. It is possible that at day 15, the production of IL-1α may be regulated by mechanisms that are, as yet, undefined or are restricted to defined regions of the uterus. In support of this hypothesis, preliminary studies from our laboratory indicate that IL-1α production at day 15 is more pronounced in the intervening regions of uterine tissue between implantation sites (unpublished observations). Interestingly, the IL-1α immunoreactive bands observed by Western blot also appeared to vary somewhat in molecular weight with an increase in size during late pregnancy. This increase was observed in three separate experiments (see Fig. 3). Despite this variation in size, the specificity of these antibody interactions was demonstrated by competition experiments using purified mouse IL-1α. When purified, IL-1α was added to the primary antibody solution; detection of all immunoreactive bands was abolished (data not shown). A study by Hojo et al. (18) in rat bladder cancer cells also demonstrated the appearance of numerous IL-1α reactive bands at 10, 17, 28, and 31 kDa. Presumably, these proteins represented different cleavage products from mature pro-IL-1α. Although removal of the IL-1α propiece is generally thought to yield a fragment of 17 kDa, analysis of the IL-1α protein sequence also identifies a trypsin digestion site that would produce a 25- to 28-kDa fragment from the precursor molecule (28). The definitive identity of the different immunoreactive species of IL-1α in rat myometrium awaits microsequencing of the various fragments. Given that the molecular weight of IL-1α appeared to be consistently altered during late pregnancy, it will be interesting to assess whether these different forms of IL-1α have differing functions in the uterus.
The results of immunohistochemistry and Northern analysis of uterine tissue from pregnant rats indicate that IL-1α is predominantly localized to the outermost longitudinal myometrium and that IL-1α levels appear to increase throughout late pregnancy. These results are in agreement with the results of Western blot analysis on dissected myometrial tissue and together indicate that the myometrium is a significant source of IL-1α during normal pregnancy in the rat. Previously, investigators definitively showed that the myometrium is also the principal source of uterine collagenase in vivo (6). Given that collagenase production in myometrial cells in vitro requires the presence of IL-1α, these results are also consistent with a role for IL-1α in the production of collagenase in vivo. Results from Northern blot analysis were consistent with this possibility and showed that increases in IL-1α mRNA at least precede the production of collagenase mRNA in myometrial tissue. Our Northern data are in contrast to those of Balbin et al. (4), who were unable to detect a signal for rat interstitial collagenase in the postpartum uterus. It is possible that these differences occurred because of rapid degradation of collagenase mRNA in the nuclease-rich environment of the postpartum uterus, an outcome that was avoided in the present study by rapid, immediate processing of uterine tissues for RNA extraction. Interestingly, concentrations of mRNA both for IL-1α and -1β were observed to decrease after delivery, possibly indicating that these molecules are indeed tightly regulated throughout late pregnancy and the postpartum period. Whether IL-1α regulates collagenase production in vivo remains to be established and is the focus of our current investigations.
Our previous studies on the regulation of IL-1α in vitro have concentrated on the upregulation of IL-1α transcription by serotonin (13, 19). In myometrial cell cultures, increased IL-1α protein and IL-1α gene expression occurs at serotonin concentrations that are found in the rat uterus, placenta, and maternal circulation during pregnancy (1, 14). Serotonin is also present at similar concentrations in the plasma of women during pregnancy and possibly increases before labor (11). Thus serotonin exists in vivo during pregnancy at levels that stimulate IL-1α expression in vitro. Given that a significant amount of serotonin circulates within platelet granules that are only released on platelet activation, locally elevated levels of serotonin are typically encountered in tissues during physiological or pathological responses that involve coagulation. This is mentioned because of the implication of placental bleeding, either gross or microscopic, in the genesis of preterm labor (36). Placental vascular abnormalities and ischemia have been noted to occur at significantly higher frequencies during preterm birth (37) and represent a subset of preterm deliveries that occur in the absence of bacterial colonization (3). It is therefore interesting to hypothesize that a subset of preterm deliveries might involve the induction of myometrial cytokines that are, in part, induced by elevated serotonin. We are currently at work on studies designed to test these hypotheses in human patients.
In summary, the results presented here show that resident myometrial cells of the uninfected rat uterus can be a significant source of cytokines during pregnancy. In doing so, this study is one of several that have recently shown that inflammatory cytokines are produced in uterine tissues in the absence of infection. For example, Steinborn et al. (40) showed that concentrations of IL-1α, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α were elevated in the cervicovaginal secretions of women during normal term delivery in the absence of infection. Other recent studies (2, 12, 39) also showed that decidual and placental IL-1β and -6 were readily detected in women in labor regardless of gestational age but were rarely detected in women undergoing cesarean section in the absence of labor. Taken together, these results suggest that common but temporally distinct pathways for both term and preterm labor may include increased levels of uterine-derived cytokines. In a normal, physiological setting, the production of IL-1 appears to be tightly regulated and to precede the onset of delivery. It is tempting to speculate that during at least a small percentage of preterm deliveries, increased serotonin may lead to the premature production of IL-1, a process that is designed to induce collagenase production and return the uterus to reproductive competence in the postpartum period.
The findings reported in this study provide evidence for an extended role of IL-1α in the tremendously complex processes involved in the normal termination of pregnancy and the onset of postpartum regression. Numerous studies have given rise to the notion that IL-1 plays a major role in preterm labor, particularly in the context of uterine infection. The possibility that the cytokine is involved in normal myometrial function during pregnancy has been suggested by numerous in vitro studies. These studies showed that the induction of the gene for interstitial collagenase, among others, is mediated by IL-1α in primary cultures of myometrial smooth muscle cells. Interstitial collagenase is a crucial enzyme for the removal of collagen of the uterus during postpartum involution. The current studies serve to bridge the gap between the in vitro findings and the situation in vivo; clearly, IL-1α levels rise during late pregnancy, preceding the appearance of interstitial collagenase in the tissue. Although a causal relationship has not been demonstrated, the temporal relationships are consistent with a role for the cytokine in collagenase induction. In any event, it seems clear from these studies that IL-1 plays a role in late pregnancy distinct from its more classical proinflammatory functions.
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health HD-32585 (to B. D. Wilcox), HD-05291 (to J. J. Jeffrey), and CA-77068 (to J. A. Melendez).
During the early stages of this work, J. A. Melendez was supported by a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development-sponsored supplement to HD-32585 for the support of underrepresented minorities in postdoctoral training.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: B. D. Wilcox, Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mail Code 165, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Ave., Albany, NY 12208 (E-mail:wilcoxb{at}mail.amc.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
- Copyright © 2001 the American Physiological Society


