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(Secure Shell) is a protocol which facilitates secure communications between two systems using a client-server architecture and allows users to log into server host systems remotely. Unlike other remote communication protocols, such as FTP
, Telnet
, or rlogin, SSH encrypts the login session, rendering the connection difficult for intruders to collect unencrypted passwords.
The ssh program is designed to replace older, less secure terminal applications used to log into remote hosts, such as telnet or rsh. A related program called scp replaces older programs designed to copy files between hosts, such as rcp. Because these older applications do not encrypt passwords transmitted between the client and the server, avoid them whenever possible. Using secure methods to log into remote systems decreases the risks for both the client system and the remote host.
Fedora includes the general OpenSSH package, openssh, as well as the OpenSSH server, openssh-server, and client, openssh-clients, packages. Note, the OpenSSH packages require the OpenSSL package openssl-libs, which installs several important cryptographic libraries, enabling OpenSSH to provide encrypted communications.
The SSH Protocol
Why Use SSH?
Potential intruders have a variety of tools at their disposal enabling them to disrupt, intercept, and re-route network traffic in an effort to gain access to a system. In general terms, these threats can be categorized as follows:
- Interception of communication between two systems
The attacker can be somewhere on the network between the communicating parties, copying any information passed between them. He may intercept and keep the information, or alter the information and send it on to the intended recipient.
This attack is usually performed using a packet sniffer, a rather common network utility that captures each packet flowing through the network, and analyzes its content.
- Impersonation of a particular host
Attacker's system is configured to pose as the intended recipient of a transmission. If this strategy works, the user's system remains unaware that it is communicating with the wrong host.
This attack can be performed using a technique known as DNS poisoning, or via so-called IP spoofing. In the first case, the intruder uses a cracked DNS server to point client systems to a maliciously duplicated host. In the second case, the intruder sends falsified network packets that appear to be from a trusted host.
Both techniques intercept potentially sensitive information and, if the interception is made for hostile reasons, the results can be disastrous. If SSH is used for remote shell login and file copying, these security threats can be greatly diminished. This is because the SSH client and server use digital signatures to verify their identity. Additionally, all communication between the client and server systems is encrypted. Attempts to spoof the identity of either side of a communication does not work, since each packet is encrypted using a key known only by the local and remote systems.
Main Features
The SSH protocol provides the following safeguards:
- No one can pose as the intended server
After an initial connection, the client can verify that it is connecting to the same server it had connected to previously.
- No one can capture the authentication information
The client transmits its authentication information to the server using strong encryption.
- No one can intercept the communication
All data sent and received during a session is transferred using strong encryption, making intercepted transmissions extremely difficult to decrypt and read.
Additionally, it also offers the following options:
- It provides secure means to use graphical applications over a network
Using a technique called X11 forwarding, the client can forward X11 (X Window System) applications from the server. Note that if you set the
option toyes
or you use SSH with the-Y
option, you bypass the X11 SECURITY extension controls, which can result in a security threat. - It provides a way to secure otherwise insecure protocols
The SSH protocol encrypts everything it sends and receives. Using a technique called port forwarding, an SSH server can become a conduit to securing otherwise insecure protocols, like POP, and increasing overall system and data security.
- It can be used to create a secure channel
The OpenSSH server and client can be configured to create a tunnel similar to a virtual private network for traffic between server and client machines.
- It supports Kerberos authentication
OpenSSH servers and clients can be configured to authenticate using the GSSAPI (Generic Security Services Application Program Interface) implementation of the Kerberos network authentication protocol.
Protocol Versions
Two varieties of SSH currently exist: version 1 and version 2. The OpenSSH suite under Fedora uses SSH version 2, which has an enhanced key exchange algorithm not vulnerable to the known exploit in version 1. Protocol version 1 was removed from OpenSSH suite and is no longer supported.
Event Sequence of an SSH Connection
The following series of events help protect the integrity of SSH communication between two hosts.
A cryptographic handshake is made so that the client can verify that it is communicating with the correct server.
The transport layer of the connection between the client and remote host is encrypted using a symmetric cipher.
The client authenticates itself to the server.
The client interacts with the remote host over the encrypted connection.
Transport Layer
The primary role of the transport layer is to facilitate safe and secure communication between the two hosts at the time of authentication and during subsequent communication. The transport layer accomplishes this by handling the encryption and decryption of data, and by providing integrity protection of data packets as they are sent and received. The transport layer also provides compression, speeding the transfer of information.
Once an SSH client contacts a server, key information is exchanged so that the two systems can correctly construct the transport layer. The following steps occur during this exchange:
The key exchange algorithm is determined
The public key signature algorithm is determined
The symmetric encryption algorithm is determined
The message authentication algorithm is determined
Keys are exchanged
During the key exchange, the server identifies itself to the client with a unique host key. If the client has never communicated with this particular server before, the server's host key is unknown to the client and it does not connect. OpenSSH notifies the user that the authenticity of the host cannot be established and prompts the user to accept or reject it. The user is expected to independently verify the new host key before accepting it. In subsequent connections, the server's host key is checked against the saved version on the client, providing confidence that the client is indeed communicating with the intended server. If, in the future, the host key no longer matches, the user must remove the client's saved version before a connection can occur.
Always verify the integrity of a new SSH server
It is possible for an attacker to masquerade as an SSH server during the initial contact since the local system does not know the difference between the intended server and a false one set up by an attacker. To help prevent this, verify the integrity of a new SSH server by contacting the server administrator before connecting for the first time or in the event of a host key mismatch. |
SSH is designed to work with almost any kind of public key algorithm or encoding format. After an initial key exchange creates a hash value used for exchanges and a shared secret value, the two systems immediately begin calculating new keys and algorithms to protect authentication and future data sent over the connection.
After a certain amount of data has been transmitted using a given key and algorithm (the exact amount depends on the SSH implementation, encryption algorithm and configuration), another key exchange occurs, generating another set of hash values and a new shared secret value. Even if an attacker is able to determine the hash and shared secret value, this information is only useful for a limited period of time.
Once the transport layer has constructed a secure tunnel to pass information between the two systems, the server tells the client the different authentication methods supported, such as using a private key-encoded signature or typing a password. The client then tries to authenticate itself to the server using one of these supported methods.
SSH servers and clients can be configured to allow different types of authentication, which gives each side the optimal amount of control. The server can decide which encryption methods it supports based on its security model, and the client can choose the order of authentication methods to attempt from the available options.
After a successful authentication over the SSH transport layer, multiple channels are opened via a technique called multiplexing[1]. Each of these channels handles communication for different terminal sessions and for forwarded X11 sessions.
Both clients and servers can create a new channel. Each channel is then assigned a different number on each end of the connection. When the client attempts to open a new channel, the clients sends the channel number along with the request. This information is stored by the server and is used to direct communication to that channel. This is done so that different types of sessions do not affect one another and so that when a given session ends, its channel can be closed without disrupting the primary SSH connection.
Channels also support flow-control, which allows them to send and receive data in an orderly fashion. In this way, data is not sent over the channel until the client receives a message that the channel is open.
The client and server negotiate the characteristics of each channel automatically, depending on the type of service the client requests and the way the user is connected to the network. This allows great flexibility in handling different types of remote connections without having to change the basic infrastructure of the protocol.
Configuring OpenSSH
In order to perform tasks described in this section, you must have superuser privileges. To obtain them, log in as root
by typing:
su -
Configuration Files
There are two different sets of configuration files: those for client programs (that is, ssh, scp, and sftp), and those for the server (the sshd daemon).
System-wide SSH configuration information is stored in the /etc/ssh/
directory as described in System-wide configuration files. User-specific SSH configuration information is stored in ~/.ssh/
within the user's home directory as described in User-specific configuration files.
File | Description |
Contains Diffie-Hellman groups used for the "Diffie-Hellman group exchange" key exchange method, which is critical for constructing a secure transport layer. When keys are exchanged at the beginning of an SSH session, a shared, secret value is created which cannot be determined by either party alone. If the file is not available, fixed groups will be used. Other key exchange methods do not need this file. |
The default SSH client configuration file. Note that it is overridden by |
The configuration file for the sshd daemon. |
The ECDSA private key used by the sshd daemon. |
The ECDSA public key used by the sshd daemon. |
The RSA private key used by the sshd daemon. |
The RSA public key used by the sshd daemon. |
The EdDSA private key used by the sshd daemon. |
The EdDSA public key used by the sshd daemon. |
The PAM configuration file for the sshd daemon. |
Configuration file for the |
File | Description |
Holds a list of authorized public keys for servers. When the client connects to a server, the server authenticates the client by checking its signed public key stored within this file. |
Contains the ECDSA private key of the user. |
The ECDSA public key of the user. |
The RSA private key used by ssh. |
The RSA public key used by ssh. |
The EdDSA private key used by ssh. |
The EdDSA public key used by ssh. |
Contains host keys of SSH servers accessed by the user. This file is very important for ensuring that the SSH client is connecting to the correct SSH server. |
For information concerning various directives that can be used in the SSH configuration files, see the ssh_config
(5) and sshd_config
(5) manual pages.
