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Aristotelianism, the philosophy of Aristotle and of those later philosophical movements based on his thought.
Nature of Aristotelianism
The extent to which Aristotelian thought has become a component of civilization can hardly be overestimated. To begin, there are certain words that have become indispensable for the articulate communication of thoughts, experiences, and problems. Some words still carry their Greek form, whereas others have become established in their more important meanings as Latin equivalents of Aristotle's own words. The centuries-long impact of Aristotelian schooling lies at the root of the establishment of the following vocabulary: "subject" and "predicate" in grammar and logic; "form" (information, transform) and "matter" as expressing the two correlative aspects of something that has acquired or acquires something else that is possibly essential to it; "energy" as the active power inherent in a thing; "potential" for what is latent but can be released; "substance" and "essence," "quantity" and "quality," "accidental," "relation," "cause" (and the many meanings of "because" corresponding to the four causes), "genus" and "species" (general, special), "individual," "indivisible" (atomic)—these constitute only a small sample of terms that still carry the mark of Aristotle's philosophy.
Beyond language, features that cumulatively or severally characterize Aristotelianism include, in philosophical methodology, a critical approach to previous, contemporary, or hypothetical doctrines; the raising and discussing of doctrinal difficulties; the use of deductive reasoning proceeding from self-evident principles or discovered general truths; and syllogistic forms of demonstrative or persuasive arguments.
In epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, Aristotelianism includes a concentration on knowledge either accessible by natural means or accountable for by reason; an inductive, analytical empiricism, or stress on experience, in the study of nature—including the study of humans, their behaviour and organizations—leading from the perception of contingent individual occurrences to the discovery of permanent, universal patterns; and the primacy of the universal, that which is expressed by common or general terms.
In metaphysics, or the theory of the ultimate nature of reality, Aristotelianism involves belief in the primacy of the individual in the realm of existence; in the applicability to reality of a certain set of explanatory concepts (e.g., 10 categories; genus-species-individual, matter-form, potentiality-actuality, essential-accidental; the four material elements and their basic qualities; and the four causes—formal, material, efficient, and final); in the soul as the inseparable form of each living body in the vegetable and animal kingdoms; in activity as the essence of things; and in the primacy of speculative over practical activity.
In the philosophy of nature (see philosophy of biology; philosophy of physics), Aristotelianism denotes an optimistic position concerning nature's aims and its economy; believing in the perfection and in the eternity of the heavenly, geocentric spheres, perceiving them as driven by intelligent movers, as carrying in their circular movements the stars, the Sun, the planets, and the Moon, and as also influencing the sublunary world; and holding that light bodies rise naturally away from the centre of the Earth, while heavy bodies move naturally toward it with a speed related to their weight.
In aesthetics, ethics, and politics, Aristotelian thought holds that poetry is an imitation of what is possible in real life; that tragedy, by imitation of a serious action cast in dramatic form, achieves purification (katharsis) through fear and pity; that virtue is a middle between extremes; that human happiness consists primarily in intellectual activity and secondarily in the exercise of the virtues; and that the state is a self-sufficient society, necessary for humans to achieve happiness.
History of Aristotelianism
Continuity of the Aristotelian tradition
Since Aristotle's death there have been, without interruption until the present, schools and individuals who have cultivated the study of his works and fully or partly adopted and expounded his doctrines and methods. They have interpreted or misinterpreted, approved or condemned, and reshaped or utterly transformed them. The languages in which this interest was most forcibly expressed have changed in turn and over time from Greek to Latin; to Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew; to Italian, French, English, and German. The main centres in which it appeared have been as far apart as Greece, North Africa, and Rome in the ancient world; Persia and Spain, Sicily and the British Isles in the Middle Ages; and Germany and North America in more recent times.
The main strand of the Aristotelian tradition has been the Greek line, which lasted 2,000 years, mainly in the area along the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and branched off at various stages between the 4th and 15th centuries, giving rise to (or strengthening) other traditions. The Latin branch originated in Rome in the 4th century and acquired a new impulse, probably from Athens, in the early 6th century. From these beginnings it was revived in the 9th century and again in the 12th, at which time a second and even stronger Aristotelian wave emerged from Constantinople, to be followed by a third, via the western Arabic schools, from Spain; and both branches spread to Italy, France, and the British Isles. The final direct contribution from the Greek to the Latin tradition came to Italy, once more from or through Constantinople, in the 15th century.
Shortly after the beginning of Latin Aristotelianism certain Armenian and Syrian members of the Greek schools of Athens and Alexandria in Egypt introduced Aristotelian teachings into their schools. The Armenian tradition was still alive in the 19th century in such places as Madras (now Chennai) and Venice; and the Syrian tradition, which never completely disappeared, was still powerful in the 14th century, after having given birth, in the 9th and 10th centuries, to an Arabic tradition. Arabic Aristotelianism was the product of Syrians, Persians, Turks, Jews, and Arabs who wrote and taught in their own countries as well as in Africa and Spain until the 12th century. Much of it and of what the Jews produced in Hebrew in the following two centuries passed into the Latin tradition between 1130 and 1550. Thus, all of the varied heritage that had derived ultimately from the Greek line and had been vastly enriched by other cultures came to be collected, through the Latin branch, by modern Western philosophical movements.
The Greek tradition
Early development
For some decades after his death Aristotle's own school, the Peripatos or Lyceum, remained, in a truly Aristotelian spirit, a centre for critical research—not for the dogmatic acceptance of a closed system. Aristotle's immediate successor, Theophrastus, independently elaborated his master's metaphysics and psychology and added to his study of nature (botany and mineralogy) and logic (theory of propositions and hypothetical syllogisms). Various members of the Lyceum coordinated Aristotelian thought with other current schools of philosophy. Thus, Aristoxenus joined Aristotelian and Pythagorean doctrines; Critolaus united Aristotle's theory of the influence of the heavens on the world with the Stoic theory of providence; and Clearchus of Soli combined Plato's views on the human soul with Aristotle's.
Outside the Lyceum, the Stoic school was partly following Aristotle in its interest in formal logic, the theory of meaning, and use of the categories (e.g., substance, quality, relation). It was Aristotelian also in its empiricism, as well as in its concentration on nature, in several aspects of natural science, and in its belief that humans are intrinsically social beings. The Skeptics sometimes relied on Aristotelian forms of argument to prove their systematic doubts. Even Epicurus, who may have fought against Aristotle's early theology and psychology and ignored his mature philosophy, was, nonetheless, near him in his doctrine of the will and in his conception of friendship and the pursuit of knowledge as the high aims that give satisfaction and pleasure to humans.
Although relatively little was known of Aristotle's "esoteric" works until the 1st century bce, his more popular, literary, and Platonizing writings influenced eclectics such as Panaetius and his pupil Poseidonius; and this influence continued, helped by the Roman philosopher and lawyer Cicero, well into the 4th and 5th centuries ce. Upon it was based the tendency to establish a harmony between the thought of Plato and Aristotle—a feature that recurred through the whole history of Aristotelianism—and perhaps the ascription to Aristotle of the De mundo ("On the Universe"), a cosmological treatise of the 1st century bce, which found favour with all of the different traditions until the 16th century.
In the 1st century bce Aristotle's "esoteric" writings were organized into a corpus and critically edited by Andronicus of Rhodes and other scholars. The edition was used by Nicholas of Damascus, a historian and philosopher, in an attempt to expound Aristotle's system. This may be viewed as the beginning of a new era of a scholarly and scholastic Aristotelianism in which Aristotle had to be taken as the basis for the acquisition of true knowledge in a number of fields. Individual works began to be commented and lectured upon; organized philosophical studies began to have as their introduction Aristotle's works on logic, especially the Categories. Thus the pattern was set for the next 17 centuries. Almost pure Aristotelianism, based on the "esoteric" works, lived on until the 4th century. Many scholars—the most eminent of them being Alexander of Aphrodisias, who from 195 ce held the Athenian chair of Aristotelian studies created by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius—provided the works on logic, ethics, metaphysics, natural philosophy, and psychology with detailed and penetrating commentaries meant for the specialist. The interpretation of Aristotle was for many generations molded by these scholars. Others—the greatest being Themistius, a professor in Constantinople about 350 ce—practically rewrote many of Aristotle's treatises in a more modern language and more readable style.
This new, scholarly Aristotelianism had established itself sufficiently as the philosophical and methodological frame of learning for it to be adopted, at least in part, by most people of culture—including Ptolemy, the greatest astronomer of antiquity, and Galen, the most eminent medical scientist.
Relationship to Neoplatonism
Aristotle's works were adopted by the systematic builders of Neoplatonism in the 3rd century ce. Plotinus, the school's chief representative, followed Aristotle wherever he found a possibility of agreement or development, as he did in Aristotle's theory of the intellect. And Plotinus's pupil Porphyry, the first great harmonizer of Plato and Aristotle, provided the field of logic with a short introduction (Isagoge). The Isagoge, in fact, is only concerned with a simple and rather mechanical treatment of five concepts that had been much used by Aristotle. These were the concepts of genus, or kind (as animal is the genus, or kind, under which Socrates falls); species, or sort (Socrates is a man); differentia, or distinguishing characteristic (rationality distinguishes humans from other members of the genus animal); property (being capable of laughter was said to be a "property" of humans inasmuch as all and only humans are capable of laughter); and accident, or characteristic in general (as it might be an accident of Socrates to be pale). This introduction soon became an integral part of the Organon (the logical works of Aristotle) and thus acquired undeserved Aristotelian authority in all schools for more than 1,500 years. From that time on, Aristotelianism became indissolubly tied up with Neoplatonism.
