text:
- Article
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Precursory activity and evolution of the 2011 eruption of Shinmoe-dake in Kirishima volcano—insights from ash samples
© The Society of Geomagnetism and Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences (SGEPSS); The Seismological Society of Japan; The Volcanological Society of Japan; The Geodetic Society of Japan; The Japanese Society for Planetary Sciences; TERRAPUB. 2013
- Received: 30 October 2012
- Accepted: 17 February 2013
- Published: 8 July 2013
After a precursory phreatic stage (2008 to 2010), the 2011 Shinmoe-dake eruption entered a phreatomagmatic stage on January 19, a sub-Plinian and lava accumulation stage at the end of January, a vulcanian stage in February–April, and a second phreatomagmatic stage in June–August. Component ratio, bulk composition, and particle size of the samples helped us define the eruptive stages. The juvenile particles were first found in the January 19 sample as pumice (8 vol%) and were consistently present as scoria and pumice particles thereafter (generally ~50 vol%, decreasing in weaker events). The January 19 pumice has water-quench texture. After the lava accumulation, particles of that lava origin came to account for 30~70 vol% of the ash. The second phreatomagmatic stage is proposed because of fine ash and long eruption period. The SiO2 contents of bulk ash are lower in post-January 19, 2011 eruptions, reflecting lower average SiO2 contents in 2011 ejecta than in past ejecta. The free-crystal assemblages were two pyroxenes + plagioclase + Fe-Ti oxides until 2010; olivine joined the assemblage in 2011, when juvenile ash was erupted. This change is consistent with the absence or smaller sizes of olivine phenocrysts in past ejecta.
Key words
- Volcanic ash
- Shinmoe-dake
- bulk ash composition
- component ratio
- particle size distribution
1. Introduction
Ash characterization is an important method for monitoring ongoing eruptive activity and forecasting activity change (Nakada et al., 1995 for Unzen volcano; Hatae et al., 1997 for Kuju volcano; Taddeucci et al., 2002 for Mt. Etna; Ikebe et al., 2008 and Miyabuchi et al., 2008 for Nakadake, Aso volcano; Rowe et al., 2008 for Mount St. Helens). The main characteristic to be investigated for this purpose is the abundance and nature of juvenile material. In a situation where magmatic eruption has not begun after onset of an eruptive activity the first detection of juvenile material means that magma is rising to shallow depth. One successful example was the 1991 Unzen eruption, when juvenile material was detected in a series of ash samples before lava appeared (Nakada et al., 1995). Once a large-scale magmatic eruption takes place, proximal zones at the volcano often have restricted access even if eruptive activity becomes less intensive than before. At such a time, ash could be continuously sampled in safer distal zones, allowing the tracking of eruptive activity. At the same time, juvenile material helps us judge the involvement of external water in eruptions, as magma-water interaction is recorded in surface morphology and texture of juvenile material (Miyabuchi and Ikebe, 2008; Austin-Erickson et al., 2008).
Aside from examining juvenile material and related petrological and textural investigations (Taddeucci et al., 2004), another benefit of monitoring ash production comes from study of the accessory material, i.e., the ash particles derived from the volcanic edifice. Such material gives insights into the crater-conduit system, including the hydrothermal system (Ohba and Kitade, 2005). Taking Showa crater of Sakurajima volcano as an example, Miyagi et al. (2010) showed growth and disappearance of a shallow alteration zone whose growth was promoted by fluids associated with newly intruded magma. Also, lava emplacement can be recognized as a kind of volcanic edifice modification. In the 2004–2005 eruption of Mount St. Helens, ash samples were found to include fragments of lava newly emplaced in that eruptive activity (Rowe et al., 2008). Because of above developments in ash studies, it is increasingly important for all volcanologists to realize the importance and potentials of studying ash samples as described above.
We studied a series of Shinmoe-dake ash samples from the 2011 eruptive activity (January to August) and its precursory period (August 2008 to June 2010). Our focus here is not chemical characterization of juvenile material, which is separately reported in Suzuki et al. (2013). The data sets presented are component ratio, bulk ash composition, and particle size distribution. Bulk ash composition changes depend on proportions of ash constituents (Shimano et al., 2001), while particle size distribution sometimes can be an indicator of magma-water interaction (Morrissey et al., 2000). The data sets, such as presence and absence of juvenile material, morphology of juvenile material and particle size distribution, partly constrain some eruptive stages proposed in Nakada et al. (2013). Furthermore, we show that the bulk ash composition and free-crystal ash component change at the onset of magmatic eruption in January 2011, because of the contrast between newly erupting magma and past ejecta supplying accessory material. Although data sets presented in this paper are basic and partly preliminary (e.g. particle size distribution), the summary will be useful if Shinmoe-dake becomes active again. These data sets also form a basis for future advanced studies, as described above. At the end of this paper, we again emphasize the importance of continuous observation of ash samples, taking successful Shinmoe-dake case as an example.
2. Shinmoe-dake 2011 Eruption and Its Background
The following descriptions of the 2011 eruptive activity are based on JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) reports and Nakada et al. (2013), except where indicated. Time is in Japan standard time (JST). Here, we define phreatomagmatic eruptions as including activities caused by weakly energetic interaction of magma and external water. Precursory, small-scale phreatic eruptions occurred in August 2008 and March to June 2010. In December 2009, inflation of the volcanic edifice began to accelerate, accompanying activation of seismicity (Oikawa et al., 2011; Yakiwara et al., 2011). GPS data analyses by different groups, which were carried out after the January 2011 eruptions, commonly attributed the inflation to a spherical source 7.5 km deep (GIAJ, 2012) or 9.2 km deep (Nakao et al., 2013) and 7–8 km NW of Shinmoe-dake.
The next phase of activity started on 19 January 2011 with a phreatomagmatic eruption. Then, a series of mag-matic eruptions started on January 26, 2011. Activity in this period was most intensive and most voluminous. Three sub-Plinian events occurred, starting at 14:49 on the 26th, about 2:00 on the 27th, and 15:41 on the 27th. Each event lasted a couple of hours (Ichihara et al., 2012, http://outreach.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/eqvolc/201101_shinmoe/eng/#MTSAT). The total tephra mass for the three events is 16−30 × 106 ton (DRE, 6.4−12×106 m3) (Maeno et al., 2012). Doppler radar analyses showed echo heights of plumes reached 8.5 km a.s.l. in all of the three events (Shimbori and Fukui, 2012). The borehole tilt measurements recorded three synerup-tive step-wise deflations corresponding to each sub-Plinian event (Ueda et al., 2013; source depth of 9.8 km located 7–8 km NW of Shinmoe-dake). New lava dome was discovered in the crater in the morning of 28 January, but later satellite-image analyses (e.g. Ando, 2012; Ozawa and Ko-zono, 2013) determined that lava emplacement had already started at 22:53 on the 27th. The lava dome grew rapidly to have a diameter of 500 m by the evening of the 29th, filling the original crater (we thus call it accumulated lava). The lava volume stayed almost unchanged thereafter, reaching a final value of 14−18 × 106 m3 (Sasaki et al., 2011; GIAJ, 2012; Kozono et al., 2013). The lava emplacement was accompanied by explosions, one of which occurred at 12:47 on 28 January. Along with the borehole tilt measurement, the GPS network recorded rapid deflation during the sub-Plinian events and the lava accumulation. The deflation could be explained by almost the same sources as the pre-eruptive period but at a slightly shallower depth; 6.2 km (GIAJ, 2012) and 8.4 km (Nakao et al., 2013). The total volume of deflation is 11.7−15.2×106 m3 (Nakao et al., 2013) or 10−11.8×106 m3 (GIAJ, 2012). Inflation resurged soon after the end of January 2011.
3. Samples
The samples and sampling conditions are summarized in Table 1, and sampling sites are shown in Fig. 1. The examined eruptions cover the entire 2011 eruptive activity (January to August 2011) and its precursory stage (August 2008 to June 2010). Plume heights in corresponding events are also summarized in Table 1. We indicate each sample by eruption date, together with eruption time and site number, if necessary. Most samples were collected at the time of deposition or by the next day. Sampling sites are within 10 km of Shinmoe-dake crater (Fig. 1(b)), except for two sites about 25 km from the crater (Fig. 1(a)). For eruptions with multiple samples for ash distribution and total volume of ejecta (Nakada et al., 2013), samples from the sites closest to the crater and the dispersal axis were used. Ash samples were collected by the following means: a) placing plates or paper on a flat surface for some period (e.g. 18:30–19:00 January 26, February 2, February 7–8, all 2011 eruptions); b) from surface of artificial material including monitoring device and edge of low-traffic road; and c) together with snow, leaves and grass on which ash particles were deposited (Table 1, condition). The original weights of samples in this study varied approximately between 1 g and 100 g, depending on scales of the eruptions.