Starting an OpenSSH Server
Make sure you have relevant packages installed
To run an OpenSSH server, you must have the openssh-server package installed. See Installing Packages for more information on how to install new packages in Fedora 32. |
To start the sshd daemon in the current session, type the following at a shell prompt as root
~]# systemctl start sshd.service
To stop the running sshd daemon in the current session, use the following command as root
~]# systemctl stop sshd.service
If you want the daemon to start automatically at the boot time, type as root
~]# systemctl enable sshd.service ln -s '/usr/lib/systemd/system/sshd.service' '/etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/sshd.service'
See Services and Daemons for more information on how to configure services in Fedora.
Note that if you reinstall the system, a new set of identification keys will be created. As a result, clients who had connected to the system with any of the OpenSSH tools before the reinstall will see the following message:
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @ WARNING: REMOTE HOST IDENTIFICATION HAS CHANGED! @ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ IT IS POSSIBLE THAT SOMEONE IS DOING SOMETHING NASTY! Someone could be eavesdropping on you right now (man-in-the-middle attack)! It is also possible that the RSA host key has just been changed.
To prevent this, you can backup the relevant files from the /etc/ssh/
directory (see System-wide configuration files for a complete list), and restore them whenever you reinstall the system.
Requiring SSH for Remote Connections
For SSH to be truly effective, using insecure connection protocols should be prohibited. Otherwise, a user's password may be protected using SSH for one session, only to be captured later while logging in using Telnet. Some services to disable include telnet, rsh, rlogin, and vsftpd.
These services are not installed by default in Fedora. If required, to make sure these services are not running, type the following commands at a shell prompt:
systemctl stop telnet.service systemctl stop rsh.service systemctl stop rlogin.service systemctl stop vsftpd.service
To disable running these services at startup, type:
systemctl disable telnet.service systemctl disable rsh.service systemctl disable rlogin.service systemctl disable vsftpd.service
See Services and Daemons for more information on how to configure services in Fedora.
Using Key-based Authentication
To improve the system security even further, generate SSH key pairs and then enforce key-based authentication by disabling password authentication. To do so, create a drop-in configuration file, for example /etc/ssh/sshd_config.d/01-local.conf
. Make sure it is lexicographically before the 50-redhat.conf
file, providing Fedora defaults. In a text editor such as vi or nano insert the PasswordAuthentication
option as follows:
PasswordAuthentication no
If you are working on a system other than a new default installation, check that PubkeyAuthentication no has not been set in neither /etc/ssh/sshd_config
nor any included file from drop-in directory. If connected remotely, not using console or out-of-band access, testing the key-based log in process before disabling password authentication is advised.
To be able to use ssh, scp, or sftp to connect to the server from a client machine, generate an authorization key pair by following the steps below. Note that keys must be generated for each user separately.
Fedora 32 uses SSH Protocol 2 and RSA keys by default (see Protocol Versions for more information).
Do not generate key pairs as root
If you complete the steps as |
Backup your ~/.ssh/ directory
If you reinstall your system and want to keep previously generated key pairs, backup the |
Generating Key Pairs
To generate an RSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:
Generate an RSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:
~]$ ssh-keygen -t rsa Generating public/private rsa key pair. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa):
Press Enter to confirm the default location,
, for the newly created key. -
Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.
After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa. Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa.pub. The key fingerprint is: SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 email@example.com The key's randomart image is: +--[ RSA 2048]----+ | E. | | . . | | o . | | . .| | S . . | | + o o ..| | * * +oo| | O +..=| | o* o.| +-----------------+
By default, the permissions of the
directory are set torwx------
expressed in octal notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be confirmed with the following command:~]$ ls -ld ~/.ssh drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
To copy the public key to a remote machine, issue a command in the following format:
ssh-copy-id user@hostname
This will copy the most recently modified
public key if it is not yet installed. Alternatively, specify the public key's file name as follows:ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub user@hostname
This will copy the content of
into the~/.ssh/authorized_keys
file on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its end.
To generate an ECDSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol, follow these steps:
Generate an ECDSA key pair by typing the following at a shell prompt:
~]$ ssh-keygen -t ecdsa Generating public/private ecdsa key pair. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa):
Press Enter to confirm the default location,
, for the newly created key. -
Enter a passphrase, and confirm it by entering it again when prompted to do so. For security reasons, avoid using the same password as you use to log in to your account.
After this, you will be presented with a message similar to this:
Your identification has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa. Your public key has been saved in /home/USER/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub. The key fingerprint is: SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 firstname.lastname@example.com The key's randomart image is: +--[ECDSA 256]---+ | .+ +o | | . =.o | | o o + ..| | + + o +| | S o o oE.| | + oo+.| | + o | | | | | +-----------------+
By default, the permissions of the
directory are set torwx------
expressed in octal notation. This is to ensure that only the USER can view the contents. If required, this can be confirmed with the following command:~]$ ls -ld ~/.ssh ~]$ ls -ld ~/.ssh/ drwx------. 2 USER USER 54 Nov 25 16:56 /home/USER/.ssh/
To copy the public key to a remote machine, issue a command in the following format:
ssh-copy-id USER@hostname
This will copy the most recently modified
public key if it is not yet installed. Alternatively, specify the public key's file name as follows:ssh-copy-id -i ~/.ssh/id_ecdsa.pub USER@hostname
This will copy the content of
into the~/.ssh/authorized_keys
on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file already exists, the keys are appended to its end.
See Configuring ssh-agent for information on how to set up your system to remember the passphrase.
Never share your private key
The private key is for your personal use only, and it is important that you never give it to anyone. |
Configuring ssh-agent
To store your passphrase so that you do not have to enter it each time you initiate a connection with a remote machine, you can use the ssh-agent authentication agent.
To save your passphrase for a certain shell prompt, use the following command:
~]$ ssh-add Enter passphrase for /home/USER/.ssh/id_rsa:
Note that when you log out, your passphrase will be forgotten. You must execute the command each time you log in to a virtual console or a terminal window.
Using OpenSSH Certificate Authentication
Introduction to SSH Certificates
Using public key cryptography for authentication requires copying the public key from every client to every server that the client intends to log into. This system does not scale well and can be an administrative burden. Using a public key from a certificate authority (CA) to authenticate client certificates removes the need to copy keys between multiple systems. While the X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate system provides a solution to this issue, there is a submission and validation process, with associated fees, to go through in order to get a certificate signed. As an alternative, OpenSSH supports the creation of simple certificates and associated CA infrastructure.
OpenSSH certificates contain a public key, identity information, and validity constraints. They are signed with a standard SSH public key using the ssh-keygen utility. The format of the certificate is described in /usr/share/doc/openssh-version/PROTOCOL.certkeys
The ssh-keygen utility supports two types of certificates: user and host. User certificates authenticate users to servers, whereas host certificates authenticate server hosts to users. For certificates to be used for user or host authentication, sshd
must be configured to trust the CA public key.
Support for SSH Certificates
Support for certificate authentication of users and hosts using the new OpenSSH certificate format was introduced in Fedora 13, in the openssh-5.4p1-1.fc13 package. If required, to ensure the latest OpenSSH package is installed, enter the following command as root
~]# dnf install openssh Last metadata expiration check performed 0:58:01 ago on Sun Sep 6 16:07:22 2020. Package openssh-7.1p1-1.fc23.x86_64 is already installed, skipping.
Creating SSH CA Certificate Signing Keys
Two types of certificates are required, host certificates and user certificates. It is considered better to have two separate keys for signing the two certificates, for example ca_user_key
and ca_host_key
, however it is possible to use just one CA key to sign both certificates. It is also easier to follow the procedures if separate keys are used, so the examples that follow will use separate keys.
The basic format of the command to sign user's public key to create a user certificate is as follows:
ssh-keygen -s ca_user_key -I certificate_ID id_rsa.pub
Where -s
indicates the private key used to sign the certificate, -I
indicates an identity string, the certificate_ID, which can be any alpha numeric value. It is stored as a zero terminated string in the certificate. The certificate_ID is logged whenever the certificate is used for identification and it is also used when revoking a certificate. Having a long value would make logs hard to read, therefore using the host name for host certificates and the user name for user certificates is a safe choice.
