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When the bed bugs are in your house, they'll be going from 1 place to another. Bed bugs are invasive pests Victor, NY that might be difficult to discover. They are best treated by an knowledgeable professional.
Bed bugs are somewhat more durable and resistant than every other bug, consisting of rats and cockroaches in Victor, NY . Unless a bed bug was identified, the first sign of an problem is generally the presence of skin irritation. When bed bugs have attacked your house, they can be somewhat tough to get rid of. They can be harder to deal with than other family bug insects for a few reasons. Given that they are tough to see, use a magnifying glass. They do not stay on the human that they are feeding on and so they will normally conceal in clothes and attempt to get to a new location. They are unable to survive high temperatures, making heat a extremely reliable treatment technique .
Charge of bed bugs can take some time and numerous follow-up treatments. Total control takes a thoroughly planned and developed integrated technique. Bed bug control does not need to be pricey Victor, NY .
You will need to understand the signals of a vermin infestation. An invasion is something which can take place to any person Victor, NY . As an example, be particular to take a look at where you need to look after your bed bug problem. If you're worried you own a bed bug problem, begin searching for physical indicators of their existence. Bed bug invasions can impact a single bed in 1 room or a whole house or residential or commercial property. Chemical techniques aren't the only method to manage bed bug problems.
Ways To Get Going with Bed Bugs Exterminator or Pest Control Operator Victor, NY ?
Usually, knowledgeable insect control business will utilize a couple of selections of treatment approaches like vacuuming, cleansing, steaming and other mechanical methods to totally get rid of the bed bug infestation. There are numerous bug control companies that might assist you for the exact very same. Usually speaking, the majority of great bug control companies will at first send down a specialist to run a visual assessment of your home prior to quoting you a rate Victor, NY .
If you're not required to leave your house for more than a number of hours during the extermination, or in case you are preparing yourself for the exterminator, there are a variety of methods to prevent taking bed bugs with you. When you are able to observe that bed bugs have certainly entered your house, it's not ever too early to attempt and locate an exceptional bed bugs pest control expert Victor, NY Victor, NY . Throughout a fumigation, your house will be dealt with in tarpaulin, which is usually anchored using big containers of water you must supply. Whether a complete house is infested, it might be necessary to spray listed below the house, which would increase the overall cost of services. Your home doesn't need to be infested that you pick up bed bugs. Attempt to keep in mind that Do It Yourself insecticides alone are unlikely to rid your house of bed bugs, specifically products which do not keep eliminating after they dry.
How To Choose Bed Bugs Exterminator Company
These items might or might not be required, depending upon the business you're managing. Our company is prepared to go around the clock. Should you need reliable bug control business in New York, it is the right time to get in tough with us.
When the bed bugs are in your house, they'll be going from 1 place to another. Bed bugs are available anywhere, and not only in your bed. They have become a serious problem all around the world. Unless a bed bug was spotted, the first symptom of an infestation is ordinarily the presence of skin irritation. Bed bugs don't stay on the human they're feeding on and so they will often hide in clothing and attempt to get to another site. They are unable to survive high temperatures, making heat a highly effective treatment method.
Our company doesn't have anything to hide from our customers. Also, bear in mind that not all companies are certified to cover termites, so should you require termite protection, be certain the pest control company may manage them. An expert bug control business is needed.
If you attempt to control bed bugs on your own you're most likely to fail. You can be certain that we won't only remove all your bed bugs, but we'll also prevent their return. If you're not able to avoid bed bugs straight away, then the next best thing to do is to employ the ideal bed bug exterminator company to have the task done. Lots of people might try to take care of bed bugs by themselves, but quickly discover their product doesn't do the job, or they did not exterminate all the bed bugs.
Our business is always prepared to go and we understand how to eliminate bees without difficulty. The key issue is to make sure the company has been in existence for quite a while now and they know what they're doing. A great deal of pest control businesses aren't delighted with working around the clock.
An infestation doesn't have anything to do with cleanliness, and that means you shouldn't feel ashamed of your circumstance. If you believe that your home has an infestation that desperately has to be treated, then you've come to the correct spot. Get in contact with us if you've faced bed bug infestation at your premises.
If you aren't required to leave your house for more than a couple of hours during the extermination, or in case you are getting ready for the exterminator, there are some tactics to prevent taking bed bugs with you. During a fumigation, your house will be addressed in tarpaulin, which is usually anchored using big containers of water you must provide. Once you are able to observe that bed bugs have indeed entered your home, it's never too early to try and locate a great bed bugs exterminator.
If someone, that has been infested, enters your home it's almost certain that your house will also be infested. When you've confirmed that your house is infested, you are going to want to take action immediately and there's no superior approach to do that than by making contact with one of representatives. When you discover that your house is infested with bedbugs, it is the right time to get in tough with the top pest control business in your region. In reality, you're going to be in a position to go back to your home, the moment the treatment process has concluded. If you do suspect that your house is infested, you should take some time to definitely confirm their presence.
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The 10 Best Bed Bug Exterminators in New York, NY 2019Bed bug extermination can last forever as long as the treatment killed all the bed bugs (and their eggs) and if new bed bugs are not transported into the location. Factors that can affect the outcome are how severe the infestation is and whether all bed bug sources were properly identified and treated.
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"I am Jewish, I'm a native of Flushing, Queens, and when I grew up there were a lot of stores where you could buy a knish," Silver said. "It's not so easy to find one now."
For a time, she was able to satiate her cravings at a knish shop in Brooklyn, but when they went out of business, she was motivated to find out just what it was that drew her to this food above all others, leading to her new book, Knish: In Search of the Jewish Soul Food.
Her quest took her from Brooklyn back into Queens, across the Atlantic to the northeastern Polish town of Knyszyn, where she found out her grandmother was born. "The knish is in my DNA," Silver said.
"Growing up, I was very fond of this store called Mrs. Stahl's," she added. "As it turns out I was able to get in touch with Mrs. Stahl's granddaughters. One lives in the Upper West Side and the other lives in California, and they taught me their grandmother's recipe."
Silver's focus was less on the variety of preparations of knishes, and more on the history of the dish as a whole.
"There's actually one recipe, but the book turned into a search for my family history, for my roots, and also for the knish in modern times," she said. "I found some in Costa Rica, some in Argentina, and I call things like [samosas or empanadas] knishing cousins. Every culture has its food and inside that food is a story. This is more of a storybook than a cookbook."
Edwin Moscara, who operates an insurance agency out of the Rockaways, won the first copy of the book a week before it was released as part of the raffle at the Taste of Queens festival.
"I don't cook at all, it's for my wife," he said. "My wife does all the cooking and loves history, so she's going to love it."
(Chase Collum)

subset: commoncrawl


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Make note of photo number above when ordering. Check prices. Search or view all photos. Return home. Go to Tips and FAQ. This is a sample of our stock photos of adults. Our pictures of adults, like all of our photography, are a diverse collection of ethnic minorities, show a diversity of races, men, women and couples. Special discounts are available to non-profits for our images of adults and all of our stock photographs. ~ Standard photo / file size approx. 6.5 x 8.5 inches at 300 dpi, about 15 megs. Larger sizes available.
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The office of Connecticut's chief medical examiner has confirmed that toxicology tests on the body of the Newtown school shooter did not turn up any drugs or alcohol in his system.
The Associated Press reported in May that no alcohol, illegal drugs or prescription medications had been found in the system of gunman Adam Lanza.
The medical examiner's office said on Tuesday that the full report indicated the tests were negative. The report was cleared for release months ago with permission from Lanza's father.
Tests searched for more than 270 medications, illicit drugs and alcohols.
The findings were first reported on Tuesday by The Hartford Courant.
Lanza gunned down 26 people, including six educators and 20 first graders, at Sandy Hook Elementary School on Dec. 14 before committing suicide.
Authorities have said prescription records were found in Lanza's home but have not disclosed the contents of the documents.