Neoplatonism dominated the school of Athens, where, apart from logic, Aristotle's writings were destined to be studied mainly as a basis for philosophical disputations—disputations in which the Platonic view was usually victorious. Scholars like Ammonius—a pupil of Proclus, the most accomplished systematizer of Neoplatonism, head of the Athenian school in the mid-5th century, and himself extremely well-versed in Aristotle—found Alexandria a considerably more attractive place for Aristotelian studies, in that it was tolerant of many views. There pagans and Christians coexisted and cooperated, and from there they carried Aristotelian learning to a number of other schools: Simplicius, a pupil of Ammonius who was inclined to Platonism, took it back to Athens and—when Justinian closed that pagan school in 529—to Persia; Sergius, a physician and Nestorian priest, carried it to the Christian schools of Syria; and Stephanus of Alexandria took it to Constantinople. The schools of Alexandria and Athens produced from about 475 to 545 ce the most intensive collection of Aristotelian commentaries, by scholars like Ammonius, philosophers of science like Simplicius, and philosopher-theologians like Philoponus (see also Platonism).
Before the 5th century, Christian theology had been affected only marginally and indirectly by Aristotle. The elementary study of Aristotelian logic had proved indispensable for a disciplined training of theologians, and some of the concepts from Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics that entered into the elaboration of this logic became equally essential for the rational formulation of points of dogma. The aforementioned five terms of Porphyry and the 10 categories of Aristotle were used or implied in the mystical theology of Pseudo-Dionysius (an unidentified 5th-century Christian Neoplatonist), which was to become one of the principal components of Christian speculation in the Greek, Oriental, and Latin schools. Descriptions of God and distinctions between the three Persons of the Trinity came to include, in an increasingly technical sense, the Aristotelian terms substance, essence, accident, form and matter, species and nature, quality, quantity, and property; these terms were not always used in a purely Aristotelian sense, however. In this way, as well as through the purely philosophical schools, Aristotelianism entered the first Greek Scholasticism of St. John of Damascus, an 8th-century doctor of the church.
From the Byzantine renaissance to the 15th century
The Byzantine scholarly renaissance in the 9th century included a revival of interest in Aristotle: the old books were rediscovered and reedited (the oldest manuscripts still existing today belong to this time). Photius, patriarch of Constantinople and a leading figure in that renaissance, included in his encyclopaedic works summaries of the elements of Aristotelian logic. More extensive scholarly activity resulted from the reestablishment of the Academy in Constantinople in the 11th and 12th centuries under the successive leadership of such figures as Michael Psellus, an encyclopaedic philosopher; his student John Italus; Michael, the archbishop of Ephesus; and Eustratius, the metropolitan of Nicaea. At the Academy teaching and exegetical work went hand in hand; debates on the superiority of Plato or Aristotle and attacks on philosophy by the religious schools did not seriously weaken these activities. There was perhaps not much that was new in the understanding or the development of Aristotle's doctrine, but logic was no longer the only focal point of Aristotelian studies. Indeed, they covered, more widely than had been done in Alexandria, practically the whole corpus, including some work on Aristotle's political theory, on his ethics, and on his biology. In addition, there were philosophical debates similar to those taking place in the Latin schools; they were based on texts of Aristotle and treated such issues as the theory of universals and the logical structure of language.
In the 13th and 14th centuries popularization and systematization—in an encyclopaedic or philosophical form—took the upper hand in the work of Nicephorus Blemmydes, George Pachymeres, and Theodore Metochites. At a time when Greek thought was being strongly influenced by the Latin tradition, especially by the work of Thomas Aquinas, the traditional debate on Plato and Aristotle took new forms. Aristotelianism appeared in the teaching of Barlaam the Calabrian, who sought to champion rationalism in faith; this was combated from a Platonic point of view by Nicephorus Gregoras. In the 15th century, when Greeks were becoming part of the Italian philosophical scene, Aristotelian rationalism was strongly defended by the upholders of Christian theology against such figures as George Gemistus Plethon, who proposed a new universal religiosity tinged with an admiration for Plato and paganism. The victory in this intellectual battle went to the moderates like John Bessarion, Plethon's influential pupil, who, though he preferred Plato, admired Aristotle, translated his Metaphysics, and collected manuscripts of his works; he converted from the Greek (i.e., the Greek Orthodox) church to the Latin (i.e., what is now called the Roman Catholic) church, in which latter communion he became a cardinal.
The early Latin tradition
The echoes of Aristotle's early writings in Cicero, a few signs of his indirect influence on other writers, and a more considerable contribution to post-Aristotelian logic in Apuleius, a Platonic philosopher who flourished in the 2nd century ce, are indications of the general cultural intercourse in this area between Latins and Greeks. The presence of Plotinus and Porphyry in Rome in the 3rd and early 4th centuries probably started the more serious interest in Aristotle there, of which the first results were, perhaps, Victorinus's adaptations in Latin of Porphyry's Isagoge and Aristotle's Categories. Logic was still the only part of Aristotle that had entered Latin culture when Themistius's teaching attracted the attention of Roman pagan circles in the 4th century.
Again, only the logical works of Aristotle, together with some extracts from Greek commentaries on them, seem to have reached the hands of Boethius, a Roman scholar and statesman of the early 6th century, when he was attempting to transmit to the Latins as much as he could of Greek learning. He translated these works and elaborated on the commentaries and on some other later texts of logic that are partly based on Aristotle. He acted primarily as a conduit, and some scholars are not prepared to ascribe to him interpretations and plans contained in the Latin works that bear his name. Even the plan of commenting on "as much of Aristotle as would come into his hands" and showing that Aristotle and Plato agreed was the traditional approach going back at least to Porphyry. Nothing remains to show where Boethius himself stood in judging Aristotle and the several parts of his philosophy. The same observations probably hold true with regard to Boethius's various theological treatises, in which the Aristotelian concepts that helped to organize the theology of the Trinity were unmistakably taken over from similar Greek treatises. A disproportionate value, however, was later attached to Boethius's own original contribution in both logic and theology; simply the fact that his name was connected with these texts made people in the Middle Ages ascribe to him the primary responsibility for their contents.
The Syriac, Arabic, and Jewish traditions
The increased sense of linguistic and national identity and the religious movements of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Nestorianism (a doctrine that so stressed the distinction between the divine and human natures of Jesus as to suggest that they belonged to two persons) and miaphysitism (a doctrine asserting that Jesus has a single nature) led to the foundation of Syriac centres of studies in the Persian and Byzantine empires, especially at Edessa (now Urfa, Turkey) and Antioch. Proba and Sergius of Resaina were among those who contributed, through translations of the basic logical texts and commentaries on them, to the establishment of Aristotelian studies in these centres. At the time of the Arabic invasion of the Byzantine and Sāsānian empires about 640, and for several generations afterward, these centres continued to grow in importance. Most notable was the great school of Kinnesrin, which was represented by such figures as Severus Sebokht, who wrote on Aristotle's syllogisms; Jacob, bishop of Edessa, a theologian, grammarian, and translator; and Georgius, bishop of the Arabs, author of a commentary on the Organon. Interest remained, however, mainly confined to logic and its application to theology.
The Syrian Christians formed the philosophical and scientific intelligentsia when in the 9th century al-Maʿmūn, the seventh ʿAbbāsid caliph, organized the Arabic centre of learning of the new Islamic empire in Baghdad. By then the Syrian scholars had acquired and translated most of Aristotle's works. They also then translated them into Arabic, both from the Syriac and directly from the Greek, and added many texts of commentators on Aristotle. In this way Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq, his son Isḥāq, Abū Bishr Mattā ibn Yūnus, Yaḥyā ibn ʿAdī, and many other Syrians provided the basis for a brilliant philosophical activity in Arabic. The Syrians retained their own independent culture; as late as the 13th century their language was used by the converted Jew Bar Hebraeus ("Son of the Hebrew"; also known as Gregorius or Abū al-Faraj), an encyclopaedist, philosopher, and theologian, who expounded all the works of Aristotle in his Kěthabhā dhē-ḥēwath ḥekhměthā (Book of the Cream of Wisdom), elaborating many sections on the basis of the Greek and Arabic Aristotelians.
In the 9th century the Arab al-Kindī was the first notable scholar to use the Arabic language in a general introduction of mainly Aristotelian philosophy. In the following century the Turkish Muslim al-Fārābī produced a more specialized study in which he commented upon and expounded the books of logic and attempted to establish the relationship between philosophy and Islam. It was through the writings of Avicenna and Averroës, however, that Aristotle's thought became an integral part of lay Arabic culture.
Early in the 11th century, the Arab Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) made Aristotle's philosophy the foundation of an original system of his own. For this he also found inspiration in a group of Plotinian texts that had been translated into Arabic under the title "Theology of Aristotle." Aristotle became, in Avicenna's hands, a much more systematic and coherent thinker than he really had intended to be; problems and solutions that were, at best, hinted at by Aristotle (e.g., the distinction between essence and existence or the relation between possible and necessary existence) were among the distinctive marks of Avicenna's own work.
For the Spanish Arab Averroës (Ibn Rushd) in the 12th century, Aristotle was "the measure and model offered by nature to show the ultimate perfection of man." He held that philosophy, specifically Aristotelian philosophy, was and taught truth; revelation or revealed religion was a debased philosophy for the simple. Averroës dissected Aristotle's works, analyzing and reconstructing them with a fine scholarly and philosophical sense and an incredible wealth of information derived from previous Greek and Arabic philosophers. He elicited doctrines that are not easily apparent and made them in some cases more compelling than the texts themselves might allow, but he rarely forced his own views onto Aristotle without at least finding some support in the texts themselves. The doctrines concerning the mortality of the individual soul, the eternity of the world, and the existence of a single Mind for the whole human race to the exclusion of individual minds were key doctrines for Averroës; they had some basis—but not much—in the thought of Aristotle.