To sign a host's public key to create a host certificate, add the -h
ssh-keygen -s ca_host_key -I certificate_ID -h ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
Host keys are generated on the system by default, to list the keys, enter a command as follows:
~]# ls -l /etc/ssh/ssh_host* -rw-------. 1 root root 668 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 590 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 963 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 627 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 1671 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 382 Jul 9 2014 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
It is recommended to create and store CA keys in a safe place just as with any other private key. In these examples the |
On the server designated to be the CA, generate two keys for use in signing certificates. These are the keys that all other hosts need to trust. Choose suitable names, for example
. To generate the user certificate signing key, enter the following command asroot
:~]# ssh-keygen -t rsa -f ~/.ssh/ca_user_key Generating public/private rsa key pair. Created directory '/root/.ssh'. Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase): Enter same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /root/.ssh/ca_user_key. Your public key has been saved in /root/.ssh/ca_user_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 root@host_name.example.com The key's randomart image is: +--[ RSA 2048]----+ | .+. o| | . o +.| | o + . . o| | o + . . ..| | S . ... *| | . . . .*.| | = E .. | | . o . | | . | +-----------------+
Generate a host certificate signing key,
, as follows:~]# ssh-keygen -t rsa -f ~/.ssh/ca_host_key Generating public/private rsa key pair. Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase): Enter same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /root/.ssh/ca_host_key. Your public key has been saved in /root/.ssh/ca_host_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 root@host_name.example.com The key's randomart image is: +--[ RSA 2048]----+ | .. | | . ....| | . . o +oo| | o . o *o| | S = .| | o. .| | *.E. | | +o= | | .oo. | +-----------------+
If required, confirm the permissions are correct:
~]# ls -la ~/.ssh total 40 drwxrwxrwx. 2 root root 4096 May 22 13:18 . dr-xr-x---. 3 root root 4096 May 8 08:34 .. -rw-------. 1 root root 1743 May 22 13:15 ca_host_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 420 May 22 13:15 ca_host_key.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 1743 May 22 13:14 ca_user_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 420 May 22 13:14 ca_user_key.pub -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 854 May 8 05:55 known_hosts -r--------. 1 root root 1671 May 6 17:13 ssh_host_rsa -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 1370 May 7 14:30 ssh_host_rsa-cert.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 420 May 6 17:13 ssh_host_rsa.pub
Create the CA server's own host certificate by signing the server's host public key together with an identification string such as the host name, the CA server's fully qualified domain name (FQDN) but without the trailing
, and a validity period. The command takes the following form:ssh-keygen -s ~/.ssh/ca_host_key -I certificate_ID -h -n host_name.example.com -V -start:+end /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa.pub
option restricts this certificate to a specific host within the domain. The-V
option is for adding a validity period; this is highly recommend. Where the validity period is intended to be one year, fifty two weeks, consider the need for time to change the certificates and any holiday periods around the time of certificate expiry.For example:
~]# ssh-keygen -s ~/.ssh/ca_host_key -I host_name -h -n host_name.example.com -V -1w:+54w5d /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa.pub Enter passphrase: Signed host key /root/.ssh/ssh_host_rsa-cert.pub: id "host_name" serial 0 for host_name.example.com valid from 2020-05-15T13:52:29 to 2021-06-08T13:52:29
Distributing and Trusting SSH CA Public Keys
Hosts that are to allow certificate authenticated log in from users must be configured to trust the CA's public key that was used to sign the user certificates, in order to authenticate user's certificates. In this example that is the ca_user_key.pub
Publish the ca_user_key.pub
key and download it to all hosts that are required to allow remote users to log in. Alternately, copy the CA user public key to all the hosts. In a production environment, consider copying the public key to an administrator account first. The secure copy command can be used to copy the public key to remote hosts. The command has the following format:
scp ~/.ssh/ca_user_key.pub root@host_name.example.com:/etc/ssh/
Where host_name is the host name of a server the is required to authenticate user's certificates presented during the login process. Ensure you copy the public key not the private key. For example, as root
~]# scp ~/.ssh/ca_user_key.pub root@host_name.example.com:/etc/ssh/ The authenticity of host 'host_name.example.com (10.34.74.56)' can't be established. ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:ZYEUaevOAEASvYjm58PiPdMebxhhlaTZBjTMr/N2I3c. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no/[fingerprint])? yes Warning: Permanently added 'host_name.example.com,10.34.74.56' (ECDSA) to the list of known hosts. root@host_name.example.com's password: ca_user_key.pub 100% 420 0.4KB/s 00:00
For remote user authentication, CA keys can be marked as trusted per-user in the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
file using the cert-authority directive or for global use by means of the TrustedUserCAKeys directive in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config
file. For remote host authentication, CA keys can be marked as trusted globally in the /etc/ssh/known_hosts
file or per-user in the ~/.ssh/ssh_known_hosts
For user certificates which have one or more principles listed, and where the setting is to have global effect, edit the
file as follows:TrustedUserCAKeys /etc/ssh/ca_user_key.pub
to make the changes take effect:~]#{nbsp}systemctl restart sshd.service
To avoid being presented with the warning about an unknown host, a user's system must trust the CA's public key that was used to sign the host certificates. In this example that is ca_host_key.pub
Extract the contents of the public key used to sign the host certificate. For example, on the CA:
cat ~/.ssh/ca_host_key.pub ssh-rsa AAAAB5Wm.== email@example.com
To configure client systems to trust servers' signed host certificates, add the contents of the
into the globalknown_hosts
file. This will automatically check a server's host advertised certificate against the CA public key for all users every time a new machine is connected to in the domain*.example.com
. Login asroot
and configure the/etc/ssh/ssh_known_hosts
file, as follows:~]# vi /etc/ssh/ssh_known_hosts # A CA key, accepted for any host in *.example.com @cert-authority *.example.com ssh-rsa AAAAB5Wm.
ssh-rsa AAAAB5Wm.
is the contents ofca_host_key.pub
. The above configures the system to trust the CA servers host public key. This enables global authentication of the certificates presented by hosts to remote users.
Creating SSH Certificates
A certifcate is a signed public key. The user's and host's public keys must be copied to the CA server for signing by the CA server's private key.
Copying many keys to the CA to be signed can create confusion if they are not uniquely named. If the default name is always used then the latest key to be copied will overwrite the previously copied key, which may be an acceptable method for one administrator. In the example below the default name is used. In a production environment, consider using easily recognizable names. It is recommend to have a designated directory on the CA server owned by an administrative user for the keys to be copied into. Copying these keys to the |
Create an administrator account, in this example admin
, and a directory to receive the user's keys. For example:
~]$ mkdir keys
Set the permissions to allow keys to be copied in:
~]$ chmod o+w keys ls -la keys total 8 drwxrwxrwx. 2 admin admin 4096 May 22 16:17 . drwx------. 3 admin admin 4096 May 22 16:17 ..
Creating SSH Certificates to Authenticate Hosts
The command to sign a host certificate has the following format:
ssh-keygen -s ca_host_key -I host_name -h ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
The host certificate will named ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub
To authenticate a host to a user, a public key must be generated on the host, passed to the CA server, signed by the CA, and then passed back to be stored on the host to present to a user attempting to log into the host.
Host keys are generated automatically on the system. To list them enter the following command:
~]# ls -l /etc/ssh/ssh_host* -rw-------. 1 root root 668 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 590 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 963 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 627 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub -rw-------. 1 root root 1679 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key -rw-r--r--. 1 root root 382 May 6 14:38 /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
Copy the chosen public key to the server designated as the CA. For example, from the host:
~]# scp /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub email@example.com:~/keys/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub The authenticity of host 'ca-server.example.com (10.34.74.58)' can't be established. ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:ZYEUaevOAEASvYjm58PiPdMebxhhlaTZBjTMr/N2I3c. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no/[fingerprint])? yes Warning: Permanently added 'ca-server.example.com,10.34.74.58' (RSA) to the list of known hosts. email@example.com's password: ssh_host_rsa_key.pub 100% 382 0.4KB/s 00:00
Alternately, from the CA:
~]$ scp root@host_name.example.com:/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub ~/keys/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
On the CA server, sign the host's public key. For example, as
:~]# ssh-keygen -s ~/.ssh/ca_host_key -I host_name -h -n host_name.example.com -V -1d:+54w /home/admin/keys/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub Enter passphrase: Signed host key /home/admin/keys/ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub: id "host_name" serial 0 for host_name.example.com valid from 2020-05-26T12:21:54 to 2021-06-08T12:21:54
Where host_name is the host name of the system requiring the certificate.
Copy the certificate to the host. For example, from the CA:
~]# scp /home/admin/keys/ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub root@host_name.example.com:/etc/ssh/ root@host_name.example.com's password: ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub 100% 1384 1.5KB/s 00:00
Configure the host to present the certificate to a user's system when a user initiates the login process. As
, edit the/etc/ssh/sshd_config
file as follows:HostCertificate /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub
to make the changes take effect:~]#{nbsp}systemctl restart sshd.service
On user's systems. remove keys belonging to hosts from the
file if the user has previously logged into the host configured above. When a user logs into the host they should no longer be presented with the warning about the hosts authenticity.
To test the host certificate, on a client system, ensure the client has set up the global /etc/ssh/known_hosts
file, as described in Trusting the Host Signing Key, and that the server's public key is not in the ~/.ssh/known_hosts
file. Then attempt to log into the server over SSH as a remote user. You should not see a warning about the authenticity of the host. If required, add the -v
option to the SSH command to see logging information.
