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Thursday, 18 February 2010
Zilli Green, Soho - Not Just For Veggies
Lord knows that I'm not a vegetarian, though I'm not averse to the odd meat-free day. But when it comes to eating out, vegetarians generally get a pretty raw deal, with one to no options in most cases.
This vexes me particularly as I'd been tasked with organised our works Christmas lunch, which turned into a New Year lunch, which turned into a Chinese New Year lunch, and two of our party are strict vegetarians (rather than wishy-washy "I am a veggie, though I do eat fish" types). For once I want us to go somewhere where they'll be able to choose anything off the menu rather than be stuck with the one pappy risotto.
Vanilla Black seems an obvious candidate, but to be honest is too close to our office for comfort. In the end, someone suggests Zilli Green in the heart of Soho, a new vegetarian restaurant from Aldo Zilli (on the site of Signor Zilli), which is opening just this week. Perfect, I think and so I book.
It's tipping it down when we get there, but we see Signor Zilli himself on the steps chatting to a girl before going inside.
The nine of us shake off the rain and walk through the door, where he greets us all briskly and tells us to "follow our noses" to the room downstairs.
There's a long wooden trestle table laid out for us in a surprisingly small basement, and we're sandwiched between the kitchen and the loos. Half of us are on chairs, the other half on a bench. I already feel a twinge in my back.
As we sit down, we see Signor Zilli appear again and personally serve a neighbouring table with aplomb. I explain to my colleagues that he's the Zilli of Zilli Green and one of them asks me why he isn't dressed in whites. I say "A lot of celebrity chefs haven't seen a kitchen in years" and she grumbles and says he ought to be wearing a toque at least.
There are bottles of olive oil on the table, apparently made on Aldo Zilli's own estate. No bread appears for dipping however, and one of my colleagues asks jokingly if we're meant to drink it.
What we do drink is the fresh juice of the day, which happens to be apple and strawberry. It's obviously blended to order and incredibly delicious, but at £4 a pop, so it should be (bear in mind that the food is at Wagamama prices).
As for the food menu - it's attractive even for a meat freak like me, so it's no wonder my veggie colleagues are bubbly with anticipation - for the first time in a long time they're stricken with choice paralysis.
For starters, we plump for Quinoa & Wild Mushroom Mediterranean Sushi Roll, Goat's Cheese & Jerusalem Artichoke Tart, Rustic Minestrone with Pastina and Marinated Tofu & Asian Salad. I resist the urge to tell everyone it's pronounced "keen-wa" - I'd only get withering looks. Some Organic Bread & Extra Virgin Zilli Oil is also requested; the name of the latter amuses and squicks me out in equal measure.
Reassuringly it turns out the EVZO is just EVOO, in fact a smaller version of the bottles that already adorn on our table. It's lovely though - strong and grassy with a punch.
Everything else also arrives promptly. The hearty-looking minestrone is "good and generous", although its recipient is slightly surprised by the lack of tomatoes.
The sushi rolls really aren't sushi rolls - although rice is swapped for quinoa, I'm at least expecting some nori, but instead the Andean grains are bound with aubergine and courgette strips. Laughably, the loosely packed assembly comes with disposable chopsticks; wisely, my colleague uses her knife and fork. No complaints flavourwise, however.
I have never liked marinated tofu, but pure masochism prompts me to order it. However, when it arrives it smells rather appealing and the seared crust breaks satisfyingly.
I'm pleased to discover that it's actually flavoursome, well-spiced with a touch of sweetness. The accompanying bed of Asian coleslaw provides nice crunch and balance to the softness of the tofu.
The tart looks delicious, but I shy away as Jerusalem artichoke and goat's cheese are no friends of mine.
The colleague who ordered it approves though and polishes it off.
Meanwhile, kitchen staff are rushing to and fro past our table - at one point a chef dashes past us with a huge exploded can of tomatoes. We try not to smile.
Mains next - we order Spinach & Mozzarella Souffle, Aubergine Milanese & Spaghetti Arrabbiata, Leek & Almond Ravioli with Artichoke Sauce, and Black Truffle Lasagne.
I'm rather sad to find that the Cheese Burger with Chips & Salad featured on the online menu is missing - I was hoping someone would order it and it would turn out to be a slab of cheese in a bun.
In fact there aren't any chips at all on the menu, save something called Artichoke Chips with Harissa. So we order those too, along with Rosemary Roast Potatoes and Roman Caesar Salad & Grilled Halloumi.
The waiter clears away everyone's used cutlery save mine. I pout a little at this and as I fret I suddenly notice that Queen's "Thank God It's Christmas" is playing in the background. I mention this in the waiter's presence and he says with embarrassment "Oh, it's because it's an iPod on shuffle - I'm very sorry". We say "It's okay, this was meant to be a Christmas lunch" but it's still a tad weird.
He returns and puts down fresh cutlery for everyone, except me - he just takes my old knife and fork and puts them either side of my place setting. I pout some more and consider complaining and then worry about my carbon footprint and decide I can cope.
Oddly, the side dishes arrive first. Artichoke chips is a complete misnomer as these are much more delicate than that name would suggest. They're lightly battered and fried like tempura, and are the most delicious thing I eat all day.
The "harissa" dip I could do without, as it just reminds me of eating dodgy merguez at Rock En Seine.
The rosemary potatoes are flabby but more-ish, but the salad no more than functional with flavourless squeaky halloumi.
The leek and almond ravioli is a winner - deftly made pasta with a deep, savoury filling and intense artichokey sauce (yes, I pinched some).
The portion may seem a mite stingy, but the flavours are rich enough to compensate.
The souffle is apparently tasty, and seems accurately risen and fluffy.
It's such a dreadfully sludgey shade of green though, I daren't even ask for a bit.
My own truffle lasagne is fantastic - like a decadent macaroni cheese. The truffle may not be visible, but its heady flavour and aroma punctuates every bite.
As for the spaghetti, the pasta is the perfect texture and the sauce has clearly been made with flavoursome, ripe tomatoes. The aubergine just makes me snigger though, as they look just like chip-shop fishcakes.
In the background, the playlist has moved onto Michael Jackson's Greatest Hits, interspersed with the odd bit of Coldplay. I briefly wonder whose iPod it is and whether I can smash it.
A colleague pops to the loo and comes back looking rather hunched. I ask what's the matter, so she says "See for yourself" and I find myself in a Hobbit hole with a curved ceiling almost grazing my head - and I'm only 5' 4". Even less conducive to a peaceful bio break is the sign on the door entreating me to "learn to cook with celebrated Chef Aldo Zilli".
Dessert seems essential and so we ask for the menu. We peruse the intriguing offerings, but when we're ready to order, there's no-one to be found.
We make small talk and wait for a bit, before a colleague asks "What's happened to our service?" A member of staff appears, but he's wearing his coat and clearly about to leave. This is not good.
Finally our waiter returns, and we order Dairy Free Tiramisu, Organic Tofu & Limoncello Cheese Cake and Warm Pecan & Chocolate Chip Brownie - all listed as vegan.
When they arrive, I'm taken aback by how authentic my cheesecake is and I urge everyone to try some. The base is strangely coconutty but I quite like that and, although any limoncello is overpowered by the sharp berry sauce, it's still seems a sound interpretation. After a while however, maybe it's psychological but the intrinsic, spooky tofu-ness begins to creep through and I struggle to finish.
The chocolate brownie is a little too dry, but rich and cocoa-ey, and the "ice cream" is pleasantly velvety.
As a whole, the dish works well together and I suffer a bit of plate envy.
The tiramisu is the least convincing of the three desserts and is extremely unlikely to pick anyone up.
Stodgy and airless like a kept trifle, it appears dairy-free is definitely not the way forward in this case.
As I'm poking at my tofu cheesecake, a colleague at the end of table suddenly asks "Why has my coat been on a journey?".