Until the 13th century, Jewish Aristotelianism developed within the Arabic culture of North Africa, Mesopotamia, and Spain. This work was carried out in the Arabic language and distinguished itself for its almost constant concern with the relation between philosophy and Judaism. Many Aristotelian concepts were considered and discussed by Isaac ben Solomon Israeli, a 10th-century Neoplatonist, in his Kitāb al-ḥudūd ("Book of Definitions") and Kitāb al-usṭuqusāt ("Book of the Elements"). Form and matter were the basis of the metaphysical structure of the Neoplatonic system of Solomon ibn Gabirol, an 11th-century poet and philosopher known as Avicebron. A fully conscious plan of inserting Aristotle—or at least the Aristotle of al-Fārābī and Avicenna—into the intellectual and spiritual life of Judaism was carried out by Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo in the mid-12th century. Moses Maimonides of Córdoba found a way of reconciling the claims of empirical knowledge with those of revelation, which places him into clear contrast with his contemporary Spaniard Averroës, and in so doing he provided a Jewish anticipation of Aquinas's Christian compromise. His proofs for the existence of God and his acceptance of a theory of creation from eternity were typical of his approach. From the 13th century onward philosophical works, particularly those of Averroës on Aristotle, were being translated into Hebrew; a vast Hebrew literature of "super-commentaries" (those on the works of Aristotle as commented on by Averroës) appeared, and independent works were also produced, notably by Levi ben Gershom (Gersonides), who was faithful to both Maimonides and Averroës. Soon after, however, the more orthodox tradition based upon the Bible and the Talmud prevailed. Aristotelian works by Jews and Hebrew versions of Averroës, translated into Latin, contributed their share to the Italian philosophical movement of the 16th century (see also Judaism: Jewish philosophy).
The later Latin tradition
The discovery of Aristotle's works in the Latin West
Before 1115 only the very short Categories and De Interpretatione (On Interpretation) were known in Latin, and these two works circulated, from about 800, in a version by Boethius. By 1278 practically the whole of the Aristotelian corpus existed in translations from the Greek, and much of it had a wide circulation. Apart from three other works of logic in translations done by Boethius, which reappeared about 1115, this wholesale discovery was the result of cultural contacts with Constantinople and a few other Greek centres and the personal initiative of a few scholars. Most notable and first of these was James of Venice, who was in Constantinople and translated the Posterior Analytics, Physics, De Anima (On the Soul), Metaphysics, and several minor texts before or about 1150; other scholars translated anew or for the first time works on ethics, natural philosophy, and logic before 1200. With higher standards of linguistic scholarship, Robert Grosseteste, about 1240, revised and completed the translation of the Nicomachean Ethics and translated On the Heavens for the first time from the Greek.
The Flemish translator William of Moerbeke, active between about 1255 and 1278, completed the Latin Aristotelian corpus; he was the first to translate the Politics and Poetics and to give a full and reliable translation of the books on animals; he also translated anew some books of natural philosophy, and he revised several of the older translations. About half of the works were also translated from the Arabic, mainly in Toledo by Gerard of Cremona and Michael Scot, between 1165 and 1230. With two or three exceptions, these translations came after those from the Greek; all had a much more limited circulation and influence. A considerable contribution to the knowledge of Aristotle came from the translations of the ancient commentaries; nearly all of these were made from the Greek.
The view that Aristotle came to be known in Latin by way of the Arabic scholars must be understood as true only in the sense that a number of Aristotelian doctrines—partly transformed in the process—spread in Latin circles from the works of such figures as al-Fārābī, Avicenna, and Albumazar before the texts of Aristotle were accessible or had been properly interpreted. Further, there is little truth in a view that in the Latin world in the Middle Ages Aristotle was seen in a Neoplatonic light because Plotinian and Proclan texts translated from the Arabic—namely the Theologia Aristotelis ("Theology of Aristotle") and the Liber de causis ("Book of Causes")—were ascribed to him.
From the 9th through the mid-13th century
The study of Porphyry's Isagoge, of Aristotle's Categories and De Interpretatione, and of theological texts containing Aristotelian elements formed the basis, from the 9th century onward, of logical methodology (dialectic) in a wide number of fields. When applied to problems concerning the Trinity or the Eucharist, or in general to problems concerning individuality and universality of concepts and things, dialectic was perceived as a powerful instrument for clarifying faith or—on the opposite side—for endangering it. For Peter Abelard, the first great Aristotelian of the Middle Ages, dialectic was an essential method for analysis and the discovery of truth. As part of his study, he produced an illuminating account of the linguistic, mental, and objective aspects of universals on the basis of Aristotelian doctrines. Soon thereafter, new developments of Aristotle's theory of language and logic took place, partly as a result of the recently acquired knowledge of his Sophistical Refutations.
At the same time, in the later 12th century and during the beginning of the 13th century, Aristotle's physics, cosmology, and metaphysics began to attract attention through the Latin texts both of Arabic works on science and philosophy and of Aristotle's own works, and did so mainly among scientists of the famous medical school at Salerno and among the English philosophers. About 1190 Alfred of Sareshel used the new texts in his treatise De motu cordis ("On the Movement of the Heart"). Between 1210 and 1235 Robert Grosseteste commented on Aristotle's Physics and drew on various aspects of Aristotle's natural philosophy for his own scientific and philosophical treatises, and around 1245 Roger Bacon commented on the Physics and on part of the Metaphysics. It would be wrong, however, to try to find in this scholarship the origin of modern experimental science, which is rather to be found in the study of ancient and more recent mechanics, medicine, and technology or in original inventiveness.
The introduction of the new Aristotle met with difficulties at the University of Paris. The impact of non-Christian Aristotelian and Arabic philosophy engendered fears, doubts, and suspicions. Although the masters at Paris were free to teach Aristotle's logic, which was value free, and although no obstacle was put in the way of lecturing on any of Aristotle's works at the universities of Oxford and Toulouse, in the first part of the 13th century the ecclesiastical authorities at Paris imposed a ban on lectures relating to the physics, the metaphysics, and the psychology of Aristotle and his commentators. While this ban succeeded in slowing down some activities it also quickened reactions and aroused strong curiosity; the very demand for some kind of censorship of the works led to more intimate study of them. Certainly by the 1240s the prohibition against teaching Aristotle had become a dead letter at Paris, as can be seen from the fact that Roger Bacon was then commenting on the "dangerous" Physics and Metaphysics. Shortly thereafter, before 1255, all of Aristotle's philosophical treatises then known had become a required part of the Parisian Master of Arts curriculum, and, around the same time, Albertus Magnus—committed though he was, as a Dominican friar, to safeguarding the purity of faith and dogma—made Aristotle's works an indissoluble part of philosophical and scientific literature in the Latin world. Albertus Magnus announced it as his intention to make all of Aristotle's natural philosophy "intelligible to the Latins." His vast encyclopaedia of secular knowledge and wisdom consisted of an analytical exposition of Aristotle's thought combined with all the information and interpretations that Albertus had gathered from other, mainly Arabic, sources or that he had gained as the product of his own extensive research and speculation. Faced with the danger of being accused of following Aristotle against church dogma, he asserted: "I expound, I do not endorse, Aristotle."
The approach of Albertus's pupil, Thomas Aquinas, to Aristotle was that of a scholar. He wrote numerous detailed commentaries on a variety of Aristotle's works, including the Physics, Metaphysics, Ethics, and Politics; he analyzed the structure of every section of most works; he tried to discover their organization and to follow the arguments; and he was careful to obtain the best texts and to get from them the genuine meaning. Above all, Aquinas drew heavily on Aristotle's thought in composing his own masterwork, the Summa theologiae. He respected Aristotle's authoritativeness and credited him with reasonableness, even when that was not explicitly justified. Sometimes he drew inferences that went beyond Aristotle's own conclusions, and he allowed himself considerable freedom whenever Aristotle had left loose ends in his attempts to solve difficulties. At these points he often went his own way, without ascribing the new steps to Aristotle but without feeling that he was going against him. Compromises followed; for example, he stepped beyond Aristotle when he argued that the individual soul, although remaining essentially and indissolubly the form of the individual body, is separable from it and immortal. Aristotle's account was stretched almost to the breaking point but it was not transformed. Beyond that point Thomas Aquinas was not a Christian Aristotle but a man of faith and dogma; he divorced himself from Aristotle when necessary and approached closer to Augustine of Hippo, to the Neoplatonists, or to Avicenna.
From the late 13th century through the 15th century
The suspicion that reading Aristotle might lead to heresy became stronger when the closer study of his texts and of Averroës's interpretations enhanced the admiration for "The Philosopher" and increased the following of "The Commentator," as these two thinkers were respectively known. Siger de Brabant was the most redoubtable of many Averroistic Aristotelians. What came to be called Averroism was in fact a tendency to accept genuine or consistent Aristotelian tenets, particularly those concerning the eternity of the world, the unity of the intellect, and the ability of humans to achieve happiness on earth. Ecclesiastical condemnations of propositions considered false or dangerous and threats against the holders of doctrines implied by these propositions gave a more definite status to the Averroists, although many propositions condemned at Paris and Oxford in 1270 and 1277 had nothing to do with Aristotle and little with Averroës. The effect of the condemnations soon became visible: it took the form of a separation between the teaching of "philosophy" in the faculty of arts and the teaching of "truth" in the faculty of theology. This separation became rigid, with the ambiguous result that two "truths"—truth of coherence in philosophical contexts and revealed truth—were thought to coexist.