Creating SSH Certificates for Authenticating Users
To sign a user's certificate, use a command in the following format:
ssh-keygen -s ca_user_key -I user_name -n user_name -V -start:+end id_rsa.pub
The resulting certificate will be named id_rsa-cert.pub
The default behavior of OpenSSH is that a user is allowed to log in as a remote user if one of the principals specified in the certificate matches the remote user's name. This can be adjusted in the following ways:
Add more user's names to the certificate during the signing process using the
option:-n "name1[,name2,...]"
On the user's system, add the public key of the CA in the
file using the cert-authority directive and list the principals names as follows:~]# vi ~/.ssh/authorized_keys # A CA key, accepted for any host in *.example.com @cert-authority principals="name1,name2" *.example.com ssh-rsa AAAAB5Wm.
On the server, create an
file, either per user or glabally, and add the principles' names to the file for those users allowed to log in. Then in the/etc/ssh/sshd_config
file, specify the file using the AuthorizedPrincipalsFile directive.
To authenticate a user to a remote host, a public key must be generated by the user, passed to the CA server, signed by the CA, and then passed back to be stored by the user for use when logging in to a host.
On client systems, login as the user who requires the certificate. Check for available keys as follows:
~]$ ls -l ~/.ssh/
If no suitable public key exists, generate one and set the directory permissions if the directory is not the default directory. For example, enter the following command:
~]$ ssh-keygen -t rsa Generating public/private rsa key pair. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user1/.ssh/id_rsa): Created directory '/home/user1/.ssh'. Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase): Enter same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user1/.ssh/id_rsa. Your public key has been saved in /home/user1/.ssh/id_rsa.pub. The key fingerprint is: SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 firstname.lastname@example.com The key's randomart image is: +--[ RSA 2048]----+ | oo++. | | o.o.o. | | .o o . | | oo . o | | . oo.S | | o=.. | | .Eo+ | | .= | | .. | +-----------------+
By default the directory permissions for a user's keys are
, or octal 0700. If required, confirm the permissions are correct:~]$ ls -la ~/.ssh total 16 drwx------. 2 user1 user1 4096 May 7 12:37 . drwx------. 3 user1 user1 4096 May 7 12:37 .. -rw-------. 1 user1 user1 1679 May 7 12:37 id_rsa -rw-r--r--. 1 user1 user1 421 May 7 12:37 id_rsa.pub
See Using Key-based Authentication for more examples of key generation and for instructions on setting the correct directory permissions.
The chosen public key must be copied to the server designated as the CA, in order to be signed. The secure copy command can be used to do this, the command has the following format:
scp ~/.ssh/id_protocol.pub admin@ca_server.example.com:~/keys/
Where protocol is the part of the file name indicating the protocol used to generate the key, for example
, admin is an account on the CA server, and /keys/ is a directory setup to receive the keys to be signed.Copy the chosen public key to the server designated as the CA. For example:
~]$ scp ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub email@example.com:~/keys/ firstname.lastname@example.com's password: id_rsa.pub 100% 421 0.4KB/s 00:00
If you have configured the client system to trust the host signing key as described in Trusting the Host Signing Key then you should not see a warning about the authenticity of the remote host.
On the CA server, sign the user's public key. For example, as
:~]# ssh-keygen -s ~/.ssh/ca_user_key -I user1 -n user1 -V -1d:+54w /home/admin/keys/id_rsa.pub Enter passphrase: Signed user key /home/admin/keys/id_rsa-cert.pub: id "user1" serial 0 for host_name.example.com valid from 2020-05-21T16:43:17 to 2021-06-03T16:43:17
Copy the resulting certificate to the user's
directory on their system. For example:~]# scp /home/admin/keys/id_rsa-cert.pub user1@host_name.example.com:~/.ssh/ user1@host_name.example.com's password: id_rsa-cert.pub 100% 1498 1.5KB/s 00:00
If using the standard file names and location then no further configuration is required as the SSH daemon will search for user certificates ending in
and use them automatically if it finds them. Note that the default location and file names for for SSH version 2 keys are:~/.ssh/id_dsa
as explained in thessh_config(5)
manual page. If you use these locations and naming conventions then there is no need for editing the configuration files to enablesshd
to present the certificate. They will be used automatically when logging in to a remote system. In this is the case then skip to step 6.If required to use a non-default directory or file naming convention, then as
, add the following line to the/etc/ssh/ssh_config
files:IdentityFile ~/path/key_file
Note that this must be the private key name, do not had
. Ensure the file permission are correct. For example:~]$ ls -la ~/.ssh/config -rw-rw-r--. 1 user1 user1 36 May 27 21:49 /home/user1/.ssh/config chmod 700 ~/.ssh/config ~]$ ls -la ~/.ssh/config -rwx------. 1 user1 user1 36 May 27 21:49 /home/user1/.ssh/config
This will enable the user of this system to be authenticated by a user certificate when logging into a remote system configured to trust the CA user certificate signing key.
To test the user certificate, attempt to log into a server over SSH from the user's account. You should do this as the user listed as a principle in the certificate, if any are specified. You should not be prompted for a password. If required, add the
option to the SSH command to see logging information.
Signing an SSH Certificate Using a PKCS#11 Token
It is possible to sign a host key using a CA key stored in a PKCS#11 token by providing the token library using the -D
and identifying the CA key by providing its public half as an argument to the -s
ssh-keygen -s ca_host_key.pub -D libpkcs11.so -I certificate_ID host_key.pub
In all cases, certificate_ID is a "key identifier" that is logged by the server when the certificate is used for authentication.
Certificates may be configured to be valid only for a set of users or host names, the principals. By default, generated certificates are valid for all users or hosts. To generate a certificate for a specified set of principals, use a comma separated list with the -n
option as follows:
ssh-keygen -s ca_user_key.pub -D libpkcs11.so -I certificate_ID -n user1,user2 id_rsa.pub
and for hosts:
ssh-keygen -s ca_host_key.pub -D libpkcs11.so -I certificate_ID -h -n host.domain ssh_host_rsa_key.pub
Additional limitations on the validity and use of user certificates may be specified through certificate options.
A certificate option may disable features of the SSH session, may be valid only when presented from particular
source addresses or may force the use of a specific command. For a list of valid certificate options, see the
manual page for the -O
Certificates may be defined to be valid for a specific lifetime. The -V
option allows specifying a certificates
start and end times. For example:
ssh-keygen -s ca_user_key -I certificate_ID -V "-1w:+54w5d" id_rsa.pub
A certificate that is presented at a time outside this range will not be considered valid. By default, certificates are valid indefinitely starting from UNIX Epoch.
Viewing an SSH CA Certificate
To view a certificate, use the -L
to list the contents. For example, for a user's certificate:
~]$ ssh-keygen -L -f ~/.ssh/id_rsa-cert.pub /home/user1/.ssh/id_rsa-cert.pub: Type: email@example.com user certificate Public key: RSA-CERT SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 Signing CA: RSA SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 Key ID: "user1" Serial: 0 Valid: from 2020-05-27T00:09:16 to 2021-06-09T00:09:16 Principals: user1 Critical Options: (none) Extensions: permit-X11-forwarding permit-agent-forwarding permit-port-forwarding permit-pty permit-user-rc
To vew a host certificate:
~]# ssh-keygen -L -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key-cert.pub: Type: email@example.com host certificate Public key: RSA-CERT SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 Signing CA: RSA SHA256:y6f0DGlHe28YWotEypnhfk3WLYQ5TgaQwoSlOFwmmm0 Key ID: "host_name" Serial: 0 Valid: from 2020-05-26T17:19:01 to 2021-06-08T17:19:01 Principals: host_name.example.com Critical Options: (none) Extensions: (none)
Revoking an SSH CA Certificate
If a certificate is stolen, it should be revoked. Although OpenSSH does not provide a mechanism to distribute the revocation list it is still easier to create the revocation list and distribute it by other means then to change the CA keys and all host and user certificates previously created and distributed.
Keys can be revoked by adding them to the revoked_keys
file and specifying the file name in the sshd_config
file as follows:
RevokedKeys /etc/ssh/revoked_keys
Note that if this file is not readable, then public key authentication will be refused for all users.
A new key revocation list can be generated as follows:
~]$ ssh-keygen -kf /etc/ssh/revoked_keys -z 1 ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
To add lines to the list, use the -u
option to update the list:
ssh-keygen -ukf /etc/ssh/revoked_keys -z integer ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
where integer is the line number.
To test if a key has been revoked, query the revocation list for the presence of the key. Use a command as follows:
ssh-keygen -Qf /etc/ssh/revoked_keys ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
A user can revoke a CA certificate by changing the cert-authority directive to revoke in the known_hosts
OpenSSH Clients
Make sure you have relevant packages installed
To connect to an OpenSSH server from a client machine, you must have the openssh-clients package installed. See Installing Packages for more information on how to install new packages in Fedora 32. |
Using the ssh Utility
The ssh utility allows you to log in to a remote machine and execute commands there. It is a secure replacement for the rlogin, rsh, and telnet programs.