I look up and see him looking reproachfully at a member of staff who is holding said coat. The man blushes and says "We have a system for storing belongings and your coat was assigned to the wrong table". Actually, we'd hung our own coats up and it's not really surprising that we hadn't noticed the hand-numbered sticky labels:
By the end of the meal, I'm well and truly stuffed, and despite some issues, I'm pretty much won over. And although I think the more carnivorous of my colleagues feel a little shortchanged, the vegetarians at least seem as satisfied as I am.
As we walk away, they tell me that they really do like the place and that they'll definitely come back, but only with other vegetarians, and I protest and say to them that they can count me in too.
Zilli Green
41 Dean Street
London W1D 4PY
020 7734 3924
18 comments:
Wow. Another brilliant post. You've even managed to make it look appealing to me - someone for whom a meal is only a meal if it has meat in it. I'm generally with you on tofu, whose taste and texture I can't stick - crisping the outside must take some doing and how they get flavour into it with a marinade? Clearly they know what they're doing.ReplyDelete
Really interesting review. I must admit to having been slightly cynical about the concept, but it seems that Zilli has more or less come up trumps. A useful one to know about for die-hard veggie friends, for sure.ReplyDelete
Every time the name Zilli is mentioned lethargy overcomes yours truly. Your review might gain some kind of salvation, I shall put my prejudices aside and visit this place at some point. Great review, cheers.ReplyDelete
Lovely and comprehensive write up. I have a staunchly vegetarian friend who will be returning shortly from a self imposed exile in Oz. I look forward to supplying more options than just Saf and Green and Black!ReplyDelete
Really thorough write up Mimi, really enjoyed it.ReplyDelete
I must admit that I wasn't expecting such a positive review. Shame on me.
My sister is a vegetarian and has had more 'token' omelettes than we can remember. I think she would like this place very much.
@chumbles - I adore Asian silken and firm tofu but the Westernised health freak stuff (of which this was an example) is often quite unpleasant so well done Zilli GreenReplyDelete
@aforkfulofspaghetti - It's hard not to be cynical - I was fully prepared to dislike it but enjoyed it despite myself.
@Fat Les - I bet you'll hate it ;p Any issues we experienced I think were teething problems - it's quality food at caff prices.
@tehbus - I do want to try Saf despite the weird "we do not heat our food above 60 degrees" faff
@The Ample Cook - No, you're right to be wary but I do hope your sister will like it as much as my colleagues.
excellent review and the photos are particularly good. i shall be taking my dearest girlfriend there forthwith. and i do enjoy watching veggies having the "but...but...i can order *anything* on the menu..." dilemmaReplyDelete
@An Idiot - Why thank you :)ReplyDelete
Yes, it's such a rarity to see vegetarians overwhelmed by choice. My friends were thrown by the "(v)"s until they saw that that meant vegan this time.
perfect timing! I have a veggie and a semi-veggie coming to stay in a couple of weeks and was struggling to find a new place for them to sample!ReplyDelete
ooh you were quick off the mark with that place, are you auditioning for Dos Hermanos?!ReplyDelete
I really like trying out veggie places, it's usually really interesting to see what they're doing, I really like Saf much to my surprise, thought Vanilla Black sucked quite badly, very up its own bum. Got my eye on that vegan Japanese place by King's Cross as well as this one ;)
If you're ever looking for other options there's a vegetarian restaurant called 'Rootmaster' in a converted Routemaster bus in the Old Truman Brewery at Spitalfields. Not cheap but good fun.
@knit nurse - I love the term "semi-veggie" :) I hope they like it!ReplyDelete
@Jones - I walk past Vanilla Black all the time and it's always empty - you can practically see the tumbleweed.
As for being quick off the mark, it's the Twitterverse I have to thank for sending me there.
Yes, I want to try Itadaki Zen too and Saf has been on my list for a while but I've heard mixed reviews.
Rootmaster does look fun :)
Good work (again!). I am one of those wishy washy types that eats fish but not meat, but always good to have a fully veggie option too. Mr A Zilli seems to have passed me by somewhat but may investigate this place next time I'm in the big smoke.ReplyDelete
@TheFastestIndian - Hello Miss IreenaRibena - I thought you might like the look of this place :)ReplyDelete
Bah- my alter ego has been busted!ReplyDelete
I want to go!
@TheFastestIndian - TotallyReplyDelete
@Sati - I'd rather go to kushikatsu :)
Yeah, that was fantastic!!!ReplyDelete
Roti and I went there once after that. But its more fun if you go with lots of people...
@Sati - We miss Japan so much!ReplyDelete


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subset: commoncrawl


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Eco CornerBy Jake Reiner
Eco Corner
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Milk cows in Niigata, pick wine grapes in Tuscany, shear sheep in New South Wales or make strawberry jam in China. Work four-to-six hours a day, eat great food, learn a lot and make friends with all kinds of like-minded people.
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Mistaken IdentityApril 16, 2004
Interestingly, it seems that 'brightcreative.com' [which is in fact coming soon, despite the empty promise that particular wording entails] is generic enough a name to warrant mistaken identity.
For example: let's say, hypothetically of course, that my server is configured to forward absolutely anything @ the domain name to my catch-all inbox. Let's say, also theoretically, that earlier in the week a 2MB email landed in my inbox.
Since we're still talking speculatively, imagine that I had instinctively deleted it as a virus. But if something had caught my eye and made me fish it out of my deleted items folder, imagine how surprised I would have been to discover that the email was addressed to a 'Judith' at X Creative, where 'X' has been substituted for an actual business name.
And imagine my amazement to discover the sender had forwarded payroll and expense worksheets for a major TV commercial shoot happening soon. Theoretically.
Is there etiquette for a situation like this? Announcing that the intended recipient didn't receive the email is fine when it's a simple conversation or confirmation or anything else non-confidential. But bring (assumed confidential) financial worksheets into the equation, and the dynamic completely changes.
Reader Comments
I'd reply and tell them that they have the wrong address.
But why? Simply to extend a courtesy?
Well, for one, to be nice. And two, so that I won't continuously receive more e-mail from them which isn't for me. I get enough unsolicited e-mail as it is.
I'm not really worried about my honesty being questioned in this case, since I don't see how the alternative – to be quiet – can in any way be considered more honest.
I get emails like this all the time because often users of a hosting provider with a similarly named domain don't know the difference. It's pretty comical the emails I see like this… though only a couple every few months… most of them are for tech support.
Well, knowing how much a of a pain in the ass dealing with tech support is to begin with, I feel obligated to ensure the person knows that the email they sent never made it to tech support at that hosting company.
Likewise, my magazine still maintains the title of best hosting company in some awards show because someone had a typo in the URL on the award web page.
Since posting, 'hypothetical' advice (and therefore non-binding and non-legal) from someone in the legal profession is that it really shouldn't matter if I reply or not, so long as I delete the information and don't pass it on.
So my paranoia is most likely unfounded. (Just call me a pessimist.) I think I'll see what happens if I do reply.
Dave, I'm not in entertainment or law so I'm just an unqualified layman on those matters, but I do work for a health-insurance firm and handling sensitive and confidential information is what we do (it's a great pickup line – "I could tell you about what I see at work, but that'd be a violation of federal law").
Because of the sensitivity of what we work with, everything we send out bears a disclaimer marking it as privileged information and providing instructions in case you receive it in error. Basically it asks that you notify the sender as soon as possible and destroy/return the information as appropriate. So, for example, if you receive a fax that you shouldn't have, shred it. If you get somebody's x-ray, send it back. In the hypothetical case of the email, you'd want to reply and inform the sender of the error, then delete the email you received. It's just common sense, really.
Dave, I won't say it's common sense; but in thinking about it a little, it seems best to reply…first, you won't get more email. Second, they will figure out it disappeared sometime, and panic about who's hands it might have fallen into. Third, they will figure out it went to you eventually and hunt you down :)
Drop them an email, I think.