At the turn of the 14th century, however, Dante's powerful poetical vision could still merge the Averroists' Aristotle, who claimed that natural truths were self-sufficient, and Aquinas's Aristotle, who endorsed many of the truths of faith. For Dante, as for Averroës, Aristotle was the embodiment of total human knowledge—"the master of those who know." A remarkable index of Dante's commitment to Aristotelianism is the fact that he placed Siger de Brabant, by that time condemned for his Aristotelian heresy, in Paradise. In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Dante found moral guidance (he even said that this work "showed man his true happiness"), and in Aristotle's scientific books he found the key to understanding the workings of nature. In some aspects of Averroës's theory of a universal human Intellect combined with the Stoic-Aristotelian principle that all humans are by nature citizens of one city, he found the basis of the Germanic empire (the Holy Roman Empire), seeing it as the one polity (civilitas) for the whole human race.
The 14th century was no less Aristotelian than the 13th. Some scholars have indeed claimed that Aristotelianism collapsed, but such an assertion does not take into account the non-Aristotelian components of previous philosophies and the permanent acceptance of Aristotelian doctrines in the new ones. Form, matter, causality, and the idea of a universe in which events occurred with regularity but were not necessitated provided the Aristotelian frame of the system of John Duns Scotus. The nominalism (or "terminism") of William of Ockham, an English Franciscan, his rejection of "useless entities," his metaphysics of a world of individual self-contained things, and his conceptualism gave neat, though extreme, expression to Aristotle's theory of language, the economy of nature, and the primacy of individuals in existence and of universals in intellectual knowledge. He followed Aristotle closely in his views on the scientific coordination of notions. He was more faithful to Aristotle than either Aquinas or Averroës when he said that Aristotle did not give a clear lead on the question of the immortality of the soul. The various schools of Scholastic philosophy—Thomism, Scotism, Ockhamism—that asserted themselves in the 14th century and that lived on had a common Aristotelian basis, but they had different ways of interpreting it (see also Christianity).
Averroistic Aristotelianism flourished in this century in connection with, or independently of, the other trends. The Italian medical faculties at Bologna and Padua were lively centres of logical and philosophical studies; for example, Peter of Abano, a professor of medicine at Padua who had been trained at Paris, pushed Aristotle's cosmology to the brink of determinism in human affairs and used his logic to suggest that Jesus' death was only apparent. Political science, which had been a field for lofty speculations or restrained exercises in the analysis and exposition of texts, became important for those who practiced politics and those who wanted to satisfy, under the aegis of Aristotle's doctrine, the potentialities of human beings for happiness. John of Paris wanted France to be self-sufficient, self-controlling, and without interference from the pope; John of Jandun, a successor of Siger de Brabant, upheld Aristotle's Politics in all its worldliness; and Marsilius of Padua, John of Jandun's friend in Paris, followed Aristotle in his insistence that government had no supernatural origins but arose naturally from the needs of the governed and that priests should be considered in the same way as members of a guild in a city, without special privileges.
Perhaps with less attachment to the details of Aristotle's doctrines and with a keen critical sense, the Mertonians, a group of logician-philosophers based in Merton College, Oxford (e.g., Thomas Bradwardine, William of Heytesbury), and encyclopaedists, scientists, and philosophers in France (e.g., Jean Buridan and Nicholas Oresme) made laborious efforts to express science wholly in terms of mathematics, to quantify changes in quality, and to determine the nature of continuity in movement and the acceleration and speed of falling bodies. Their starting points were the Physics and the other texts of Aristotle. In a similar (almost mathematical) spirit, many of the same thinkers carried logic even further than Ockham had done into the fields of logical calculus, paradoxes, and sophisms. Thus, one may say that Aristotle was not abandoned but expanded.
Modern developments
From the Renaissance to the 18th century
In the 15th century Italy became the focal point at which various forms of Aristotelianism converged. Certain links between Italian universities and religious schools and the University of Paris had already flourished for a long time. In the late 14th century Paolo Nicoletti (Paulus Venetus) returned from Oxford to Padua after having absorbed the new logic and physics of the Mertonians and the radical nominalism of Ockham and after having increased his acquaintance with the French Averroistic trend; works by the Englishmen and by Paolo were textbooks in Italian universities for many generations. At the end of the century a number of Spanish and Italian Jews were passing on, in Latin, still more texts of Averroës on Aristotle, as well as the Jews' own recent contributions to Aristotelian learning.
A more spectacular contribution of books, linguistic and didactic competence, and stimulating debates came with an influx of Greek scholars into the Western sphere. They were attracted by the humanists' craving for Classical learning, the theological discussions between Orthodox and Roman Catholic leaders, and the relative freedom offered by the Republic of Venice and by Florence to those who were taking refuge from Turkish domination. Many manuscripts were taken to Italy, and many were transcribed in Italy by the Greeks, who also taught the Greek language to the Italian scholars. An editorial masterpiece by Aldus Manutius, an early printer, publisher, and editor, at the end of the 15th century made accessible to many almost the complete Greek corpus of Aristotle's works. A great number of Greek and Latin scholars—such as Bessarion, John Argyropoulos, Leonardo Bruni, and Lorenzo Valla—produced new translations of those texts; others translated many works on Aristotle previously unknown in Latin.
As soon as printing had been established (that is to say, by the late 15th century), editorial activity was directed to the production of many complete as well as partial editions of the Latin versions of Aristotle and Averroës in both their older and newer versions from the Greek, the Arabic, and the Hebrew. At the universities of Padua and Bologna and at Ferrara and Venice, Averroists such as Agostino Nifo and Nicoletto Vernia and independent interpreters such as Pietro Pomponazzi were dominating the philosophical scene. For Pomponazzi, Aristotle, whether right or wrong, had to be studied directly by way of his own works and not by way of his interpreters; yet he did not think that Aristotle had a monopoly on knowledge, and for this reason his mistakes concerning facts needed to be exposed.
There were others who followed Aristotle in his vast scientific achievements or searched his works for a clearer formulation of scientific methods. It was this scientific spirit that kept alive the interest in Aristotle's methodology and in his philosophy of nature down to the time, in the 17th century, when William Harvey, the English physician who discovered the circulation of the blood, was lecturing on Aristotle's books on animals and Galileo was writing on science and logic.
In a less apparent form, Aristotelianism, still strongly entrenched in most European schools, continued to have its effect on the most modern philosophers. The methodology of Francis Bacon, English philosopher, scientist, and statesman, grew out of it, and his basic metaphysical concepts were borrowed from Aristotle, although he was critical of the distorted version of Aristotelianism in the academic circles of his day. The Polish astronomer Copernicus was still attached to the perfection of circular movements. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the German rationalist and mathematician, not only admired Aristotle's logic but also built his own metaphysics of individuals ("monads") around the theory of matter and form. Like Aristotle, political theorists such as Jean Bodin in France carried on their inquiries into the nature of the state by studying existing organizations and their natural backgrounds.
In the literary field, Aristotle's Poetics, practically unknown until 1500, was now read and analyzed in both the Greek and Latin versions; its doctrines were compared and partly made to harmonize with the then-prevailing views of the ancient Roman poet Horace, and Aristotle's view that art imitates nature prevailed for many over the conflicting theory that stressed the creativity of the poet. The doctrine of the unities of action, place, and time—though actually a later development resulting from forced interpretations of Aristotle—ruled over the work of many writers of tragedies (e.g., Gian Giorgio Trissino in Italy, Jean Racine and Pierre Corneille in France, and, to a certain extent, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Germany). Many critics (including the English critics from Sir Philip Sidney to Matthew Arnold) accepted those rules, although few English poets—the great exception was John Milton—welcomed them. A lesser influence was exercised by Aristotle's Rhetoric outside the field of systematic theory.
Scholasticism in these centuries belonged to the history of Aristotelianism. All over western and central Europe and also in Spanish America the continuance of Scholasticism ensured that higher education remained generally within an Aristotelian framework. Remarkable work was produced by Scholastics in the fields of commentaries and of detailed interpretation; Pedro de Fonseca, the "Portuguese Aristotle," in the 16th century and Sylvester Maurus, author of short but pithy commentaries on all of Aristotle's works, in Rome in the 17th century are noteworthy examples. Insofar as the different Scholasticisms were living and interesting philosophical movements, however, they had more to do with newer philosophies than with Aristotle.
Martin Luther's rebellion against Rome, on the other hand, involved a rebellion against Scholastic philosophy and its distorted Aristotelian structure, although not against Aristotle. In fact, when Luther's follower Philipp Melanchthon undertook to reorganize the curriculum for higher education, a more genuine, humanistic Aristotle emerged as the great master of philosophy, independent of theology. Once again, as in the early 13th century in Paris, Aristotle took pride of place, particularly in the realms of logic and ethics, and to a lesser extent in metaphysics and natural philosophy.
The anti-Aristotelianism of the 16th to 18th century touched only a small part of the real Aristotle. Partly it was a reaction against Scholasticism, as though this had faithfully represented Aristotle's own philosophy. Thus, Aristotle was wrongly accused of extreme formalism, irresponsible use of syllogisms consisting of empty or irrelevant concepts, a multiplication of pseudo-real entities, and the application of "scientific" methods to facts that could be vouched for only by faith. For other critics the whole of Aristotle's canon stood condemned because of his unsatisfactory account of local movement and the consequences it had in the areas of mechanics, dynamics, cosmology, and astronomy. His downfall in the 17th century was the result, above all, of his failure to create, in the 4th century bce, a language that allowed him to describe the forms of things and events (i.e., their knowable aspects) in mathematical formulas and of his failure to lay sufficient stress, in his philosophy of experience, on the need for experiments.