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I have no excuse for my lack of posts these past few weeks.
What I can report is that I missed you and I missed stamping!
Let's Get Together!
SAVE THE DATE: STAMP CAMP is coming October 8th, 2016
The weather outside is::::
A lil' warm, so get your gardening done early,
do crafting instead if you can and enjoy the weather!
On the breakfast plate this morning::::
Johnny's Donuts w/Mr. Matt
He is now assigned to Dublin Police Services,
so I see many more Monday donut days ahead!
Cops like their donuts and so do the Sakamoto Sisters!
He is now assigned to Dublin Police Services,
so I see many more Monday donut days ahead!
Cops like their donuts and so do the Sakamoto Sisters!
As I look outside my window:::
I see neighbors getting ready for
National Night Out...
Do you celebrate?
National Night Out...
Do you celebrate?
Right now I am::::
Cleaning out my inbox.
Boy, it is full!
Boy, it is full!
As I look around the house::::
I begin to see things I do not really need.
Donation time!
Donation time!
On today's to do list::::
Some crafting,
the pool
the pool
A long walk,
Some club work &
Currently reading::::
My Study Bible.
Random flipping...
Random flipping...
On the TV today::::
Maybe some soaps, maybe some drama, maybe nada!
On the menu this week::::
Monday - Casper Dogs for lunch, Pasta Sauce tonight
Monday - Casper Dogs for lunch, Pasta Sauce tonight
Tuesday - Shrimp & Chicken Taco Tuesday
Wednesday - Leftovers
Thursday - Pasta Night
Friday - Chinese.. Farruggia Family Fun Night
Saturday - Potato & Ham Soup and crusty Homemade Bread
Sunday - BBQ Tri-Tip
Sunday - BBQ Tri-Tip
What I am creating at the moment::::
Thank You Cards
Birthday Cards
Birthday Cards
Card Samples from the New Holiday Catty
And gifts
Family Agenda::::
Monday - Sakamoto Sisters, Guitar Lessons, In-Laws here for Dinner!
Tuesday - Sakamoto Sisters, National Night Out
Tuesday - Sakamoto Sisters, National Night Out
Wednesday - Sakamoto Sister's, Crafty Time
Thursday - DSRWC Board Meeting, MDD planning
Friday - getting organized
Saturday - Crafty meeting of the minds for STAMP CAMP!
Sunday - Sumer Social for DSRWC & Concert in the Park
Mimi's Challenge:
Due to me September 1st:Back to School Themed
Must include at least one SU product
(Past or Present)
Include a post it note with the recipe!
Favorite photo's from the camera::::
Prayers, Inspirational Quotes or Devotionals::::
13 Therefore take up the whole armor of God, that you may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having done all, to stand firm.
Ephesians 6:13
Ephesians 6:13
~I am ever so grateful for the Lord's never ending love~
Quote copied and pasted from the Sanders Family Website!
Love Ya!
Quote copied and pasted from the Sanders Family Website!
Love Ya!
A huge shout out to the blogger that inspired me to do these weekly posts:
Happy Homemaker Monday Blog
Happy Homemaker Monday Blog

subset: commoncrawl


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We have 14 amazingly talented crafters this month. You're going to love this hop. So be sure to follow along and check out everyone's blogs and fabulous projects.
Make sure to leave a comment to be entered in the Blog Hop raffle. Read each blog, scroll to the end, and leave a comment with #SFAugHop!! Each member and guest blogger, will randomly select a winner from our blog comments. We will then pool those together and randomly select the overall hop winner. I would love to hear some feedback and you will earn a chance to win some Blog Candy!
Thank you for visiting my blog from Barbara Welch's blog, and thank you for continuing with the Blog Hop. Take a moment a check out my project and at the end click the NEXT button to continue to Melissa Thomas's Blog. Didn't come from Barbara's blog?? That's ok, just click the PREVIOUS button below or scroll to the end and click on Barbara Welch's name to visit her blog.
Maureen Rauchfuss, Angela Lorenz and Kim Lamos
I "hope" you like what I came up with.
The stamp sets are Best Birds, Jar of Love and You've Got This.
The paper used is, Delightful Dijon, Island Indigo, Old Olive and a scrap of Pool Party Cardstock and Serene Scenery DSP.
The ink used is the same color as the cardstock and I used the Archival Basic Gray to stamp the flower images.
My cardbase is Delightful Dijon with 2 layers of DSP from the Serene Scenery DSP stack.
I cut the circles using the Layering Circles framelits. The flower was stampin Basic Gray and I used a Blender Pen to color and shade with Island Indigo, Delightful Dijon and Old Olive Inks. I did not use Watercolor Paper so be careful you do not over color in one spot, it will damage the paper.
I stamped the You've Got This sentiment is Versamark and added the NEW Copper embossing powder. LOVE IT!!!! To put it all together, I made a few loops under the circle in the Copper Thread.
As you can see by the photos below I was going to add more leaves and some berries. But when I when to assemble I preferred less.
I wanted to tie the box and card together, so I stamped the flower on the front panel, gave it a moment to dry and them colored with the blender pen and inks. I thought of just leaving the flower on this panel as my only decoration....but well the rest seemed to blanked. So I stamped on 3 sides of the box using the background image from You've Got This set in Island Indigo. Before stamping, I stamped off the ink a couple times to lightening the color a bit. Then once the ink seemed drying I stamping the flower in Archival Gray over the backgrounds. I also stamped the flower on the lid of the box, but I did not color it in.
I again stamped this You've Got This sentiment with Versamark, this time on Vellum. I added the Copper Embossing Powder and heated it. I punched it out with a 1 3/4" Circle Punch. Punch a hole with the 1/16" Circle Punch. I used the Copper Thread to tie the tag onto the box.
So, depending on what someone was going through the contents of the box might be different. But for this project, I decided to fill the box with some sweet candy. I used the new gusseted Cello bags in the Annual Catalog and filled it with different hard candies. I was going to use chocolates, but um well, those didn't last! But I think the hard candies are just fine, the box can be left open on someones desk while they enjoy a piece of candy while they work!
I tied the box with the Whisper White Satin Ribbon, between ribbon. Sometimes I such a hoarder with ribbon and embellishments, I don't want to use something because it's so nice....but this year, I vowed to use all my products and not buy it until I'm outta of it....we shall see how this goes.
But anyway, I thought this ribbon was simple but gave an elegant touch to the gift. I fed the Copper thread through the knot in the sating ribbon and tied it so it hung just over the flower. I then finished the satin ribbon in a bow.
If you are need of the Annual Catalog or Holiday Message please let me know and I will gladly send one to you. US only.
Be sure to leave a comment on my blog with #SFAUGHOP (see below for details) and click the Next button to visit Melissa Thomas's Blog.
Thank you so much
Happy Stampin


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A WHITE House national security official has been fired for sending anonymous messages on Twitter that insulted colleagues in the Obama administration and revealed internal information, US media report.
Jofi Joseph, who worked on non-proliferation issues and Iran at the National Security Council, had tweeted under the name @natsecwonk for more than two years, according to website Daily Beast.
The account included tweets insulting top White House and State Department officials' appearance, intellect and personal lives.
The White House told the Daily Beast on Wednesday that Joseph had been fired, but provided no more details.
The Twitter account has since been closed.
Originally published as White House staffer fired over tweets