4. Methods
4.1 Collecting all ash particles from a plastic sample bag
Wet samples and samples collected with plants and snow (see Table 1) required this preparation step. At first, all ash particles in the bag were emptied into beakers using deionized water. Ash particles adhering to leaves and grass were removed using a new toothbrush. Next, deionized water with ash particles was filtered to remove water, and the filter paper and remaining ash particles were completely dried in an oven at 110°C. Ash particles were separated from the filter paper using a new toothbrush. Finally, the ash particles were homogenized by mixing well, and remaining fragments of plants were removed with a pincette under a binocular microscope.
4.2 Analytical methods
Component analyses were conducted for almost all samples, and a reduced number was examined for bulk ash composition and particle size distribution (Table 1), usually due to limitation in sample amount. Bulk ash compositions were determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (RIGAKU ZSX Primus II) at Earthquake Research Institute (ERI), University of Tokyo, using glass beads with five parts flux to one part sample.
The characterization of both ash component and particle-size distribution commonly required two preparation processes, 1) ultrasonic cleaning, and 2) sieving. Typically a few grams were extracted from the original sample and weighed. The precision of weighting was 0.001 g. Then the sample was poured into deionized water in a beaker. Submerging the beaker in an ultrasonic bath, the upper portion of water including only fine ash particles (< several tens of μm) was removed. The ultrasonic cleaning and removal were repeated until the upper portion was transparent even during ultrasonic cleaning. The coarse part of the sample remaining in the beaker was dried completely at 110°C and was weighed to yield the weight, by difference, of the removed fine part (< several tens μm). The weight of the fine part was later used to yield a particle size distribution (in wt%). The removal of the fine part also aids the observation of coarser particles under the binocular microscope for component analyses.
For particle size analyses, the coarse part (>several tens of μm) collected during the previous procedure was separated into five size fractions by hand sieving; several tens-125 μm, 125–250 μ m, 250–500 μm, 500–1000 μm and >1000 μm fractions. Each size fraction was weighed to obtain the final particle size distribution in wt%.
5. Analytical Results
5.1 Results of component analysis
5.1.1 Classification of ash particles and overall results All ash samples contain one or more of the following components: 1) pumice, 2) scoria, 3) lava, 4) altered material, 5) free-crystal (Fig. 2 and Table 2). Not only pumice and scoria particles, but also some of the lava particles are glassy regardless of the eruption stage (e.g. Figs. 3, 5(b), 6, 7(a)–(c), 8). Accordingly, pumice+scoria particles and lava particles were distinguished by vesicularity. Lava particles typically have fracture planes forming the surface, different from most scoria and pumice particles (one exception is January 19, 2011 pumice explained below). We use color as the difference between pumice and scoria: white, light gray and light brown for pumice (Figs. 3, 5(a), 6, and 10); black and dark brown for scoria (Figs. 3, 4, 6, 9). Generally, pumice particles have higher vesicularities than scoria particles. We further define ash components other than "free-crystal" as follows.
1) "Altered material" comprises the particles with the highest degree of alteration of all ash components. Surfaces of typical "altered material" are mostly or completely altered and have an orange or white color (e.g. Fig. 3). The white ones probably resulted from silicification and are often accompanied by small sulfides (Fig. 3). When the origin of "altered material" can be identified and it is either pumice or scoria; vesicles are completely filled with the orange or white alteration product.
2) "pumice" and "scoria" particles were further classified into "fresh" and "partly altered" sub-types (Fig. 2 and Table 2), according to the degree of freshness. We regard only "fresh" ones as "juvenile material". The degree of freshness is judged high, 1) if vitreous luster is recognized on the particle surface, and 2) if abrasion on the particle surface is free or slight, and 3) if the particle surface and vesicles are free from adhering alteration product. Most "pumice" and "scoria" particles in the 2011 ash samples are the "fresh" sub-type (Fig. 2, Table 2).
3) Lava particles were further classified into "fresh" and "partly altered" sub-types (Fig. 2 and Table 2). The degree of freshness is judged using the same criteria as for scoria and pumice. Particle shape is angular in the "fresh" subtype but subangular in the "partly altered" sub-type (e.g. Fig. 7), because of an increasing degree of surface abrasion. We regard "partly altered" lava particles as accessary or accidental. But, the origin of "fresh lava" requires some discussion (Subsection 6.2). Examples of "partly altered" particles are in Figs. 3 and 7(d), while those of "fresh" particles are in Figs. 5(b), 6, 7(a)–(c), and 8. Only "partly altered" lava particles are recognized in ash samples issued between 2008 and 2010, and "fresh" lava particles first appear on January 19, 2011 (Fig. 2 and Table 2). As seen in the figures, the "fresh" and "partly altered" lava particles have different color variations, and the "fresh" sub-type has a higher ratio of glassy particles. Binocular microscope observation revealed different phenocryst assemblages for the two lava sub-types; olivine + two pyroxenes + plagioclase + Fe-Ti oxides in "fresh lava", and two pyroxene+plagioclase+Fe-Ti oxides in "partly altered lava". This was also confirmed by thin section observations.
The assemblages of the free-crystal component shift from two pyroxenes + plagioclase + Fe-Ti oxides before June 2010 to olivine+two pyroxenes+plagioclase+Fe-Ti oxides in the 2011 eruptions.
5.1.2 Ash component characteristics in each eruptive stage
August 2008 to June 2010 (phreatic stage).
January 19, 2011 (phreatomagmatic stage).
January 26–28, 2011 (sub-Plinian events and following explosion).
The five analyzed samples may be classified into two groups; January 26, 14:30 (just prior to the first sub-Plinian event) ash and the remainder (Fig. 2; Table 2). The first ash sample resembles those of August 2008–June 2010 rather than that of January 19, 2011. "Altered material" again dominates, and most of the "pumice", "scoria", and "lava" particles are partly altered and non-juvenile.
February to mid-April, 2011 (vulcanian stage).
Noteworthy characteristics of this period are the high percentage of the "lava" component (65–85 vol%) and the high ratio (60–80 vol%) of fresh lava (Fig. 2 and Table 2). The amount of "altered material" is generally smaller than in previous periods. The maximum total of "fresh pumice" and "fresh scoria" in this stage (15.4 vol% on February 24) is smaller than on January 28 (20.9 vol%) and January 26–27 (43.8 and 48.3 vol%).
Mid-June to August 2011 (second phreatomagmatic stage).
5.2 Bulk ash composition
In Fig. 12, most ash samples form linear trends (57.3–60.5 wt% SiO2) within compositional ranges of most rock samples of Shinmoe-dake. In the Na2O and K2O diagrams, however, the high SiO2 ends of the ash trends (59 wt% or more) depart from the compositional ranges of rock samples. The characteristics of ash samples as noted above are not applicable to August 2008 ash samples because; they have higher SiO2 contents (64.4–66.3 wt%) than most of Shinmoe-dake rock samples, and they are not on linear trends formed by other ash and rock samples from present and past eruptions.
5.3 Particle size distribution
6. Discussion
6.1 Characteristics and temporal change of juvenile material
We next focus on other characteristics of the juvenile material that helped us define an eruptive stage. The pumice in the January 19, 2011 eruption has low vesicularity and a blocky or platy shape (Subsection 5.1.2, Figs. 5(a) and (c)). Such particle shapes can be formed when magma is quenched by external water (e.g. Suzuki and Nakada, 2002; Suzuki et al., 2007). Pre-eruption investigation of the electrical resistivity structure beneath Shinmoe-dake revealed an aquifer at a depth of 100–1400 m (around sea level) below the summit (Kagiyama et al., 1996). If the presence of a crater lake even after the January 19, 2011 eruption (Fig. 14) is considered, magma-water interaction during the January 19 event seems possible and even likely. We thus interpret the January 19 eruption to have been phreatomag-matic (Fig. 14).
6.2 Origin of "fresh lava" particles
Although "fresh lava" particles have a range of colors (e.g. Figs. 5(b), 6, 7(a)–(c), 8), they are consistent in their phenocryst assemblage and freshness relative to "partly altered" lava particles (accessory and accidental). We have not yet conducted detailed chemical analyses of "fresh lava" particles (e.g. phenocryst composition), but their pet-rographic features, including the phenocryst assemblage (olivine+two pyroxenes+plagioclase+Fe-Ti oxides), coincide with those of most of the 2011 ejecta, including lava ejected ballistically from the crater (Suzuki et al., 2013; most ejecta are products of syneruptive magma mixing). Accordingly, we judge that the "fresh lava" particles are either 1) dense parts of magma erupting at the time, or 2) fragments of lava that earlier accumulated in the crater (but only after its first appearance during the night of January 27, 2011; Section 2).