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For patients with an enlarged prostate gland, Baptist physicians may perform a minimally invasive procedure to vaporize the prostate using laser energy. This procedure is designed to relieve the most common symptom of BPH-difficulty in urinating or the inability to urinate. Baptist physicians use the GreenLight PVP™ system to perform this procedure.
Because the prostate gland surrounds the urethra, an enlarged prostate-benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH)-puts pressure on the urethra, causing it to narrow or close completely. Typical symptoms include:
Using the GreenLight PVP™ system, physicians insert a thin fiber into the urethra through a cytoscope (a medical instrument for the visual examination of the urinary bladder and the passage of surgical instruments). The fiber delivers green laser energy that quickly vaporizes and precisely removes enlarged prostate tissue. The technology allows surgeons to safely view and control the treatment area while tailoring it to each patient's anatomy. Typically, urinary symptoms are relieved quickly-many patients notice a dramatic improvement in urine flow within 24 hours of the procedure.
After treatment, many patients do not need to wear a catheter. For patients who do, in most cases it is removed in less than 24 hours. Typically, patients are released from the hospital after an overnight stay.
The GreenLight PVP™ procedure may be used instead of a transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), a surgical technique which has been the standard treatment for generations. As opposed to the GreenLight laser vaporization, following a TURP procedure, patients are required to wear a catheter during a hospital stay of usually two days. Patients only go home after there is no blood in their urine and they are able to urinate.
The GreenLight system offers an effective alternate to the TURP method with a quicker recovery. Most patients can resume normal, light activities-such as working at a desk job and driving a car-within a week. More strenuous activities, including lifting more than around 30 pounds, should be delayed for about 2 weeks following the procedure.
Learn more at the following website: www.greenlightforbph.com
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Reviewed By Lee S (Decatur, GA) Reviewed for a 2011 Infiniti FX35 —2/17/2015 11:06 PM
I've been ordering from Auto Anything for years. I have used these posts on my last 4 vehicles. They make them look classier! I also purchased a Chrome Sunroof Visor, a Sports Bra for my 2011 Infiniti FX35, dark purple. I rec'd the visor. After a month, I hadn't rec'd the other parts. I called, spoke with Laura. Said they had been delivered to my front door by FEDEX at 9AM. They were STOLEN! Auto Anything "REPLACED" them at no charge Thanks AUTO ANYTHING,


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Lightweight condensing boiler
The Caliber is joining Fulton's line of condensing boilers. The Caliber is a lightweight commercial hydronic boiler with ultralow emissions of CO and NOx. Features include a full stainless-steel heat exchanger suitable for hydronic heating. It will be available in capacities ranging from 300,000 to 850,000 Btuh. —The Fulton Cos.
High efficiency in a compact footprint
The redesigned Benchmark 3000 (BMK3000) boiler features a high 15:1 turndown for energy efficiency in a compact footprint. The BMK3000 is suitable for both retrofit and new-construction applications that require one or multiple 3-million-Btuh boilers. It has an operating efficiency of 93.5 percent and a footprint 22 percent smaller than that of the previous 3-million-Btuh model and 50-percent smaller than that of other condensing firetube boilers of the same capacity. —AERCO International Inc.
Ultrahigh-efficiency boilers
Triple-Flex ultrahigh efficiency condensing boilers feature flexible stainless-steel tubes and minimum thermal efficiency of 90 percent with 160°F return and 180°F supply at maximum input. Efficiencies of 99 percent are achievable with lower return-water temperatures. —Bryan Steam
Watertube boilers up to 600 hp
Cleaver-Brooks' flexible watertube boiler is available in models of up to 600 hp for hot water and steam with less than 9-ppm NOx. It is 81-percent efficient on high-pressure steam and 85-percent efficient on hot water. The factory-built or field-erectable package is available with an integrated dual-fuel burner from a single source. —Cleaver-Brooks
Condensing boiler
The MACH C4000 condensing boiler is designed to lower fuel bills, reduce emissions, and decrease installation costs. Equipped with an aluminum heat exchanger and the exclusive ENVI control, the boiler produces 4-million-Btu input at 95-percent efficiency, with a thermal efficiency of up to 99 percent. —Harsco Industrial
Flow Switch
The Series V7 Flotect flow switch is an inexpensive switch for use with compatible liquids to start or stop electronically operated equipment when flow or no-flow conditions occur. Magnetic operation is simple and dependable with no mechanical linkages or seals to wear or leak. The vane design is rigid and field-trimmable for setpoint adjustment. —Dwyer Instruments
Flue-gas economizer
The EcoFlex 90+ system packaged fan-powered flue-gas economizer can be installed in any part of a chimney, horizontally or vertically. It can be used in conjunction with any gas-fired heating appliance and is suitable for use with draft-hood- and draft-diverter- equipped heating appliances. —Enervex
Combustion control system
The NEXUS PPC4000 parallel-positioning combustion-control system is comprised of a main controller, flame safeguard, servo motors, O2 sensor, and variable-frequency drive. It is designed to replace existing mechanical-linkage fuel/air controls and reduce fuel costs by optimizing fuel-to-air-ratio control. —Fireye Inc.
Integrated control systems
High-efficiency integrated control systems for boiler-room monitoring and communications provide advanced supervisory boiler controls for all new and legacy Hurst products. The comprehensive line of control systems features graphical visualization and information collection to facilitate operational management of boilers and supporting peripherals. —Hurst Boiler
High-efficiency water heater
The Ilios high-efficiency water heater (HEWH-500-AS) runs on a natural-gas engine. It extracts energy from the atmosphere, pumping it to a useful temperature using a standard vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. Free waste heat from the engine is recovered, adding to the unit's capacity and efficiency. The Ilios HEWH output is nominal 500,000 Btuh and suitable for facilities with a gas demand of 2,000 therms or more per month. —Ilios Dynamics
Pressurized deaerator
Counterflow-tray deaerators from Industrial Steam remove dissolved oxygen in excess of 0.005 cc per liter from 5 percent to 100 percent of deaerator capacity. Electronic instrumentation for modulating deaerator level control includes a HART-compatible differential-pressure transmitter, proportional–integral–derivative controller, and motorized control valve. —Industrial Steam
Light-commercial boilers and water heaters
Keystone condensing boilers and water heaters are available in five models from 399 to 850 mbh. The units feature a high-efficiency, condensing, stainless-steel heat exchanger and sealed combustion design that provides thermal efficiencies of 95 to 97 percent. —Triangle Tube
Space-saving hydronic solution
The NeoTherm LC condensing boiler is a fully packaged, 1-million-Btu, space-saving hydronic solution that offers 94-percent thermal efficiency. The direct-vent, sealed-combustion boiler modulates with a 10:1 turndown. The unit includes Laars' integrated control system with proportional–integral–derivative logic that governs ignition, outlet-water temperature, indirect water-heater functions, and outdoor reset; stages up to four boilers; and easily integrates with building automation systems and other controls for boiler sequencing. —Laars
Firetube condensing boiler
The CREST firetube condensing boiler is now available in inputs of up to 5 million Btuh. The fully modulating boiler features a low-NOx combustion system with a stainless-steel heat exchanger and a patent-pending dual-system burner with up to 25:1 turndown. The unit is capable of thermal efficiencies as high as 99 percent. —Lochinvar
Intelligent boiler-control technology
The RBT-3000 low-water cutoff and fuel economizer is designed to maximize fuel efficiency and provide valuable low-water cutoff protection for hydronic heating systems. The intelligent controls built into the device bring advanced microprocessor technology to virtually any boiler, automatically adjusting water temperature based on heat load without the need for an outdoor sensor. —McDonnell & Miller
Hydronic boilers
The NH150-DV and NH199-DV tankless hydronic boilers are designed to provide constant room temperature for various heating choices, including panel radiators, baseboard flooring, and radiant-floor heating. The direct-vent units feature a gas-consumption range of 55,500 Btuh to 150,000 Btuh for the NH150-DV and up to 199,900 Btuh for the NH199-DV. —Noritz
Large-capacity condensing boilers
The TC series of condensing boilers offers units of up to 5.43 MMBtuh. Features include large heating surfaces, low heat flux, stainless-steel flue passages, a swinging front door for ease of cleaning, and low-temperature water return for high efficiency. —Parker Boiler
Certified for polypropylene venting
All XFyre and XTherm boilers are now CSA-certified for polypropylene venting. Raypak offers a customized, easily field-installed adaptor kit, with a higher temperature limit. —Raypak
Compact heat-transfer solution
Spirax Sarco is preparing to launch Spirax EasiHeat DHW, which offers a compact, highly efficient packaged heat-transfer solution to help reduce the costs of potable and process hot-water applications. The EasyHeat DHW features technology that enables monitoring, diagnostics, and communications across steam-plant and packaged systems. —Spirax Sarco
Steam generator
The latest design of the Circulatic steam generator incorporates linkageless controls and communications capabilities. The new design retains features of the original Circulatic, such as 5-min startup, compact design, and full modulation with a 10:1 turndown ratio. —Vapor Power International