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ATLANTA, May 29, 2013 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- According to Equifax's (NYSE:EFX) latest National Consumer Credit Trends Report, $69.6 billion in new credit for auto loans was originated in January and February 2013, the highest level in more than eight years and more than 70% higher than the recession low of $40.2 billion for the same time period in 2009. The 3.5 million new auto loans originated in January and February 2013 also represent an eight year high, while new loans funded in that same time by banks, savings and loans or credit unions increased by more than 20%, to $35.6 billion from $29.5 billion. "Sales of new cars and light trucks hit a 5-year high in the first quarter on a seasonally adjusted basis, and consumers' demand for auto loans is similarly strong," said Equifax Chief Economist Amy Crews Cutts. "Light trucks in particular are in demand for the newly energized housing construction trade and there is a lack of supply of used trucks available so prices on these vehicles are currently rising. Consumers are also funding purchases of used cars with loans at attractive rates and low delinquency rates are allowing lenders to make credit a bit more easily available." Other highlights from the most recent data include:
- Balances on outstanding auto loans totaled $798 billion as of April 2013, an increase of more than 8% from same time a year ago and a 51-month high.
- The total number of loans stands at 59.8 million, nearly a four-year high.
- As of April 2013, total outstanding balances on loans funded by auto finance companies are $416.9 billion, a 50-month high. The total number of outstanding loans is more than 31 million, a 46-month high.
- Similarly, total outstanding balances on loans funded by banks, savings and loans or credit unions are $381.1 billion, a high of more than 60 months. The total number of loans outstanding is more than 28 million, a 41-month high.
- Serious delinquencies on auto loans funded by banks and other depositories fell to 0.32% of outstanding balances in April, a decline of 13.9% from March's level and 9.1% lower than the same time a year ago.
- Serious delinquencies on auto loans funded by finance companies fell to 1.75% of outstanding balances, a decline of 11.7% from March's rate and 15.4% from April 2012's level.


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Are all the newer cars on the street making your ride jealous? Okay, your car doesn't have to be old to lack the OnStar functionality that some vehicles offer, allowing owners to track stolen vehicles or determine why their Check Engine light is on. Regardless, there are ways to give your car these features, and one of them now comes from Verizon.
Today the carrier has announced Hum. For $15 a month (and $13 for any additional vehicles), Verizon will send you a two-piece kit with built-in GPS that can help law enforcement find your stolen vehicle or point you towards your last parking spot.Read More


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February 22, 2011
Clearwater City Council Regular Session. Agenda items include: Ordinance for Westar Energy Electric Franchise; Proposal from Pro Com to Update City Radios; Resolution Authorizing for Sale General Obligation Temporary Renewal and Improvement Notes, Series 2011; Council Update on Meeting Concerning Baseball Field at Sports Complex; Budget Calendar; Other Items; PDF File.
022211.PDF — PDF document, 28 kB (29,271 bytes)


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Limit 5 per order / address at this special price.
Retired by Schleich - Get yours while supplies last.
Umitok, the warthog man, has no manners and is always misbehaving. Umitok is a good friend of Liassa and is also very popular with everybody in Bayala. His laid back pose is representative of his lazy side; he still has hold of his club though so he is ready when any enemies attack. The warthog is standing proud guarding his hero with his two strong tusks ready to be used as weapons in any fight.
Umitok measures approximately 3.75" tall - warthog 3.25".
Made of durable synthetic material by Schleich. Hand Painted.
Product Code: sch70443 Schleich 70443 by SchleichManufacturer Age Recommendation: 3+ Years
Schleich 70443
by Schleich


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Home > Eyeglasses > DKNY > DY4661 (3655)
New Releases
Size and availability
Free outbound and return shipping
30-day money-back guarantee
Low prices
Free outbound and return shipping
30-day money-back guarantee
Low prices
DY4661/3655 Eyewear
With these designer eyeglasses, you are always perfectly dressed. The DY4661 is available in the Edel-Optics online shop in other styles from DKNY collections 2016 and 2017.
This frame was specially designed for genuine power women. Graceful design and expressiveness are interspersed with classical chic. Wearing full rim eyewear, you make it unmistakably clear that you are going the whole hog. The cat-eye frame lifts the face optically and its outer tips make the frame shape particularly favourable for square faces. Plastic frames like these combine durability and are comfortable to wear. The DY4661 is a very snug fit on the ears and nose. Anyone who likes something more extravagant will choose this shade of red. There is no possibility of ignoring this style for Women.
With the help of our digital dispensing optician, your prescription lenses can be configured according to your own requirements. Anti-reflective and cleaning coatings, antistatic and lotus effect are included as standard for plastic lenses.
Since this model is presently in the sale, it is more affordable than ever to treat yourself to an exclusive designer model.
New Releases
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Don t hesite to call us
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How can I see easily how many purchased have used each coupon code?Asked by calvin_c7 on August 09, 2016 at 12:57 PM
How can I see easily how many purchased have used each coupon code?
This is a re-post of a comment on How To Add Coupon Code in the Payment Form
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At The Station - Joe Walsh MP3
Track 4 from the pictured album...enjoy.
At the train station - Learn English conversation through quick lessons MP3
So you're going on a journey by the train? It's a great experience as usual and you can't wait to meet the exciting people who will be your co-passengers. In this ...
Damo and Darren 1 - 'Train Station' MP3
Episode 1: Darren wants to borrow Damo's lighter. Damo & Darren Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/damoanddarrenofficial Buy a Cigggy Butt Brain T-shirt!
Down at the Station - Nursery Rhyme MP3
Down At The Station and more | Nursery Rhymes for Toddlers & Train Song MP3
Down At The Station and more | Train song & nursery rhymes for toddlers. Love trains and nursery rhymes? Subscribe to our channel for more great videos for ...
Down At The Station | Train song for toddlers | Toddler Fun Learning MP3
Sing-a-long to Down At The Station with 3 friendly trains. Download the song here ...
Muse - Panic Station (Official Video) MP3
The official video for Panic Station, taken from The 2nd Law. The 2nd Law available to buy here: http://smarturl.it/the2ndlaw © 2013 WMG.
Standing At The Station-Ten Years After MP3
Leave those Blues behind Me. Live from Frankfurt,1973.
"Standing At The Station" - Keb' Mo' w/Robert Cray MP3
S.F. CA 08/24/07 - http://www.kebmo.com Follow Keb' Mo': http://facebook.com/kebmo http://twitter.com/kebmomusic http://instagram.com/kebmomusic.
The Station Night Club Fire (GRAPHIC) MP3
Around a 100 people were horribly burned alive this tragic night. It clearly demonstrates how the when the right amount of combustible material and oxygen are ...
The Station Nightclub Fire MP3
On February 20, 2003, one-hundred people lost their lives and 230 were injured in one of the deadliest nightclub fires in U.S. history. The fire was caused by ...
Keb Mo Band LRBC 2010 " Standing At The Station " MP3
One of the highlight´s on the Legendary Rhythm and Bluescruise 2010 KEB` MO` - Guitar, Vocals JEFF PARIS - Keyboards, Vocals & Harp STANLEY ...
A look at the future of LA Union Station -- UPDATED MP3
The Union Station Master Plan will guide future development of the station to help it become an even greater destination. This conceptual animation offers a ...
Improvisation at the train station in paris! MP3
When was a piano in a paris station and two talents come together and they not known, happens this. Quan hi ha un piano a l'estació de parís i s'ajunten dos ...
The Cleverlys at the Station Inn - 2 MP3
This clip was recorded at the Station Inn in February 2011 with permission from the band.
KCPT - Celebration at the Station 2012 pt.2 MP3
KCPT is pleased to televise Bank of America Celebration at the Station. This FREE Memorial Day Weekend event in the Midwest returns for its Tenth ...
The tonight show...singer gas station...:-) MP3
Hilarious drunk driver at the station MP3
A drunk women gets a police officer laughing with her amusing antics. She tries to chat up the officer.
English Conversation: At the Train Station MP3
At the Train Station: http://www.hello-english.net/at-the-train-station/
MUSE - Panic Station [The 2nd Law] MP3
I do not own any rights to the song. it is purely for your enjoyment. So enjoy this great song by a great band. WHOOOOOOOOOP!!!!! MUSE!!!
Joe Walsh - At the Station MP3
Track 4 from Joe Walsh's 1978 album, "But Seriously, Folks..." My personal favorite song from the album!
Japanese cleaners bowing for train at the station MP3
TOMY Plarail Japanese Hiro & Thomas at the station Unboxing review and first run MP3
Hey All I bought this japanese TOMY Plarail Hiro and Thomas set from an ebay seller and it cost about US$60 including delivery. The main reason I bought this ...
RUSS BARENBERG TRIO, Live at the Station Inn MP3
http://theveritasmediagroup.com/ A mini EPK for Russ Barenberg Trio, Luke Bulla, Viktor Krauss, Russ Barenberg. Directed by Joseph "Jody" Spence for the ...
Joe Walsh - At The Station (But Seriously Folks, May 16, 1978) MP3
I was standin' at the station Out at the end of the line Feelin' mad, just a bit impatient And I wish that you would make up my mind Yes I was out there on the ...
Caitlyn Smith // Tacoma // Live at The Station Inn MP3
This is a song Bob DiPiero and I wrote called "Tacoma." We are extremely honored that Garth Brooks put it on his new album "Man Against Machine." Check out ...
G.Gershwin. Porgy and Bess. Act 1, Oh, the Train is at the Station MP3
«Africa -- America» Festival G. Gershwin. Opera «Porgy and Bess» Soloists: Angela Brown, soprano (USA) Kevin Dias, bass-baritone (USA) Moscow City ...
Two women at the gas station! MP3
I think that these two women are for the first time at the gas station! SHARE AND SUBSCRIBE!
Racin' the Station – Duathlon 2015 at the Marshall Space Flight Center MP3
Racin' the Station 2015 will be held on Saturday, September 26 at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. The goal is to finish the run-bike-run course before the ...
The Cleverlys at the Station Inn - 1 MP3
This clip was recorded at the Station Inn in February 2011 with permission from the band.