Similarly to the telnet command, log in to a remote machine by using the following command:
ssh hostname
For example, to log in to a remote machine named penguin.example.com
, type the following at a shell prompt:
~]$ ssh penguin.example.com
This will log you in with the same user name you are using on the local machine. If you want to specify a different user name, use a command in the following form:
ssh username@hostname
For example, to log in to penguin.example.com
as USER
, type:
~]$ ssh email@example.com
The first time you initiate a connection, you will be presented with a message similar to this:
The authenticity of host 'penguin.example.com' can't be established. ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:ZYEUaevOAEASvYjm58PiPdMebxhhlaTZBjTMr/N2I3c. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no/[fingerprint])?
Users should always check if the fingerprint is correct before answering the question in this dialog. The user can ask the administrator of the server to confirm the key is correct. This should be done in a secure and previously agreed way. If the user has access to the server's host keys, the fingerprint can be checked by using the ssh-keygen command as follows:
~]# ssh-keygen -l -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_ecdsa_key.pub 256 SHA256:ZYEUaevOAEASvYjm58PiPdMebxhhlaTZBjTMr/N2I3c no comment (ECDSA)
Type yes
to accept the key and confirm the connection. You will see a notice that the server has been added to the list of known hosts, and a prompt asking for your password:
Warning: Permanently added 'penguin.example.com' (ECDSA) to the list of known hosts. email@example.com's password:
Updating the host key of an SSH server
If the SSH server's host key changes, the client notifies the user that the connection cannot proceed until the server's host key is deleted from the To remove a key from the ~]# ssh-keygen -R penguin.example.com # Host penguin.example.com found: line 15 type ECDSA /home/USER/.ssh/known_hosts updated. Original contents retained as /home/USER/.ssh/known_hosts.old |
After entering the password, you will be provided with a shell prompt for the remote machine.
Alternatively, the ssh program can be used to execute a command on the remote machine without logging in to a shell prompt:
ssh username@hostname command
For example, the /etc/redhat-release
file provides information about the Fedora version. To view the contents of this file on penguin.example.com
, type:
~]$ ssh firstname.lastname@example.com cat /etc/redhat-release email@example.com's password: Fedora release 31 (Thirty One)
After you enter the correct password, the user name will be displayed, and you will return to your local shell prompt.
Using the scp Utility
scp can be used to transfer files between machines over a secure, encrypted connection. In its design, it is very similar to rcp.
To transfer a local file to a remote system, use a command in the following form:
scp localfile username@hostname:remotefile
For example, if you want to transfer taglist.vim
to a remote machine named penguin.example.com
, type the following at a shell prompt:
~]$ scp taglist.vim firstname.lastname@example.com:.vim/plugin/taglist.vim firstname.lastname@example.com's password: taglist.vim 100% 144KB 144.5KB/s 00:00
Multiple files can be specified at once. To transfer the contents of .vim/plugin/
to the same directory on the remote machine penguin.example.com
, type the following command:
~]$ scp .vim/plugin/* email@example.com:.vim/plugin/ email@example.com's password: closetag.vim 100% 13KB 12.6KB/s 00:00 snippetsEmu.vim 100% 33KB 33.1KB/s 00:00 taglist.vim 100% 144KB 144.5KB/s 00:00
To transfer a remote file to the local system, use the following syntax:
scp username@hostname:remotefile localfile
For instance, to download the .vimrc
configuration file from the remote machine, type:
~]$ scp firstname.lastname@example.com:.vimrc .vimrc email@example.com's password: .vimrc 100% 2233 2.2KB/s 00:00
The SCP protocol is not well designed and can cause unexpected results. In the past it was source of several CVEs where malicious server could override files in local filesystem when downloading files. It is recommended to use SFTP when possible. See the next section for more information. |
Using the sftp Utility
The sftp utility can be used to open a secure, interactive SFTP session. In its design, it is similar to ftp except that it uses a secure, encrypted connection.
To connect to a remote system, use a command in the following form:
sftp username@hostname
For example, to log in to a remote machine named penguin.example.com
with USER
as a user name, type:
~]$ sftp email@example.com email@example.com's password: Connected to penguin.example.com. sftp>
After you enter the correct password, you will be presented with a prompt. The sftp utility accepts a set of commands similar to those used by ftp (see A selection of available sftp commands).
Command | Description |
ls [directory] |
List the content of a remote directory. If none is supplied, a current working directory is used by default. |
cd directory |
Change the remote working directory to directory. |
mkdir directory |
Create a remote directory. |
rmdir directory |
Remove a remote directory. |
put localfile [remotefile] |
Transfer localfile to a remote machine. |
get remotefile [localfile] |
Transfer remotefile from a remote machine. |
For a complete list of available commands, see the sftp
(1) manual page.
More Than a Secure Shell
A secure command line interface is just the beginning of the many ways SSH can be used. Given the proper amount of bandwidth, X11 sessions can be directed over an SSH channel. Or, by using TCP/IP forwarding, previously insecure port connections between systems can be mapped to specific SSH channels.
X11 Forwarding
To open an X11 session over an SSH connection, use a command in the following form:
ssh -Y username@hostname
For example, to log in to a remote machine named penguin.example.com
with USER
as a user name, type:
~]$ ssh -Y email@example.com firstname.lastname@example.com's password:
When an X program is run from the secure shell prompt, the SSH client and server create a new secure channel, and the X program data is sent over that channel to the client machine transparently.
Note that the X Window system must be installed on the remote system before X11 forwarding can take place. Enter the following command as root
to install the X11 package group:
~]# dnf group install "X Window System"
X11 forwarding can be very useful. For example, X11 forwarding can be used to create a secure, interactive session of the Print Settings utility. To do this, connect to the server using ssh and type:
~]$ system-config-printer &
The Print Settings tool will appear, allowing the remote user to safely configure printing on the remote system.
Port Forwarding
SSH can secure otherwise insecure TCP/IP
protocols via port forwarding. When using this technique, the SSH server becomes an encrypted conduit to the SSH client.
Port forwarding works by mapping a local port on the client to a remote port on the server. SSH can map any port from the server to any port on the client. Port numbers do not need to match for this technique to work.
Using reserved port numbers
Setting up port forwarding to listen on ports below 1024 requires |
To create a TCP/IP port forwarding channel which listens for connections on the localhost
, use a command in the following form:
ssh -L local-port:remote-hostname:remote-port username@hostname
For example, to check email on a server called mail.example.com
using POP3
through an encrypted connection, use the following command:
~]$ ssh -L 1100:mail.example.com:110 mail.example.com
Once the port forwarding channel is in place between the client machine and the mail server, direct a POP3 mail client to use port 1100
on the localhost
to check for new email. Any requests sent to port 1100
on the client system will be directed securely to the mail.example.com
If mail.example.com
is not running an SSH server, but another machine on the same network is, SSH can still be used to secure part of the connection. However, a slightly different command is necessary:
~]$ ssh -L 1100:mail.example.com:110 other.example.com
In this example, POP3 requests from port 1100
on the client machine are forwarded through the SSH connection on port 22
to the SSH server, other.example.com
. Then, other.example.com
connects to port 110
on mail.example.com
to check for new email. Note that when using this technique, only the connection between the client system and other.example.com
SSH server is secure.
Port forwarding can also be used to get information securely through network firewalls. If the firewall is configured to allow SSH traffic via its standard port (that is, port 22) but blocks access to other ports, a connection between two hosts using the blocked ports is still possible by redirecting their communication over an established SSH connection.
A connection is only as secure as a client system
Using port forwarding to forward connections in this manner allows any user on the client system to connect to that service. If the client system becomes compromised, the attacker also has access to forwarded services. System administrators concerned about port forwarding can disable this functionality on the server by specifying a |
Additional Resources
For more information on how to configure or connect to an OpenSSH server on Fedora, see the resources listed below.
(8) — The manual page for thesshd
daemon documents available command line options and provides a complete list of supported configuration files and directories. -
(1) — The manual page for the ssh client application provides a complete list of available command line options and supported configuration files and directories. -
(1) — The manual page for the scp utility provides a more detailed description of this utility and its usage. -
(1) — The manual page for the sftp utility. -
(1) — The manual page for the ssh-keygen utility documents in detail how to use it to generate, manage, and convert authentication keys used by ssh. -
(5) — The manual page namedssh_config
documents available SSH client configuration options. -
(5) — The manual page namedsshd_config
provides a full description of available SSH daemon configuration options.
OpenSSH Home Page — The OpenSSH home page containing further documentation, frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, bug reports, and other useful resources.
OpenSSL Home Page — The OpenSSL home page containing further documentation, frequently asked questions, links to the mailing lists, and other useful resources.
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Wine is an alcoholic drink that is primarily made by fermenting grapes. Most of us are familiar with the term red wine and white wine. But there many styles of wine that are typically defined by the grape variety and region. For instance of the white variety some common types include Riesling, Pinot Gris, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Of the red varieties common types include Pinot Noir, Zinfandel, Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon. All of these wines have their own distinct flavor, aroma and appearance.