The "fresh lava" particles erupted between January 19 and January 27 are probably dense parts of erupting magma. Indeed, there are continuities in color and vesicularity between the juvenile material ("fresh pumice" and "fresh scoria") and the "fresh lava" for this period (Figs. 5(a)–(b) for January 19, 2011; Fig. 6 for the first sub-Plinian event). In more detail, the range in vesicularities of erupting magma could be due to processes such as 1) different degree of gas-phase separation from magma during syneruptive ascent, and 2) heterogeneity in magma-external water interaction, including variable quench depths and presence and absence of a water quench, and 3) combination of 1) and 2) (Fig. 14). With regard to the January 19 eruption, co-ejection of pumice having water-quenching characteristics (6.1; Fig. 5(c)) indicates that "fresh lava" particles probably also resulted from magma-external water interaction.
The main products of the sub-Plinian stage are vesic-ulated pumice clasts (both ash particles and larger-size bombs). It is not known how the aquifer beneath the vent behaved during the sub-Plinian eruption, although crater water had disappeared by the completion of lava emplacement on the evening of January 29 (Section 2). Therefore, final judgment on whether external water was involved in the sub-Plinian stage requires future particle-surface textural studies using an SEM (e.g. Austin-Erickson et al., 2008; Miyabuchi and Ikebe, 2008).
During the vulcanian stage, it is reasonable that most "fresh lava" particles were supplied from crater lava (Fig. 14), judging from the increased ratio of "fresh lava" particles relative to both "partly altered" lava particles and juvenile material ("fresh pumice" and "fresh scoria" particles) (Fig. 2, Subsection 5.1.2). The oxidation of some "fresh lava" particles (Fig. 7(c)) clearly indicates that they come from emplaced lava which was still hot at or near surface. We note that "fresh scoria" particles in this stage were also partly derived from unsolidified parts of crater lava, because "fresh scoria" particles are also oxidized (Fig. 9(a)).
6.3 Different phenocryst assemblages between lava particles and its effect on free-crystal assemblages
We found no olivine phenocryst in "partly-altered" lava particles (accessory material), in contrast to olivine-bearing "fresh lava" particles (Subsection 5.1.1). Recently, Tajima et al. (2013) reconsidered the whole eruptive history of Shinmoe-dake, based on 1) the stratigraphy in the crater-wall before the 2011 eruption, 2) re-categorization of both lava and tephra in other areas, and 3) new age determinations. Mafic phenocryst assemblages of lavas changed with time, from two pyroxenes in older lava flows to two pyroxenes + olivine in younger lava flows. We confirmed from thin sections that olivine phenocrysts in younger lava flows are only small microphenocrysts (<400 μm), whereas most of 2011 ejecta (magma-mixing products) have olivine phe-nocrysts as large as 1 mm (Suzuki et al., 2013). Olivine microphenocrysts could be overlooked in thin sections of the partly altered lava particles and might be hard to see on the lava-particle surfaces under miscroscope, resulting in the original observation in 5.1.1.
"Free-crystals" in ash samples would have been derived not only from past lava but also from past pumice and scoria. Imura and Kobayashi (1991) and Tajima et al. (2013) showed that Setao pumice and Maeyama pumice, both erupted in the earliest phase of Shinmoe-dake activity (10.4 cal ka BP and 5.6 cal ka BP, respectively; Okuno, 2002), contain only two pyroxenes. Tajima et al. (2013) showed, for later-stage tephras excluding Kyoho pumice (1716–1717), that mafic phenocryst assemblages change in a similar manner to those in lavas of similar age. For the Ky-oho eruption (1716–1717), which consists of seven phases (Sm-KP1 to -KP7; Imura and Kobayashi, 1991), Miyamoto (2012) showed that pumice samples have the same phe-nocryst assemblage as do products of the 2011 eruption, but pumice samples with isolated olivine phenocrysts (i.e. free from a thick reaction rim) are limited to Sm-KP4 (200 μm in average olivine size). The above sμmmary indicates that most pumices of past eruptions also lack large olivine phenocrysts. We thus conclude that the shift in free-crystal assemblage from olivine-free (2008 to 2010 eruptions) to olivine bearing (on and after January 19, 2011) resulted from input of 2011 magma bearing large olivine phenocrysts (~1000 μm) (Fig. 14).
6.4 Temporal change of bulk ash composition
The August 2008 ash samples have higher SiO2 contents than do most of the 2011 rock samples (equivalent to erupted magma) and past ejecta (Fig. 12). This indicates that the 2008 samples are not simple mixtures of 2011 ejecta and past ejecta. The compositional variation of the 2010 and 2011 ash samples can be approximated by a mixture of the above two major ash constituents (Fig. 12). The ash components derived from the past ejecta are "partly altered pumice + scoria", "partly altered lava" and "altered material", while those derived from the erupted magma in 2011 are "juvenile material" and "fresh lava". Ash samples of post-January 19, 2011 eruptions have lower bulk SiO2 contents than those of earlier eruptions (Fig. 11). Total ratios of "juvenile material" and "fresh lava" particles are higher in the post-January 19, 2011 eruptions (19.2–72.7 vol%), than in the earlier eruptions (0.4–12.6 vol%). The relationship can be explained by compositional differences between the erupted magma and past ejecta. As sμmmarized in Subsection 5.2, the averaged composition of the erupted magma is 57–58 wt% SiO2 (Suzuki et al., 2013), whereas most past ejecta have 59–63 wt% SiO2 (Tajima et al., 2013) (Fig. 12). The contribution of 1716–1717 pumice fragments (57–58 wt% SiO2; Miyamoto, 2012) to 2010 to 2011 ash samples seems small, because particle ratios of "partly altered scoria and pumice" are much lower than that of "partly altered lava" (Fig. 2). We thus conclude that the decrease in bulk ash SiO2 content at the start of the sub-Plinian eruption (Fig. 11) was produced by an increased contribution of 2011 magma to the ash (Fig. 14). This model is consistent with the bulk ash compositions of March 2010 and January 19, 2011, which are comparable to the most frequent compositions of past ejecta (59–63 wt% SiO2) excluding the 1716–1717 pumice (Fig. 12). We infer that the uncatego-rized "lava" particles in the second phreatomagmatic stage (June to August 2011; Subsection 5.1.2) consist of the same constituents as are in the vulcanian stage (i.e. "fresh lava" and "partly altered lava"), because of similar bulk ash compositions (Figs. 11 and 12) and similar juvenile material ratios (Fig. 2) between the two stages.
We infer that both the high SiO2 contents of the 2008 ash samples and their deviation from the bulk trends of other ash samples (Fig. 12; Subsection 5.2) are due to the inclusion of abundant altered material (Fig. 2) in the analyzed bulk samples (Table 1). The silicification common in "altered material" (e.g. Fig. 3) would lead to an increase in SiO2 content. The deviation of the 2008 ash from other bulk trends is most significant in Na2O and K2O (Fig. 12). A similar deviation was reported in the 2003 to 2004 eruption of Anata-han volcano; ash samples from its phreatomagmatic stage are depleted in alkali elements compared with rock samples of the volcano (Nakada et al., 2005). Rock-fluid interaction may lead to alkali element depletion. Hamilton et al. (2000) showed that alkali elements have relatively high dissolution rates in glass that is immersed in a solution of high temperature and acidity. Ohba (2011) pointed out in his review that the existence of an acidic high temperature hydrothermal system is the most plausible condition that can produce altered mineral found in volcanic ejecta. At present, we are not certain how the rock-fluid interaction is related to the silicification process.
Na2O and K2O in the 2010–2011 ash samples deviate more from rock-sample trends at higher SiO2 values (Fig. 12). Inclusion of silicified altered material may explain the deviation (e.g. March 2010 and January 19, 2011, and June to August, 2011; Fig. 2). To support this idea, we show that lowering the K2O trend by separation of K2O-rich groundmass (i.e. groundmass separation model) is not possible (Fig. 12). The groundmass would be prone to be separated, because it can be fine particles due to synerup-tive vesiculation. The two lines in the SiO2 vs. K2O diagram (Fig. 12) show trends that can be formed by different degrees of groundmass separation from representative erupted magma (2011 lava and white pumice). The two trends remain parallel to the original whole rock trends of other ejecta; therefore, the groundmass separation model can be rejected.