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John's Sunshine Marmalade
Recipe by John Challender
Chunky, old-country style marmalade like a ray of sunshine first thing in the morning. Added tang from the "wee dram" of Scots whisky! In January, when Seville oranges are available in our supermarkets, I make 6 - 10 batches of this marmalade. Why? Because I have a large following of friends who think it's the best orange marmalade they have eaten! I started making it a few years ago when my wife Peg attended a weekend-long quilting retreats and left me unsupervised. The 2003 vintage produced 90 X 250 ml jars.
Top Review by dazed.confused
i made this for my dad for his birthday, he absolutely loved it, he finished the last jar last week. I used navel oranges, as i was unable to get any sevilles, i think it just meant a sweeter marmalade, which dad didnt seem to mind. Everyone that tasted it loved it, and it looked absolutely gorgeous in the jar.
See Discussion:1 Review
Ingredients Nutrition
For one batch
- 6 seville oranges
- 1 lemon
- water, to cover fruit
- sugar, equal to volume of fruit
- cooking Scotch whisky
Directions See How It's Made
- Cut oranges and lemon in half, squeeze out the juice, remove and save all the seeds.
- Using a chef's knife, not a food processor or blender, slice the rinds, with fruit pulp still attached, into slivers, thick and thin and of the length you prefer.
- Place all the cut fruit and the juice into a large, stainless steel pot and add just enough water to cover.
- Place all the seeds in a cheesecloth bag and drop in the pot with the other ingerdients (I tie a string to the neck of the bag and tie an end to the pot handle, making sure the bag is submerged).
- Bring to a boil and immediately reduce heat and let simmer for about 2 hours Let cool over night.
- Next day, remove bag of seeds and squeeze out the liquid back into the pot.
- Place pot over heat and using your eye, add enough sugar to raise the level of the mixture to twice its original height, that is, if there are 6 inches of fruit in the pot, add white sugar until the pot has 12 inches of mixture in it.
- Bring to a boil, stirring constantly to avoid scorching and boil for at least 30 minutes until the marmalade will set when placed on a china a plate and cooled in the fridge for ten minutes.
- Pour at least 1/4 inch of cooking Scotch- your favourite- into clean preserving jars (I use Bell's when using a blend or Glenfiddich when using a single malt).
- Top each with marmalade.
- Add caps and lids to jars and place them into a boiling water bath for at least ten minutes then remove to cool.
- Make sure jars"snap" to confirm their seal.
- If you give any away to friends, they will be quick to return the empty jars and raves about your wondeerful marmalade!
- Great for breakfast on your favourite toast.
- Sorry if the quantities are a bit vague- might be a"guy thing".