I don't know what your mail client is, but heck: another option might be to try Mail.app's "Bounce" feature. Might kill two birds with one stone – you'll have let them know the address is invalid, and kept your hands clean.
Four options as I see it
1. Bounce it back, delete it and forget it ever happened.
2. Reply with a counter offer undercutting the original price.
3. if you think the ad will be effective invest, invest, invest
4. Reply advising the sender that the address was wrong, and that you deleted the main in question.
Well, only one ethical option. But still options never-the-less.
I often receive e-mail that's intended for other people, except they usually don't want it either. By owning the catch-all for Gettingit.com, I get loads of mail addressed to 'not', 'yourenot', 'nowayinhellareyou', and all the other clever variations that people prepend to Gettingit.com.
I've received username/passwords for Lexis/Nexis, dating sites, social networking sites, and more. But most of it is just crap. And since I don't have their real address, I have no way to forward it on.
From time to time I get emails regarding a company from Europe which is located at www.affectus.com, and mine is .net. I usually just forward them off and delete them, not really thinking much of it.
But in this case, thats very, very big.
Worst-case scenario would be that the sender gets in some deep trouble. No responsibility for this can fall on you, so informing the sender was a decent thing to do.
For some reason I get a lot of mail I shouldn't. There was a time when I'd constantly receive copies of all the price changes at a certain supermarket chain. But the weirdest thing was when I accidentaly received some reports about safety & tyre problems with Israeli armored combat vehicles still in development. That was 2 years ago. Strange stuff.
In my experience, any email that looks like its for someone with a similiar name is generally a fake. They seem to come for one of two reasons:
1) A virus that sent itself to an improper address. Generally they aren't 2 megs in size like yours was Dave, so I can see how your email was real. For example, when one of the more recent viruses were being spread, I got a lot of emails to addresses like sale@…com.
2) I've received quite a few emails that looked totally legit, with the exception of the header. I've found that many of these have turned out to be probes to see if your email address will work on some list. Again, if you have a 2 meg document that seems legit, I would assume that it would make a poor probe. That's why I'm a fan of the bounce option. It works well at telling both the spammers and the people getting the address wrong that "this address won't work for you"
Then again, maybe Gates has it right and email should be a pay service… Not him getting paid, but perhaps our government (maybe they could lower taxes then). Charging is the only way (other than creating an internal email system that boots anyone that's spamming from it, but that doesn't work well on a global scale, and yes I know, either does money). If their is no loss of money, they will have no reason to stop.
Try having a domain name like donotreply.com
People don't RTFRFC and use example.com. Lots of stuff like your article mentions – only with the donotreply.com address embedded in 100s of software apps for colleges, banks, et. al.
I had exactly the same problem with, of all things, my hotmail address.
In my case the sender was a secretary of some sort at a UK local government department, and she was forwarding to me extensive (and confidential) word documents and minutes of meetings about the supply of computers to, and the firewall policies of, UK schools.
I informed her that she had the wrong address politely, and instead of ceasing, she continued to send me documents while insisting that it was the correct address of someone on their committee.
Later in our correspondance, she accused me of hacking into the (non) owners account, so I called her office and explained the situation to her boss.
The flow of mail stopped.
I guess some people *really* don't like to be told they're wrong… Weird huh?
I get mails frequently for the previous owner of my domain. I used to send them back and let the sender know (out of courtesy) but 3 years is enough and now I just bounce them. I don't know where I read this but it's a rule I stick to when sending email from home or outside the work network: Don't put anything in that you wouldn't write on a postcard. (Or encrypt/secure as appropriate).
Totally off-topic but: Cool logo!
This happened to me more than once, but not with business matters. Twice it was someone who thought that my excite.com email account was owned by someone else and sent me long conversational emails catching up on "old times".
Once it was someone writing a friend to console them on the news of their health and to offer prayers. The person had the same first name as my domain.
In the last case, I responded because it was email that did need to reach its destination and I felt it was no work for me to help make sure that it happened. The amount of work I did vs. the amount of possible damage that could have been done if I refused made the choice simple.
Real mail? Walking out to the mail box? Well… that would have been a different story, possibly. I've lived here for a year, the former resident was here for 5 years, and mail still comes for the resident before her.
I used to get the same thing as I owned an X.org.uk domain. People would send mail to me instead of X.co.uk. I initially replied telling them of the error and sugesting they re-send to X.co.uk, but after a while I was getting so much mail, that I just turned off the catch-all and it now bounces all of the stuff that isn't for me.
Justin (21): We use email mainly for internal coordination purposes; there are privacy concerns with it, I'm sure, but it's also just too inconvenient for anything else. The vast majority of our communication is sent by phone, fax and conventional mail, because that's what works.
James [6]: Why is it that most people who deal with sensitive information do not use encryption for their messages?
I remember trying to convince a Private Investigator that sending very private info about his subjects was a bad idea. A couple days later he even sent me his credit card info via email so I could register his domain. I couldn't understand why he just didn't want to bother.
I know that I sure wouldn't want medical records to be sent through the mail on postcards - so why is unencrypted email okay?
Unencrypted e-mail isn't even like a postcard: It's more like passing a folded note across an elementary school classroom.
You are entrusting your message to every single person who runs a part of the network between you and the intended recipient. "Here, pass this along but don't read it. Please?" Meanwhile, J. Random Sysadmin running the mail server at your ISP can sneak a peak and never get caught.


text:
Jeff Widman necesitaba un nuevo diseño de logotipo y lanzó un concurso de diseño en 99designs.
Un ganador ha sido elegido entre 275 diseños de 43 diseñadores freelance.
Analytics tool for measuring Facebook fan pages. Generates charts/graphs/reports.
Revised brief:
We need a logo for this product:
1) http://awesomescreenshot.com/0fe982f01
2) http://awesomescreenshot.com/005982gdc
This is an analytics product for the social web--I can't name our beta testers, but they include more than 10 consumer brands you've heard of.
I attached our current logo. We don't like it because we always spell the name "PageLever", and the current logo is lowercase. Also the font is too spindly (thin and tall)--it just feels "weak" for a product that a bunch of the Fortune 500 use to measure their fan pages.
The logo should bring to mind ideas about "analytics" or "charts" or "graphs" without being completely generic. There are lots of different types of graphs and charts--for inspiration, click through the examples here: http://www.highcharts.com/demo/ I want it to be clear when someone looks at this logo that PageLever is an analytics tool that generates charts/graphs.
We want it to be friendly/curious/smart/clean--like the image you get when a bird cocks it's head and looks at you with friendly curiosity. (It's like the feel you get with the Mailchimp.com branding, except a little more intellectual/serious without being less friendly) It's okay if the logo doesn't capture all of this, but it certainly can't detract from this feel.
Needs to also feel fairly clean to fit with the aesthetic of the rest of the product. NO web 2.0 gradients.
General shape should be rectangular or square--put the logomark in front of "PageLever" or "PAGELEVER", don't stack a logomark on top.
Could use a box with the icon in negative space, as this will give more "body" to the icon. (Meaning that the icon is white or black depending on the background color, and the box around it is colored either blue or orange. If your icon is takes up lots of room in the box, then you don't need to do this.)
Use an icon that captures "chart" or "graph"--we want it to be very clear from the logo that PageLever is an analytics tool.
We like the blue/orange color scheme of the current logo, but will experiment with green if you want... we'll provide feedback if tones are off.
The colorscheme should fit within the product:
1) http://awesomescreenshot.com/0fe982f01
2) http://awesomescreenshot.com/005982gdc
Again--lots of example graphs for inspiration here: http://www.highcharts.com/demo/
Descubre cómo funciona un concurso de diseño u obtén más información sobre nuestros servicios de diseño de logo.