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NASCAR is in mourning after driver Jason Leffler died in an accident at a dirt car event at Bridgeport Speedway.
Leffler was pronounced dead shortly after 9pm on Wednesday evening following a crash in his 410 sprint car race in New Jersey.
The 37-year-old died after his car struck a wall. He was transported to the Crozer-Chester Medical Center, where his passing was confirmed by doctors.
"NASCAR extends its thoughts, prayers and deepest sympathies to the family of Jason Leffler who passed away earlier this evening," read a statement.
"For more than a decade, Jason was a fierce competitor in our sport and he will be missed."
Bridgeport Speedway immediately suspended racing for the rest of the night after Leffler's accident at the 0.625-mile, high-banked dirt oval.
Leffler, who drove under the nickname 'LefTurn' was a versatile driver, making 423 starts in NASCAR's three national series, winning two Nationwide races.
He also made three IndyCar series starts and finished 17th in the Indianapolis 500 in 2000.
USA Today quote New Jersey State Police Sgt. Adam Grossman as saying that Leffler 'had to be extricated from the car after striking a wall around 8:30 p.m'.
Eye-witnesses say Leffler was running in 2nd place when his car flipped several times on the straight before hitting the wall twice.
A statement from Indianapolis Motor Speedway described Leffler as "one of the most versatile race drivers in America, showing his talent by competing in the Indianapolis 500 and the Brickyard 400 at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway during his career."
"He also displayed the skills that would help him reach the top levels of the sport by winning four USAC national series titles while winning on tracks throughout the Midwest."
Leffler, who left Nascar in 2011, is survived by his 5-year-old son.


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211 (Of C.T.E) - Hustle Up
young jeezy's westcoast artist 211 of C.T.E..... this is a new video off the street album "Product Of The Block" 211 "hustle up"
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Greg4 needed a new logo design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 113 designs submitted by 39 freelance designers.
The SalesForce Group
The company is a current Sales Recruitment Leader, a Sales Outsource company and is now branching into new endeavours and thus want a group website to encompass everything. The group site needs a logo that is better than the other sites logos and gives off a better vibe of corporate appeal.
Executives and the like of Fortune 500 companies will be coming to this site to see what division they need to go to... the logo needs to reflect that.
We require a coporate logo based on the items provided that will stand out and look like a true group of companies should look. Ideally some sort of icon should be created along with the text "The SalesForce Group"... Use your imagination. It is pretty straightforward, should be easy money for the one who gets it right!
take a look at
to see the other logos of the company. We are leaning towards the arrows in the O of outsource as something we want incorporated in some mannor. The rest is up to you...
Good Luck!
Find out how a design contest works or learn more about our logo design services.


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Do you doodle? Google does and students from around the country have competed for bragging rights to appear on Google's front page.
The United States public will vote for their favorite doodle from the 50 state winners. Online voting will take place from 6 a.m. Tuesday to 5 p.m. May 10 (Pacific Time). The highest ranking doodler from each grade group will be named as a national finalist. Google will announce the five national finalists - one per grade group - in an awards ceremony May 17 in New York City.


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Israel News - Stay Informed, Pray Informed
Israeli officials this week said they would "know what to do" if Russia goes through with the planned sale of an advanced anti-aircraft system to Syria. Given Israel's recent pinpoint air strikes in Syria, the remarks were taken as a thinly veiled threat to destroy the Russian arms the moment they touch Syrian soil.
"Delivery [of the S-300] has not taken place – I can attest to this – and I hope it does not. But if, by some misfortune, they arrive in Syria, we will know what to do," Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon told reporters.
Israel had tried to convince Russia to cancel the arms sale, arguing that the S-300 would enable embattled Syrian dictator Bashar Assad to more easily transfer chemical weapons to his Hezbollah allies. Two earlier Israeli air strikes purportedly prevented similar transfers.
There is also the risk that should Assad fall, the S-300 itself will fall into the hands of Hezbollah or one of the radical Islamic groups making up the Syrian rebel army. Israeli officials noted that, in the hands of terrorists, the S-300 could be used to quite easily bring down civilian airliners.
But at a meeting in the Black Sea resort of Sochi last week, Russian President Vladimir Putin rebuffed Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's concerns, insisting that Assad is a stabilizing factor in the region and that his regime must be given every chance to remain in power.
Meanwhile, Assad on Thursday claimed on Hezbollah's Al-Manar TV that he had already received the first shipment of S-300 missiles and radar systems. The Syrian dictator went on to warn Israel that any further air strikes would result in an immediate Syrian retaliation.
Following Israel's last air strike against a suspect chemical weapons storehouse at Damascus airport, Arab media reported that Syria had aimed the bulk of its considerable long-range missile arsenal at the Jewish state.
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The Australian Immigration system allows students visiting the country on a student visa the chance to work up to 20 hours per week during term time, and during vacations students can work full time. This opportunity makes it much more affordable for students to attend school, while still funding their education through work.
Part-Time Work
Most student visas in Australia give international students permission to work up to 20 hours per week while they study. Before seeking work, international students should first confirm that their visas allow them to work. Visa information is held by the Australian Department of Immigration (DIAC) and can be accessed at any time using the Visa Entitlement Verification Online (VEVO) system. Students will existing qualifications or work experience may be able to find part-time work in the field of their choice. Many Australian industries offer part-time work, such as retail (supermarkets, department and clothing stores), hospitality (cafes, bars, and restaurants), tourism (hotels and motels), agricultural (farming and fruit-picking), sales, administration or clerical roles, and tutoring. The industries generally offer flexible hours for students.
Paid or unpaid internships are also a viable option for students wishing to gain work experience in their chosen field while they study. Students may also choose to volunteer for charities and on-government organizations.
Finding Part-Time Work in Australia
Networking is a great way to find work; international students in Australia should network amongst themselves in order to let others know that they are looking for work. The "vacancies" section in local community newspapers and supermarket boards is another option, as well as job notice-boards found on campus. In addition, may large companies list vacancies on their websites, so international students looking for work should not neglect to check online for job opportunities. Students might also try registering their details at a recruitment firm; these help place people in casual or short-term work.
Skilled Occupations List
The Skilled Occupations List (SOL) is a list of occupations that are in need in Australia. This list comprises of four major groups: managers and administrators, professionals, associate professionals, and tradespersons and related workers. Because the Australian government wants a skilled migration program that is responsive to the needs of the Australian labor market, the SOL changes in response to labor and market needs in Australia. This means that there is no guaranteeing that an occupation listed on the SOL will remain for the time it takes a student to finish his or her studies.
Workers' Rights
Everyone who works in Australia, including international students or people on working holiday visas, has basic rights at work. The rights include entitlement to a minimum wage, the right to challenge unfair dismissal, breaks or rest periods, and a healthy and safe work environment. Most employers in Australia are covered by an "award," which sets minimum wage and conditions for any given field of work or industry.
Tax File Number
In order to work in Australia, international students need to get a Tax File Number (TFN). Students who wish to work during their studies in Australia should first visit the Australian Taxation Office to get their TFN. At the office, students will need to provide their name, current address, and date of birth. They may also need to supply their date of arrival in Australia, passport, and proof of enrollment.
There are many reasons for students to choose to work during their time spent studying in Australia. These reasons range from helping to assist with living expenses to gaining work experience in their chosen area of study. Working in Australia can be a great way for international students to truly experience life in Australia.


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Exhibition: Pop and Abstract
This new collections-based display highlights the way the 'Swinging Sixties' transformed British art in the post-war period.
Inspired by the latest developments in America, British artists began to make work that was bold, confident and signalled a decisive break with the past.
Pop and abstract artists used vibrant colour and the language of advertising to create a progressive, international style.
This large exhibition explores the way pop and abstraction was interpreted by artists based in Wales and remains relevant and influential to artists working today.
Pop and Abstract features work by many of the most important artists in the modern collection.
The exhibition includes works by Peter Blake, Alan Davie, David Hockney and Bridget Riley alongside artists with close links to Wales including Ken Elias, Mali Morris, John Selway and Ernest Zobole.
Pop and Abstract is supported by the Colwiston Charitable Trust.