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Table of content :
If you've somehow managed to arrive at this page, you're most likely wanting to acquire best riding lawn mower under 1,500 US Dollars.
Riding lawn mowers and lawn tractors can be far from inexpensive. Discovering the finest lawn tractor for the cash can be specifically hard. They are usually several thousand dollars and seldom to come at a discount rate, however, there are some exceptions. With our reviews, you will have the ability to understand the complicated market and find the very best budget riding yard mower.
Initially, let's start with the different kinds of riding lawn mowers and the ramifications of each.
Keep in mind: Zero turn yard mowers were not consisted of in this evaluation as they are far more expensive than other kinds of riding lawn mower.
Rear Engine Mowers vs. Tractors.
The 2 main kind of riding lawn mower consist of rear engine lawn mowers and lawn tractors. The two of them meant for personal use on properties that are around an acre or more.
They will be more effective than the specific pressing mower, and the specific mowing speed will depend greatly on the model that you select.
Here's what you have to understand.back to menu ↑
Which one is more affordable?
Rear engine lawn mowers will practically always be more affordable than a tractor, however, the precise cost distinction between them depends upon the exact models.
Their cost difference is produced by a number of different factors. A rear engine mower is more bare-boned and can just do the incredible task of cutting grass. Tractors generally feature bigger engines, more stiff frames, and a larger cutting deck. All these factors contribute to a higher price.
Typically speaking, tractors are more costly than rear engine lawn mowers.back to menu ↑
Which one is for me?
Both types will have the ability to cut yard obviously, but exactly what differentiates one from the other?
Well, rear engine lawn mowers are usually best for lawns that feature mostly flat land with little obstruction. They need to not be used for lawns with slopes as the weight distribution favors the rear due to the engine. A high adequate slope will trigger the lawn mower to flip in reverse due to the weight of the engine.
These lawn mowers usually have an engine and frame too weak to do much aside from just cutting.
Yard or Garden tractors are better suited for people that plan to do gardening work outside of just trimming. Although they tend to be more costly, lawn tractors are able to use accessories for untiling, raking, and other yard maintenance tasks. They will likewise be better suited for big garden as they generally have a larger mowing course. Their larger engines are a lot more effective and efficient in pulling heavy items such as a tiller.
To address the concern of which one is the right for you, take an appearance at your lawn and determine what tasks you have in mind.back to menu ↑
What are the alternatives?
Given that you're seeking to buy a low-cost riding mower, it may be a much better choice for you to purchase a greater end pressing mower rather. It's better to invest in honda hrr216k9vka instead of a low-cost riding mower that might break continuously and need extreme maintenance.
Although pressing mowers might take longer to mow your lawn, it will be perfectly appropriate for lawns under an acre in size. Some advantages consist of fewer maintenance costs and a smaller sized size.back to menu ↑
Best Cheap Riding Lawn Mowers
At this point, you must have the ability to determine which type of riding lawn mower is much better matched for you. Utilizing this details, carefully think about each offering on our list.
Both lists will feature riding lawn mowers under 1,500 US Dollars (some are above $1,500), but if you are aiming to invest a bit more, have a look at the more pricey lawn tractors as well. They will have the ability to carry out lots of more jobs beyond simply mowing and this might be a helpful feature for gardening enthusiasts and others who like to have the tendency to their lawn's visual.
Without further ado, here are the best riding mowers under 1,500 US Dollars.back to menu ↑
Top 3 Best Rear Engine Lawn Mowers for the cash.
Troy-Bilt TB30R
The Troy-Bilt riding Mower quickly becomes the best worth on the market today. It features a little other than the bare minimum, it does its task of cutting turf with efficiency and ease. The business Troy-Bilt is a huge brand in the market and it produces its own engines for this lawn mower. It produces enough power to move at a leading speed of 4.5 mph and integrated with its 30″ large cutting deck, this mower will save a significant quantity of time off mowing. The 6-speed manual transmission might be a little jerky and spend some time to master, but with a 2-year guarantee consisted of and Amazon's fulfillment assurance, there's no factor to provide this mower a go.
Poulan Pro PB301
Poulan's lawn mowers come at a steep discount rate thanks to their production and sales process which includes little aside from producing and offering through Amazon. This enables the company to keep costs low as there are no extra expenses other than manufacturing the product and shipping to Amazon's warehouse. These mowers are of a remarkable quality considering their cheap cost. It includes numerous premium functions such as a comfortable seat, effective engine, and a tight turning radius. These designs are used at a discount on Amazon exclusively, and we extremely motivate you to inspect them out.
Lawn Machines 13A326JC700
If the two previous models were too large for your storage space, we advise having a look at this smaller sized design that includes a much smaller sized 24″ cutting deck. The engine is much smaller sized and more fuel effective than the previous lawn mowers, but this comes at the expense of less power. Due to the fact that the price is essentially the same, we advise you to buy this design just if storage or maneuverability are a concern for you. This lawn mower will turn tighter, however, will absolutely trim slower.
Top 3 Best Lawn Tractors for the Money.
Yard Machines 42″
Among the least expensive yard tractor's offered today, the Yard Machines 30″ is a great value of choice for those with somewhat sloping terrain that can not be mowed with the basic rear engine mower. It includes a 7-speed manual transmission that involves a slight knowing curve and may be a bit of an inconvenience to run at first. Otherwise, this lawn mower is terrific at cutting grass rapidly with a 420cc engine and a large 42″ cutting course. Back by a minimal 2-year service warranty from Yard Machines, this lawn mower is fantastic for individuals simply entering into the tractor marketplace.
Husqvarna YTA18542
Coming from among the biggest names in industrial gardening devices, the Husqvarna YTA18542 is a trustable device developed with several hassle-free functions. Even at such a low price, Husqvarna has handled to load this tractor with an automated transmission, patented air caused lift innovation, and a 3-year minimal guarantee. It runs efficiently and drives easily, it's different with the other budget plan alternatives. The engine supplies ample power for the blade and wheels and is definitely effective to drag little to medium sized objects. With its big 42″ cutting deck, this tractor will cut yard rapidly compared to to the same sized models.
Poulan Pro 960420182
The biggest difference between this design and the Husqvarna pointed out above is the hydrostatic transmission made use of in this one. It enables variable speed control and on-the-go speed changes with the easy movement of the movement lever. It includes an extremely dependable and tried and true Briggs and Stratton Overhead Valve engine that makes certain to last with the appropriate maintenance. With a marketed 6″ turning radius, this maching not only trims a big part of grass but also surround the objects with skill. It becomes one among the most popular designs that are available to buy online. Integrated with an unprecedented 10 Year Limited Warranty on the deck's shell, this must become very best bang for the dollar you will find on the market today.back to menu ↑
Typical Problems with Cheap Riding Mowers.
Spending plan riding lawn mowers included a whole list of common issues that increase for numerous users after a few seasons of usage.
Obviously, this is because of the more affordable manufacturing procedure used in the budget. Companies cut corners on greater quality parts and quality control to attain such a cost effective price. This causes inferior products that suffer in toughness.
Almost all of these problems can be avoided with vigilant upkeep and proactive replacements. Do not let these issues scare you away from the budget plan market. Simply ensure to do your research prior to buying a model and inspect to see the most common consumer complaints.
Misaligned or Poor Steering:
This is the most typical problem with inexpensive riding mowers. A misaligned guiding column, nevertheless, is usually a pretty simple fix with the correct tools. Depending on the mower this might be an issue with several different components, however, they must all be changed under warranty or easily in your home.
Bad Cutting Performance:
Poor and irregular cuts are probably the most frustrating issue you can face with any mower. Regrettably, this issue is a lot more difficult to identify as a lot of parts play into the efficiency of the cutting deck. It might be a whole host of concerns including however not limited to a dull blade, weak engine, deflated tires, and much more.
Engine Lacks Responsiveness:
If a riding mower's engine starts to feel sluggish and no longer reacts well to the gas pedal, the most probably cause of the problem is the carburetor. This is the part that blends fuel with air for combustion in the engine. This issue might be more difficult to repair in the house, however, will more than likely be covered under guarantee.
Engine Doesn't Start:
A totally dead engine is often triggered by irresponsible maintenance and irregular fluid changes in the lawn mower. Keep in mind that riding mowers must be kept frequently at home or by a professional to operate efficiently. This issue needs to practically constantly be taken care of at a dealership or other expert mechanic.
That's it all our reviews and guide on buying the best riding lawn mower under 1,500 US Dollars. Even though it is rather difficult to choose one, we hope this will help you to buy your favorite one.