Aristotelianism from the 19th century
The anti-Aristotelian movement was countered mainly by historical and philological scholarship. As Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg, a German philosopher, saw it, Aristotle's personality and works must be known as exactly as possible because he provides the indispensable historical basis of any serious philosophy. Such a type of study had declined after the great achievements of the 16th century. After the work done between the first new learned edition of the collected Greek texts of Aristotle by J.G. Buhle (1791–93) and a vast collection of all documentary material in the Aristoteles-Archiv at Berlin (which began in 1965), there is little, if anything, that remains to be discovered concerning the original and deteriorated forms of Aristotle's traditional corpus. A monumental edition sponsored by the Prussian Academy from 1831 to 1870 became the basis for almost innumerable critical editions of individual works. A rich crop of fragments, which were identified and edited in the last centuries, brought to light previously almost unknown aspects of Aristotle's early activity. And in 1890 a papyrus was discovered in Egypt that contained most of the otherwise lost Constitution of Athens. European and American academies have sponsored the editing of ancient and medieval commentaries and translations in Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew. Historical, philological, and philosophical exegesis has explored in great detail the contents and background of most of Aristotle's writings. Translations of all the works into English, German, and French and of many of them into most of the other European languages as well as into Hebrew, Arabic, and Japanese have made Aristotle widely accessible. Historians of ideas have investigated Aristotle's relationship to Plato and to the Greece of his day, his influence in following ages, and his own philosophical development.
Philosophical Aristotelianism has been mainly confined to the German schools established by Trendelenburg and Franz Brentano. Trendelenburg was concerned to effect a revaluation of Aristotle's metaphysics in the face of German idealism; he had a measure of influence in the United States on such thinkers as Felix Adler, George Sylvester Morris, and John Dewey. Aristotle's theories of being and knowledge formed the point of departure for Brentano's "descriptive psychology" and his doctrine of human experience, and they also contributed to the phenomenologies of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Outside Germany, J.-G.-F.-L. Ravaisson-Mollien, a spiritualist philosopher, and Sir David Ross, editor and translator of Aristotle's works, acknowledged a debt to Aristotle, respectively, for their metaphysics and ethics; and the reestablishment of Aquinas, by Pope Leo XIII in 1879, as the great doctor of the church increased the interest in Aristotle and in his influence on the history of Christian thought. Contemporary philosophy in the Anglo-Saxon world is often associated with a keen interest in Aristotle (nor is he entirely neglected in other philosophical traditions), and the name of the Aristotelian Society (London) reflects the view that good philosophy must be practiced in the spirit of Aristotle.Lorenzo Minio-Paluello The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Judaism: Jewish AristotelianismJewish thinkers in Muslim Spain and the Maghrib adopted Aristotelianism (as well as systems that stemmed from but also profoundly modified pure Aristotelian doctrine) considerably later than did their counterparts in the Islamic East.…
metaphysics: AristotelianismFor many people, Plato is the type of an other-worldly, Aristotle of a this-worldly philosopher. Plato found reality to lie in things wholly remote from sense; Aristotle took form to be typically embodied in matter and thought it his job as a philosopher to…
history of logic: AristotleOnly fragments of the work of these thinkers are relevant to what is now considered logic. The systematic study of logic seems to have been undertaken first by Aristotle. Although Plato used dialectic as both a method of reasoning and a means of philosophical…
Cartesianism: Mechanism versus AristotelianismCartesian mechanism was opposed to scholastic Aristotelian science, which was supported by both Roman Catholic and Protestant theologians. These thinkers held that, because all things are created by God with a given nature, there can be no evolutionary development of animals or of the…
Judaism: Ashkenazic developments…the suspicions aroused by Jewish Aristotelians and Averroists—followers of the 12th-century Arabic Aristotelian philosopher Averroës (1126–98)—and, in time, even won for them the status of a rabbinic elite. Indeed, in the early 13th century some of the mystics lent their support to a campaign that condemned the study of philosophy…
More About Aristotelianism47 references found in Britannica articles
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- In Alexandrist
- Atomism
- Jewish philosophy
- Platonism and Neoplatonism
- Scholasticism


text:
Sophomore cornerback Brandon Harris became the first University of Miami player since Kenny Phillips in 2007 to earn All-America honors this week when he was awarded the honor by the SI.com, the Associated Press and Phil Steele Magazine.
Harris, an All-ACC First Team selection, earned second team All-America honors by SI, third team honors from AP and fourth team honors from Phil Steele. Harris led the ACC in pass break ups (14) and passes defended (16) and tied fifth nationally passes defended per game and finished third at UM in tackles with 52 (37 solo, 15 assists).
Phillips was named an AP third team All-American in 2007 at safety. There's little doubt Harris, a graduate of Miami Booker T. Washington, will be one of the favorites to win the Thorpe Award next season.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Multi-currency accounting
We built our core accounting engine with multi-currency right in the center. Xero lets you calculate and display real-time gains and losses on-the-fly. And you can do so in both the profit & loss report and the balance sheet – something even large-scale ERP software doesn't do.
All foreign currency transactions are converted into the local currency in real-time. With foreign exchange rates updated hourly, you instantly know exactly how gains and losses are affecting your cash flow.Find out more >


text:
Matthew Klenda of Tampa was chosen to conduct a cancer research project by the Johnson Cancer Research Center at Kansas State University.
Klenda is a senior majoring in biochemistry at Kansas State.
He is one of 50 students chosen for a project. The center's Cancer Research Award program promotes undergraduate participation in laboratory research.
The award program, open to Kansas State undergraduate students, provides $1,000 awards to up to 50 students and $1,000 to their faculty mentor for research expenses.
Students applied for the awards in October by co-writing research proposals with faculty mentors affiliated with the center. The winners conduct their research in the mentors' laboratories during the spring semester.


text: On Tue, 21 Jan 2003, Bob Drzyzgula wrote: > You very clearly make the case that a larger cluster can > have greater value than a smaller cluster; you cite an > example wherein a 48-node cluster won't solve your problem > but a 96-node cluster will. Thus, code that will run on a > larger cluster also has greater value than code that is > limited to a smaller cluster. So why is not not fair to > ask you to pay more for the right to generate code which > has greater value? ... > Clearly you don't have to see things that way, but in > that event your only real recourse, I would think would > be to find another compiler vendor that has pricing more > to your liking. I've stayed out of this so far because it is SO easy (and fun!) to start a fortran rant out of a commercial fortran rant, but Bob's wisdom here is so compelling that I cannot help but join in and reinforce it. Long, long ago when first designing a PC/linux cluster, I looked over the various compilers available, and if I recall correctly, Lahey even then had a per-CPU license -- they charged on the basis of the number of systems one planned to run a binary on. Or, if you prefer, they charged on the basis of their runtime library, which was licensed on a per-CPU basis. SO, we did what any sane consumer would do when presented with such idiocy. We supported PGI, we supported Absoft, we supported g77 (for those users that HAD to have Fortran, which thank all the powers that be I have not been since the mid-80's at this point:-). At that time, we failed to see any compelling speed advantage for Lahey, and the alternative vendors supported (and continues to support) cluster computing for linux very effectively with high quality compilers. Yes, their licensing sucks. So vote against it, with what counts! Your money! With many of the alternatives, you can actually create a standalone static linked binary that doesn't REQUIRE a dynamic runtime library to be present on a node or target system. Others (IIRC) license their "compiler" (the code that parses your source, translates it, links it) separately from their runtime library so that the latter can be freely distributed but the former has to be on a specific system. Look around! Shop! Cut a deal (a lot of compiler vendors would be happy to help you out, I'm sure). Choose the package that has the best cost-benefit to you. Be sure to take the long view in this, as well. If you're porting an old fortran application, perhaps there is a decent enough reason to use fortran, although a LOT of old fortran applications one might wish to port, if you look at them carefully, contain mediocre and outdated algorithms and spaghetti snarl code (and maybe some nice, deep, bugs) due to the generations of non-computer-scientist graduate students that worked on them. A complete rewrite in a modern language, using a high-quality open source library like the GSL in place of all the stolen Numerical Recipes subroutines or ancient IBM numerical library routines buried therein might save you more time than twice as many nodes PLUS the time required to do the rewrite, and you might even be able to read and maintain the resulting code when done. If you're developing a new application, then one REALLY has to ask whether or not fortran is the right or best vehicle (and I'd knee-jerk answer that even if Fortran is the only language you know, the answer is STILL no). gcc is free, ubiquitous, links to several variants of MPI and PVM, is easy to program for both threaded operation and for raw socketed communications, and makes high quality code in widespread use in cluster applications. We've recently had a lovely discussion on the virtues of e.g. g++ and OO compilers. Sure, using a variant of C or C++ (including one of the excellent commercial or semicommercial offerings, e.g. PGI's or Intel's) might require learning, but there are lots of resources to support the learning. People who know fortran and C and actually PREFER fortran are (to my own direct experience, anyway) fairly rare. Must be a reason for this, one would think...;-) So even though the human cost of porting to or writing in something besides fortran may SEEM high, when one actually works out the benefits in speed, quality of code, portability, and long-term maintainability one may conclude that these benefits outweigh the cost. Don't forget to include the subtle benefits associated with open source compilers compared to commercial (or semicommercial) ones as well -- gcc code is more portable than code written for ANY commercial compiler, if only because of the range of platforms and operating systems it runs more or less identically upon. OS compilers like gcc are arguably less likely to contain bugs than many of the commercial offerings as well, as they are used by a LOT of people -- at a guess by more people than use all the commercial compilers for e.g. linux put together -- and hence get at least the serious bugs hammered out of them quite rapidly. Cost/benefit is all that matters. If Lahey is too expensive (by whatever scheme they charge, whatever deal you manage to cut) for the benefit, then don't buy Lahey! Tell them why you're not buying their product when you turn them down! Let the marketplace deal with them. If gcc offers the best OVERALL cost/benefit (as it does for so many folks and so much code) then by all means use gcc, even if it means that you have to spend the first three or four weeks of your project learning how. You'll likely make it up in the second month -- once you know ANY programming language, learning the second one isn't that difficult (although it may take some time before you use it really well). rgb -- Robert G. Brown http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/ Duke University Dept. of Physics, Box 90305 Durham, N.C. 27708-0305 Phone: 1-919-660-2567 Fax: 919-660-2525 email:rgb at phy.duke.edu


text:
Prankster Quits Jobs at Places He Never Worked
We've all had fantasies of quitting a terrible job before, but prankster Peter Butterman does it one better by quitting at places that have never even employed him in this hysterical video.