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|Public domain, commons, wikimedia
In my blog posting of June 9, 2012, I wrote about my first steps in finding information on my Swiss German great great grandfather, Johannes (John) Ulrich Kreis who was born in Switzerland. I followed the advice of many genealogists to exhaust all US records before I attempted to "cross the Atlantic." I ended the post with the announcement that I had contacted the State Archives of the Canton of Thurgau to request information.
|Permission to copy granted under Free Software Foundation
While I waited for a response from the State Archives, I checked the web for more information on how to do research in Switzerland. I found a very helpful website of the Swiss Society of Genealogical Studies. The section with information for those who wish research their Swiss ancestors starts with this caveat: Doing research in Switzerland differs from researching in other countries. There are several reasons for this. Genealogical records can be stored differently depending upon when and where the record was created and whether the record was religious or civil.
|City Hall, Basel, Switzerland, wikimedia.org
A date to remember is that before 1876 all birth, marriage and death records were recorded by priests/ministers. No civil record collection was in place. So records created before 1876 were in churches but have been sent to the State Archives of each canton. The archivesonline project gives a list of state archives for many of the cantons.
Records created after 1876 fall into the challenging category. There is no one way of organizing these records; instead each canton handles their records in their own way. Some records are in the State Archives and some are in the civil registry offices. A listing of the civil registry offices
can be found online.
Another challenge facing researchers as they hunt for records is the Swiss idea of citizenship. The main form of citizenship in Switzerland is local. Local citizenship is where a person's forebears were born, and that can be back to the 17th century. It is in the local area where the records for your family will be found, no matter if later generations moved to another canton. In other words, your ancestor may have been born in one place, but his/her family records may be in another.
The third challenge to finding records are the data privacy laws (this is a rough English translation) in Switzerland. Records in the civil registry offices fall under these privacy laws. Anyone wishing to use these records must first apply for permission from the civil registry office in the target canton. The researcher must be able to demonstrate a direct relationship to the ancestor in the records.
In addition to understanding that finding records is challenging, it is important to realize that archival staff does not do research for you. And because the older records are in German, French, Italian or Latin and can be very difficult to read because of old handwriting styles, it is almost a given that you need to hire a professional researcher.
I received a response from the State Archives of Thurgau. Basically the information I received is what I covered above. The State Archives also included a list of some Swiss professional researchers with their contact information. And this is what really helped me. I wrote to one of the researchers who lives in Thurgau, my target canton. I was very fortunate to have found her as she had worked at the State Archives of Thurgau.
For additional help in locating professional assistance nationally or internationally, Lisa Alzo, in her webinar "Back to Your Roots:Planning a Successful Heritage Research Trip" suggests checking ethnic genealogical society sites to find researchers, country guides or translators.
November 5, 2011, I gave some suggestions on how to work with a research professional. When you work with a professional outside the US, additional factors must be considered. A potential challenge is language. Does the person offering services that could help you speak English? Unless you speak the language from the target country, you may need to hire only English speakers or use a translator. When I hired the Swiss researcher, I found that although she wrote in English and could speak English, she preferred using German to explain complex points. This worked for me as my husband is a German speaker. In addition to the suggestions that Lisa Alzo gave in her webinar, another place to find German translators is the Germanic Genealogy Society.
|Logo of Western Union, wikimedia
Categories: genealogy education, genealogy professional


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Legends: Rick Rubin & Russell Simmons On Working With Jay-Z On 99 Problems!
An excerpt from the Vh1 show Hip Hop Honors 2009 A Celebration of 25 years of Def Jam Recordings. Airing Octobe
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Soybean researcher Dale Wood climbed onto a combine harvester at the University of Georgia Plant Sciences Farm in Oconee County. He grabbed the controls and took the machine for a slow spin, careful not to mow down a row of developing soybeans.
Did he notice any difference between running the farm's equipment on soy biodiesel and on regular diesel? "No," he said. "And that's a good thing."
Run by crop and soil scientists of the UGA College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, the farm is a place where Wood and his colleagues run tests on soybeans.
Researchers from other departments also use the land for various projects.
A connecting factor in all of the research is a red tank that sits at the edge of a barn. Farm workers head there when their equipment needs a refill of a mix of petroleum diesel and soy biodiesel.
The Georgia Crop Improvement Association provided the pump and tank to promote soy biodiesel use. They outfitted the Georgia Seed Development Commission with the same equipment.
"The idea with soybean biodiesel is to let the farm use it in their tractors and combines," says Terry Hollifield, GCIA executive director. "In a way, it's allowing the soybean breeder to help his own cause."
Even with the glut, all the soybean oil in the United States — about 3.4 billion gallons — would be only a fraction of the 45 billion gallons of diesel needed for U.S. transportation alone, says Georgia Seed Development Commission director Mike Garland.
And that was just for 2003. But it would be a move in the right direction.
"Biodiesel is a bridge to the future," Garland says. "We need to use good science and good business in biodiesel and build that bridge."
Keys in all of this, Garland says, are learning from past fuel mistakes and focusing on environmental, economic and national security issues.
Roger Boerma, a soybean breeder and director of the UGA Center for Soybean Improvement, has been researching soybeans at UGA since 1973. As he has watched the interest in biofuels increase, he's glad "to see farmers at the forefront of our country's strategy of providing a safe, readily available and renewable supply of energy."
Even as Wood and Boerma study soybeans, the rest of the state has lost much of its attraction to the crop. The 2 million acres once planted to soybeans in Georgia have dropped to 200,000.
Boerma predicts the downward spiral will reverse as the demand for vegetable oil for biodiesel use expands. "How much expansion we see in soybean production," he says, "will depend on how the next (federal) farm bill is structured."
If farmers see dollars in soybeans again, Garland says, they're ready. "We know how to produce soybeans in Georgia," he says. "In this battle for alternative energy sources, we need to go immediately with what we know."
Boerma said it's possible to increase the oil content of soybean seeds by 30 percent or more. Current varieties contain 20 percent to 21 percent oil.
"There are landraces from Asia that contain 27 to 28 percent oil," he says. "A soybean variety with higher oil content will generally produce lower protein content. In the end, it depends on which seed component — oil or protein — is of the most value to the end user."
Biofuels aren't the final answer to energy independence. But "there's no doubt," Boerma says, "that it's more pleasant to stand on the sidewalk next to a bus burning biodiesel than one burning conventional petroleum diesel."


text:
Select your product, platform, and release type:
To view a list of patches associated with the product, click the release type.
MR=Maintenance Release; SP=Service Pack; PR=Platform Release; MP=Maintenance Pack; RP=Rolling Patch; P=P-patch; CP=Cumulative Patch; PP=Point Patch; HF=Hot Fix; Pa=Patch; blank indicates that no patch is available for the product/platform. (To learn more about a release type, click the acronym.)


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Boogz Boogetz - I Put That On My Hood
"Boogz Boogtez and Ya boy go in on this street banger "I Put That On My Hood" This Video is the 2nd Half of the Ya Boy Version shot in San Francisco's FillMore District Now we hit New York City's Brooklyn Borough. Directed By Paper F!lms. Black Card Muzik. "
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Prabhas-starrer Telugu action-drama Mirchi raked in Rs 7.86 crore on its opening day worldwide.
The film is said to have been made at a budget of Rs 30 crore.
"This is probably the best ever opening for Prabhas. The film collected approximately Rs 7.86 crore on the day of the release. It managed to collect over Rs 6 crore in Andhra Pradesh alone," trade analyst Trinath told IANS.
Directed by debutant Koratala Siva, Mirchi, which released on February 8, features Prabhas Raju in the title role alongside Richa Gangopadhyay, Anushka Shetty. Other cast members include Sampath Raj, Subbaraju, Benarji, Sathyaraj, Nadhiya and Brahmanandam.
The story of the film revolves around Jai, played by Prabhas, who attempts to win people's hearts with love.
V Vamsi Krishna Reddy and Pramod Uppalapati have produced the film, which has music by Devi Sri Prasad and cinematography by Madhi.
In overseas region, "Telugu film Mirchi collected Rs 50.45 lakh in US", tweeted Taran Adarsh.