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Don Pendleton is an American artist who's digital and hand painted imagery has become recognizable and iconic in the world of skateboard graphics, the skate-driven modern art set best represented by Juxtapoz Magazine, and recently in the music world, with Pendleton's work on Pearl Jam's, Lightning Bolt, winning a Grammy for "Best Recording Package". Don's work has been described as "linear organic cubist, expressionist style", but he continues to develop and branch out in the styles, colors, and forms he creates. We probed the brain of Don Pendleton in an attempt to dissect the how's and why's he paints and designs the way he does, oh, and we also asked him if he believes in Bigfoot.
I want to start off with your iconic skateboard graphics, you were a huge part in creating the look and feel of Alien Workshop, what drew you to Alien and what was the process of creating art for boards for them like?
I was a big fan of Neil Blender from my earliest days of skating and he was one of the 3 people behind AWS. So with his art and personality injected into it, I knew it would be a really good brand. Plus, Chris Carter (one of the other owners) is from my home state of WV. I worked at a skate shop in 1990 whenever the brand was introduced and I was backing it 100% for those reasons. Plus Duane Pitre…and Rob (Dyrdek). Just a solid team, interesting direction and cool graphics.
Doing their graphics after being a fan wasn't easy. I think the stress was self-induced but any time you're working on something where people are going to be very critical, it can be stressful. After the first boards came out and nobody was calling for my head on a stick, I relaxed and just had fun and it was very natural after that.
Alien Workshop is a brand known for a lot of conspiracy theory references in its graphics and messaging, are you a Conspiracy theory believer? If so give us an example of one that you have lost sleep over.
I think we all got worked up over a few over the years while I was there. The thing is that a lot of them are based in fact so it's never a case where it's black/white, true/false, real/fake. There are elements of all those things in the best theories and, to be frank, some of them are quite real. I think everyone becomes desensitized to it all after a while. Just the idea that William Cooper called out so much stuff that became real (UPS codes on all products, NSA gathering and collecting all communication data)..nobody can say that William Cooper didn't know what he was talking about. He was a very intelligent, informed guy who worked directly with the CIA for a long time. Information from people like that should scare people. It's in everyone's best interest to stay aware and to be concerned but it can take its toll. No lie, I've seen people lose their minds from being hypersensitive to it all and paying way too much attention to much of that world.
Element seemed to allow for brighter different color palettes, what excited you about switching it up to a brand like that?
I didn't really have any direction at Alien … I just did whatever I wanted and Mike (Hill) and Chris were cool enough to let me do what I wanted to do. In contrast, Element was a brand that was very controlled and very directed…too much so. It was a bummer. Everything that is great starts off from this origin of purity and it's important to not direct the fun and originality and creativity out of everything. I went from someone sitting at a computer doing the whole line of boards from AWS to being in board rooms with 3 versions of 3 drafts of graphics with 4 sets of eyes on them.
By the time that process was done, there was none of my voice in the graphic. There was no fun or originality anymore. It was just a lifeless image in the end designed to sell. Broke my heart to a degree and that's why I left. Skateboarding and art…neither of them should become something that is dissected and twisted specifically for demographics and sales. It's gross just to think about, really. But that's how it was over there. It depresses me to just think about that era of my work. I never share it anywhere. I have a few on my website but that's about it.
A lot of your images appear to start with basic lines then transform in to beings, insects, etc, what do your graphics/paintings start out like? Do you have sketches before laying final paint? how many of them come from freestyle drawing?
Everything starts out as a sketch, yeah. That's the most important step in the process and I think a lot of artists try to skip that step. But I work out the shapes and forms and develop it, redraw it, redraw it again and then I might start to recognize some parts of it and those parts get developed more. Some come from very quick freestyle type shapes and lines. It's very random in a lot of ways but I think it should be pretty random and impromptu to keep it genuine and pure. I think if I tried to do these shapes on purpose, it would be a disaster, aesthetically speaking. There has to be a lot of mistakes that just work out.
Describe the business side of making skateboard deck graphic: does the company send an order for five boards in a set? Does the skateboarder get to pick his or her graphic?
It all depends on which company, to be honest. But usually it's pretty casual…they need X amount of boards and send you a list of the rider's names. Very, very rarely are the skaters involved in the process. And even though some of the best graphics have been done by pro skateboarders (Mark Gonzales, Neil Blender, Natas) it's probably best that current skateboarders aren't involved. Too much "direction" really does ruin art. Some companies are very good about it and let the artist do whatever, some companies have a little input but aren't too heavy with direction. Heroin is a company that I have enjoyed working with. Fos (the owner) knows what he wants but he isn't changing and editing all of the fun out of the graphics.
What's the best compliment you ever got from a skateboarder about your graphics?
I think Steve Berra had written an article in Skateboarder about his favorite graphics and he had a lot of very kind words to say about the graphics I did for him. And he'd mentioned in the past that my graphics were one of the reason he wanted to ride for Alien. He was always very appreciative and vocal where some guys…even to this day, I have no idea how some of those guys feel about their graphics from that era. Jason Dill and Pappalardo were both good about that. I knew the guys who were vocal about their graphics and those guys always got the best ones (in my opinion). I think between Dill, Pops and Berra…those were generally the graphics I enjoyed the most.
Where do all these creatures come from? Your brain must have a large area dedicated to storage and creation of so many animals, aliens, insects, etc.
I think my influences have always changed and continue to change so it's easy for these things to keep developing in my head. There are a few that I like…very simple owl forms or heads that I will continue using…but for the most part, I'm always changing and developing different creatures and characters because it's a fun process.
A lot of your work features creatures with sharp teeth, what do the teeth say about the work?
When developing a creature, you have to develop the personality along with it so the features match and there is some expression and life. You've got the mouth, the eyes, the ears…the nose (maybe) so after playing around with those, there is eventually going to be some more evil type of creatures and I imagine those to all have sharp teeth…I imagine that idea goes all the way back to the idea of Dracula or the idea of dragons. If they didn't have sharp teeth, they wouldn't be nearly as creepy.
Do you have a certain routine for working? Do you blast music (if so what), what's the vibe like when you're in the paint zone?
With painting it changes because I'm usually painting around other projects. It's nice to get away from the computer and, in that regard, I enjoy it a lot. When I'm painting for a show, I usually find one single album and listen to it over and over and over. It's the only way for me to be in a certain, consistent mood where the art is all touched by the same kind of feeling. With this upcoming show it's been 'Disintegration' by The Cure. There's a very specific mood to the album and, in my opinion, is one of the most successful at capturing a specific meloncholly feeling. It doesn't seem sad to me or depressing, it's certainly not happy really but it's just powerful and moving at times.
Now on the to basic "believer" questions: Do you believe in UFOs? if yes, explain, if not why not?
I believe there are other life forms in our galaxy. I would never hypothesize on what exactly they might be or any specifics. But knowing and understanding the origins of man, it's almost insane to think that a very similar process hasn't taken place in other parts of the universe. And wherever they are, I hope they've been way more intelligent about how they treat their planet and their fellow organisms than we have been as humans.
Do you think alien abductions happen?
I think there would be a natural curiosity to study humans if there has been some type of contact. I can't think of any story specifically that I believe but it makes sense that there would be a level of investigation that would involve humans and cows and that kind of thing.
Through the eyes of an artist, what do you think aliens look like?
Exactly like the AWS Believe logo: Almond eyes, large head. Probably pasty like myself from lack of sun and vitamins.
Ever seen a ghost?
I love the idea of ghosts. I like creeping myself out, I used to really enjoy watching ghost hunting shows and reading stories but there is no way that ghosts exist, at least not in the way that most people idealize them to exist. I have seen what I thought was a ghost one time in my life but now I'm about 100% convinced that it was a perfect storm of lighting, visual noise and my brain trying to makes sense of a random shape. No…no ghosts. Unfortunately. That would make for an interesting world if the spirits of every person who has died was still lurking around on earth. We'd never get anything done…shit would be flying all over the place, TVs going on and off, lights flickering, evil laughter everywhere you go. I imagine it would get old pretty quickly. Knowing humans, we'd go from scared to really annoyed and angry in a very short time.
Bigfoot: real/fake? why?
Oh, I think most of the stuff from the 70s are fake. As we move forward as a culture, we understand things more, science allows us to explain more and to rationalize a lot of phenomena that didn't have answers before. If science would say that it's possible for a Bigfoot type creature to exist or a Loch Ness monster, then I'd buy it. But that's not what science tells us based on what we know about the timeline of existence and the period of time that those things did exist at one time.
Again, I kind of wish they did exist…it's very strange. As humans, we have MORE than enough things to really fear and worry about. What do we do? Keep making up even more reasons to freak ourselves out. It's very strange. Embrace science.
Some of Don's work:
For more about the incredible world of Don Pendleton, go to http://www.elephont.com/. Image by Don Pendleton.