6.5 Variation of particle size distribution
The grain size distribution of ejecta just after discharge from the crater reflects syn-eruptive fragmentation conditions. Accordingly, the size distribution helps us judge the eruption style, including possible involvement of external water (Morrissey et al., 2000). However, interpretation of samples collected at a distance from the crater requires careful considerations of the sorting process, which is influenced by plume height, distance from crater and dispersal axis, and meteorological conditions. To evaluate possible differences in particle size distribution at the time of ejection, we here take both plume height and distance from crater into consideration. At first place, most sampling distances from the center of the crater are similar, except for the phreatic stage (August 2008 to June 2010) (sites 3, 4, 5, and 6 in Fig. 1). The samples, excluding the phreatic stage, have differences in average particle size, coarser in the sub-Plinian and vulcanian stages and finer in the two phreatomagmatic stages (Fig. 13). The difference may have been influenced by different eruption plume heights; heights of >1000 m characterize the sub-Plinian and vulcanian stages, while heights mostly <1000 m typify other stages (Table 1).
In the phreatic stage (August 2008 to June 2010), ash samples are generally fine regardless of the sampling sites, including sites 3 and 5 close to the crater (Pro in Fig. 13), indicating the overall fineness and thereby implying involvement of external water. This inference is consistent with the presence of a crater lake at this stage (Fig. 14) and the occurrence of a cock's tail explosive jet during the May 27, 2011 eruption (Bulletin on Volcanic Activity (May 2010) issued from JMA).
For the January 19, 2011 eruption, we have information about neither grain-size variation with distance from crater nor the conditions of the crater at the time of eruption. The particle size data for this event are only from one place (site 7; Fig. 1). But, the presence of juvenile pumice with water-quenched texture (Subsection 6.1) indicates involvement of external water. Therefore, we believe that the fine grain size of the ash in this eruption (Fig. 13) also resulted from the interaction with external water. JMA reported that a small crater lake existed just after the eruption (Fig. 14).
In the second phreatomagmatic stage (June to August 2011), no sample was collected from proximal sites (<3 km from the crater center; Fig. 13). The ash is probably fine regardless of distance from the crater, however, to judge from the 5-km sample (August 6, 2011; site 25 in Fig. 13) and the 6–7-km samples (sites 23, 24, 26 in Fig. 13). Phreatomagmatic eruptions are seen to continue longer than other eruptions (Nakada et al., 2013), and eruptions in this stage lasted longer (e.g. June 29 to July 1 and August 31 to September 6; Table 1) than those during the vulcanian stage. The evidence thus suggests that the fine grain size of the ash resulted from interaction of magma with external water (Fig. 14). Vesicularities of juvenile particles in this stage seem relatively high (Fig. 10), but vesic-ularity during magma-water interaction could vary depending on the degree of gas-phase separation from magma before the time of the interaction.
The ash samples from the second phreatomagmatic stage (June to August 2011) have larger amounts of altered material than do samples from the vulcanian stage (Fig. 2). At present, we infer that the increase is related to either 1) progressive alteration in the conduit-crater system due to supply of fluid from intruded magma (Fig. 14), or 2) change of eruption style. We deny effect of changing vent locations, as they were almost the same as previous vulcanian stage (e.g. Nakada et al., 2013). Progressive alteration is supported by the crater photo (Fig. 14) and direct observation of lava particles in ash (Subsection 5.1.2 and Fig. 8). To further test our interpretation of magma-water interaction in the first phreatomagmatic stage (January 19, 2011) and the second phreatomagmatic stage (June to August, 2011), future study should focus on detailed observations of particle surface texture with an SEM (e.g. Austin-Erickson et al., 2008; Miyabuchi and Ikebe, 2008).
6.6 Successful detection of juvenile material before the January 26, 2011 sub-Plinian eruption and task for future studies
Since the August 2008 eruption, researchers at the volcano research center of ERI (Y.S. and F.M.) have been making ash-sample reports for every eruption, in response to requests from JMA. Experience and knowledge acquired from these precursory events helped Y.S. to find juvenile material (pumice; Fig. 5) quickly, just after receiving the January 19, 2011 ash samples from JMA. Regrettably, the time between sending a report to JMA (noon of January 26) and the start of the first sub-Plinian event was too short to inform all of Japan's volcanologists that magma had risen to shallow depth. But, as far as we know, ash characterization was the only method which detected the change of eruptive activity before the sub-Plinian event itself. Although ash samples cannot predict the scale of an eruption, we again emphasize the importance of continuous ash sample observation starting from a period of low activity. We also note the necessity of one-by-one ash particle examination— time-consμming work—for the correct characterization of ash samples and early detection of juvenile material.
As a task for future eruptions, we here note difficulty of juvenile material identification in continuous eruptive activity (e.g. vulcanian stage in the 2011 eruption). The difficulty arises from that ash erupted in later stage of a continuous eruptive activity can include juvenile particles that once deposited inside the crater, i.e. recycled particles. If long-term dormancy takes place, the deposit inside the crater would be altered, resulting in an ease of juvenile material identification in next magmatic eruption (e.g. the first and second phreatomagmatic stages in the 2011 eruption). For more sophisticated identification of juvenile material, introduction of another objective indexes is preferable.
7. Conclusion
We studied a series of ash samples from the 2011 Shinmoe-dake eruption and its precursory eruptions in 2008 to 2010 to 1) define eruption stages, including information on magma-water interaction, and 2) infer changes in the volcanic edifice as eruptive activity progressed (Fig. 14). The 2011 eruption followed a course of a phreatomagmatic stage (January 19), a sub-Plinian and lava accumulation stage (end of January), a vulcanian stage (February–April), and second phreatomagmatic stage (June–August).
1) Judging from the smaller amount of fresh pumice and scoria (<1 vol%) than in the following stages, eruptions between August 2008 and June 2010 can be defined as phreatic. The fine ash samples also support the involvement of external water in the eruptions. The amount of altered material is the highest through the whole activity, probably because altered parts of the volcanic edifice were destroyed by the early eruptions.
2) The January 19, 2011 eruption can be classed as phreatomagmatic, based on a) the obvious appearance of juvenile material (8 vol% pumice) with water-quench textures, and b) the fineness of the ash. The presence of the juvenile material was reported to JMA before the start of the sub-Plinian event.
3) On January 26–28, 2011, the amount of juvenile scoria and pumice changed according to eruption intensity, reaching a maximum (50 vol%) in sub-Plinian events. The origin of fresh lava particles having continuities of color and vesic-ularity between the juvenile particles is not solved (probably either relativley dense parts of the erupted magma or water-quench products).
4) After lava accumulated in the crater at the end of January 2011, the particles from the lava accounted for 30–70 vol% of ash samples.
5) In the vulcanian stage, the total content of juvenile pumice and scoria first increased and then decreased over a range of <15 vol%. The amount correlates weakly with eruption plume height.
6) We tentatively defined a period between June and August, 2011 as a second phreatomagmatic stage, based on finer ash and longer eruptive events than in the vulcanian stage. Juvenile pumice and scoria particles were still as abundant as during the vulcanian stage. The ratio of altered material is higher than in the vulcanian stage, because of progressive alteration of the volcanic edifice or a change in eruption style.
7) Bulk ash SiO2 contents are lower in post-January 19, 2011 eruptions. The systematic change was caused by the higher average SiO2 content of past ejecta than that of the 2011 erupted magma. An exception is that bulk ash compositions of the August 2008 ash samples were influenced by abundant altered material.
8) The free-crystal assemblages of ash samples are two pyroxenes + plagioclase + Fe-Ti oxides until 2010; olivine joins the assemblage in the January 19, 2011 eruption. Different assemblages and sizes of phenocrysts between the past ejecta (derived from the volcanic edifice) and the 2011 magma caused this change.
We are indebted to Japan Meteorological Agency for supplying us with ash samples and information on eruptive activity. Dr. K. Aizawa, Dr. J. Hirabayashi, Dr. R. Imura, Kirishima Geopark, Dr. T. Kobayashi, Mr. M. Sakagami, Dr. H. Sato, Mr. Y. Tajima, Takaharu-cho, Dr. M. Ukawa (in alphabetical order) are thanked for the ash samples. Also, Mr. Y. Tajima kindly taught us the eruptive history of Shinmoe-dake and petrographical and geochemical characteristics of past ejecta. Dr. T. Miyamoto kindly taught us petrographical and geochemical characteristics of 1716–1717 pumice samples. We express our thanks to members of the volcano research center of Earthquake Research Institute for discussions and assistance throughout this research. Finally, the manuscript was greatly improved by insightful comments from Dr. Donald Swanson (USGS), Dr. Jacopo Taddeucci (The Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia) and Dr. Thomas Wright (Johns Hopkins University). Also, they kindly improved the English manuscript. This work was partly supported by Grant-in-Aid from MEXT to S. Nakada (No. 22900001).