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Johann Januarius Zick
German, 1730–1797
The Adoration of the Symbols of the Trinity, 1760
oil on canvas
45.3 x 45.3 cm
Collection of the Winnipeg Art Gallery
Born in Munich, Johann Januarius Zick first studied painting under his father, Johann Zick, and then pursued both painting and architecture under the master mason Jacob Emele in Schussenried. He quickly learned how to be adept as a painter and architect, working at the easel and on large-scale frescoes, as well as in architectural construction, which included bricklaying and stonework. Two of Zick's first important painting projects involved working with his father at the residence of the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg, and then for the Prince-Bishop of Speyer in Bruchsal. The WAG work is a finished oil study for a ceiling fresco and it is an excellent representation of the German Rococo style on which Zick built his reputation. The equilateral triangle depicted here represents the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
Gallery Hours
- Tuesday 11am-5pm
- Wednesday 11am-5pm
- Thursday 11am-5pm
- Friday 11am-9pm
- Saturday 11am-5pm
- Sunday 11am-5pm
- Closed Monday


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Read Jonathan Klawans's article "Was Jesus' Last Supper a Seder?" as it originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2001. Klawans also wrote a follow-up article, "Jesus' Last Supper Still Wasn't a Passover Seder Meal."—Ed.
Many people assume that Jesus' Last Supper was a Seder, a ritual meal held in celebration of the Jewish holiday of Passover. And indeed, according to the Gospel of Mark 14:12, Jesus prepared for the Last Supper on the "first day of Unleavened Bread, when they sacrificed the Passover lamb." If Jesus and his disciples gathered together to eat soon after the Passover lamb was sacrificed, what else could they possibly have eaten if not the Passover meal? And if they ate the Passover sacrifice, they must have held a Seder.
Three out of four of the canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) agree that the Last Supper was held only after the Jewish holiday had begun. Moreover, one of the best known and painstakingly detailed studies of the Last Supper—Joachim Jeremias's book The Eucharistic Words of Jesus—lists no fewer than 14 distinct parallels between the Last Supper tradition and the Passover Seder.1
The Jewish holiday of Passover commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. The roots of the festival are found in Exodus 12, in which God instructs the Israelites to sacrifice a lamb at twilight on the 14th day of the Jewish month of Nisan, before the sun sets (Exodus 12:18). That night the Israelites are to eat the lamb with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. The lamb's blood should be swabbed on their doorposts as a sign. God, seeing the sign, will then "pass over" the houses of the Israelites (Exodus 12:13), while smiting the Egyptians with the tenth plague, the killing of the first-born sons.
Passover is the celebration of the exodus from Egypt. What can archaeology tell us about the historicity of the Biblical account? The FREE eBook Ancient Israel in Egypt and the Exodus considers texts and archaeological evidence from the second millennium B.C.E. that describe Israel in Egypt and the Exodus.
Exodus 12 commands the Israelites to repeat this practice every year, performing the sacrifice during the day and then consuming it after the sun has set. (According to Jewish tradition, the new day begins with the setting of the sun, so the sacrifice is made on the 14th but the beginning of Passover and the meal are actually on the 15th, although this sequence of dates is not specified in Exodus.) Exodus 12 further speaks of a seven-day festival, which begins when the sacrifice is consumed (Exodus 12:15).
Once the Israelites were settled in Israel, and once a Temple was built in Jerusalem, the original sacrifice described in Exodus 12 changed dramatically. Passover became one of the Jewish Pilgrimage festivals, and Israelites were expected to travel to Jerusalem to sacrifice a Passover lamb at the Temple during the afternoon of the 14th day, and then consume the Passover sacrifice once the sun had set, and the festival had formally begun on the 15th. This kind of celebration is described as having taken place during the reigns of Kings Hezekiah and Josiah (2 Chronicles 30 and 35).
As time passed, the practice continued to evolve. Eventually, a number of customs, recorded in rabbinic literature, began to accumulate around the meal, which became so highly ritualized that it was called the Seder, from the Hebrew for "order": Unleavened bread was broken, wine was served, the diners reclined and hymns were sung. Furthermore, during the meal, the Exodus story was retold and the significance of the unleavened bread, bitter herbs and wine was explained.
The bread and wine, the hymn, the reclining diners—many of these characteristic elements are shared by the Last Supper, as Jeremias pointed out. (Jeremias's 14 parallels are given in full in endnote 1.) What is more, just as Jews at the Seder discuss the symbolism of the Passover meal, Jesus at his Last Supper discussed the symbolism of the wine and bread in light of his own coming death.
History, however, is often more complex and perhaps a little less comforting than we might hope. Although I welcome the current ecumenical climate, I believe we must be careful not to let our emotions get the better of us when we are searching for history. Indeed, even though the association of the Last Supper with a Passover Seder remains entrenched in the popular mind, a growing number of scholars are beginning to express serious doubts about this claim.
Of course a number of New Testament scholars—the Jesus Seminar comes to mind—tend to doubt that the Gospels accurately record very much at all about Jesus, with the exception of some of his sayings. Obviously if the Gospels cannot be trusted, then we have no reason to assume that there ever was a Last Supper at all. And if there was no Last Supper, then it could not have taken place on Passover.2
Furthermore, several Judaic studies scholars—Jacob Neusner is a leading example—very much doubt that rabbinic texts can be used in historical reconstructions of the time of Jesus. But rabbinic literature is our main source of information about what Jews might have done during their Seder meal in ancient times. For reasons that are not entirely clear, other ancient Jewish sources, such as Josephus and Philo, focus on what Jews did in the Temple when the Passover sacrifice was offered, rather than on what they did afterward, when they actually ate the sacrifice. Again, if we cannot know how Jews celebrated Passover at the time of Jesus, then we have to plead ignorance, and we would therefore be unable to answer our question.
There is something to be said for these skeptical positions, but I am not such a skeptic. I want to operate here under the opposite assumptions: that the Gospels can tell us about the historical Jesus,3 and that rabbinic sources can be used—with caution—to reconstruct what Jews at the time of Jesus might have believed and practiced.4 Even so, I do not think the Last Supper was a Passover Seder.
Read "Did Jesus Exist? Searching for Evidence Beyond the Bible" by Lawrence Mykytiuk from the January/February 2015 issue of BAR >>
While three of the four canonical Gospels strongly suggest that the Last Supper did occur on Passover, we should not get too comfortable based on that. The three Gospels that support this view are the three synoptic Gospels—Matthew, Mark and Luke. As anyone who has studied these three Gospels knows, they are closely related. In fact, the name synoptic refers to the fact that these three texts can be studied most effectively when "seen together" (as implied in the Greek etymology of synoptic). Thus, in fact we don't really have three independent sources here at all. What we have, rather, is one testimony (probably Mark), which was then copied twice (by Matthew and Luke).
Against the "single" testimony of the synoptics that the Last Supper was a Passover meal stands the lone Gospel of John, which dates the crucifixion to the "day of Preparation for the Passover" (John 19:14). According to John, Jesus died just when the Passover sacrifice was being offered and before the festival began at sundown (see the sidebar to this article). Any last meal—which John does not record—would have taken place the night before, or even earlier than that. But it certainly could not have been a Passover meal, for Jesus died before the holiday had formally begun.
So are we to follow John or the synoptics?5 There are a number of problems with the synoptic account. First, if the Last Supper had been a Seder held on the first night of Passover, then that would mean Jesus' trial and crucifixion took place during the week-long holiday. If indeed Jewish authorities were at all involved in Jesus' trial and death, then according to the synoptics those authorities would have engaged in activities—holding trials and carrying out executions—that were either forbidden or certainly unseemly to perform on the holiday. This is not the place to consider whether Jewish authorities were involved in Jesus' death.6 Nor is it the place to consider whether such authorities would have been devout practitioners of Jewish law. But this is the place to point out that if ancient Jewish authorities had been involved in something that could possibly be construed as a violation of Jewish law, the Gospels—with their hatred of the Jewish authorities—would probably have made the most of it. The synoptic account stretches credulity, not just because it depicts something unlikely, but because it fails to recognize the unlikely and problematic nature of what it depicts. It is almost as if the synoptic tradition has lost all familiarity with contemporary Jewish practice. And if they have lost familiarity with that, they have probably lost familiarity with reliable historical information as well.