Butterman tenders his resignation to random people in various stores and most react with confusion since they don't recognize him. "Are you saying you work at this store now?," asks one bewildered employee.
"See, this is a prime example," says Butterman. "This is how people treat me every time I come in!"
The prankster then ups the ante by tearfully sobbing while he quits one job. "I think if you really believe you work here maybe you should go to the hospital," says one woman. Another man laughs and accuses Butterman of being mentally ill.
But one woman at a fast food joint appears to completely buy into the prank. She even convinces the jokester to reconsider his decision and give at least two week's notice. Hey, it beats getting fired from an imaginary job.


text:
Under and by virtue of O.C.G.A. §10-4-213 and the leases entered into between City Circle Mini-Storage, Inc. f/k/a K&W Developments, Inc. d/b/a City Circle Mini-Storage and the below described tenants, the undersigned will sell at public outcry, at their storage facility at 746 City Circle Road, Baxley, Georgia on October 19, 2012, during the legal hours of sale, to the highest bidder for cash, the following described personal property:
1. All contents located in Units 7 & 9 belonging to Olivia Williams; lease dated July 23, 2012.
2. All contents located in Unit 23 belonging to Michelle Goorahlal; lease dated June 23, 2011.
The above-described personal property will be sold to satisfy an indebtedness owed to City Circle Mini-Storage, Inc. by the above described tenants for their failure to pay the rental on said storage units.
The proceeds of each sale will be used as follow: (1) to pay the expenses of said sale; (2) to pay the above described indebtedness owed by said tenant to City Circle Mini-Storage, Inc.; (3) the balance, if any, to said tenant.
Said property will be sold subject to any and all unpaid taxes, assessments, and liens of record, if any.
Kris Knox, P. C.
Attorney for City Circle Mini-Storage, Inc.
37 Tippins Street, Suite B
Baxley, Georgia 31513
10-3 and 10-10ch
gpn12 NOTICE OF PUBLIC SALE
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text:
Seedorf repaid with Balotelli 'intensity'
Under-pressure Milan coach Clarence Seedorf praised striker Mario Balotelli for his all-round display in the 2-0 victory over Fiorentina.
Milan arrived at the Stadio Artemio Franchi on Wednesday unbeaten in seven visits since 2005, but in the middle of a wretched run of form. However, Seedorf's men put on a vintage performance to run out comfortable winners.
Goals in each half from Frenchman Philippe Mexes and a stunning free-kick by Balotelli gave Milan a first win in six games in all competitions.
The controversial Balotelli was never far from the action and while he was booked for the 10th time in Serie A this season in the first half, he peppered the Fiorentina goal with several free-kicks and was a constant nuisance to the host's defence.
Seedorf told Football Italia: "A centre-forward has to work going forward and back, so when his team goes too deep he needs to spread it wide to help the others come up.
"I asked Mario for intensity and in that sense he had a great game in both phases.
"We already knew he had talent and could take free-kicks like that, but I was most impressed by his consistency and intensity."
Seedorf had been moved prior to the game to clarify that there was no rift between himself and vice-president Adriano Galliani, who again accompanied the side to the game, as he had at the 1-1 draw with Lazio on Sunday.
But the Dutch coach was delighted with his team's performance having not won in the previous five games, as he added: "It was a wonderful victory, because the team really did well over the last few days to react with two positive results.
"Considering the performance, the three points were deserved, as we won against a great team that plays wonderful football."


text:
Marketing Maniac needed a new print or packaging design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 4 designs submitted by 3 freelance designers.
We are a fun, creative, personality driven marketing company. Our flagship product is a wallet mailer (paper direct mail envelope that looks like a man's wallet).
We have clients from all over the world hire us to design custom oversized money bills that go in the wallet.
Our wallet mailers are used by all industries and all businesses. We guarantee they get opened.
We're looking for a designer to help us ongoing to design these bills. Depending on the results from this contest, we might select the designer from the contest.
This design contest is to take our general oversized big bill, enhance the look of the border and create an Illustrator file that can be used to create our big bills - no matter what denomination we get a request for. In the past we've had a template for a $20, a $25, a $50, etc. We want to change that. We want 1 really cool, well designed generic file that we can just change the denomination, wording and presidential picture.
The final delivery needs to be an Illustrator file that can easily be changed to any denomination ($27 if a client wants it). It should be two colors: black and red. The colors MUST, MUST be spot color - not CMYK or RGB.
If you don't know what I'm talking about with spot color - please don't enter this contest.
The bill should be a $100 bill. The final size is 3 1/2" x 8 1/2".
The template we've used in the past, samples of what we've done in the past and the copy I want on the bill can be found at http://www.marketing-ideas.us/Big-B…esign.html


text:
Theodore "Teddy" Forstmann, a veteran business leader and philanthropist who was romantically linked to Padma Lakshmi, died Sunday. He was 71.
Forstmann suffered from brain cancer, his spokesman tells The New York Times.
Although the famed billionaire never married, he dated Top Chef host Lakshmi, 41, over the last several years. Their relationship made headlines when she gave birth to now 1-year-old daughter Krishna in February 2010, which spawned speculation over the identity of the father. (Venture capitalist Adam Dell was later revealed as the father.)
Forstmann was also briefly linked to Princess Diana. According to The Diana Chronicles by Newsweek and The Daily Beast editor Tina Brown, the two were plotting to wed in the last weeks of her life.
Forstmann, who invested in companies ranging from Gulfstream Aerospace to Dr Pepper, is survived by his two sons, Siya and Everest, brothers Anthony and John, and sisters Marina Forstmann Day and Elissa Forstmann Moran.


text:
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text:
|Oracle® Database Gateway for Adabas User's Guide
11g Release 1 (11.1)
Part Number B31055-01
|View PDF
This section describes the support methods that Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways applies to normalize non-relational data. It includes the following topics:
See Also:Oracle Database Gateway for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Installation and Configuration Guide for Microsoft Windows or Oracle Database Gateway for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Installation and Configuration Guide for UNIX for information on importing metadata into Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways.
Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways exposes a purely relational front end through the HOA API. However, it connects to non-relational data sources, which include non-relational data models. As such, Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways provides a logical mapping that exposes the non-relational constructs in a relational manner. The most prevalent problem in this domain is the issue of arrays, which is described in this section.
An array is a group of similar elements of the same size. Arrays contain a series of data elements that are of the same data type, which can be simple or complex (group). A specific element is defined and accessed by its position in the array, which is provided by an index.
Arrays are a convenient way to store a fixed amount of data that is accessed in an unpredictable fashion. They are not efficient, however, when you need to insert or delete individual elements of the array.
Before looking at the different methods of handling arrays, you should understand how metadata is represented in Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways.
Figure 3-1 shows an example record with arrays and nested arrays.
See Also:
When you import this metadata into Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways, the import process creates a data dictionary definition that is equivalent to the original structure, usually mapping the fields one to one. The import process also writes all primary and foreign key definitions to the ALL_CONSTRAINTS table.
Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways represents the flattened view of the metadata on the table editor's Columns tab, as shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 Representation of Metadata on the Columns tab in Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways
Table 3-1 describes the different columns shown in Figure 3-2.
The (+) to the left of a column indicates a group field. This type of field usually has a Dimension value. This value is not mandatory, but it optimizes the access to an array. You can click (+) to display the group members. In Figure 3-2, all groups are expanded.
Table 3-1 Metadata Column Tab Definition
Column name
The name of the column.
Data type
The data type of the column. Selecting this field displays a drop-down box listing the possible data types.
The size of the column for data types of a non-fixed size.
The information entered in this field depends on the data type:
For decimal data types, this is the number of digits to the right of the decimal place. This number must not be greater than the number of digits. The default value is 0.
For scaled data types, this is the total number of digits. The number must be negative.
The maximum number of entries of an array. An array has a dimension other than zero. This value is not mandatory, but it optimizes the access to an array.
Not relevant for arrays.
Fixed offset
Not relevant for arrays.
Primary Key Column
The column is part of the table's primary key.
The tree in the Metadata view displays a normalized view of the tables, as shown in Figure 3-3, where
STUDENT_COURSE, and
STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS are virtual views and
STUDENT_ST is a single table, also called sequential view.
The following SQL query on the Oracle data dictionary produces the result shown in Example 3-1. In this query,
data source is the name of the data source from which the metadata was created. The result shows the metadata of the original table after virtual arrays were created.