Authors' Affiliations
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Restaurants/Pubs Feature
Managing Director of Guy Simmonds, Stephen Taylor says that "there is currently a high level of new entrants to the trade seeking profitable freehold and leasehold going concerns – especially where the business offers a separate designated restaurant facility. We are especially encouraged at Guy Simmonds to report that since interest rates were reduced to the new all time low of 1.5%, the consequence has been an increased number of potential new entrants to the trade. Ironically this is not due to lower borrowing costs but instead the fact that since savers are now receiving a negligible return on their savings a profitable freehold or leasehold business now offers an especially attractive return on capital for cash buyers – in addition to providing the operator and family a home and lifestyle. Our corporate re-training courses are also resulting in increased viewings of restaurant/inn operations, especially from people who are being made redundant from the financial, motor, manufacturing and retail sectors.
If valued correctly in the current climate a leasehold restaurant/pub business can culminate in an annual return of around 50%-100% on capital invested (eg 1-2 x net profits) whilst a freehold business should produce 10–20% annual return. By establishing a successful restaurant operation the value of the existing pub business is also greatly enhanced since a going concern is valued relating to a strict criteria relating to the net profits achieved – as verified by the trading accounts.
The obvious attraction of acquiring a business with a separate restaurant is that providing the business is run properly the gross profit margins can be extremely healthy – around 60%. Furthermore, especially since the smoking ban adversely affected the pub trade and 'local boozers' – a restaurant is now sometimes a necessity to appeal to a wider and diverse audience, hence restaurants are extremely sought-after by purchasing clients.
We have also noticed a demand for premises with the potential and space to incorporate a new restaurant into the existing building. Naturally it is absolutely essential for new operators to accurately cost the increased overheads this will incur, eg staff, chef, utilities etc, in addition to the necessary quality fixtures and fittings and kitchen equipment – which could easily culminate in initial set-up costs of over £50,000. However, since the original rent/mortgage costs are inherently fixed then this additional income stream can be extremely lucrative and enhance the re-sale value of the business – subject to profits. Also if one of the owners/operators is a chef, then the labour costs can be strictly controlled or reduced.
Two superb examples of thriving and profitable businesses sold or for sale through Guy Simmonds are
1. The Spotgate Inn, Staffordshire
Currently on the market with Guy Simmonds is The Spotgate Inn - a truly unique restaurant/inn business in the affluent village of Spot Acre, Staffordshire. The restaurant comprises of 2 original Pullman Railway Carriages – converted into a superb separate 62 cover restaurant. In addition the attractive property comprises: a contemporary lounge bar seating 30, snug for 20, conference suite for 30 as well as impressive owners accommodation. This thriving multi-faceted business has a trade split of circa 70% food, 30% wet with an annual turnover of around £860,000 (incl. vat). Reconstituted net profits are approx. £100,000 (after paying rent). The business is priced extremely realistically at £149,950 for the leasehold interest, effectively offering purchasers the opportunity to recoup their capital outlay in well under 2 years.
2. The Rising Sun, Gloucestershire
Recently sold by Guy Simmonds is The Rising Sun at Bream in Gloucestershire. This lovely freehold village inn with separate restaurant overlooks the village cricket pitch. The attractive restaurant with approx. 40 covers has an open fireplace, wooden flooring and exposed stone walls in addition to a lounge bar (20) and function room (40) plus 5 x lucrative letting bedrooms. The turnover was circa £225,000 (incl. vat) split approx. 47% food, 48% wet and 5% letting, resulting in a reconstituted net profit approaching £60,000. The profitable freehold going concern sold off an original asking price of £499,950 – giving the new purchaser an excellent return on freehold investment, with genuine further growth potential.
Guy Simmonds Business Transfers Ltd
Coppice Farm, Ashby Road, Melbourne, Derbys DE73 8BJ.
Tel: (01332) 865112 (Main number & answerphone - 24 hours & fax - 5 lines)
Registered No. 2727033
© Copyright of Guy Simmonds Business Transfers Ltd
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Steph Ellis
Steph Ellis is the winner of MB1.44. Follow her on Twitter and check out her website. If you enjoyed Steph's MB1.44–winning story, and want to read more of her work, take a look at Terror Tree Pun Book of Horror Stories, which she co-edited.
Steph lives with her husband and 3 children in sunny Hampshire. To earn a living, she works as a TA supporting teenagers with SEN; to live, she writes. Her speculative fiction stories have appeared in anthologies and magazines and she has also co-edited a collection of horror stories. She has recently completed (sort-of) a gothic horror novel which now lurks with hundreds of others on Hodderscape's virtual desk. When not writing, she is usually to be found reading or watching something on TV with subtitles (by which I mean foreign, I'm not deaf!). She also surprises people with her love of heavy metal … proving appearances can be deceptive.
100 words ain't many. How do you fit a story into so few words? I usually write two or three times the word count and then just cut and cut. Anything flowery, anything not vital goes.
Why do you like flash fiction? The sheer challenge of trying to tell a complete story in so few words. It forces you to consider your words carefully and to slaughter your darlings mercilessly. It has also brought me into contact with some wonderful writers in the Flash community and I love reading their work to see what I can learn from them.
Been writing long? For a few years on and off, mainly poetry at first with some local and national publication. Nothing serious fiction wise though until a couple of years back. I discovered an anthology call for a short horror story and thought I'd give it a go – I'd NEVER written horror before – and they accepted it! After that I just kept writing and submitting … and learning to take rejection.
You write anything else? I have a blog that I never seem to update regularly even though it's on my to-do list. I have almost completed an alternative Nursery Rhyme book – you know, Mother Hubbard flaying the children, Mary, Mary as a mass murderer that sort of thing; all for fun and I intend to self-publish that some time this year. I've just recently submitted a novel for the first time. That was a big step in itself – just completing it, I kept putting it off all the time. Oh and the other big step forward was being invited to write for an anthology instead of having to submit in the usual way. I've also got a few stories due for publication this year and I'm waiting on decisions for other short stories and a novella (that was another first). It sounds a lot when I look at it like that but it never feels it. Flash fiction takes over the rest of my time Thursday – Sundays(!) I enter most of the comps on the schedule over at www.flashdogs.com
Any advice for other flash writers? Just dive in. Write the story and don't worry about the word count, that can come in the edit. First and last lines seem to be quite critical in flash and again I would say don't spend hours trying to get these lines perfect until you've got your story arc.
If I'm writing for one of the Flash competitions, I try not to read what others have written until I've submitted. I get depressed because I immediately start judging myself by what's already been posted and thinking I'll never match their standard. The drawback to that is when you find someone else has had the same idea and done it better, posted earlier than you. Writers are their own worst enemies.
Any interesting writerly projects in the pipeline? I've had an idea for some time now for another novel but would never allow myself to start it until I'd actually finished the one I sent out recently. It's a horror story based on the world's diminishing resources and how far man would go to maintain his power supply.
I have also started sketching out ideas for a crime story. I love the noir element of a lot of Scandinavian and European crime novels and TV programmes and would really like to have a go at writing a novel in that genre.
As you can see I'm a cheerful type of writer.
I just finished reading a book. Can you recommend another? The one I recommend to anyone and everyone is Ray Bradbury's Something Wicked This Way Comes, a dark gothic tale with one of the scariest carnivals ever, and also any Discworld novel by the late, great Terry Pratchett.
Steph Ellis
Love is a light that has faded from my life. The roads I have taken, dark and lonely. My journey, as I cast off friends like worn-out clothes, is one they cannot follow. It is obsession that has brought me here, to this place.
Will my words gain my admittance, my acceptance? Or will I be rejected and be sent back into the void?
I cling to my sanity, now wafer thin and leave my offering at these gates of perdition, my words, my other self. And wonder again at how I have been consumed by this craft.
Hmm. Could I say haven't a clue?! Is that allowed? The picture showed a lonely road on a dark night and so immediately I'm off on a journey. Lovecraft's voice is already in my head (his works are on my shelf) and it is as though he is actually reciting it to me. Many of his stories deal with madness and obsession and that led me to consider the obsessiveness of writers, when their need to tell a story becomes all and everything. (Thankfully I have a tolerant family). And the title? It can be taken two ways, the submission of a story, or the submission of the writer to their obsession.


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Christoph Schmidt
Head of Global Brand Management
Inorganic Pigments
+49 221 8885 5641
Innovative specialty products for biogas desulfurization
Specialty chemicals company LANXESS is showcasing its newly developed iron oxide for biogas desulfurization at BioEnergy Decentral in Hanover, Germany, from November 13 to 16, 2012.