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Windows - Video Apps
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What starts as a desert survival exercise for the Joes turns into a fight for survival, with COBRA soldiers sent to find the Pit. Unarmed and out of communication, Covergirl, Downtown, and Tripwire must outwit, outlast, and outkill COBRA's best if they want to stay alive and prevent the disclosure of the Pit's secret location. The start of an all-new storyline, featuring art by S.L. Gallant (G.I. Joe Origins: Mainframe).
DC Cancels ¡Lucha Explosiva! Luchadore Superhero Figures


text: > > For a dirt cheap I2C sniffer, when busses run less than 100KHz, use this: > > http://warmcat.com/milksop/cheapi2c.html > > Regards, > > Steve Thanks very much for this, I've often wondered how well they work, seems like must be pretty good if you've been able to get this and other cards working with one. Do you think there would be any benefit in trying to rebuild this with one of the cheap USB kits that are available or that this would be unlikely to reveal any extra information (what I mean to say is the 100KHz limit in any way problematic). Regards Will


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1. sumptuous - adjective
· ostentatiously rich and superior in quality; "a princely sum"; "gilded dining rooms"; "these architecture magazines are full of the lush interiors of the rich and famous"
Synonym(s): deluxe, gilded, grand, luxurious, opulent, princely, lush
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By ,
Published January 13, 2015
It was a week that saw goals aplenty around MLS, while Los Angeles Galaxy midfielder Robbie Rogers made a bit of history on Sunday night as we look back on Week 13 in Major League Soccer.
The Los Angeles Galaxy hammered the Seattle Sounders by a 4-0 count at the Home Depot Center behind a hat trick from Irish international Robbie Keane.
But the result was hardly the biggest story.
With the Galaxy already ahead by a comfortable margin, U.S. international Robbie Rogers entered the match in the 77th minute, making him the first openly gay male athlete to compete in a professional team sport in this country.
Rogers was acquired by the Galaxy from the Chicago Fire last week in exchange for Mike Magee, and he admitted prior to the match that he battled some nerves.
"I guess part of me was just afraid - not afraid, but a little nervous, I guess," Rogers said in the post game press conference. "I understand that, I guess, historically this is a big thing, but for me, it's just another soccer game. So I've kind of been battling with both of those things: 'OK, a soccer game: I've done this a million times.' But then, obviously, I'm not naive, I know people are watching."
Rogers came out back in February and immediately announced his retirement from the game, but then began training with the Galaxy and realized he wanted to return to MLS.
And once he stepped on the pitch Sunday night, it was as if he'd never left as he got a rousing round of applause from the Home Depot Center crowd.
"I only had a few touches, so I was happy to get a few touches," Rogers said. "My running felt pretty good - I felt like I haven't lost too much speed - but it was 4-0, so it's hard to say. I think the real test will come maybe Wednesday [in the US Open Cup meeting with the NASL's Carolina RailHawks] or the weekend [at New England]."
Galaxy head coach Bruce Arena noted that Rogers has much work to do and can not be evaluated as a player based on one match.
"In terms of a player, he can't be judged tonight. He can't be judged in the next couple of weeks," Arena said. "Down the road, he can be judged as a player. It's way too early. We're just fortunate the game tonight played out the way it did and there was an opportunity to get him on the field. But he's got a way to go, and it's going to take some time, and we'll be patient with him."
Rogers' return to the pitch is certainly a landmark moment in the history of American professional sports, and while there will be immediate pressure on Rogers to perform to the best of his ability, Sunday's occasion leaves only one thing to be said:
Well done Robbie Rogers, well done.
One of the more typical comments among those who do not count themselves as soccer fans is that the sport does not offer enough of an offensive punch.
That certainly wasn't the case this weekend.
The Portland Timbers are officially on a roll as Caleb Porter's team handled struggling D.C. United by a 2-0 score at RFK Stadium to run their impressive unbeaten run in league play to 11 consecutive matches.
Goals from Rodney Wallace and Darlington Nagbe were all Portland needed to secure the victory, while across the continent in Montreal, forward Marco Di Vaio torched the Philadelphia Union for a first-half hat trick en route to a 5-3 win at Saputo Stadium.
In the weekend's final goal-fest, Seattle Sounders had no answer for Robbie Keane, who bagged his first career MLS hat trick as the Galaxy rolled to a 4-0 rout.
In other weekend action around MLS, the New England Revolution appear to be turning a corner after their 2-0 victory over Toronto FC at Gillette Stadium.
Homegrown forward Diego Fagundez netted his third goal in as many matches and Juan Agudelo scored his second in a New England kit as the Revs won their second consecutive league match.
FC Dallas collected a goal from Fabian Castillo in the 33rd minute to pull out a 1-0 victory over the San Jose Earthquakes at FC Dallas Stadium. The result keeps FCD atop the Western Conference standings with 27 points, while San Jose sits in seventh place on 15 points.
Colorado Rapids continued their good run of form on Saturday by posting a 2-0 win over Chivas USA at Dick's Sporting Goods Park. The Rapids got off to a poor start this season, but have rebounded nicely by going unbeaten in their last five matches to jump into a playoff spot in the West.
In Utah on Saturday, Quincy Amarikwa scored his first goal of the season as the Chicago Fire snatched a point against Real Salt Lake at Rio Tinto Stadium.
On Sunday, Brad Davis and Kei Kamara swapped goals as the Houston Dynamo and Sporting Kansas City battled to a 1-1 draw, while Jamison Olave scored in stoppage time to save a point for New York in a 2-2 stalemate against the Columbus Crew.
NEW YORK RED BULLS - New York Red Bulls continue to roll as their 2-2 draw with the Columbus Crew extended their unbeaten streak in league play to seven consecutive matches. The Red Bulls fell behind just two minutes in but Thierry Henry equalized in the 31st minute. Federico Higuain netted a PK in the 78th minute but again New York had an answer as Jamison Olave scored in stoppage time. Head coach Mike Petke has his club playing top-drawer football and they sit at the top of the Eastern Conference table with 25 points.
MONTREAL IMPACT - The Montreal Impact might be the most dangerous team in MLS after Italian Designated Player Marco Di Vaio netted a first-half hat trick in a 5-3 win over the Philadelphia Union. First-year head coach Marco Schallibaum is a front-runner for Coach of the Year and has his team playing an attractive brand of attacking soccer as the Impact have a chance to win the East in just their second season in the league.
PHILADELPHIA UNION - The Philadelphia Union were completely outclassed by Montreal over the weekend as the back line routinely lost track of Di Vaio in allowing him to burn them for three goals in just over 30 minutes on Saturday. The Union conceded five goals, the most in a single game in franchise history by the end of the 90 minutes and questions linger about the quality and depth of the back line. Defenders Gabriel Farfan and Bakary Soumare were traded in the past couple weeks, leaving the Philadelphia defense paper thin and exposed by the attacking prowess of Montreal. They need to figure out how to fill some depth at the back quickly or their hopes of a playoff berth will be dashed.
TORONTO FC - Toronto continues to struggle mightily as the Reds fell to the New England Revolution on Saturday by a 2-0 count at Gillette Stadium. TFC head coach Ryan Nelsen and president Kevin Payne have good intentions to improve the team as they acquired veteran Bobby Convey to provide some leadership, but no matter who TFC adds to the roster, the results don't seem to be coming. The Reds have taken three points just once this season -- a surprise 2-1 win over Sporting Kansas City -- back on March 9 at Rogers Centre. The season is quickly turning into another rebuilding project after it started with such promise early on.
It will be a busy upcoming week as many MLS clubs will compete in the third round of the U.S. Open Cup competition on Tuesday and Wednesday in addition to a full slate of regular-season matches this weekend.
D.C. United, Colorado, Philadelphia, FC Dallas, San Jose, New England, SKC, Real Salt Lake and Chivas USA will all play USOC matches on Tuesday, while on Wednesday, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Columbus, Houston, Seattle and Portland will play USOC games.