SQL> select TABLE_NAME,COLUMN_NAME,DATA_TYPE from ALL_TAB_COLUMNS@dg4[data_source] where table_name like 'STUDENT%';
Example 3-1 SQL Query Result
TABLE_NAME COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE ------------------------------ --------------------------- --------------------- STUDENT ID NUMBER STUDENT FIRST_NAME CHAR STUDENT LAST_NAME CHAR STUDENT DATE_OF_BIRTH CHAR STUDENT NUMOF_COURSES NUMBER STUDENT NUMOF_BOOKS NUMBER STUDENT_BOOK BOOK_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_BOOK ISBN CHAR STUDENT_BOOK RETURN_DATE CHAR STUDENT_COURSE COURSE_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE COURSE_ID NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE COURSE_TITLE CHAR STUDENT_COURSE INSTRUCTOR_ID NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE NUMOF_ASSIGNMENTS NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS COURSE_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS ASSIGNMENTS_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS ASSIGNMENT_TYPE CHAR STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS ASSIGNMENT_TITLE CHAR STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS DUE_DATE CHAR STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS GRADE NUMBER STUDENT_ST __LEVEL VARCHAR2 STUDENT_ST __SEQUENCE NUMBER STUDENT_ST COURSE_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_ST ASSIGNMENTS_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_ST BOOK_ROWNUM NUMBER STUDENT_ST ID NUMBER STUDENT_ST FIRST_NAME CHAR STUDENT_ST LAST_NAME CHAR STUDENT_ST DATE_OF_BIRTH CHAR STUDENT_ST NUMOF_COURSES NUMBER STUDENT_ST NUMOF_BOOKS NUMBER STUDENT_ST COURSE_ID NUMBER STUDENT_ST COURSE_TITLE CHAR STUDENT_ST INSTRUCTOR_ID NUMBER STUDENT_ST NUMOF_ASSIGNMENTS NUMBER STUDENT_ST ASSIGNMENT_TYPE CHAR STUDENT_ST ASSIGNMENT_TITLE CHAR STUDENT_ST DUE_DATE CHAR STUDENT_ST GRADE NUMBER STUDENT_ST ISBN CHAR STUDENT_ST RETURN_DATE CHAR 41 rows selected.
Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways lets you handle arrays by using the following methods:
Note:Objects from virtual views and sequential flattening are described by Oracle Gateways as tables.
See Chapter 4, "Setting the Array Handling Policy" for information on how to define array handling settings.
Exposing arrays as virtual views is a commonly used technique to handle arrays. It generates a virtual view for every array in the parent record that contains all the array members. Virtual views contain primary key fields from the parent to connect the parent and the virtual view. Optionally, they can also contain all fields from the parent table.
During the import process or when you set the virtual array policy on the table level, Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways generates virtual views and names them by appending the array name to the parent name. When an array includes another array, the name of the resulting virtual table consists of the parent name, the array name, and the name of the nested array, as follows:
For example, a parent table called
STUDENT with an array called
COURSE and a nested array called
ASSIGNMENTS is represented by the virtual view
STUDENT_COURSE_ASSIGNMENTS (see Figure 3-5).
The number of nested-array levels is not limited.
Virtual views include the following:
The array member columns from the original structure.
The fields from the parent's first unique key, or all parent fields, depending on the selection you make during the import process or when setting the virtual array policy on the table level.
If all parent fields are included in the virtual view, the parent's indexes are available in the view definition and can be used for efficient optimization strategies.
Note:Inherited keys lose their uniqueness in the virtual view.
If the view does not include all parent fields, the primary key fields (if the primary key is not the parent's first unique key).
If selected, a column called
<array_name>_ROWNUM, which identifies the row in the array.
The unique key and
<array_name>_ROWNUM columns are generated automatically. Together, they uniquely identify each row in the virtual view and form a unique key.
Figure 3-4 shows the
STUDENT_BOOKS virtual view with the two array member columns (
ISBN and
RETURN_DATE) and the column that identifies the row in the array (
Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways also maintains primary and foreign key definitions that connect between the parent table and the array tables. This allows graphical tools to easily match parent and array.
When working with virtual views, consider the following limitations:
Virtual views are read-only.
Virtual views do not support arrays within variants that have a selector field.
Including all parent fields in the virtual view greatly reduces the need for performing join operations because this in itself is an implicit join. In general, the query processor can devise efficient access strategies because Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways copies all relevant indexes from the parent to the virtual view.
Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways indicates virtual views by using a different colored icon in the Metadata view, as shown in Figure 3-5.
Performing a bulk load of complex data from a non-relational system to a relational database requires a carefully thought-out algorithm that keeps I/O operations at a minimum.
In a bulk load scenario, a method such as Virtual Views requires a full scan of the physical file for every single array. An efficient method of performing this task presents a kind of row-wise normalization, called sequential flattening. This method reads all data in the physical file in a single scan.
Sequential flattening replaces arrays in a non-relational system by a sequence of rows. It maps all the record fields of the non-relational file to a single table that contains both parent and child records. In this way, sequential flattening enables the reception of a stream of data by using a single
SELECT statement.
The sequentially flattened view of a complex table is referred to as a single table or sequential view. You can choose to create a sequential view in Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways by selecting the Generate sequential view check box during the Metadata Model Selection step of the Metadata Import procedure. The single table is read-only.
See Also:Oracle Database Gateway for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Installation and Configuration Guide for Microsoft Windows or Oracle Database Gateway for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Installation and Configuration Guide for UNIX for details on importing metadata into Oracle Studio for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways.
The flattened table is called
<table>_ST, where
<table> is the name of the parent table and
ST indicates a single table. For example, if a parent table is called
STUDENT, the single table, or sequential view, is called
The structure of the single table is identical to the original table's structure, except that Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways removes all array dimensions and adds some control fields. When reading a record, Oracle Connect for IMS, VSAM, and Adabas Gateways performs a tree traversal of the parent and its array hierarchy. Each record in the resulting recordset deals with a specific array member; other arrays are nulled out.
The sequentially flattened single table includes the following columns:
The parent fields, that is the non-repeating fields.
The array fields for all arrays within the parent.
For each array, an optional column called
<array_name>_ROWNUM, which identifies the row in the array. This column is generated automatically for the array.
The sequentially flattened single table includes a record (row) for each array record.
See Figure 3-1 for an illustration of arrays and nested arrays.
Figure 3-6 shows the metadata that sequential flattening produces for a data source with three arrays (
ASSIGNMENTS, and
BOOK) in the SQL View window. The window presents read-only information about each of the columns in the table.
The following table describes the information presented in this window.
Table 3-2 SQL View Window
|Information Type
The name of the column.
Data Type
The data type supported by that column. For example, string or integer.
Indicates the maximum size allowable for the data in the column. The size is in standard units for the data type. For example, a string with size 40 can have no more than forty characters.
Indicates the number of digits allowed after the decimal point for a numeric value.
Indicates the total number of digits allowed for a numeric value in the column. If the value has a scale of one or more, then the total number of digits allowed before the decimal point is the precision value minus the scale value. For example, a value with precision 4 and scale 2 can be no larger than 99.99.
Indicates whether the column can have a null value. If
Figure 3-7 shows the actual single table after running a SELECT clause. It contains a column for each row in the preceding SQL view.
A SQL describe of this single table produces the following result:
Name Null? Type ----------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------ __LEVEL NOT NULL VARCHAR2(64) __SEQUENCE NOT NULL NUMBER(11) COURSE_ROWNUM NUMBER(10) ASSIGNMENTS_ROWNUM NUMBER(10) BOOK_ROWNUM NUMBER(10) ID NOT NULL NUMBER(8) FIRST_NAME NOT NULL CHAR(32) LAST_NAME NOT NULL CHAR(32) DATE_OF_BIRTH NOT NULL CHAR(8) NUMOF_COURSES NOT NULL NUMBER(10) NUMOF_BOOKS NOT NULL NUMBER(10) COURSE_ID NUMBER(8) COURSE_TITLE CHAR(48) INSTRUCTOR_ID NUMBER(8) NUMOF_ASSIGNMENTS NUMBER(10) ASSIGNMENT_TYPE CHAR(12) ASSIGNMENT_TITLE CHAR(48) DUE_DATE CHAR(8) GRADE NUMBER(2,1) ISBN CHAR(10) RETURN_DATE CHAR(8)
This table shows all the columns of the single table.


text: Has anyone tried -- or, better, succeeded with -- SCore MPI on quad core systems, specifically Barcelonas? It worked fine before they were upgraded from 2×2 Opteron cores to 2×4, but now it's performing much worse than other MPIs (with gig ethernet). I'm not sure exactly what the measurements involved until someone comes back from holiday or I find the notes, but it's bad enough that we're only running 4-core jobs currently. (We have commercial support, but...) Thanks for any info or ideas.


text:
Express. Home of the Daily and Sunday Express.
Mourinho wishes Mata well
Jose Mourinho insisted Juan Mata leaves Chelsea with his and the club's blessing as the Spain playmaker's move to Manchester United appeared close to a conclusion.
Mourinho confirmed United have broken their transfer record - a £30.75million deal for Dimitar Berbatov in 2008 - to recruit the 25-year-old, who was Chelsea's player of the year in each of the last two seasons.
The Chelsea boss said: "Things are going in a good direction and we allowed Juan to travel and to have the medical with United. I think at Manchester.
"Things are really going in that direction. Sooner, rather than later, things will be finalised.
"He's a fantastic player and despite not playing a lot for us in the last period could be a very important player for us. But Juan had this fantastic opportunity for him.
"It's what he wants. It's what he asked us to accept. Chelsea Football Club is proud to act this way, in an open way, in a human way.
"It's good for Juan, it's good for the Premier League and the offer in financial terms, is the right offer.
"The offer, compared with what the club paid two years ago (when Mata signed from Valencia), was fantastic.
"If Man United pays their record for a player it's because they know exactly what they want.
"They are convinced he's going to be important for them and we hope that he does very well for them. No fears at all. We are convinced he's going to do well.