There are, of course, some reasons to doubt John's account too. He may well have had theological motivations for claiming that Jesus was executed on the day of preparation when the Passover sacrifice was being offered but before Passover began at sundown. John's timing of events supports the Christian claim that Jesus himself was a sacrifice and that his death heralds a new redemption, just as the Passover offering recalls an old one. Even so, John's claim that Jesus was killed just before Passover began is more plausible than the synoptics' claim that Jesus was killed on Passover. And if Jesus wasn't killed on Passover, but before it (as John claims), then the Last Supper could not in fact have been a Passover Seder.
What then of Jeremias's long list of parallels? It turns out that under greater scrutiny the parallels are too general to be decisive. That Jesus ate a meal in Jerusalem, at night, with his disciples is not so surprising. It is also no great coincidence that during this meal the disciples reclined, ate both bread and wine, and sang a hymn. While such behavior may have been characteristic of the Passover meal, it is equally characteristic of practically any Jewish meal.
A number of scholars now believe that the ritual context for the Last Supper was not a Seder but a standard Jewish meal. That Christians celebrated the Eucharist on a daily or weekly basis (see Acts 2:46–47) underscores the fact that it was not viewed exclusively in a Passover context (otherwise, it would have been performed, like the Passover meal, on an annual basis).
An ancient Christian church manual called the Didache also suggests that the Last Supper may have been an ordinary Jewish meal. In Chapters 9 and 10 of the Didache, the eucharistic prayers are remarkably close to the Jewish Grace After Meals (Birkat ha-Mazon).7 While these prayers are recited after the Passover meal, they would in fact be recited at any meal at which bread was eaten, holiday or not. Thus, this too underscores the likelihood that the Last Supper was an everyday Jewish meal.
Moreover, while the narrative in the synoptics situates the Last Supper during Passover, the fact remains that the only foods we are told the disciples ate are bread and wine—the basic elements of any formal Jewish meal. If this was a Passover meal, where is the Passover lamb? Where are the bitter herbs? Where are the four cups of wine?a
Learn about dining and farming practices in the Biblical world in the BAS Library Special Collection Feeding the Biblical World. Not a BAS Library member yet? Join today.
We are left with only one important parallel (Jeremias's 14th) that can be explained in terms of a Seder: the surprising fact that Jesus at his Last Supper engaged in symbolic explanation of the bread and wine, just as Jews at the Seder engage in symbolic explanations, interpreting aspects of the Passover meal in light of the Exodus from Egypt: "Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed, and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, 'Take, eat; this is my body.' And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he gave it to them, saying, 'Drink of it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant'" (Matthew 26:26–28=Mark 14:22; see also Luke 22:19–20). Is this not a striking parallel to the ways in which Jews celebrating the Seder interpret, for example, the bitter herbs eaten with the Passover sacrifice as representing the bitter life the Israelites experienced as slaves in Egypt?
However, this last parallel between the Last Supper and the Passover Seder assumes that the Seder ritual we know today was celebrated in Jesus' day. But this is hardly the case.
When Jews today sit down to celebrate the Passover Seder, they use a book known as the Haggadah. The Hebrew word haggadah literally means "telling"; the title refers to the book's purpose: to provide the ordered framework through which the story of Passover is told at the Seder. Telling the story of Passover is, of course, one of the fundamental purposes of the celebration, as stated in Exodus 13:8: "And you shall tell your child on that day, 'It is because of what the Lord did for me when I went forth from Egypt.'"
The traditional text of the Haggadah as it exists today incorporates a variety of material, starting with the Bible, and running through medieval songs and poems. For many Jews (especially non-Orthodox Jews), the process of development continues, and many modern editions of the Haggadah contain contemporary readings of one sort or another. Even many traditional Jews have, for instance, adapted the Haggadah so that mention can be made of the Holocaust.8
How much of the Haggadah goes back to ancient times? In the 1930s and 1940s, the American Talmud scholar Louis Finkelstein (1895–1991) famously claimed that various parts of the Passover Haggadah were very early, stemming in part from the third century B.C.E.9 In 1960, Israeli scholar Daniel Goldschmidt (1895–1972) effectively rebutted practically all of Finkelstein's claims. It is unfortunate that Goldschmidt's Hebrew article has not been translated, because it remains, to my mind, the classic work on the early history of the Passover Haggadah.10 Fortunately, a number of brief and up-to-date treatments of the history of the Haggadah are now available.11 A full generation later, the Goldschmidt-Finkelstein debate seems to have been settled, and in Goldschmidt's favor. Almost everyone doing serious work on the early history of Passover traditions, including Joseph Tabory, Israel Yuval, Lawrence Hoffman, and the father-son team of Shmuel and Ze'ev Safrai, has rejected Finkelstein's claims for the great antiquity of the bulk of the Passover Haggadah. What is particularly significant about this consensus is that these scholars are not radical skeptics. These scholars believe that, generally speaking, we can extract historically reliable information from rabbinic sources. But as demonstrated by the late Baruch Bokser in his book The Origins of the Seder, practically everything preserved in the early rabbinic traditions concerning the Passover Seder brings us back to the time immediately following the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E.12 It's not that rabbinic literature cannot be trusted to tell us about history in the first century of the Common Era. It's that rabbinic literature—in the case of the Seder—does not even claim to be telling us how the Seder was performed before the destruction of the Temple.b
Let me elaborate on this proposition by examining the Haggadah's requirement of explaining the Passover symbols:
Rabban Gamaliel used to say: Whoever does not make mention of the following three things on Passover has not fulfilled his obligation: namely, the Passover sacrifice, unleavened bread (matzah) and bitter herbs.
(1) The Passover sacrifice, which our ancestors used to eat at the time when the Holy Temple stood—what is the reason? Because the Holy One, blessed be He, passed over the houses of our ancestors in Egypt. As it is said, "It is the sacrifice of the Lord's Passover…" (Exodus 12:27).
(2) The unleavened bread, which we eat—what is the reason? Because the dough of our ancestors had not yet leavened when the King of Kings, the Holy One Blessed be He revealed Himself to them and redeemed them. As it is said, "And they baked unleavened cakes…" (Exodus 12:39).
(3) These bitter herbs, which we eat—what is the reason? Because the Egyptians made the lives of our ancestors bitter in Egypt. As it is said, "And they made their lives bitter…" (Exodus 1:14).
Read Andrew McGowan's article "The Hungry Jesus," in which he challenges the tradition that Jesus was a welcoming host at meals, in Bible History Daily.
On first reading, Jeremias might appear to be correct: Jesus' explanation of the bread and the wine does seem similar to Rabban Gamaliel's explanation of the Passover symbols. Might not Jesus be presenting a competing interpretation of these symbols? Possibly. But it really depends on when this Rabban Gamaliel lived. If he lived later than Jesus, then it would make no sense to view Jesus' words as based on Rabban Gamaliel's.
Unfortunately for the contemporary historian, there were two rabbis named Gamaliel, both of whom bore the title "rabban" (which means "our master" and was usually applied to the head of the rabbinic academy). The first lived decadesbefore the destruction of the Temple, according to rabbinic tradition.13 It is this Gamaliel who is referred to in Acts 22:3, in which Paul is said to have claimed that he was educated "at the feet of Gamaliel." The second Rabban Gamaliel was, according to rabbinic tradition, the grandson of the elder Gamaliel. This Gamaliel served as head of the rabbinic academy sometime after the destruction of the Temple. Virtually all scholars working today believe that the Haggadah tradition attributing the words quoted above to Gamaliel refers to the grandson, Rabban Gamaliel the Younger, who lived long after Jesus had died.14 One piece of evidence for this appears in the text quoted above, in which Rabban Gamaliel is said to have spoken of the time "when the Temple was still standing"—as if that time had already passed. Furthermore, as Baruch Bokser has shown, the bulk of early rabbinic material pertaining to the Passover Haggadah is attributed in the Haggadah itself to figures who lived immediately following the destruction of the Temple (and were therefore contemporaries of Gamaliel the Younger). Finally, a tradition preserved in the Tosefta (a rabbinic companion volume to the earliest rabbinic lawbook, the Mishnah, edited perhaps in the third or fourth century) suggests that Gamaliel the Younger played some role in Passover celebrations soon after the
Temple was destroyed, when animal sacrifices could for this reason no longer be offered.15