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The deadline for mail-in ballots for the Burbank primary is 7 p.m. today, so for all those procrastinators, that means in-person drop offs are you're only option.
Residents can drop off their ballots at five locations — the Buena Vista Library, Joslyn Center, Tuttle Center, McCambridge Recreation Center and the city clerk's office — up until 7 p.m. today.
Residents who lost or threw away their ballot can pick up a provisional ballot – also due by 7 p.m. -- from the city clerk's office.
And don't forget, ballots that are merely post-marked on Tuesday will not be counted.
Two years ago, 8,106 out of 56,239 registered voters — or roughly 14% — participated in the primary.
This year, officials say they are pushing for a 15% turnout.
The general election is April 9.
--Jason Wells, Times Community News
Follow Jason Wells on Facebook, Google+ and on Twitter: @JasonBretWells


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If you're looking for some of South America's most reliable conditions and deepest snow, Chile is the place to go.
Located near the Western Hemisphere's largest mountain, Aconcagua, Portillo's high, dry climate produces incredible light, fluffy and deep snow. Valle Nevado also sits at a high elevation and provides skiers and snowboarders with 3,500 acres of skiing.
Learn more about Chilean ski resorts on the right, or search our experts by requesting a free, custom quote.


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The latest edition of Great Plains's vertical tillage implements is the Turbo-Max, a machine that traces its linage back to the original Turbo-Till introduced in 2002.
The Turbo-Max has two coulter gangs, like previous Turbo-Till models, but with 7.5" spacing between each blade it has 25% closer blade spacing per gang. The two off-set gangs are designed so the second gang splits the first – sizing residue to under 4".
Also, the Turbo-Max has the ability to angle the gangs hydraulically on the go from straight to 6 degrees, depending upon whether the operator wants to select an angle to actively bury residue in the fall, or prepare a straight vertically tilled seedbed in the spring.
The finishing attachment behind the coulter gangs is the company's patented rolling spike harrow which levels the soil and fractures any soil not already loosened by the coulters.
For more information on the Turbo-Max, call (785) 823-3276, or visit www.greatplainsmfg.com.
By "clicking" here, you've indicated an interest in the latest in agricultural technology, and we'd like to provide you with even more of What's New in the power-tech industry. To receive our bi-weekly e-newsletter on trends and developments in machinery and ag technology click here POWERIRON to join thousands of readers who receive our updates free of charge every other week.
For Willie Vogt's observations about the growth of technology in our industry, be sure to visit his FARMER IRON column.
In addition, if you have interest in livestock technology be sure to visit www.beefproducer.com for news and views and new products related to beef cattle and the beef industry.
And, there's always something new going on at our world-class show sites:


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What Does Innovation Look Like?
Having traveled to both East Africa and India over the past several weeks, I've been reflecting on what 'innovation' means in different contexts. It's easy to get caught in a technology-centric worldview in places like Bangalore and even Nairobi these days. But when I get past the superficial stories and dig a bit deeper, I realize that impactful innovation is less about shiny tools and technology and more about 'listening to users' and transforming social processes to solve problems that matter to people.
My walk through a Delhi slum comes immediately to mind. While there I visited Operation Asha, a 2011 India Development Marketplace winner that is working to arrest the spread of tuberculosis (TB). India is one of the only countries in the world where the rate of infection is growing despite the falling incidence of the disease globally. The previous day, I sat with colleagues from Microsoft Research in Bangalore who explained the simple but critical advances they had made in writing open-source software to verify the identity of patients visiting clinics, aggregating data on missed doses, and using text messages to increase compliance.


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Lindsay Lohan exhaustion: Comeback hits a new snag?
Just a week after wrecking her loaner Porsche, Lindsay Lohan ended up back in the headlines Friday morning when paramedics were called to examine the actress.
Per our colleague Andrew Blankstein at L.A. Now:
"Lindsay Lohan was examined by paramedics on Friday after a co-worker on a movie she is filming became concerned that the actress looked exhausted, sources told The Times. One source, who spoke on the condition of anonymity because of medical privacy rules, said Lohan was resting after long stretches of filming and looked tired. She was checked out by paramedics and was not taken to the hospital."
The incident comes in the middle of a career resurgence of sorts for the troubled actress. Lohan is currently shooting the Elizabeth Taylor biopic "Liz & Dick" for Lifetime Television and hosted "Saturday Night Live" this past March.
Then again, comeback is a relative term where LiLo is concerned.
She's set for an independent flick opposite -- wait for it -- Rob Schneider that's titled "Inappropriate Comedy" and has signed on to star in a new independent feature that could shoot this summer. Titled "The Canyons," it's a soapy thriller with the strangest of pedigrees: directed by Paul Schrader, written by Bret Easton Ellis and costarring an adult films actor named James Deen.
But strange is what you get when producers are wary of casting you and few reputable insurance companies are eager to bond you.
Lindsay Lohan examined by paramedics after long film shoot
Lindsay Lohan unhurt in Porsche-vs-big-rig wreck in Santa Monica
Lindsay Lohan to play Elizabeth Taylor in Lifetime biopic
'Inferno' director: Lindsay Lohan didn't quit -- we fired her
-- Steven Zeitchik
Photo: Lindsay Lohan this spring. Credit: Kristina Bumphrey / Associated Press


text:
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Journal of soil science and plant nutrition
On-line version ISSN 0718-9516
J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. vol.12 no.1 Temuco 2012
Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 2012, 12 (1), 165-182
Application of Magnetic Resonance Techniques to evaluate soil compaction after grazing
B. Carrero-González1 , M.T. De La Cruz1, M.A. Casermeiro1
1Dpto. de Edafología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Plaza Ramón y Cajal, s/n. 28040 Madrid, Spain. *Corresponding author: firstname.lastname@example.com
Grazing constitutes one of the most important processes of soil degradation due to compaction, and it affects both vegetation and soil in arid and semiarid ecosystems. Compaction modifies the soil structure and causes an increase in the proportion of small aggregates, which consequently leads to an increase in bulk soil density. Compaction also produces a decrease in soil organic carbon content. The soil becomes more densely packed, causing reductions in porosity and storage capacity.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was used to obtain a relative estimate of soil water content and porosity. The signal intensity from proton density images, which corresponds to the amount of water present in a sample, is lower in compacted soil. As calculated from the image signal intensity, the porosity percentage is also lower in grazing soils in comparison with natural recovery soils.
H NMR relaxometry studies demonstrate shorter T2 and T1 relaxation times in grazing soil samples, suggesting lower pore sizes in these soils. Moreover, the grazing samples have a monomodal distribution of T1 with a narrow band, indicating greater homogeneity in the pore sizes. The bimodal distribution of T2 complements this result and indicates a greater proportion of smaller-size pores with greater homogeneity between them.
There is a significant positive correlation between the porosity values determined by both methods, which demonstrates the validity of the MR technique. The relaxation times also show positive and significant correlations with analytical porosity.
The application of MR techniques to soil compaction studies demonstrated the natural recovery of the physical properties of deteriorated soil after grazing damage in pastoral systems brought about by complete animal exclusion for ten years.
Keywords: Soil compaction, porosity, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Relaxometry, grazing.
1. Introduction
Grazing constitutes one of the most significant processes of soil degradation due to compaction. The constant trampling of the soil by animals leads to its compaction, reducing the volume of the spaces in and increasing the bulk density of the soils. The particles are more densely packed, which leads to a decrease in porosity, particularly regarding macropores (Glinski and Lipiec, 1990), and alters the soil surface. Soil compaction is directly associated with a decrease in organic matter in the surface horizon (Xie and Witting, 2004). This observation can be attributed both to the poor living conditions many soil organisms encounter in these compacted environments and to the nature of the soil's plant cover (grasslands). The consequences of these processes include the reduction in of the infiltration and water storage capacities of soils (Li et al, 2008), a decrease in grassland productivity grazing quality (Martinez and Zinck, 2004), and the general acceleration of soil erosion.