LANXESS to enter German stock index DAX
The Stock Indices Working Group of Deutsche Boerse AG decided at its meeting today to include LANXESS AG in the German benchmark index DAX 30.
German specialty chemicals group LANXESS kicked off "Mobility Day China" in Shanghai today by sharing insights into the latest development in the Green Mobility megatrend. The theme of the event is "sustainable technologies for China's future".
Bayferrox pigments for milestones of Colombian architecture
LANXESS presents practical examples of modern building coloration
Yellow specialties for the worldwide market
Specialty chemicals group LANXESS is now offering Bayferrox 912 LOM, the yellow iron oxide pigment manufactured at its site in Porto Feliz, Brazil, for sale worldwide.
Innovative iron oxide for desulfurizing biogas
Specialty chemicals company LANXESS has developed Bayoxide E 16, a highly effective synthetic iron oxide for reducing hydrogen sulfide in biogas that can be added directly to the fermentation reactor.
LANXESS Inorganic Pigments Expands Distributor Territory
LANXESS Corporation's Inorganic Pigments Group (IPG) announced that its distributor, E&A Supply Corp., has expanded its territory for sales and distribution of Bayferrox® inorganic pigments in the United States.
A sustainable and reliable partner to mobility and urbanization megatrends
Specialty chemicals company LANXESS, one of the world's largest producers of iron oxide pigments, demonstrates its continued commitment to being a sustainable supplier and a reliable partner to mobility and urbanization megatrends at the Chinaplas 2012.
India: LANXESS to showcase green and innovative solutions for the coatings industry
LANXESS business units IPG and MPP showcase their comprehensive product portfolios at Paintindia 2012
LANXESS at the Precast Show 2012
One of the world's largest producers of iron oxide pigments, LANXESS, will be showcasing its solutions at this year's Precast show in Orlando, FL.


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Tuesday, 3 May 2011
My Audio Gear
The K701 are my default headphones. They were expensive at £200 (currently the equivalent of $330) but perform very well. They are often compared to more expensive models which makes me feel like they are good value. That said, you can't simply buy these headphones and expect everything to sound amazing. Just like you need a good amp to drive powerful, expensive speakers, you need a good headphone amp to drive powerful, expensive headphones. After all, it's the same concept just on a smaller scale. Think about the Sennheiser HD800. At £1000, would you expect a laptop soundcard to drive those to the same potential as some £10 headphones? No. Source quality must improve with output quality.
Initially I was a little dissapointed. I felt that the highs were a little less pronounced than my Sony MDR-V700, and that they also lacked bass (it should be noted that I didn't have an amp or a DAC at that time). It may have been that my source wasn't very good (pretty awful laptop audio...), but it might also have been that the K701 require quite a long burn in time. Some people dispute burn in and some swear by it. My opinion is that anything mechanical can improve or degrade with time/wear. We are all familiar with the concept that things wear with age such as car clutches, brakes and hard disk drives, but with speakers and headphones it is believed that sound quality improves with wear up to a point. The theory is that the material the driver is made from becomes worn and more flexible with use and can operate more freely. Of course I don't believe in burn in for things like solid state amplifiers or processors.
Now I feel that there is no comparison between my K701 and V700. The K701 simply has better soundstage, bass and treble. Is that a result of burn in? Or is it the case that with a much better source it's easier to tell the difference between the headphones? Could be a bit of both I expect.
The K701 are impressive but discreet. At no point have I put these on and thought, "WOW". Well that's not exactly true because I'm somewhat impressed everytime I put them on, but what I mean is that the sound doesn't jump out at you. These headphones are designed to be neutral and accurate, so with a good source, music should sound somewhat like it was intended to (since studios invest crazy amounts of money in high quality, neutral output). The thing is not everyone appreciates the neutrality as we have become so used to hearing music with bass boost, equalizers and subwoofers. The thing is these exist only because of shortfalls in driver ability/design. If you have an accurate, high quality driver, why would you need to boost the bass or treble?
In fact boosting bass is one of the easiest ways to sell headphones, since it's the easiest thing for a listener to pick up on. Why waste time developing and tuning drivers that can accurately represent frequencies over 16kHz if few people can hear it? Unfortunately your average person doesn't appreciate the neutrality of these headphones, and compared to "consumer" headphones like Beats by Dre which boost low frequencies, the K701 will naturally sound flat in comparison (since you automatically feel that more is better).
The only drawback to the K701 is the fact that to get the most out of them you need a decent source and an amp. That's not to say they are so power hungry that you can't use them in normal headphone sockets as is the common misconception. You can, just the maximum volume is not as high as I'd have liked it to be, and you are more likely to get bass rolloff with stock soundcard/portable player amps than a dedicated headphone amp.
They also leak a lot of noise. The noise coming out of the back of them is loud enough for my sister to identify what I'm listenting too... In another room. The noise leakage is owing to their open back design. Open back makes them a lot more comfortable for long use as you don't find your ears getting hot and sweaty (plus the cloth earpads as opposed to leather help with this too). The sound is a lot more natural and doesn't have the usual "closed in" feeling that headphones usually have, but one of the other downsides to open back is that bass doesn't quite have the same level of impact. It's strange, drums sound amazingly real and can rattle your eardrums, but you seem to lack the ear ticking sensation of air being forced down that you get from closed back designs. If bass is really that much of a big deal for you though, there are plenty of headphones designed for that purpose (such as the Sony XB700).
One sensation that I haven't quite got used to yet is that some music sounds dull. By that I mean the high frequencies appear to lack treble, and it makes me tempted to fiddle with the EQ, which is something I have left on flat ever since buying the K701. If you are going to EQ, then there's no point buying neutral headphones in my opinion. This dull sounding treble is certainly not a shortfall with the headphones (although it feels like it at the time). Switching to a better mastered track reveals just what they are capable of, so bear that in mind. You get out what you put in, and you can really notice the difference in recording quality and mastering between artists and tracks.
Yulong D100 DAC
Finding an amp and DAC to suit me was the hardest part. Initially I intended to buy a combined amp/DAC for £200, which after some thought I decided to split it and budget £100 for a DAC and £200 for an amp. I couldn't find anything that appealed to me, but I happened to come across the Yulong D100 at head-fi.org and a very nice review by project86. I wanted to avoid buying an all in one unit, because I'd rather have had a dedicated DAC and a dedicated amp, but it turns out the Yulong D100 had an excellent DAC and a very good amp, and was within what I wanted to spend at £320.
The Yulong D100 is a very nice unit. The DAC section is very highly praised and the amp is surprisingly good (uses the same OPA2134 opamp as the Matrix M-Stage, which is a clone of the £600 Lehman Black Cube Linear). Unfortunately it has no analog inputs, so you can't plug an RCA source into it and use its headphone amp. It's strictly for digital input (Coax, USB, Optical, AES) but has balanced outputs and standard RCA out so you can use it as part of a seperate system (eg connect a DVD player to the DAC via optical and the DAC to your amp).
The D100 has 2 headphone out sockets. They are intended for different impendances, and I find the high impendance output is best for the K701. I feel that some of the dynamics are lost when using the low impendance output, but I don't think this is going to be a problem for low impendance headphones (32 ohm or lower).
There are also 2 sound modes. The first is flat, unaltered sound and the second mode reduces frequencies 16kHz and above by -3db. The effect is actually not that easy to notice, but it was intended to be used with headphones that are heavy on treble. I never felt the need to use the second sound mode.
Overall it's a great DAC and amp combo and I'm happy to suggest it. Like with most things though, there's an element of diminishing returns. By that I mean you could probably pick up the excellent Mavrick D1. At $200 it's less than half the price, but I don't think the difference in sound quality will be that much between them. The Yulong D100 is excellent quality, but value or bang for buck wise, you can probably do better.
Yulong A100 Headphone Amp
I had always had it in my mind that I wanted a seperate amp to go with my DAC to make the best of what I've got (since although the amp in the D100 DAC is great, it didn't do the DAC section justice). One amp that kept popping up was the Matrix M-Stage, which is a component for component clone of the Lehmann Black Cube Linear and cost 1/3 of the price (Chinese, how do they work?).
I lurked around on the head-fi.org forums for a bit trying to gather information to make an educated decision which was when I learned that Yulong were making a dedicated headphone amp to match their DAC. This amp is quite impressive. At first I found it hard to tell the difference (from listening to the D100 one day and the A100 another) but if you match the volume levels and switch between them while playing something, the D100 sounds somewhat flat in comparison (which is impressive because the D100 never sounded flat to begin with). The A100 feels like it has more detail, and is more lifelike. Drums really do sound like drums, cymbals are more apparent and aren't hidden in the mix of everything going on, but I do find the improvement varies depending on the source and type of music.