"When we play him we are going to try to win and he does the same."
Some commentators have suggested Mourinho is no longer concerned by Manchester United after selling to a long-standing direct rival, who are 14 points adrift in the title race.
Mourinho added: "We are not afraid of him going there to do very well for Man United. We want him to go there, to do well for Man United."
Arsenal boss Arsene Wenger suggested the transfer was unfair, as Chelsea have already played United twice this season and will not have to face Mata this term, where other title contenders will.
Mourinho added: "Wenger complaining is normal, because he always does. It's something that we know.
"When a player plays for a club on August 20 and two weeks later on September 5 plays against the same club with a different shirt, this is normal, because this is the market.
"We don't do the market, we don't do the rules, we have just to do according to the rules.
"If Wenger sells (Mesut) Ozil to Man United in this moment I would be very happy because he sells a very important player.
"Normally he should be happy that Chelsea sold a player like Juan Mata, but this is a little bit his nature.
"When he says this is not fair, I think what is not fair is that his team always has the best days to play."
Mourinho and Chelsea moved quickly to replace Mata with Mohamed Salah after reaching an agreement with Basle, subject to personal terms and a medical.
"It was a surprise for us that Juan was leaving," Mourinho said.
"We were not prepared to make a bid or to try to bring a player to replace Juan in the squad so everything happened very, very fast.
"We decided to try to go for Salah. We started from zero; no contacts with the club, no contacts with the player.
"The first step was an agreement with the club. That situation is done, no more discussions, everything is signed and done subject to the medical, that we didn't have yet and subject to the player's desire to join us or not.
"Now we know he wants (to come)."
Mourinho has spoken to Salah, who was also interesting Liverpool.
Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers has not given up hope and Mourinho admits a last-minute U-turn is feasible, although the Egypt winger's preferred destination is west London.
Mourinho said: "We know that the player wants to come. He told me personally.
"Now it's (personal) terms, the medical that he has to pass probably in Zurich or Lausanne and hopefully he comes.
"Probably the situation is still open and not closed."
Salah is set to become the third signing of the winter transfer window, following the captures of Bertrand Traore and Nemanja Matic.
Kevin De Bruyne has already left for Wolfsburg, Mata is en route to Manchester and Michael Essien has permission to leave, too.
"Michael Essien is in this moment in a position where he can go or he can stay," Mourinho said.
"If he stays we are more than happy for him to stay, but he's another player that gave everything to this club and if a great situation for him arrives for his future... we must show him respect.
"If he stays, he stays and if he stays he's playing against Stoke."
Chelsea play Stoke on Sunday in the FA Cup fourth round, with striker Fernando Torres (knee) missing for three weeks.


text:
This Positive Life: An Interview With Rafael Abadia
September 15, 2011
"I got to see the 'dirty side' of AIDS in the '80s and '90s," remarks Rafael Abadia; "Younger people really haven't. I don't think they see the urgency." Rafael came close to death several times in those early years of the epidemic, and has taken numerous HIV treatment regimens. He's also been involved in advocacy ever since -- battling stigma rooted in homophobia as well as AIDSphobia, and fighting for access to care for others living with HIV. Nowadays, he's still tirelessly working to raise awareness of HIV in Latino communities in his home state of Florida. But he's been thinking it might soon be time for a rest -- so he's devising plans to get youth more involved in HIV advocacy. "I wish we had other younger advocates taking over," he laughs; "I am getting older!"
How did you find out you were HIV positive?
I was having flu-like symptoms, and I went to my general doctor at the time; he suggested I have an HIV test. A few days later he called me on the phone and gave me my diagnosis. He just came out with it. I don't remember what else he said. [chuckles] I was shocked.
I had a partner at the time. He was out of town on business, so I felt completely alone. I hate to use the term "a little suicidal," but those thoughts came into my mind. I was active in the community in New York City then -- I volunteered at Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC), so I had kinda seen the face of AIDS.
How did your partner take it when you disclosed to him?
He was going to be away for the weekend, and he just flew back the next day. It was fine for the next couple of months, but then we parted. He couldn't handle it.
How did you get support through those first few months of being positive?
Since I had volunteered for GMHC, I knew a couple people there. After my diagnosis, that following Monday, I was diagnosed with PCP [Pneumocystis pneumonia] and hospitalized. They kept me in the hospital for a month. From there, my partner called GMHC and they did the intake at the hospital, and I became a client of GMHC. They helped me get connected to medical care and so forth. I was very fortunate, because they guided me to some support services which I desperately needed.
How long did it take you to get used to fact that you had HIV?
It wasn't easy. At first my main focus was recovering from the PCP, which took a long time. GMHC connected me with great mental health care providers, and I started seeing a therapist. That really helped me deal with internal issues, because not only was I dealing with the AIDS diagnosis, my relationship was also breaking up. I needed to find a new place to live. So many things were happening.
Another concern was my parents. At the time they were living in Puerto Rico. I knew I couldn't tell them about my diagnosis over the phone. I knew I had to fly to Puerto Rico. I had to prepare myself mentally for that. That's what I did for the first eight or nine months: prepared myself.
I flew to Puerto Rico. I had lost a lot of weight, so I made sure to wear a lot of baggy clothes to try to cover my illness. I was really concerned about how my parents were going to take it. They're extremely religious, Christian fundamentalists. My being gay was an issue. I didn't know what to expect.
Then the day came, and I sat in my parent's living room; my mom was in the kitchen. I said "Dad, I need to speak to both of you. It's very serious." He called my mom, and my mom just kind of ignored him, she didn't want to come. They knew something was gonna be up. [laughs] When my mom came, the three of us sat in the living room, and I told them that I had AIDS.
My dad is what I call a true macho Puerto Rican man, whom I've never seen cry. He ran into his bedroom, crying -- really crying. I ran after him. I grabbed him and he put his head on my shoulder and we both cried.
To my amazement, they accepted me immediately. I thought they were going to put away the spoons, the cups, and not let me use them -- because I've heard horror stories from other people. But no, from day one, they accepted me, and they were there for me.
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20621 Surnames | 135328 Records | 2768 Reunions
Dead Fred asks:Are you a Desperate Genealogist?
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Dead Fred's Genealogy Photo Archive, a free, fun photo genealogy research web site devoted to helping you visualize your heritage!
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Photo #33858
Last Name: Eldridge
First Name : Audrey
Middle Name:
Subject's City:
Subject's State: Fl
Subject's County:
Subject's Country: USA
Date: 1921-1940
Photographer's City:
Photographer's State:
Nee: Pendarvis
Type** : SNAP
Comments: Audrey Eldridge (Nee: Pendarvis) | Fl USA | 1921-1940 | Comments: This is my aunt Audrey Pendarvis Eldridge. She was born 1919 in Georgia and died 1990 Florida. She was the daughter of John Wesley Pendarvis, son of Caleb Pendarvis.
She is standing by Robert "Bob Hart", her cousin, born 1925, died 2004. He is son of Robert Wayne Hart, son of Robert Peter Hart who was born 1850 Thomas Co., GA and died May 5, 1936 Lenox, Cook Co., GA.
Archive Note: Found! 6/20/2006 Discovery 843
Digital Image Only? NO
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text:
Definitions of hame
n. - Home. 2
n. - One of the two curved pieces of wood or metal, in the harness of a draught horse, to which the traces are fastened. They are fitted upon the collar, or have pads fitting the horse's neck attached to them. 2
The word "hame" uses 4 letters: A E H M.
Direct anagrams of hame:
ahem haem
Words formed by adding one letter before or after hame (in bold), or to aehm in any order:
c - mache l - almeh hemal o - mahoe r - harem herma s - haems hames shame
Shorter words found within hame:
ae ah am eh em ha hae ham he hem hm ma mae me
List shorter words within hame, sorted by length
Words formed from any letters in hame, plus an optional blank or existing letter
List all words starting with hame, words containing hame or words ending with hame
All words formed from hame by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: ha am me
Browse words starting with hame by next letter
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Some random words: eicosanoid arithmetic olibanum etude ithyphallic jealous eel
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text:
Only hotels in Cutler Ridge are listed below. Search for the cheapest discounted hotel and motel rates in or near Cutler Ridge, FL for your upcoming individual or group travel. Discover the best Cutler Ridge, Florida motel and hotel rooms. Browse the Cutler Ridge area hotels to find the perfect lodging! Please use the provided map of the Cutler Ridge hotels. Group booking? Search Cutler Ridge Group Hotel Rates
The Cutler Ridge center is about the area of Cloisters of the Monastery of Saint Bernard de Clairvaux and 2 miles west of Deering Estate at Cutler.
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text:
Water. To us, it's not just the
stuff that comes out of the sky.
Here at macb, water is our world.
We take Scottish spring
water and boost it up with a big
dash of natural flavour. No sugar,
no carbs and almost no calories.
Just loads and loads of fruity
refreshment. Lovely.


text: High Horsepower December 15, 2012 07:37 AM Tweet TAGS: Marketing, Overseas December 18, 2014 By Margy Eckelkamp Director of Content Development, Machinery Pete Email As the seasonal upswing in machinery sales revs up and the calendar flips to 2013, it's the perfect time to talk iron. The industry is constantly in motion—machines are out-fitted with new engines to meet emission standards and, more than ever, precision ag technologies. To help you stay in the know, the stories in this annual issue range from industry perspective from top executives to a buyer's guide for auger wagons. The high-horsepower machinery coverage extends to the web to bring you a virtual test drive, which can be accessed by scanning the QR code at right with your smartphone or tablet or by visiting www.FarmJournal.com/new_iron. Watch a video from Margy Fischer highlighting the diverse topics in the 2013 Machinery Guide. Back to news