A soil's vulnerability to degradation depends largely on its properties, particularly those properties related to permeability and porosity: texture, structure, coloid content (organic matter, clay), etc. Soils with fine textures and high percentages of silt and clay retain greater quantities of water than soils with a coarse texture; these fine-textured soils are more compact, and the movement of air and water through them is slower (Daum, 1996). Soil structure also affects the movement and retention of water. Loss of structure is therefore a form of soil degradation; compaction reduces the pore space and blocks the flow of water (Bronick and Lal, 2005). Organic matter constitutes an essential component in the formation of structure, although its content in the soil is lower than that of other mineral components. Soils with high organic matter produce more stable aggregates that resist compaction, while soils with low proportions of organic matter are more susceptible to compaction (Schulten and Leinweber, 2000).
The scarcity of biomass in a grazed area leaves the soil surface unprotected, which leads to its disintegration from the direct impact of rain and a decrease in infiltration (Casermeiro et al, 2004). These factors cause slower drainage rates in grassland soils.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can be used to obtain a relative estimate of a soil's water content and can provide absolute values by comparison of the signal intensity obtained with that of a known quantity of water (Hall et al., 1997). Any Magnetic Resonance (MR) image of soil depends on the MR signal elicited from the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in the water contained by the soil. This signal is defined by its amplitude, frequency, phase and duration, and it is affected by certain MR properties of water in soil, such as T1 and T2 relaxation time constants.
In MR experiments, the soil sample is exposed to a magnetic field that induces a nuclear magnetisation of water protons along the direction of the magnetic field. A sequence of radio frequency (RF) pulses reorients the magnetisation so that it is no longer in its equilibrium state. The relaxation, or the return to equilibrium position, can be quantitatively measured. The signal acquired during relaxation process contains information both on the density of nuclei 1H, from which can be obtained the porosity, and on the properties of the pore space, which can be extracted from the T1 and T2 relaxation time constants (Bortolotti et al., 2006b).
An assessment of MRI as a porosity measurement tool for porous media other than soils, such as rock samples, was conducted by Borgia et al (1996).
The main limitations encountered during the study of the soil-water system with MRI are poor signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), poor spatial resolution and image distortions, all of which are primarily caused by the variation of the magnetic susceptibility in the soil. The contents of clay, free iron oxide, exchangeable cations and organic matter influence the MR parameters and therefore the ability of MRI to accurately detect soil water (Hall et al., 1997). These difficulties can be overcome by using the appropriate MRI pulse sequences.
The MR signals also supply information on the properties of the pore space, which can be deduced by relaxometry (Schaumann et al., 2005). 1H NMR relaxometry was first used in soil science in 1970 to measure the water content of soil samples (Prebble and Currie, 1970). The correspondence between pore size distribution and relaxation time was established by Brownstein and Tarr (1979), and the dependence of T1 and T2 relaxation times on soil type, soil water content and pore size was demonstrated by Van As and Van Dusschoten (1997).
Magnetic Resonance has many advantages over other measurement methods in soil applications. The technique is fast and non-destructive, can determine the total amount of protons in the water contained within the pores and is broadly independent of the solid soil characteristics. The combination of MRI and MR Re-laxometry (MRR) methods has already been applied to the study of water absorption kinetics in pore systems (Bortolotti et al., 2006) and yielded a synergetic improvement of the results. However, we found no previous records in the literature of the joint application of both techniques to study soil structure recovery.
The aim of this work was to evaluate both MRI and MRR for the assessment of soil compaction due to grazing and to demonstrate the complementary nature of these two techniques in the study of soil porosity. A case study of the natural regeneration of soil physical properties after grazing was examined. Soil porosity and soil water content were estimated using MR in both grazing soils and no-grazing systems.
To assess the value of MR techniques in this study, the MRI and MRR results for the soils were compared with moisture, bulk density, percentage of water retention, particle density and total porosity data obtained using alternative analytical methodologies.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Characteristics of the study area
The studies were conducted in the district of Arevalillo de Cega, in the east of the province of Segovia, in the central area of the Iberian Peninsula (40° 46' and 41° 35' N, 3° 13' and 4° 42' W). The altitude of the area is 1,100 m, its annual average rainfall is 478 mm, and its average temperature is 11.9°C. The natural vegetation consists of perennial grasslands with a predominance of Thymus mastichina. The soils used in the study were calcareous Leptosols developed on Cretaceous limestone. These soils consist of 60.70%, 13.00% and 26.30% sand, silt and clay, respectively (González and Candás, 2004). This area has been used as natural pasture for hundreds of years, over which it has been open to the free transit of sheep.
2.2. Sampling
A rectangular area of 3200 m2 was cordoned off for ten years and closed to the passage of sheep. It has been estimated that ten years of grazing is sufficient time to produce soil compaction and restriction of the movement of water through a soil profile due to the modification of its physical parameters (Linnartz et al., 1966). Ten years of no grazing were chosen as a treatment to evaluate the natural recovery of physical properties in grazing-damaged soil.
A paired sample design was employed in this study. Three sample points were located in the un-grazed area (natural recovery treatment, BN), and three were located outside of the excluding fence (grazing treatment, BG). The distance between paired samples (BN1 to BG1, BN2 to BG2 and BN3 to BG3) was 30 metres. A composed sample of the soils (n=3) was taken at each selected point, both in the natural recovery state area (BN samples) and the grazing area (BG samples), at two different depths (0-10 cm, 10-20 cm). The samples were collected following the methodology proposed by the FAO (2007), and colour was determined in situ using Munsell tables (2009).
Unaltered soil samples were taken at all points using methacrylate cores (5 cm inner diameter and 5 cm high) for studying the magnetic resonance and physical properties of the soils (USDA, 1999).
2.3. Analytical determinations
The analytical determinations were conducted on the fine earth fraction after air drying and sieving using the following parameters: organic carbon (OC) by wet oxidation, pH in water suspension (1:2,5), and electrical conductivity, EC (ISRIC, 2002). The aggregates were gently isolated while moist, and fractions of less than 53 um and 53-2000 um were isolated. The percentages by weight of each one were then determined (Cambardella and Elliot, 1992).
The following parameters were determined using the unaltered samples collected in Ejelkamp cylinders: moisture (%), bulk density (g/cm3), water storage capacity, particle density (g/cm3), and total porosity (%) (Koorevaar, et al. 1983).
2.4. Magnetic resonance studies
All Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and relax-ometry (MRR) experiments were performed using a BIOSPEC BMT 47/40 spectrometer (Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany) at 4.7 Teslas (200 MHz resonance frequency for protons). Magnetic field gradients for imaging were generated by a 12 cm actively shielded gradient set capable of reaching 200 mT/m.
The individual unaltered samples, contained in methacrylate cylinders, were previously wetted, and their moisture contents were maintained at approximately 100% of their water holding capacity (the soils were saturated and allowed to reach equilibrium). Individual samples were placed in a radio frequency birdcage coil (inner diameter of 7 cm) for the MR studies.
For the MRI experiments, a global shimming was performed prior to image acquisition. Axial, coronal and sagittal images were acquired for sample localisation using spin-echo experiments. The acquisition parameters for these images were as follows: repetition time TR = 200 ms, echo time TE = 10 ms, field of view FOV = 10 cm, slice thickness SLTH = 5 mm, matrix size = 128x128 and number of acquisition NEX=1.
For T2 relaxation time measurements, 20 echoes of axial slices using a spin-echo sequence were acquired. For these experiments, the TR was 2000 ms, and the echo time TE was fixed at 4.5 ms, resulting in an echo train varying from 4.5 to 90 ms. The FOV was 7x7 cm2, and the matrix size was 128 x 128. The signal was averaged 4 times. Ten slices with a thickness of 5 mm were obtained.