Great sources benefit more than average ones rather than it seeming like an improvement across the board. I attribute this to the amp and DAC combination just being detailed and neutral rather than the A100 adding anything or boosting any frequencies over the D100's own amp.
The A100 amp cost me £240. It's a nice unit and it matches the D100 DAC (with some slight design differences, looks like the volume pot and circuit board is higher up in this one). The RCA jacks are notably better quality than on the D100, but unfortunately it does not have balanced input which is weird considering the D100 DAC had balanced output. The one downside to this amp is that it only has one pair of RCA in and no other inputs. I suspect this was a decision made to keep costs down, because internally they use the highest spec opamps currently available, the OPA627B. If you enter that in google shopping, you will see that amps using those opamps usually cost thousands of pounds.
The headphone jacks are also higher quality and the fit is quite snug. At first I was worried that it would scratch the gold plating off of the K701 jack, but they seem to have become less tight over time. It's a class A amp and it does generate more heat than the D100, so Yulong drilled some holes in the top to allow it to cool.
Overall that brings my K701/D100/A100 combo to an eye watering £760 ($1250). Would I have spent that much in one go? I doubt it. This was the result of upgrading a bit at a time. Like most things however, there is a case of diminishing returns which I may also discuss later. In other words performance/price. While the Yulong D100 DAC is more than double the price of the Maverick D1, the quality doesn't icrease linearly with price
5 comments:
Hipsterism at its best...ReplyDelete
Better invest some money into NICE-looking headphones than those ugly white cans... I can't believe so much people buy that austrian piece of crap just because of some girl... Can't help it i guess.
Also, for the amps, you should try to use tubes. Because opamps are electronics and thus ruins the sound. Why would you spend so much money for things who destroy the pure analog sound ?Replies
Wow, just wow. Normally I don't comment on random blogs but this poster is so ignorant that I couldn't help it.Delete
1.) People don't buy the K701 for looks (or some girl). If the author was buying headphones for looks, it wouldn't be a $250 AKG. Making something look nice isn't THAT expensive.
2.) "opamps are electronics and thus ruins the sound". LOLwut. If you personally don't like a neutral sound signature, that's your opinion, but to say it "ruins the sound" is ridiculous. Some people (myself included) like to hear the music transparently, without hearing the electronics that are doing the work.
Now to the OP: I like your taste. If I had $500 to spend on an interface I'd get the Yulong too. That thing has incredible price/performance. I would personally spend $160 on the Objective2 headphone amp instead of the A100 amp, but at least they match. :-)
Don't worry about Findns, he's a friend of mine and he's just trolling those hipster kind of audiophiles who buy tube amps and those stones you put on top of your audio gear that supposedly makes them sound better. We make fun of eachother because I spent so much on my setup, and his K601 are made in China, not Austria :)Delete
Haven't heard of Objective2. Will look into that as a point of interest. I bought the A100 on the strength of project86's review on head-fi. It was a toss up between that and a Matrix M-Stage, but he suggested that the M-Stage had a darker kind of sound to it, and that the A100 was the more transparent of the two.
But yeah it's kind of nice that they match too :)
If you have any suggestions for a tube amp and some quality Chinese headphones, I'm all ears.
All products may have some ingredients that can cause damage to the parts or accessories.ReplyDelete
Volkswagen Clutch repair & Volvo Clutch repair


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Improving Force Protection at Home and Abroad
From instruction for Close Quarters Combat, to our deployment with military forces to advise and support combat operations, K2 personnel leverage years of specialized tactical experience to enhance the capabilities of local, state, federal and military entities. We adapt our training and instruction to emergent Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures, employing lessons learned to meet the needs of our customers in real-time.
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Cee is challenging us with a series on colors! This challenge is for black & white or sepia. I really like the tones but have determined that you must have some good photos to do the colors – or lack thereof – justice. Some good contrast or the right object for the sepia.
So here are a few photos for you to enjoy!


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Drawing on these philosophical principles, Judge Segrest created a continuing judicial education program for Alabama judges entitled Foundations in Pluralism. Based on the premise that the foundational beliefs of a culture can be found in its literature, Judge Segrest devised a study of significant literature composed by black authors. By studying the works of Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Dubois, Dr. Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and others, judges can gain a different judicial perspective with regard to justice issues.
Moreover, Judge Segrest has contributed his thoughts on judicial wisdom as a speaker at the National Symposium on the Future of Judicial Branch Education in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1999. The results of that symposium were published by the Judicial Education Reference, Information, Technical Transfer (JERITT) project based at Michigan State University. You can read his thoughts here, in "Recognizing and Maintaining the Wisdom of the Courts."He was also invited to make a presentation at a gathering in Tucson, Arizona in the 1990s based on a joint project of the National Judicial College and the National Conference of State Trial Court Judges. At that time, Judge Segrest was serving as co-chair of the Education Committee of the National Conference of State Trial Court Judges. His thoughts came together in 1999 in "A Proposal for Study and Analysis of Judicial Education". To view a copy of this article click here.
For his master's degree at the University of Nevada at Reno, Judge Segrest delved into the relationship of law and economics in his thesis entitled Punitive Damages in Alabama:Allocation or Caps? The thesis used a then-recent opinion from the Supreme Court of Alabama dealing with punitive damages as a point of departure. It explains how the legal system brings about desired conduct by using economic incentives (or disincentives). To view a copy of Judge Segrest's thesis from the University of Nevada, Reno library, click here.
301 King Street Phone: 334.252.0036 Fax: 334.252.0037 map & directions


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Latest News
Bethel firefighters could move into new home next week
Trucks could be rolling into their new home this week.
The new Bethel Volunteer Fire Department station on Oakridge Road is almost complete. It will replace the station beside it, offering more and bigger bays along with meeting space and other upgrades.
"What they've got down for substantial completion is next week," Chief Michael Laws said last week. "That means we'd be able to start going in there. It wouldn't be completely finished. There would still be a punch list."
The completion date was May 26, but York County Council authorized Cope Construction a 50-day extension after its May 19 executive session. Council also approved $20,000 in contingency money April 21 to bring in better soil after a wet and snowy winter left soft ground. The 50-day extension ends July 15.
The $2 million project has seen delays, but Laws is confident in the station he sees going up beside him. Moving the trucks will take minutes, but full move-in of equipment will take a while longer.
"I hope by next week," he said July 8, "but I'm not holding my breath."
Once the department is all the way in its new station, an open house will be planned.
"We want to let everybody in the community know we're appreciative of their support," Laws said.
The new 15,000-square-foot facility will have five bays. It replaces the oldest of three Bethel stations. The department has almost 70 members.


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TripWeather released!
Slightly behind schedule but still within reason, our app for February has been released! As promised it's all about getting weather forecasts for longer trips, without the hassel of having to enter multiple locations and corresponding times when one expects to be there. Instead, just provide the trip's start and end location and what time you would like to leave and TripWeather generates some nice graphs showing the expected temperature, rain and snow for that trip.


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Regular dental cleanings are the only way to remove tartar or hard deposits from your teeth, which helps to prevent gum disease. When your hygienist polishes your teeth it not only makes them look and feel better, it smoothes and polishes tooth surfaces so they are less likely to accumulate plaque. When the dentist comes to do a check up at the end of the cleaning, he can catch small dental problems and treat them before they become large and painful.
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Memory foam has many benefits for people who suffer with acute joint pain.
By responding to your body's heat, the memory foam moulds to your shape and relieves the points where most pressure is applied; most substantially at the hip and shoulder areas.
The majority of memory foam mattresses consist of a top and bottom layer of memory foam with springs or reflex foam in the middle.
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Lawshare 4th Annual Conference
Date: Thursday 4th October 2018
Location: The Lowry, Manchester
We are pleased to be exhibitiung at the forthcoming Lawshare conference. Further details about attending the conference can be found here.
The conference will commence with a panel session containing leading industry individuals (including JMW's senior Partner and former Managing Partner of Pannone Solicitors – Joy Kingsley). The panel will be encouraged to share expertise and practical guidance on how to achieve success in a leadership positon.
Carter Corson, renowned Business Psychologists, will follow and host an interactive session with attendees and provide riveting insight into the 'psychology' behind leadership development.
Christina Blacklaws, The National President of the Law Society, is our headline speaker and concludes proceedings by providing an insight into her aims and aspirations for her tenure at the helm of our professions governing body.
A drinks reception and meal in the luxurious surroundings of the Lowry hotel then follows where you can discuss burning issues, the days content or generally socialise with other like-minded professionals in the industry.