Thus, the Passover Seder as we know it developed after 70 C.E. I wish we could know more about how the Passover meal was celebrated before the Temple was destroyed. But unfortunately, our sources do not answer this question with any certainty. Presumably, Jesus and his disciples would have visited the Temple to slaughter their Passover sacrifice. Then they would have consumed it along with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, as required by the Book of Exodus. And presumably they would have engaged in conversation pertinent to the occasion. But we cannot know for sure.
According to scholar Jonathan Klawans, ancient Jews—including the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes—cared as much about matters of Jewish theology as about laws and practices. Read more >>
Having determined that the Last Supper was not a Seder and that it probably did not take place on Passover, I must try to account for why the synoptic Gospels portray the Last Supper as a Passover meal. Of course, the temporal proximity of Jesus' crucifixion (and with it, the Last Supper) to the Jewish Passover provides one motive: Surely this historical coincidence could not be dismissed as just that.
Another motive relates to a rather practical question: Within a few years after Jesus' death, Christian communities (which at first consisted primarily of Jews) began to ask when, how and even whether they should celebrate or commemorate the Jewish Passover.16 This was a question not only early on, but throughout the time of the so-called Quartodeciman controversy. The Quartodecimans (the 14-ers) were Christians who believed that the date of Easter should be calculated so as to coincide with the Jewish celebration of Passover, whether or not that date fell on a Sunday. The Jewish calendar was (and is) lunar, and therefore there is always a full moon on the night of the Passover Seder, that is, the night following the 14th of Nisan. But that night is not always a Saturday night. The Quartodeciman custom of celebrating Easter beginning on the evening following the 14th day apparently began relatively early in Christian history and persisted at least into the fifth century C.E. The alternate view—that Easter must be on a Sunday, regardless of the day on which the Jewish Passover falls—ultimately prevailed. Possibly the Gospels' disagreements about the timing of the Last Supper were the result of these early Christian disputes about when Easter should be celebrated. After all, if you wanted to encourage Christians to celebrate Easter on Passover, would it not make sense to emphasize the fact that Jesus celebrated Passover with his disciples just before he died?
Related to the question of when Christians should recall Jesus' last days was a question of how they should be recalled. Early on, a number of Christians—Quartodecimans and others—felt that the appropriate way to mark the Jewish Passover was not with celebration, but with fasting. On the one hand, this custom reflected an ancient Jewish tradition of fasting during the time immediately preceding the Passover meal (as related in Mishnah Pesachim 10:1). On the other hand, distinctively Christian motives for this fast can also be identified, from recalling Jesus' suffering on the cross to praying for the eventual conversion of the Jews.17
Is it possible to identify the first-century man named Jesus behind the many stories and traditions about him that developed over 2,000 years in the Gospels and church teachings? Visit the Jesus/Historical Jesus study page to read free articles on Jesus in Bible History Daily.
The German New Testament scholar Karl Georg Kuhn has argued that the Gospel of Luke places the Last Supper in a Passover context in order to convince Christians not to celebrate Passover. He notes that the synoptic Last Supper tradition attributes to Jesus a rather curious statement of abstinence: "I have earnestly desired to eat this Paschal lamb with you before I suffer, for I tell you that I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God…[and] I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes" (Luke 22:15–18; cf. Mark 14:25 ["I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God"]=Matthew 26:29). The synoptics' placement of the Last Supper in a Passover context should be read along with Jesus' statement on abstinence; in this view, the tradition that the Last Supper was a Passover meal argues that Christians should mark the Passover not by celebrating, but by fasting, because Jesus has already celebrated his last Passover.18 Thus, until Jesus' kingdom is fulfilled, Christians should not celebrate at all during Passover.
New Testament scholar Bruce Chilton recently presented an alternate theory. He argues that the identification of the Last Supper with a Passover Seder originated among Jewish Christians who were attempting to maintain the Jewish character of early Easter celebrations.19 By calling the Last Supper a Passover meal, these Jewish-Christians were trying to limit Christian practice in three ways. Like the Passover sacrifice, the recollection of the Last Supper could only be celebrated in Jerusalem, at Passover time, and by Jews.c
Without deciding between these two contradictory alternatives (though Kuhn's is in my mind more convincing), we can at least agree that there are various reasons why the early church would have tried to "Passoverize" the Last Supper tradition.20 Placing the Last Supper in the context of Passover was a literary tool in early Christian debates about whether or not and how Christians should celebrate Passover.
Other examples of Passoverization can be identified. The Gospel of John, as previously noted, and Paul (1 Corinthians 5:7–8) equate Jesus' crucifixion with the Passover sacrifice: "Our Paschal lamb, Christ has been sacrificed. Therefore let us celebrate the festival, not with the old yeast, the yeast of malice and evil, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth." This too is a Passoverization of the Jesus tradition, but it is one that contradicts the identification of the Last Supper with the Seder or Passover meal.
Both of these Passoverizations can be placed in the broader context of Exodus typology in general. W.D. Davies and N.T. Wright have argued that various New Testament sources depict the events of Jesus' life as a new Exodus. Early Christians interpreted Jesus' life and death in light of the ancient Jewish narrative of redemption par excellence, the story of the Exodus from Egypt. Surely the depiction of the Last Supper as a Passover observance could play a part in this larger effort of arguing that Jesus' death echoes the Exodus from Egypt.21
This process of Passoverization did not end with the New Testament. The second-century bishop Melito of Sardis (in Asia Minor) once delivered a widely popular Paschal sermon, which could well be called a "Christian Haggadah," reflecting at great length on the various connections between the Exodus story and the life of Jesus.22
Passoverization can even be found in the Middle Ages. Contrary to popular belief, the Catholic custom of using unleavened wafers in the Mass is medieval in origin. The Orthodox churches preserve the earlier custom of using leavened bread.23 Is it not possible to see the switch from using leavened to unleavened bread as a "Passoverization" of sorts?
Was the Last Supper a Passover Seder? Most likely, it was not.
Interested in Jesus' Judaism? The Bible History Daily post "Was Jesus a Jew?" includes the full article "What Price the Uniqueness of Jesus?: To wrench Jesus out of his Jewish world destroys Jesus and destroys Christianity." by Anthony J. Saldarini as it originally appeared in Bible Review.
"Was Jesus' Last Supper a Seder?" by Jonathan Klawans originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2001. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in October 2012.
Jonathan Klawans is Professor of Religion at Boston University. He is the author of Josephus and the Theologies of Ancient Judaism (Oxford Univ. Press, 2012), Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism (Oxford Univ. Press, 2005) and Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism (Oxford Univ. Press, 2000), which received the Salo Wittmayer Baron Prize for the best first book in Jewish studies.
Passover is the celebration of the exodus from Egypt. What can archaeology tell us about the historicity of the Biblical account? The FREE eBook Ancient Israel in Egypt and the Exodus considers texts and archaeological evidence from the second millennium B.C.E. that describe Israel in Egypt and the Exodus.
a. Some may also ask, where is the unleavened bread? The Gospels do not specify that Jesus fed his disciples unleavened bread, which is what Jews would eat at Passover. This however does not preclude the possibility that Jesus used unleavened bread at the Last Supper, as Jews commonly refer to unleavened bread (called in Hebrew, matzah) as simply "bread." See, for example, Deuteronomy 16:3 and Nahum N. Glatzer, The Passover Haggadah (New York: Schocken Books, 1981), pp. 24, 64.
b. See Baruch Bokser, "Was the Last Supper a Passover Seder?" Bible Review, Summer 1987.
c. See Bruce Chilton, "The Eucharist—Exploring Its Origins," Bible Review, December 1994.
1. The book first appeared in 1935 and was revised and translated various times after that. The 14 parallels are listed in the 1960 third edition, which was translated into English in 1966. See Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus, 3rd ed. (London: SCM Press, 1966), esp. pp. 42–61. His 14 parallels may be summarized as follows: (1) The Last Supper took place in Jerusalem, (2) in a room made available to pilgrims for that purpose, and (3) it was held during the night. (4) Jesus celebrated that meal with his "family" of disciples; and (5) while they ate, they reclined. (6) This meal was eaten in a state of ritual purity. (7) Bread was broken during the meal and not just at the beginning. (8) Wine was consumed and (9) this wine was red. (10) There were last-minute preparations for the meal, after which (11) alms were given, and (12) a hymn was sung. (13) Jesus and his disciples then remained in Jerusalem. Finally, (14) Jesus discussed the symbolic significance of the meal, just as Jews do during the Passover Seder. For brief surveys summarizing the question see Robert F. O'Toole, "Last Supper," in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992), vol. 4, pp. 235–236 and Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), pp. 423–427.