Making wine at home is not only easy it's incredibly rewarding! If you're just starting out winemaking we suggest taking a look at our wine kits. The juice comes in a concentrated form and the wine is usually bottled after 6-10 weeks. We also carry Brehm frozen fruit that allows the winemaker to start with grapes from World Class vineyards and press the juice themselves. Have your own grapes? We got you covered! Not only do we have everything to harvest grapes and make wine, we have a vast knowledge base and experienced team to help you through the process.
There is an old saying "It takes a lot of great beer to make great wine". As brewers and beer lovers we also have a passion for winemaking. The science of wine fermentation and the art of blending is not only immensely fascinating it's very applicable to beer. Many brewers are starting to blend wine and beer by using the pummace or lees in their beers. Not to mention used wine barrels add some amazing flavor to many styles of beer.
Looking for a winemaking only website? Click here, to check out our sister site MoreWine!


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Modules are small blocks of content that can be displayed in positions on a web page. The menus on this site are displayed in modules. The core of Joomla! includes 24 separate modules ranging from login to search to random images. Each module has a name that starts mod_ but when it displays it has a title. In the descriptions in this section, the titles are the same as the names.
Templates give your site its look and feel. They determine layout, colours, typefaces, graphics and other aspects of design that make your site unique. Your installation of Joomla comes prepackaged with three front end templates and two backend templates. Help


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Many people struggle with what color to choose for a custom designer wardrobe for bedroom. It is recommended to choose light colors for the wardrobe. If the color is too dark, such as gray wardrobe, black wardrobe, etc., it will make people feel depressed for a long time. The color is too bright and not good. Over time, it will cause visual fatigue, make people feel irritable, and also affect sleep. Light colors help to relax the mind and calm the mind. It is recommended to use light-colored wardrobes, white wardrobes, beige wardrobes, beige, pink jade and other colors that are warmer and conducive to rest and sleep.
Designer Wardrobes
Wardrobes & Walk-in Closets - Hinged & Black & Matte & Traditional
China Custom Designer Wardrobes & Walk-in Closets for bedroom in OPPEIN
+ Customize Your Closet in OPPEIN
As one of the best wardrobe closet factories and companies in China, OPPEIN offers three wardrobe types to match the various preferences of our customers. These are sliding-type wardrobes, hinged-type wardrobes, and walk-in-type wardrobes. If you are looking for a modern storage solution and don't need too much space in front, then a sliding type is ideal for your taste. If you prefer a traditional option and want to see the whole closet, then the hinged type is an appropriate choice. But if you really want to buy a wardrobe and make room for more essential items, then a walk-in closet is the best dressing room option.
You can get your custom designer wardrobe and walk-in closet for bedroom here in OPPEIN. The fun part is that you can customize your own closet and even its storage accessories. More than that, we offer additional services, such as design, measurement, package, shipment, installation, and warranty. So if you like to start planning on your project, we can help you sort out what you really want with a reasonable closet price. Check out our recent offers in the product section and contact us today!


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Is It Just Back Pain in White Marsh MD?
If you have experienced back pain in your life you are part of an overwhelming majority in White Marsh MD. Most of us will experience back pain at one time or another following heavy or awkward lifting, or after a hard workout. If the pain is coming from a strained muscle, it will most likely resolve itself in a few days of rest. If the pain is not muscular, well, then you have a bigger problem to contend with, most likely a spinal disc injury. Our White Marsh MD chiropractor can help.
These injuries are not uncommon and can be extremely painful. It is important to understand the anatomy of the spine, including the disc, and how they play a part in your overall spinal health. Especially in cases when they are herniated or thinning due to a degenerative disease like arthritis.
The Spinal Disc in White Marsh MD
There is a cushion between each of the vertebrae, they are called intervertebral discs. They are a cartilage type composition with a soft gel-like center and a stronger shell, ligamentous wall, encapsulating the entire disc. They are attached to the vertebrae acting as a type of shock-absorber and cushion to keep the vertebrae from rubbing together. Not only do they guard against impact they play a vital role in keeping the spine flexible as well as extremely strong.
When a disc is protruding or bulging, the gel at the center of the disc is starting to push out against the harder outer shell or ligamentous wall of the disc, but this wall has not yet been torn. Statistics reveal that nearly 60% of adults do actually have one or more bulging discs, but they are asymptomatic meaning they are not experiencing any symptoms of pain. Once the interior gel begins to tear the outer ligamentous wall, the disc has progressed from what is considered protruding to herniated. Any bulging or herniation of the disc can result in nerve irritation, inflammation, potential numbness, and quite often severe pain.
A ruptured disc or disc extrusion is a serious condition that results when the interior gel completely tears through the harder ligamentous wall of the disc. As the gel escapes severe back pain and extremely restricted movement can be the outcome.
Take the first step toward relief and regaining your quality of life! Call our White Marsh MD chiropractic team today to schedule a consultation to understand your condition and how to treat it conservatively.
9:00am - 12:00pm
2:00pm - 5:30pm
3:00pm - 6:30pm
3:00pm - 6:00pm
9:30am - 12:00pm
2:00pm - 5:00pm
Saturday & Sunday
*New patient visits take place outside of posted hours
Chiropractic Wellness Center of Baltimore
8100 Sandpiper Cir STE 102
Nottingham, MD 21236


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This wonderfully colorful "flower-petal" koma really spins for a long time.
Give this wooden koma a good twist and on and on it goes.
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The bang bang chicken that I made a few days ago reminded me of another one of my favourite Sichuan dishes, dan dan mian and that is not too surprising given how similar they are. Dan dan mian or dandan noodles is a Chinese Sichuan dish consisting of pork and preserved vegetables in a spicy chili oil based sauce with Sichuan peppercorns that is served over noodles. There are many different variations on dan dan noodles and one common one is to add sesame paste which makes the sauce very similar to the bang bang chicken sauce.
I first came across dan dan noodles on Appetite for China a number of years ago and I had to make it right away! Unfortunately I was never completely satisfied with the photo that I took to go along with the recipe so I seized the impending Chinese New Year as an excuse to update the photos! While I was doing some more research on dan dan mian I came across several photos where it looked like the sauce was much more broth-y almost like more of a soup as opposed to the thicker almost ragu like sauce that I had always encountered. I liked the sound of the more soup like version and so I added a bit more chicken broth to the recipe than I normally do and it turned out great!
The original, thicker sauced version is above, the more soup like sauce version is below and I definitely prefer the more soup like version! Slurping noodles is always fun and it is even better if they are in a broth! Serve with mouth cooling julienned cucumber or juicy steamed baby bok choy along with extra chili oil or sauce for those that like it hot!
Dan Dan Mian (Noodles in Spicy Chinese Peanut Pork Sauce)
Noodles in a tasty and spicy Chinese Sichuan chili, sesame and pork sauce.
- 1 pound ground pork
- 1 tablespoon shaoxing rice wine or dry sherry
- 1 tablespoon oil
- 2 tablespoons garlic, chopped
- 2 tablespoons ginger, grated
- 3 tablespoons sesame paste (or tahini or peanut butter)
- 3 tablespoons soy sauce (gluten free for gluten free)
- 2 tablespoon Chinkiang black rice vinegar
- 1 tablespoon sesame oil
- 1 tablespoon sugar
- 1-3 tablespoon chili oil or chili sauce
- 1 teaspoon Sichuan peppercorns, toasted and ground
- 4 tablespoons tianjin preserved vegetables (optional)
- 1/2+ cup chicken broth or chicken stock *
- 3/4 pound noodles, cooked (gluten free for gluten free)
- 2 green onions, sliced
- julienned cucumber to taste (optional)
- Cook the pork in a large pan over medium heat hitting it with a splash of rice wine, about 10 minutes and set aside.
- Heat the oil in the pan over medium heat, add the garlic and ginger and saute until fragrant, about a minute.
- Add the sesame paste, soy sauce, black rice vinegar, sesame oil, sugar, chili oil and Sichuan peppercorns and mix until smooth, about a minute.
- Add the pork, preserved vegetables and broth and simmer for 3 minutes.
- Divide the noodles between 4 bowls, top with the sauce, garnish with green onions and a side of cucumber and enjoy!
Note: Use 1/2 cup of chicken broth for the thicker version and 1 cup or more for the more soup like version.
Note: If you cannot find the sesame paste tahini or even peanut butter can be used as a substitute and if you use peanut butter, chopped peanuts are a great garnish that adds a nice crunchy texture.


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Berlin Country Club
Individual members of one or more golf clubs in the USA are given a unique number to use for posting scores.
Each individual should only have one number, which can be used worldwide.
Do you now or have you ever had a Handicap ID/GHIN Number?
Note: If you are renewing a membership, you already have a number
Yes, and I know what it is
I don't know if I've had one/don't remember what it is
No, I have never had one (this will create a new scoring record)


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What's worse than a sick pet? Three of them! Viruses and parasitic infections can quickly spread among your pets, making them feel miserable. Taking these preemptive steps when one of your furry friends shows signs of an illness can help you protect the health of the entire group.