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What are you planning next for your holiday? Maybe renting a motorhome at Goboony and going for a road trip through France? Because of how easily accessible and stunningly beautiful France is, it tends to be a top holiday destination from the UK. There's nothing quite like having the freedom to move around in a campervan and see the beautiful south of France or visit Paris or Lyon. As easy as it is to get carried away with a magical trip like this one, it's always good to find out a bit about practicalities before you set off, like, for example the French motorway tolls; which vehicles what toll applies to, where you have to pay or how much… which is why we bring you this short summary of the French toll charges. Enjoy the read and bon voyage!
While a lot of the world is focusing on upcoming Halloween, in the UK we're all thinking about Bonfire Night! You may not be aware, but one of the best ways to celebrate this festive evening is through a campervan trip. We're going to tell you all about the best way to go about this, and the best campsites for Bonfire Night displays. So read on and start preparing for this fun family night.
St Andrew's Day is coming, what to do? How to celebrate this joyous day without blowing a budget or becoming trapped in crowds? This is an important day for any Scot, or Scot appreciator, and should therefore be celebrated in style. This doesn't require large spendings or huge parties, as there are numerous festivals and pre organised ways to come together with fellow celebrators and enjoy the day dedicated to Scotland's patron saint.
Are you trying to decide what to do for New Year's but are a bit tired of always dressing up for a fancy party and feeling pressure to have the best night of the year? Would you want to do something different this year, something more relaxed and make some memories? How about renting a campervan at Goboony and going camping this time?
Did you get inspired to go on a skiing holiday in our last article with tips for UK skiing holidays but are you torn between going off on the slopes or taking out your motorhome or campervan for a winter adventure? What if we told you that you could do both? After a lot of research into motorhome ski holidays we've compiled this little guide on how to approach going on a skiing holiday with your campervan! You can find the best ski resorts to visit with a campervan but also tips on how to pack winter vans and what you need to remember to do and bring to make sure you have the best experience you can.
As fun as summer adventures can be; renting a campervan and going for a road trip, relaxing by the azure sea, hiking under the warm sun or enjoying water sports, you should not forget about the magic of winter trips - in particular, skiing holidays! There's nothing quite like waking up early to snow behind your window and a big, filling breakfast and a cup of hot tea or coffee, followed by grabbing your pair of skis and setting off for a day of fun on the slopes.
Remembrance Sunday on the 11th November brings with it a time to commemorate the contribution of the British and Commonwealth military and service men and women in the two World Wars and all other conflicts. Across the country, there will be numerous parades, exhibitions and other events celebrating the achievements and, especially, honouring the memory of those who gave their lives in the wars. If you are looking for something to do on this day and want to learn more about these many historical events, the following article is about battlefield tours and museums offering interesting guided walks and exhibitions centering around the two World Wars.
Snow is falling, all around us… Okay, maybe not quite yet, but it will! Christmas is coming, the jolliest season of the year. And one of the perks of this season are the Christmas markets! Groups of people coming together, to display their crafts, delicacies and more, all under the twinkling fairy lights and to the sounds of carols. Nothing could be more magical! The perfect place to fix your last minute present shopping, get some cookies for the visiting in-laws or a beautiful ornament to update your tree. And to help you with this, here are the 5 best Scotland Christmas markets!
After a bit of that nostalgic time that comes when we have to say goodbye to summer, we're now entering the pre-Christmas period. And what does that mean? It means cozy knitted sweaters, hot chocolate and planning the fun things to do around Christmas holidays. This is why we're here to give you a little overview of some of the best Christmas markets happening in Wales this winter season. So curl up with a cup of warm tea and your agenda, and start getting excited for all the baked chestnuts, mulled wine and twinkling lights that await you!
Whether you come for the mulled wine, sweet treats or the beautiful atmosphere, everyone can find a reason to love Christmas markets. Even the coldest, gloomiest day can serve as the backdrop to beautiful wintery atmosphere if you know where to go; that's why we decided to give you a little overview of the best Christmas markets in England to get you in the mood for the upcoming holiday season!
With the summer coming to an end, meaning the peak of camper season is too, it is time to look forward to what campervan manufacturers have in store for 2019. Many companies have already revealed their upcoming models, giving us time to study their functions in detail and plan which camper will be the best investment. Here is a little overview of the new exciting campers and their improvement and eye-catching novelties!
The leaves are falling, the air is crisp, but despite all this Autumn beauty, we cannot help but feel dread. As whilst Autumn is a gracious time, and brings with it spectacles such as Halloween, Bonfire Night and more, it also brings the October Half Term to Wales. We've just gotten past our trauma of having the youth or teenagers around the house all summer, and now they'll be back for a week again! But have no fear, we're here to provide you with the best tips and ways to keep everyone busy and content for the half term!
Yes, in recent times myself and my boyfriend have become the proud owners of a real VW T3. After we rented one in what turned out to be the coldest weekend of February, there was no turning back. We wanted a van of our own. We've explored a great number of places in the Netherlands already, and a few weeks ago we decided it was time for out first long trip: a road through France! In this blog, you'll hear all about our adventures and I'll provide you with all the useful tips I picked up.
That dreaded time is coming up! You've just recovered from the endless days of summer, where no amount of camp or play date was enough to save you. The October Half Term Breaks are coming up again, and they threaten to bring restless children and teenagers back into our peaceful homes. But have no fear, we've come up with our top tips for keeping your children and teenagers busy during this time.
Halloween is just around the corner, which for many people means one of the most exciting holidays of the year; spooky decorations around the house, putting thought into a (hopefully) original costume, trick or treating, Halloween parties… But maybe you're getting a little tired of your classic Halloween routine and are looking for ways to do something new and exciting this year? Or maybe you're just interested in the events that are happening around? Whichever it is, we've put together a little guide with some tips for places to go for halloween, from haunted houses around the UK to unique Halloween events. Enjoy the read!
After giving us just enough time to get used to the hustle and bustle of the new school year, October half term in Scotland is just around the corner! It gives us a bit of time to relax but also brings with it the question of what to do in the week to make it a fun time for the whole family. This blog will give you some tips on where to go and things to do in Scotland with the kids.
Northern Ireland is a magical place, with natural sights and landscapes that could only be dreamed of. The dramatic landscape is rich with rolling hills, meadows, rugged cliffs and miles of beautiful coast. This gorgeous scenery is only one of the many reasons to visit Northern Ireland by motorhome, as camping and hiking there is like no other destination. Read on to find out the reasons to visit this gorgeous place, hire a motorhome and start enjoying!
With so many interesting and worthwhile places to visit in the ancient county of Warwickshire, it is the perfect destination for a staycation. The county is at the heart of English history with Shakespeare's birthplace of Stratford-upon-Avon, the enormous Warwick Castle and many important battle sites. Motorhome hire in beautiful Warwickshire is something you cannot miss!
It is the only universal truth. That leaving your home for a holiday, you'll have an uncomfortable feeling that you've forgotten something, a gnawing in your stomach. You'll brush it off, check for your passport and purse, and try to ignore it. But then an hour, or two, or three later, it will hit you. All the things you forgot to bring. We can't promise that reading this blog will ensure you forget nothing; but we can have a fair stab at helping you remember the easily forgotten essentials!


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The moment has finally arrived, our Jurni campaign is officially live. Head over to our Indiegogo page now to check out some of the awesome, quirky features our new revolution in teen luggage has to offer!
You could be one of the first people to pre-order your Jurni suitcase and bag yourself a real bargain ready for next year's holiday season. We're offering the first 100 customers a whopping 40% discount on their purchase, with our Super Early-Bird perks.
We've also got loads of other discounts and offers up our sleeves. They will run out fast, so BE QUICK if you don't want to miss out.


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We all live on a planet which we know by the name of Earth, it is our home and our lives our under its influence on a constant rate, there is no denying to this fact but it is not the only phenomenon that governs our life.
Our solar system consists of nine planets and this is not all, there are countless of them that are present in the universe. Each of these planets are always changing their position including our own and with every movement of these celestial giants.
The effect of them in our life is changed which affects our day to day life, our mood, success and every aspect of our life, this is what planetary influence is.
What is the difference between planetary influence and Stars position?
The planetary influence is determined by the movement and position of the planets while stars position determines our horoscopes, nakshatra and other aspects of astrology, though the movement of the planets is also the part of the astrology science but its effect is more severe than that of the stars positions.
This is very simple to understand as planets are always moving while stars are stationary they do not move, their effect is exerted on our life by the movement of our own planet on its axis and around the sun.
How it is important for you?
Benefits of planetary influence report
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We as a service will provide you the best and authentic form of planetary influence report which will be made by the genuine practionar of the field, who will give you the precise reading, to have a moon sign report just leave us a query on our website or contact us on our helpline.