T1 relaxation time measurements were conducted on the same slices using a spinecho sequence. Separate images were acquired at seven different recovery times. TR varied from 250 to 6000 ms, and the TE was 4.5 ms.
Based on the sequences described above, the values for T1 and T2 were calculated for several regions of interest (ROI). The Image Sequence Analysis (ISA) utility of the ParaVision 3.0.1 package (Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany) was used to fit the signal intensities to the exponential function of the spin-echo signal (Young et al., 1982). T1 values were calculated from the series of saturation recovery spin-echo images with different repetition times (TR), while T2 values were calculated from the series of spin-echo images with different echo times (TE).
The ROI were selected from the interior of the cylinder (upper left corner image of figures 2a and 2b); the outer edge of the cylinder was ignored to avoid the contribution of any spaces connected to the surface of the cylinder or any possible effect of the cylinder's drag on the soil structure during sample acquisition (Borgia et al., 1996). Signal Intensity of the signal at equilibrium magnetisation was also obtained, and T1, T2 and signal intensity maps were calculated using the same software (ParaVision 3.0.1, Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany).
To calculate porosity from the images, we followed the methods of studies in which this percentage is determined by relating the measurement of the signal intensity with internal references (Borgia et al., 2001). The final processing of the images was performed using Image J software for Windows.
The relaxometry experiments were conducted on the same samples immediately after the image experiments, without any further handling of the samples. These measurements were used to obtain the distribution curves using the modified UpenWin program (López-Arce et al., 2010). For T1, a standard IR sequence was used, with 50 inversion times varying from 15 to 750 ms. For T2, a CPMG sequence was used, and 50 echoes with TE = 800 ms were registered.
2.5. Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis of the results was performed using the SPSS v.19 statistics program (Microsoft Windows). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the Fisher-Snedecor F distribution method with a confidence level of over 95% ( p < 0.05). Bilateral correlation studies were also conducted, using the Pearson method.
3. Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the descriptions of the soils and the results of soil parameter measurements for both the grazing areas (BG treatment) and the ungrazed regions (BN treatment), in which the natural recovery of soil physical properties was evaluated after ten years of no grazing.
The changes observed in the ungrazed soils after ten years of sheep exclusion are particularly evident in surface horizons (0-10 cm depth), as was reported previously by Drewry et al. (2006) in short-term (one year of no grazing) and long-term (no grazing for up to three years) studies. The grazed areas show a slight increase in the chroma value. There is a clear trend of decreasing organic carbon (OC) in the surface horizons of grazing soil samples. These results agree with those of Sigua et al. (2009) and Bisigato et al. (2008), in which the reduction in soil organic matter was attributed to diminished plant cover due to grazing pressure. Heavy grazing leads to the excessive defoliation of herbaceous vegetation, reducing standing biomass, basal cover and plant species diversity (Bilotta et al., 2007). The difference in OC was related to differences in the soil structure, the litter layer, the standing biomass and the basal covers by Tessema et al. (2011). These differences in OC content were less pronounced as depth increased. Soil structure is also weakened in grazed sites, being reduced from moderate to weak quality in these soils (Table 1).
The pH values are higher in grazing soils, most likely due to their lower organic matter content; the greater the depth, the higher the pH values, as the amount of plant remains decreases. These results for organic carbon and pH agree with those obtained by other authors (Steffens et al., 2008; Xie and Witting, 2004; Young-Zhong, 2005). The EC decreases slightly in surface grassland horizons as previously reported by Tessema et al. (2011).
There is a decrease in larger aggregates and an increase in smaller aggregates in grazing soils compared with ungrazed soils, which may indicate the effects of compaction on grazing soils (Figure 1). The compaction process of the soil after grazing has been previously described by other authors, such as du Toit et al. (2009), Bilotta et al. (2007) and Betteridge et al. (1999). The effect of soil compaction is to decrease soil porosity, particularly the volume of the large inter-aggregate pores (macropores). Recovery of damaged soil surfaces due to improved soil porosity has also been reported after the removal of sheep in semi-arid woodlands. The porosity of areas left un-grazed for either 8 or 16 years was greater than that of regularly grazed soils (Drewy, 2006).
Table 2 shows the average values for the physical properties of the soils for the two experimental treatments. A decrease in the porosity of grazing soils can be observed in comparison with natural soils; this result can be explained by compaction through the action of sheep. The moderately high amount of clay in the soils in the area (>25 %) (González and Candás, 2004), the lower proportion of organic carbon and the greater percentage of fine aggregates points to the alteration of macropores into micropores, as there is also an increase in micropore number in impacted soils. A decrease in macropores leads to a reduction in soil aeration and a tendency towards surface flooding (Proffitt et al, 1995); macroporosity is thus an important indicator of soil quality (Drewry et al., 2008). A slight increase was observed in the bulk density values for soils under grazing (du Toit et al., 2009; Greenwood et al., 1998; Warren et al., 1986), and the values for particle density, which is conditioned by the mineral nature of the soils, were similar. Water retention is slightly lower in grazing soils than in natural soils due to their lower organic matter content (Golodets and Boeken, 2006). The moisture percentage, however, is somewhat greater in impacted soils; this could be caused by a reduction in the moisture loss through transpiration in these areas (Stavi et al., 2008).
There is a significant negative correlation between OC and apparent soil density (r = -0.891*;* correlation significance level 0.01), which highlights the influence of organic components on soil density. This correlation has been previously described by other authors (Stavi et al., 2008). There is also a negative correlation, although not a significant one, between pH and OC; greater OC contents are associated with lower pH values. There is a very significant negative correlation between bulk density and water retention (r = -0.968**) and a significant positive correlation between bulk density and moisture (r = 0.856*; *correlation significance level 0.05). Moisture is negatively and significantly correlated with porosity (r = -0.869*), and pore size plays a more important role than total porosity; the larger the pore, the higher the moisture content, as water will be less easily lost from the soil. There is also a significant negative correlation (r = -0.845*) between moisture and water retention. Finally, it is worth noting the nonsignificant positive correlation of porosity and OC due to the influence of organic components in the formation of aggregates (Bronick and Lal, 2005).
The analysis of variance of the average values (ANOVA) highlights the significant differences between natural soils and soils impacted by the action of sheep regarding organic carbon (0.014), bulk density (0.003) and water retention (0.018).
The anthropic action of grazing produces modifications in the characteristics and physical properties of soils, fundamentally on the surface levels (0-10 cm), as has been demonstrated by analytical methods. A decrease in the content of organic carbon, a slight increase in bulk density and a decrease in the percentage of water retention were observed in grazing soils in comparison with no grazing systems. There is also an increase in smaller-sized aggregates (< 53 μm), a decrease in the percentage of porosity and an increase in moisture after grazing.
Figure 2 shows the proton density weighted images (TR = 2000 ms; TE = 4.5 ms) for 9 axial slices of sample cylinders taken from both natural recovery soil (BN) (figure 2, top) and grazing soil (BG) (figure 2, bottom). Proton density contrast is a quantitative summary of the number of protons from free water present in the sample. The higher the number of protons is in a given region of soil, the greater the transverse component of magnetisation and the brighter the resulting signal on the proton density contrast image. Conversely, the lower the number of protons is in the sample, the less the transverse magnetisation, and the darker the signal on the proton density weighted images. The visual analysis of the signal intensity in the BN images shows that it is higher than the signal obtained in the BG slices as it is the MR signal related to water content (Duval et al., 2010). A different distribution of water within each sample can be observed, indicating different porosities.
MRI parameters: spin-echo sequence, TR= 2000 ms, TE= 4.5 ms, FOV= 7x7 cm2, matrix size 128x128. Soil samples were placed in methacrylate cylinders (5 cm inner diameter and 5 cm high). Region of interest (ROI) marked on upper left corner image of figures 2a and 2b. The outer ring and aliasing artifacts come from the radiofrequency probehead.