2. For a representative statement denying the historicity of the Last Supper traditions, see Robert W. Funk and The Jesus Seminar, The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), p. 139.
3. For an excellent treatment of what we can and cannot know of the historical Jesus, see the recent book by my colleague Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999).
4. For an excellent summary of Judaism in Jesus' time—one which makes judicious use of rabbinic evidence—see E.P. Sanders, Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 B.C.E.–66 C.E. (London: SCM Press, 1992). For more on the use of rabbinic sources, see Sanders's Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1977), esp. pp. 59–84.
5. There are those who attempt to harmonize John and the synoptics by supposing that they disagreed not about when the Last Supper occurred, but about whether the date of Passover was supposed to be calculated by following a solar calendar or a lunar one. Annie Jaubert presents this theory in her book, The Date of the Last Supper (Staten Island: Alba House, 1965). This view cannot be accepted, however. It is too difficult to conceive of Passover having been celebrated twice in the same place without any contemporary or even later writer referring to such an event. Surely it would have been remarkable if two Passovers were held in the same week! Moreover, while we do know of solar calendars from the Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll, we do not know how any of these calendars really worked. Jubilees's calendar, for instance, explicitly prohibits any form of intercalation (the adding of extra days in a leap year). And without intercalation, by Jesus' time, Jubilees's 364-day solar calendar would be off not just by days, but by months. It is only by hypothesizing some manner of intercalation that we can even come up with the possibility that in Jesus' time the two calendars were both functioning, but off by just a few days. Thus in the end, Jaubert's book presents a good theory, but it remains just that, a theory. For more on these questions, see James C. VanderKam, Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time (London: Routledge, 1998).
6. On the question of Jewish authorities and their role in Jesus' death, see John Dominic Crossan, Who Killed Jesus? Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995).
7. For more on the parallels between the Didache and the Jewish Birkat ha-Mazon, see Enrico Mazza, The Celebration of the Eucharist: The Origin of the Rite and the Development of Its Interpretation (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999), esp. pp. 19–26 (where he discusses these parallels) and pp. 307–309 (where he provides translations of the texts).
8. A useful version of the traditional text of the Haggadah, with introduction and translation, can be found in the widely available edition of Nahum N. Glatzer, The Passover Haggadah (New York: Schocken Books, 1981). Those interested in appreciating how the Haggadah brings together material from various historical periods might look at Jacob Freedman, Polychrome Historical Haggadah for Passover (Springfield, MA: Jacob Freedman Liturgy Research Foundation, 1974).
9. Finkelstein published his theories in three articles: "The Oldest Midrash: Pre-Rabbinic Ideals and Teachings in the Passover Haggadah," Harvard Theological Review (HTR) 31 (1938), pp. 291–317; "Pre-Maccabean Documents in the Passover Haggadah (Part 1)," HTR 35 (1942), pp. 291–332; and "Pre-Maccabean Documents in the Passover Haggadah (Part 2)," HTR 36 (1943), pp. 1–38. Glatzer summarizes some of Finkelstein's claims in The Passover Haggadah, pp. 39–42.
10. Goldschmidt, The Passover Haggadah: Its Sources and History (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1960). Glatzer's edition of the Haggadah (cited above) is based in part on Goldschmidt's research, but the first edition of Glatzer's Haggadah was published in 1953, years before Goldschmidt's final 1960 version of his article.
11. See especially the collection of essays, Passover and Easter: Origin and History to Modern Times, ed. Paul F. Bradshaw and Lawrence A. Hoffman (Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1999). Those who read Hebrew will want to consult Shmuel Safrai and Ze'ev Safrai, Haggadah of the Sages: The Passover Haggadah (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Carta, 1998).
12. Baruch Bokser, The Origins of the Seder (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984).
13. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Sabbath, 15a.
14. This view can be traced back well into the middle ages—it is advocated in a 14th-century Haggadah commentary by Rabbi Simeon ben Zemach Duran. This view has also been advocated more recently by, among others, Daniel Goldschmidt, Joseph Tabory, Israel Yuval and Baruch Bokser. Bokser, Origins of the Seder, pp. 41–43, 79–80, and 119 n. 13; Goldschmidt, Passover Haggadah, pp. 51–53. See also the articles by Joseph Tabory and Israel Yuval in Passover and Easter, esp. pp. 68–69 (Tabory) and pp. 106–107 (Yuval). Goldschmidt, Tabory and Yuval go even one step further, suggesting that Jeremias had it backwards. It was not that Jesus was reinterpreting a prior Jewish tradition. Rather, Rabban Gamaliel the Younger required the explanation of the Passover symbols as a way of countering Christian manipulation of these symbols.
15. Tosefta Pesahim 10:12; see Bokser, Origins of the Seder, pp. 41–43, 79–80.
16. Jeremias, Eucharistic Words, pp. 66 and 122–125.
17. On the Quartodecimans and on fasting before Easter, see Bradshaw, "The Origins of Easter" in Bradshaw and Hoffman, Passover and Easter, pp. 81–97.
18. See Karl Georg Kuhn, "The Lord's Supper and the Communal Meal at Qumran," in The Scrolls and the New Testament, Krister Stendahl, ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), pp. 65–93. Kuhn builds here on work of B. Lohse, published in German (and cited in his article). See also Jeremias, Eucharistic Words, pp. 216–218.
19. Bruce Chilton, A Feast of Meanings: Eucharistic Theologies from Jesus Through Johannine Circles (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), esp. pp. 93–108.
20. The term "Passoverize" is used by Mazza, in his brief treatment of the issue; see Celebration of the Eucharist, pp. 24–26.
21. See especially W.D. Davies, Setting of the Sermon on the Mount (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1964), pp. 25–92.
22. Commonly entitled "On the Passover," the sermon survives in numerous copies and fragments in Coptic, Greek, Syriac, Latin and Georgian. The oldest copy, from the third or early fourth century, is in Coptic. See James E. Goehring and William W. Willis, "On the Passover by Melito of Sardis," in The Crosby-Schoyen Codex MS 193, James E. Goehring, ed. (Leuven [Louvain]: Peeters, 1999).
23. On the medieval debate between the Catholic and Orthodox churches on this matter, see Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, vol. 2, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600–1700) (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 177–178. On the archaeological evidence pertaining to this dispute, see George Galavaris, Bread and the Liturgy: The Symbolism of Early Christian and Byzantine Bread Stamps (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1970).
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text: > > >** Reliability. We ran a 256-processor Dell cluster with Windows 2000 >and collected all errors (OS, I/O, hardware) on a secure web site for 6 >months. MIT analyzed and independently verified the up-time--99.9986%. Couldn't find the real email to respond to here, but the above excerpt captures it... Has anyone running a cluster done some real reliability analysis and published the data and analysis? Not necessarily peer reviewed.. even a good web page description would do. For instance, Paul at Cornell has claimed better than 99.999% reliability or uptime, but hasn't provided any numerical backup for the assertion, except to claim that MIT analyzed some unspecified set of data. Is Cornell going to publish the data and details of the analysis? For instance, what was the reliability model used? What failure statistical distribution was implied (Exponential? Weibull?) What's defined as "failure" or "up time"? I searched the entire Cornell site using their search engine, and all I found was a couple of marketing speak type presentations that didn't provide any numerical backup for the assertions. I think this would be a very useful thing as a point of discussion for clusters in general, since the terms "high availability", "high reliability", "MTBF" and so forth are bandied about pretty freely, without any unambiguous definitions. There's a lot of literature and discussion on performance and how to fairly evaluate it in terms of BogoMIPs, or GFlops, or bisection bandwidth, etc, but not nearly as much on other aspects of running a cluster. I would think that a reasonably rigorous analysis would need to address things like (re)boot time, mean time to repair, the difference between "operating system up and ready" and "actually running user code", and so forth. Maybe a good start would be to establish a common terminology for things, and then we can argue/discuss how to boil down measurements/predictions to a single "figure of merit". RGB.. maybe another chapter for your book?