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Announcing the return of the sow and her piglets.
See the little piggies in the Forster Livestock Pavilion every day of the fair.
August 25 – September 4, 2017
The 2017 Oregon State Fair is proud to present the L.B. Day Amphitheater Concert Series, featuring some of the coolest performers across the musical spectrum. Advanced, reserved seat VIP tickets are on sale now. Online only. Most VIP tickets are $35.
Approximately 6,000 general admission seats are also available for free with your paid fair admission—on a first come, first served basis. Note: Free general admission concert seating does not apply to both special Sunday performances by the Salem Symphony.
Get the latest news, special discounts, exclusive concert presales and more!


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Hey guys, I just read something and it made me have new fear for Silent Hill: Downpour
According to this web-site, in an interveiw with David Shatsky, he said that guns would be break-able. I have had a lot of faith in downpour but if this is true i think it has the potential to ruin the game. It also mentions info on other break-able weapons. Break-able guns either means lots of guns around or gun management will reach a whole new level.
Do you guys think break-able guns is a good idea? And whilst we are on the topic, is break-able weapons a good idea in general? Personally, I dont mind melee weapons being breakable, but guns is not a good idea. Please leave your answer and the reason why you think it would or would not be a good idea.
XXkamoXx 04:12, November 18, 2011 (UTC)


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Essence Festival 2011
July 1, 2011 by Post Team
Essence Festival 2011, Essence Music Festival officially began the celebration of its 17th year of the black culture and music on Thursday with the traditional sounds of New Orleans itself "Rebirth Brass Band at the helm.
"We feel at home in this city and state," said Michelle Ebanks, president of Essence Communications Inc., during a press conference inside the Convention Center Ernest N. Morial, where a large number of free activities related to the festival would occur.
Ebanks recalled the crowd on hand for the festival began in 1995. "When the idea of?? Commemorating the 25 anniversary of the magazine with a concert arrived, our then editor Susan L. Taylor, said we should have a party," said Ebanks. "But she reminded us that we are the Essence. We cannot have a party. We have to be present in the lives of the people of New Orleans, Louisiana."
And so the idea of??"A party with a purpose" was born. "When we present the possibility, through connections with others, to become your own best," said Ebanks. "Here is where you can be present in the lives of people and feel at home."
The festival is expected to welcome more than 400,000 people to the city of the fourth week of July, said Mayor Mitch Landrieu, who joined on stage with Jay Dardenne Lieutenant Governor, who heads the state programs to promote tourism.
"I am still overwhelmed with the essence and scope it has," said Landrieu. "This partnership is a spectacular opportunity for the city."
Landrieu said that attendees would have the opportunity to listen to people like Valerie Jarrett, an adviser to the White House as part of the "weekend of transformation." Also noted that New Orleans is undergoing a transformation "in a city we want to become" As the sixth anniversary of Hurricane Katrina.
During his welcoming remarks, Landrieu Ebanks and surprised the audience with a permanent reminder of the impact of the festival in the city, the appointment of a road near the essence of street Mahalia Jackson Theatre and Congo Square.
"This sign will light the way … and remind everyone that the essence will always be a part of us," he said.
"Wow!" Ebanks, said after the news. In addition to discussions of empowerment, the festival presented by Coca Cola, will feature nightly concerts by artists such as Usher, Jennifer Hudson, Kanye West, Fantasia, Mary J. Blige and Chaka Khan.
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ResV Pure ,B67 Nutra Pure Systems LLCwww.resvpure.com Spring Valley, Utah United States of America
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|Page (1) of 1 - 04/29/05
|email article
|print page
Harrison Names New Sales ManagerMartin Burns named Managing Sales Director for GLW (April 29, 2005)
Martin Burns has been named as Managing Sales Director for GLW Incorporated, manufacturer of the popular Harrison mixing console line. ?Martin began his career over 20 years ago at Harrison Systems, said Bill Owen, President of GLW, ?and were delighted to get him back.
Burns served as General Sales Manager at GLW when the company was first formed in 1989 and has since held Sales Management positions at Siemens Audio, Fostex, 360 Systems, and ENCO Systems. ?Bill has assembled an amazing sales team and Im humbled he chose me to lead them. Our new Trion line mates a giant leap in control surface technology with a proven digital audio mixing platform and the most useful displays made available to any mixer. Burns concludes, ?I could not be more excited over our prospects. ?
About Harrison by GLW
Based in Nashville, Tennessee, Harrison by GLW is a world leader in the design, manufacture and support of advance technology digital film dubbing consoles as well as professional audio mixing consoles for television broadcast, video post-production, and live sound applications. Harrison continues to expand the capabilities of contemporary digital console architecture and design. With primary patents for audio console technology, Harrison is committed to engineering innovation and excellence.
For more information on Harrison products, please visit www.harrisonconsoles.com or email: [email protected].
Page: 1
Related Keywords:Harrison, GLW, Martin Burns, mixing console, Bill Owen, digital audio mixing,


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About Alnassim LLC SEO
Based out of Spokane, WA, Alnassim LLC was founded by Jaime Alnassim. Being one to think outside the box, he started his first supplement company at the age of 23 on a limited budget. An expensive custom made website was not on the list of items to get. Learning how to code with basic HTML and CSS, he was able to make his first website. Years later, spending months to learn the basics of WordPress, now the websites are more user-friendly, mobile ready, and business prepared. The interwebs are full of ugly and slow websites, don't let your brand lose sales over your website.
Mission Statement
AlnassimLLC is a high energy, motivated group that is driven to make your brand, "your brand".
The Websites Projects Work
While spending months to learn how to use WordPress, the first website that was made and good enough for the public for FACL.org. Now the AlnassimLLC work is seen on multiple different brands/business websites.
Forza Strength Systems
Web Design | SEO | Marketing
Forza Pre-Owned Fitness Equipment
Web Design | SEO | Marketing
AlaskaFit Productions
Web Design | SEO | Marketing
Fight Against Chicken Legs
Web Design | SEO | Marketing