The calculation of the signal intensities of the MR images from each of the samples also highlights this difference. Considering the average signal intensity obtained from 10 slices in the sample, the values are twice as great for BN soils (2.94E05 signal intensity a.u.) than for BG soils (1.45E05 signal intensity a.u.). Similar results were found when total signal intensities were considered (5.61E10 signal intensity a.u. in BN soils versus 3.01E10 signal intensity a.u in BG soils).
Figure 3 shows the tri-dimensional graphics of the maps of intensities obtained from the proton density weighted images. The figure provides an indication of the location of the water and therefore of the porosity of the samples. The water content of the BG (a) sample is lower than that of the natural soil sample, BN (b), which implies a lower porosity for the BG (a) soil. The numeric calculation of the percentage of porosity, based on the signal intensity of the images, also reveals a decrease in this figure for grazing soil in comparison with natural soil in all cases (Figure 4).
The local determination of porosity using NMR imaging techniques was previously reported in heterogeneous samples, such as carbonate cores (Borgia et al., 1996), confirming the quality of the method as a tool for measuring porosity in these matrices.
The study of the parameters T1 and T2 (relaxation times inherent in each sample) supplements the porosity study conducted using MRI because it allows us to differentiate between samples, or between regions of a sample, with the same local porosity but different pore sizes (Borgia et al, 2001).
The effects of water content on NMR parameters may be described from the T2 curve (Duval et al., 2010). As the initial signal intensity is proportional to the sample proton content, and because water is the most abundant protonic structure in our system, this result explains the reduction in signal intensity observed for grazing soils in comparison with ungrazed soils. The water relaxation time is highly sensitive to water content, which explains the more rapid decrease in the T2 signal observed for the grazing soils. T2 relaxation is directly related with molecular mobility, i.e., slower molecular mobility is associated with shorter relaxation time (Duval et al., 2010). The values for T2 relaxation time are therefore related with pore sizes, and samples with larger pore sizes have longer T2 relaxation times (Viola et al., 2006; Appolonia et al., 2001). Bird et al. (2005) associated long relaxation times with the free water located between the aggregates and in the interiors of the larger-sized pores, whereas shorter relaxation times were associated with the water bound to the smaller-sized pores located inside the aggregates.
If we observe the curve for T2 (Figure 5), we can see a sharper drop in the curve (shorter T2 relaxation time) for the grazing soil sample (average of BG1, BG2, BG3). This result indicates a greater content of bound water and a smaller pore size.
The natural recovery soil sample from the grazing exclusion condition (average of BN1, BN2, BN3) shows a slower drop in the T2 curve due to the longer T2 relaxation time. This result is associated with the presence of a greater quantity of free water in this soil and a greater pore size.
T1 Relaxation time is known to be an indicator of water mobility and its interactions with environmental conditions such as polymer presence and pore size (Faure and Rodts, 2008). In bulk water, every molecule has the same environment, and a single T1 value is observed for the sample. In complex media, such as soil, water molecules embedded in the sample may be confined in pores of different sizes. Because these molecules may experience different local environments, relaxation data become multi-exponential, and various T1 values may be exhibited. A well-known trend is that T1 usually decreases with decreasing pore size (Faure and Rodts, 2008).
If we observe the curve for T1 (Figure 5), we can deduce a similar behaviour of the soils as that described for the T2 curve.
The "BG average" sample has a shorter T1 value than the "BN average" sample, showing that its longitudinal magnetisation is recovered much more rapidly. This indicates the presence of a greater quantity of bound water in soils under grazing conditions and therefore a lower pore size in grazing soils (BG) than in the recovery treatment (BN).
For other complex media, such as cement pastes, long T1 relaxation time values were attributed to water with free movement between cement grains, while short T1 values were attributed to water inside the cement grains that had less mobility (Faure and Rodts, 2008).
Similar T1 and T2 curves were reported for two sludge mixtures with different dry matter percentages (Duval et al., 2010).
The shapes of the relaxation time distribution vary in terms of peak position (peak relaxation time) and peak intensity (peak water content), as has previously been reported for different soils (Jaeger et al., 2009). There is a correspondence between the distribution of the pore size in the sample and the distribution of the T1 and T2 relaxation times (Kleinberg, 1994). Narrow T1 distributions are an indication of micro-structural homogeneity and thus of the presence of pores of similar sizes. In contrast, broad T1 distributions show the presence of a wide distribution of pore sizes (Viola et al., 2006; Bird et al., 2005).
The relaxation time T1 distributions for BN and BG soils are shown in figure 6. The grazing soil (BG) has a narrow distribution, indicating a greater homogeneity and the presence of pores of nearly the same dimensions. On the contrary, the BN sample has a wider distribution of T1, which suggests a wider pore size distribution for the natural soil sample.
The values for T2 follow a bimodal distribution for the two samples, reflecting the presence of two different pore sizes in both BG and BN soils (Figure 7). The initial maximum, with lower T2 values, corresponds to pores with smaller sizes, which are found in higher concentrations in the sample that has undergone compaction. The pores with larger sizes are related with higher T2 values (to the right of the distribution). These values are more abundant in the natural recovery soil sample. It is worth noting that although there is a bimodal distribution of T2 for the no grazing areas, it shows less clearly defined peaks, indicating that the sample is less homogeneous than that of the grazing soils.
Correlation analyses were conducted between the porosity determined by MR and the values of the relaxation times (T1 and T2) and the soil parameters and physical properties of the soils determined in the laboratory.
A very significant positive correlation (r = 0.932**) was found between the porosities determined in the analyses and those obtained in the MR images, which confirms the validity of this technique for determining the porosity of a porous medium, such as soil, using the parameters for the acquisition of images described in the Methods section.
Moreover, a significant positive correlation was found for the porosity values obtained by MR and water retention (r = 0.861*), whereas significant negative correlations were observed between porosity and bulk density (r = -0.848*) and porosity and moisture (r = -0.827*). A positive and significant correlation was also obtained between relaxation times and analytical porosity (r = 0.985*).
These results demonstrate the complementary nature of both MRI and MRR techniques in the study of the porosity and their usefulness for the assessment of soil compaction in a soil structure recovery study.
4. Conclusions
The application of the Magnetic Resonance Imaging and 1H NMR relaxometry analytical methods has shown that grazing soils become more densely packed in comparison with no grazing soils. This impact produces a decrease in porosity and consequently reduced water retention. We examined the potential for grazing exclusion to promote the natural regeneration of these soil physical properties. The natural recovery of deteriorated soil physical condition after grazing is limited to 10 cm of depth.
Transverse relaxation NMR measurements have been used to study the pore space characteristics of both treatments (grazing and ungrazing soils). There is a greater proportion of smaller-sized pores and a greater homogeneity between them in grazing soils in comparison with soils recovered after ten years of animal exclusion.
The correlation between analytical porosity and porosity calculated by imaging, as well as relaxation times, further validates the MR technique for the study of a porous system such as soil.
The results confirm the quality of the applied methods and the use of MR imaging and relaxometry as valid tools for measuring the effects of grazing systems on soil compaction, as well as for analysing the porosity and estimating the water content of soils.
The authors are grateful to M.E. Fernández Valle, from MR C.A.I. (UCM), for her support with MRI data acquisition and Relaxometry analyses.
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text: Patrick Geoffray: > If you take you car to cross Los Angeles to go to LAX airport, you can > do that in 20 minutes at 4am. At rush hour, when everybody is roughly > trying to do the same thing, it's about 3 hours. When you share links, > you are exposed to such load effect. Yes, that's right, but it's not only the traffic density on the street, it's also about the crossings: roundabouts are often better than traffic lights, especially when not everyone is going the same direction. And that's even more true for network packets than for cars as packets strictly follow the rules. However, I share your angst about building a 1000-node cluster... Joachim -- Joachim Worringen - NEC C&C research lab St.Augustin fon +49-2241-9252.20 - fax .99 - http://www.ccrl-nece.de