Determine Who's Really Sick
Pets don't always show obvious signs of illness until they're very sick. The behavior stems from an instinctive desire to hide their illnesses from predators that tend to prey on weak animals. Unfortunately, those instincts may make it difficult to determine who's responsible for the puddle of vomit on your living room carpet or the pile of loose stools on the kitchen floor. Tracking down the culprit can be particularly difficult if your cats share litter boxes and you notice that one of them has developed diarrhea.
If you're not sure which of your pets is sick, separate them for the day. Place each of them in a separate room with adequate food or water. If you have cats or housetrained rabbits, be sure to include a litter box with fresh litter. Cover the floor with paper or wee mats to make clean up simple.
Although placing your dogs in their crates may seem like an easy way to determine which pet is sick, confining your pooches to small spaces may not be the best option if vomit or diarrhea is involved. In addition to cleaning the crate, you may also need to give your pet an emergency bath if he or she vomits or has an accident in the crate.
If you don't have enough room to separate each pet, sniff out the sick animal by process of elimination. Keep one pet in a separate room every day until you find out which of your furry friends isn't feeling well.
Prevent the Illness from Spreading
Whether one of your pets has a virus or a parasitic infection, there are a few things you can do to keep your other pets healthy, such as:
- Quarantining the Sick Pet. Place your pet in a quiet room stocked with a soft washable bed, food and water. Your pet needs extra attention during an illness. Be sure to make regular visits to the room to check on his or her condition and offer a few reassuring words.
- Washing Your Hands. Germs can linger on your hands after you pet your furry friend, clean up accidents or scoop the litter box. Wash your hands immediately after contact with a sick pet.
- Cleaning Bedding. Wash bedding, towels, food and water dishes and other items that your sick pet has touched to prevent the spread of disease. Don't forget to clean brushes too. If one pet has mange, the disease can quickly spread to other pets if you use the same brush to groom them.
- Using Separate Food and Water Bowls. Provide each pet with his or her own water and food bowl to prevent transmission of diseases through saliva.
- Finding a New Elimination Spot. Most dogs can't resist sniffing feces. Unfortunately, illnesses and germs can be transmitted when your pets check out a mound of freshly deposited stool. Germs can even linger in the grass after you've picked up stool. If your sick dog is well enough to eliminate outside, take him or her to a new spot far away from the usual elimination area in your yard.
- Keeping Vaccinations Up to Date. Vaccinations prevent your pets from developing a variety of illnesses, including distemper, rabies, bordetella and influenza. Because it takes a few weeks for your pet to build up immunity after receiving vaccines, it's important to ensure that all of your pets' immunizations are current.
- Treating Other Pets. In some cases, your other pets may need treatment, even if they display no signs of illness. For example, if one of your pets has tapeworms, chances are that they all do.
Preventing the spread of illnesses and infestations is particularly important if some of your pets are older or are very young. Because these animals tend to have weaker immune systems, it may be more difficult for them to fight off illnesses.
Are you concerned about your pets' health? We offer effective treatments for common diseases and illnesses and can provide immunizations that prevent your pet from becoming seriously ill. Call us to schedule an appointment for all of your furry friends.
Vet Street: Tips to Living with Multiple Pets, 10/1/12
PetMD: How to Quarantine Your Pet
ASPCA: Common Cat Diseases
AVMA: Disease Risks for Dogs in Social Setting


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COVID-19 Customer Update
Our customers' health and safety are our top priorities. Here at Central Valley Automotive, we are taking the necessary preventative measures to ensure that you and your family stay safe if you need to purchase a vehicle or bring in your current vehicle for service during this time. Currently, our dealership is open for business. We are taking the necessary precautions, and are confident that our dealership is a safe environment because of this. We're keeping a watchful eye on COVID-19 developments, and will continue to update you via our website during this time.
Preventative Measures We Are Taking
We have taken the necessary precautions to create a safe, healthy environment for our customers, and will continue to apply the preventative measures outlined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Please read on to learn about the steps we are taking to ensure your safety:
- Cleaning crews are working hard to disinfect our dealerships multiple times a day
- We will increase cleaning on touch-points including door knobs, handles, and countertops
- Hand sanitizer stations can be found throughout our dealership
- We will post guidelines for proper hand-washing techniques in each bathroom
- After each service, service technicians will fully wipe down your vehicle
- We will avoid unnecessary contact like handshakes by using other forms of greeting and following social distancing guidelines
- We will enforce procedures that encourage staff to stay home if they are feeling unwell or have been in contact with someone who is feeling unwell
- Staff will be kept up-to-date with any COVID-19 updates to ensure we're doing our part to minimize its impact
Take Advantage of Digital Retailing
Thanks to advancements in the automotive industry, you can all but buy a car from the comfort of your own home. Our staff would be happy to facilitate your vehicle purchase online so you don't even need to visit our dealership to buy a new car. Feel free to browse our new and used vehicle inventory online, shop our current vehicle specials, value your trade, and even secure financing online from your computer or mobile device.
To make the process even simpler, we are also happy to provide at-home test drives and home vehicle delivery. We are committed to working with our customers during this difficult time, and are more than willing to adjust our typical car-buying experience for you.
Thank You For Your Support & Patience
We'd like to personally thank each and every customer for their support and patience during this challenging time. If you have any questions or concerns regarding purchasing or servicing a vehicle during this time, please don't hesitate to contact us online or via phone. If you would like to stay informed on COVID-19 updates or learn more about preventative measures you can take to keep you and your family safe, please visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website.


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Canon FAXL9000 Printer Toner Cartridges
Compatible Canon Toner Value Pack
3 x Canon FX-4 Toner Cartridge
Brand: Generic
Duty Cycle: 4,000 pages
Special orderOur Price $161.90 Inc. GST ADD TO CART -
Compatible Canon Toner
1 x Canon FX-4 Toner Cartridge
Brand: Generic
Duty Cycle: 4,000 pages
Special orderOur Price $56.33 Inc. GST ADD TO CART -
Genuine Canon Toner
1 x Canon FX-4 Toner Cartridge
Brand: Canon
Duty Cycle: 4,000 Pages at 5% Coverage
Our Price $115.00 Inc. GST ADD TO CART
Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges
All printers need supplies and the Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 is no exception. By choosing to order from HotToner you have chosen to save!
Order Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges now
Use the 'Add to Basket' buttons above, next to the products you require, to start buying now. If online ordering is not for you, but our Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges offer is the right for you, then why not call us on 1300 88 55 68, and one of our friendly staff will handle your order personally. Thank you for choosing HotToner for your printer cartridges. We are your Printer Cartridge Specialist.
How can I pay?
We accept payment by Visa, Mastercard, Direct Bank Deposit, Internet Banking, Cheque and Australia Post Money Order. There is absolutely no surcharge for using credit card or any other payment methods. Credit card payments are securely processed by eWay, we do NOT store credit card details, and NO credit card data or information is stored on our site in any form.!
Note: Direct deposit and cheque payments require clearance before shipment
Our site uses 256bit encryption ensuring your credit card details remain safe.
How secure is Online for ordering?
Very secure. We use technology that ensures the confidentiality of all your personal details, including credit card information. The secure communication channel between our servers and your computer are provided by the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) standard protocol that is certified. Ordering via the internet is arguably much more secure than supplying your credit card details over the phone or the fax. However, should you wish to, transactions via phone or Fax are available.
We will never sell, rent or trade your personal information to an outside company. Some websites might offer lower prices, beware they might collectors for your personal information to on sell to others for marketing purposes. We will never do this. We only use your personal information to fulfill your order, and will not be shared.
When can I expect delivery of my Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges
We use FAST Australia Wide courier delivery and Express Post. Your Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges will usually be despatched from either the Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide or Perth Warehouse the same day if ordered before 3pm. As a general guide, deliveries to major cities will take 1 to 3 days whilst it could take up to 5 days for remote areas. FREE delivery for orders over $50.00 or only $5.95 for orders under $50.00. See shipping policy. page.
Buy High Standards and Low prices Canon FAXL9000 FAX-L9000 Cartridges here at HotToner and save!


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Is your eye doctor's appointment coming up? Are you worried about going to the eye clinic during the new coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic? Rest assured, keeping our patients and staff are safe is our top priority.
We anticipate that this outbreak will continue for a while, and do not want our patients to neglect their eye care needs during this critical time. Our optometric clinic is prudent and has adopted specific measures to protect our patients and staff from potential exposure to COVID-19 during this time of uncertainty.
That said, guidelines for slowing the spread of this epidemic are rapidly changing. Please pay close to attention to local regulatory changes to get the most up-to-date information on whether practices can still remain open/ accept non-emergency cases.
Here Are the Precautions Our Eye Clinic Is Taking to Limit COVID-19:
We employ a strict office policy that mandates that all eye doctors, opticians, office staff, and patients not enter if they are feeling unwell or have a fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, shortness of breath, or have been exposed to a known case of COVID-19 or traveled outside of the country within the last 14 days.
The staff may ask you to wait outside rather than in the waiting area in order to protect yourself and others from any circulating germs. Furthermore, we are trying to schedule our appointments in such a way that our waiting room remains as empty as possible.