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MARCH 14-20: The Trade Center Bombing; Restorative Work, Incendiary Words
By THOMAS J. LUECK
Published: March 21, 1993
As the investigation of the World Trade Center bombing produced indictments and new international intrigue last week, life in the complex began to return to normal, or at least something closer to it.
The authorities began allowing tenants to return to the complex's Tower Two, with Governor Cuomo leading the way by reclaiming his 57th-floor offices.
Officials said the reopening of Tower One, which was more severely damaged by smoke from the blast, would get under way by April 1, and both towers would be fully open to tenants by April 15.
In the investigation, Federal indictments were announced against the three suspects held in the case, but a fourth, Mahmud Abouhalima, 33, an Egyptian-born taxi driver, has disappeared and may be in Pakistan. Mr. Abouhalima, who reportedly fought with the Afghan rebels, is believed to have been a ringleader of the bombing.
And Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman, the Muslim cleric whose Jersey City mosque and incendiary sermons have made him a central suspect, ended two weeks of silence to tell television interviewers that he had nothing to do with the blast.
The sheik, who left Egypt after his acquittal in the 1981 slaying of President Anwar el-Sadat, is adept at getting the word to his followers. This time he used not cassettes but ABC and CNN to make clear to them, if it wasn't already, that he thinks Egypt's current leader, Hosni Mubarak, deserves to die.
(Bigger buildings, harder to fell, page 5.)
Photo: Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman at an interview in Los Angeles last week. (Daniel Wilson/ABC News via Associated Press)


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Jack Fruit
The largest of all tree-borne fruits, jack fruit is oval-shaped and knobbly-skinned. This fruit can weigh up to eighty or ninety pounds.
Lobster Mushrooms
The Lobster mushroom is actually a parasitic hybrid of the fluorescent red-orange fungal parasite, Hypomyces lactifluorum, and the brittle white mushroom, Russula brevipes.
Inventory, lb : 10.00
This item was last sold on : 08/20/17
Arugula consists of vibrant green leaves attached to a pale creamy green hued stem. The leaves are lobed and can be harvested when young and mild in flavor or when fully mature at 3 or 4 inches in length. Arugula offers an herbaceous, peppery flavor with nuances of nuts and mustard. Leaves allowed to mature too long on the arugula plant will become bitter in taste. The pungent flavor of arugula is due to its high content of sulfur containing compounds known as glucosinolates.
Arugula is available year-round.
Current Facts
Arugula scientifically known as Eruca sativa is a member of the mustard or Brassicaceae family along with broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, mustard, radish and collard greens. Also known as salad rocket, roquette, Italian cress and rucola, both the leaves and flowers of this annual herb are edible and most commonly used today as a salad green.
Nutritional Value
Arugula is a nutrient rich leafy green providing vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, calcium, magnesium, riboflavin, copper, iron, zinc, folate and potassium. Cruciferious vegetables such as arugula are also high in antioxidant phytochemicals and rich in sulfur containing compounds known as glucosinolates which have been shown to have detoxifying properties and may be beneficial in the prevention of certain types of cancer.
In the culinary world arugula is used as an herb, a salad green and even a leaf vegetable, making it a versatile ingredient in the kitchen. It can be used both raw and cooked, though cooking will give the leaves a milder flavor. Add to raw pesto and sauces to showcase its pungency. Use as a leafy bed for grilled seafood. Chop and sprinkle atop pizza and pasta just before serving. Combine with other greens to spice up a salad. Add whole leaves to grilled cheese sandwiches or a BLT. Use in lieu of spinach in omelets and quiche. In the Gulf of Naples on the island of Ischia arugula is made into a liqueur known as Rucolino. The sharp flavor of arugula pairs well with citrus, roasted beets, pears, pine nuts, olives, tomato and robust cheeses such as goat, blue and Parmigiano-Reggiano.
Ethnic/Cultural Info
Mention of arugula can be found in several religious texts, in 2 Kings in the Bible it is referred to as oroth and in Jewish texts such as the Mishna and Talmud that date back to the first through fifth century AD. Arugula is noted for its use as both a food and medicine. In ancient Rome and Egypt consumption of arugula leaves and seeds were associated with aphrodisiac properties. In India the leaves of arugula are not commonly used however the seeds of the plant are pressed to produce oil known as taramira that is used for medicinal and cosmetic purposes.
Native to the Mediterranean region, arugula blossoms and leaves have long been a popular ingredient in the cuisines of Italy, Morocco, Portugal and Turkey. Arugula was brought to America by British colonists but it was not until the 1990's that arugula became known as a popular culinary ingredient in the United States. Arugula thrives in moderate to cool climates, too much heat will cause it to bolt and impart a bitter flavor on the leaves. It can grow on dry land and wet soil alike. Arugula's spicy aroma and flavor make it naturally resistant to pests.
Featured Restaurants
Restaurants currently purchasing this product as an ingredient for their menu.
|Lodge at Torrey Pines Main
|San Diego CA
|Pendry SD (Pool House)
|San Diego CA
|Catania La Jolla
|La Jolla CA
|Town & Country San Diego
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|Katie Grebow
|La Mesa CA
|Pendry SD (Lion Fish)
|San Diego CA
|Horton Grand Hotel
|San Diego CA
|The Rose
|San Diego CA
|Aztec Shops Cold Prep
|San Diego CA
|Primavera Ristorante
|Coronado CA
|Larry's Deli
|San Diego CA
|Revolution Roasters
|Oceanside CA
|The Miller's Table
|Oceanside CA
|The Hake
|La Jolla CA
|Parakeet cafe
|La Jolla CA
|San Diego CA
|Swell Café (Mission Beach)
|San Diego CA
|Snake Oil Cocktail Company LLC
|San Diego CA
|Herb & Wood
|San Diego CA
|Red Tail Catering
|San Marcos CA
|Crown Point Catering
|San Diego CA
|Plan 9 Alehouse
|Escondido CA
|The Go Go Truck
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|Wholesome Kitchen
|San Diego CA
|San Diego CA
|Common Theory
|San Diego CA
Recipe Ideas
Recipes that include Arugula. One is easiest, three is harder.
Recently Spotted
People have spotted Arugula using the Specialty Produce app for iPhone and Android.
Produce Spotting allows you to share your produce discoveries with your neighbors and the world! Is your market carrying green dragon apples? Is a chef doing things with shaved fennel that are out of this world? Pinpoint your location annonymously through the Specialty Produce App and let others know about unique flavors that are around them.
Little Italy Mercato
Peter SchanerNear San Diego, California, United States
Schaner Family Farms
30819 Mesa Crest Road, Valley Center 92082
About 93 days ago, 5/20/17
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Little Italy Mercato.
Little Italy Mercato
Peter SchanerNear San Diego, California, United States
Schaner Family Farms
30819 Mesa Crest Road, Valley Center 92082
About 107 days ago, 5/06/17
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Little Italy Mercato.
Walmart on Marsh and Frankford in Dallas, TX Near Addison, Texas, United States
About 290 days ago, 11/04/16
Cafe Patachou Near Indianapolis, Indiana, United States
About 310 days ago, 10/15/16
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Cafe Patachou.
Bear Foods, Chelan WA Washington, United States
About 519 days ago, 3/20/16
Spotter's comments : I spotted organic Arugula at Bear Foods, Chelan WA!
Little Italy Mercato
Suzie's FarmNear San Diego, California, United States
About 520 days ago, 3/19/16
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Little Italy Mercato.
Vista Farmers Market
Peter SchanerNear Vista, California, United States
Schaner Family Farms
30819 Mesa Crest Road, Valley Center 92082
About 548 days ago, 2/20/16
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Vista Farmers Market.
Vista Farmers Market
Tarek HijaziNear Vista, California, United States
Sundial Farm
805 Mar Vista Dr, Vista 92081
About 576 days ago, 1/23/16
Spotter's comments : Arugula spotted at Vista Farmers Market.
Milk Pail Market Near Mountain View, California, United States
About 712 days ago, 9/09/15