During your eye exam:
- The eye doctor may use a special plastic barrier called a slit-lamp breath shield to block the exchange of breath between patient and doctor.
- The optometrist may wear a mask with a plastic shield over the eyes.
- The practitioner will wait for your slit-lamp eye exam to be over before speaking with you or answering any questions you may have.
- We sanitize all equipment and patient contact surfaces after every use and at the end of the day.
- We sanitize all surfaces and equipment (front desk counters, telephones, pens, door handles, waiting room chairs) with antibacterial wipes.
- All staff members wash their hands after contact with each patient and throughout the day.
- Our office is equipped with several sanitizing stations.
- We request that patients sanitize their hands prior to and after trying on frames. We also make sure to clean frames that have come into contact with patients with soap and hot water.
- If we don't shake hands with our patients during this time, please don't take it personally.
Please call Akers Pearson Eyecare at 480-372-8950 with any questions or concerns you may have. If you feel it's best for you or a member of your family to reschedule your appointment, we encourage you to do so.
To stay abreast of the coronavirus pandemic, please visit the following official health organizations:
- Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) at www.CDC.gov
- World Health Organization (WHO) at www.WHO.int
Thank you and stay safe!


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Sparkler - Unisex Casual Shoulder Backpack
Sparkler - Unisex Casual Shoulder Backpack
Casual backpack in a classic shape with a flap front sparkler design. It is made of a durable oxford fabric. It has two slip interior pockets and one laptop sleeve in the main compartment, a front zipper pocket, two side pockets.
.: Made of 24.34 oz. Oxford-canvas
.: Flap with strap claps at the front
.: Adjustable shoulder straps
.: Black base color


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Restoration of the Land of Israel*
1An oracle:* the word of the LORD is against the land of Hadrach,
and Damascus is its destination,
For the cities of Aram are the LORD's,
as are all the tribes of Israel.
2Hamath also on its border,
Tyre too, and Sidon, no matter how clever they be.
3Tyre built itself a stronghold,
and heaped up silver like dust,
and gold like the mud of the streets.
4But now the Lord will dispossess it,
and cast its wealth into the sea,
and it will be devoured by fire.
5Ashkelon will see it and be afraid;
Gaza too will be in great anguish;
Ekron also, for its hope will wither.
The king will disappear from Gaza,
Ashkelon will not be inhabited,
6and the illegitimate will rule in Ashdod.
I will destroy the pride of the Philistines
7and take from their mouths their bloody prey,
their disgusting meat from between their teeth.
They will become merely a remnant for our God,a
and will be like a clan in Judah;
Ekron will be like the Jebusites.*
8I will encamp at my house,
a garrison against invaders;
No oppressor will overrun them again,
for now I have seen their affliction.
The King's Entry into Jerusalem*
9Exult greatly, O daughter Zion!
Shout for joy, O daughter Jerusalem!
Behold: your king* is coming to you,
a just savior is he,
Humble, and riding on a donkey,
on a colt, the foal of a donkey.b
10He shall banish the chariot from Ephraim,c
and the horse from Jerusalem;
The warrior's bow will be banished,
and he will proclaim peace to the nations.d
His dominion will be from sea to sea,
and from the River* to the ends of the earth.e
Restoration of the People
11As for you, by the blood of your covenant,* f
I have freed your prisoners from a waterless pit.
12Return to a fortress,*
O prisoners of hope;
This very day, I announce
I am restoring double to you.
13For I have bent Judah as my bow,
I have set Ephraim as its arrow;
I will arouse your sons, O Zion,
against your sons, O Yavan,*
and I will use you as a warrior's sword.
14The LORD will appear over them,
God's arrow will shoot forth as lightning;
The Lord GOD will sound the ram's horn,
and come in a storm from the south.g
15The LORD of hosts will protect them;
they will devour and conquer with sling stones,
they will drink and become heated as with wine;
they will be full like bowls—like the corners of the altar.h
16And the LORD their God will save them:
the people, like a flock on that day;i
For like gemstones of a crown*
they will shine on the land.
17Then how good and how lovely!
Grain will make the young men flourish,
and new wine the young women.j
* [9:1–8] The opening verses of Second Zechariah delineate the ideal boundaries of a restored Israel. Echoing the ideas of Haggai and First Zechariah (chaps. 1–8), the prophet reiterates the notion that the rebuilt Temple will bring about peace. The areas to be returned to Israel include Syria (Aram), with the cities of Hadrach and Damascus; Phoenicia, with the cities of Tyre and Sidon; and Philistia, with the cities of Ashkelon, Gaza, Ekron, and Ashdod.
* [9:1] An oracle: this designation also introduces Zec 12:1 and Mal 1:1, suggesting a connection among the three units. The term functions as both a title to the larger literary unit (Zec 9–11) and a part of the message of the opening oracular statement.
* [9:7] The Jebusites: the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Jerusalem, conquered by David and incorporated into Israel.
* [9:9–10] These two verses form the centerpiece of chap. 9. The restoration of a royal figure connects the first part of the chapter (vv. 1–8), which depicts the restored land of Israel, with the second part (vv. 11–17), which concerns the restoration of the people Israel.
* [9:9] Your king: a just savior, a figure of humble demeanor, but riding on a donkey like royalty in the ancient Near East (Gn 49:11; Jgs 5:10; 10:4). The announcement of the coming of such a king marks a departure from the view of the royal figure as a conquering warrior. This depiction is in keeping with the tone of First Zechariah (3:8; 4:6–10; 6:12) but contrasts with Haggai (2:20–23). New Testament authors apply this prophecy to Jesus' triumphant entry into Jerusalem (Mt 21:4–5; Jn 12:14–15).
* [9:10] The River: probably the Euphrates; see note on Ps 72:8.
* [9:11] The blood of your covenant: the covenant between the Lord and Israel sealed with sacrificial blood (Ex 24:8).
* [9:12] Fortress: the Hebrew word for "fortress" (bissaron) plays upon the Hebrew word for Zion (siyyon). Those who return to Zion will be protected by the Lord. O prisoners of hope: imagery of exile, conveying a sense that the future in Israel will be better.
* [9:13] Your sons, O Yavan: the reference is to the Greeks and their struggle with the Persians for control of Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean in the mid-fifth century B.C.
* [9:16] Like gemstones of a crown: imagery reminiscent of First Zechariah (3:9; 4:7, 10; 6:11, 14) and evocative of the Temple and the priestly headgear (cf. Ex 29:6 and Lv 8:9).
b. [9:9] Is 9:6; 62:11; Jer 23:5; Mt 21:5; Jn 12:15.
d. [9:10] Is 2:4; 11:6; Hos 2:20; Eph 2:17.
f. [9:11] Ex 24:4–8; Mt 26:28; Heb 13:20.
g. [9:14] Dt 33:2; Ps 18:14; Hb 3:4.
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Wedding Cars in Waringstown
Wedding cars in Waringstown are our expertise here at 'Sean McGinn Wedding Cars'. Offering a fleet of classic vintage wedding cars for you to choose from. When it comes to travelling in style on your big day, you needn't look any further.
Travel in Style with our Wedding Cars in Waringstown
All of our wedding cars come with a fully suited chauffeur; who will be happy to go the extra mile, to ensure that your day is as perfect as possible. We are a highly respected wedding cars company, who have built up a strong reputation over the years. We pride ourselves on this reputation, and aim to keep it by giving our clients a service that comes second to none.
Wedding cars in Waringstown should offer that extra touch of luxury, and at 'Sean McGinn Wedding Cars' this is always the case. With over 20 year's experience within the industry, you can rest safe in the knowledge that you are in good hands.
A Fleet of Wedding Cars in Waringstown
The wedding cars that we offer include; a Beetle, a Daimler, a Stretch Mercedes Limo and a Badsworth. Regardless of the wedding car that you require, when it comes to travelling in style we have it covered.
For more information about our wedding cars in Waringstown and how we can help make your big day that extra bit special, please do not hesitate to contact us on the number shown below.
Contact us today
We look forward to assisting you with your enquiries. If you have any questions please call us today on: 028 4063 0745 or 077 7192 5384


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Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD
Are you in the Chevy Chase, MD Area? We at Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD are here for all of your cleansing needs whether they be - commercial, industrial or residential. Our team of professionals has experience in everything from carpet cleaning; area rugs, furniture upholstery cleaning to air duct cleaning.
We possess a team of experts that are trained professionals that thrive in both household and office settings. After just one visit you won't be sure you're in the right room, we guarantee we will transform your carpets to their original pristine condition.
Are you tired of wasting money on expensive bottles of carpet cleaners that are specifically designed to mask the smell of stains rather than remove them? We assure the long lasting cleanliness of your beloved carpet.
Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD is dedicated to only using organic, environmentally-friendly cleaning products and pride outselves with our courteous, diligent and punctual service to all of our valued customers. Your complete satisfaction is our only genuine aspiration.
If it can be cleaned, we will clean it! Along with providing several area rug cleaning techniques and wall-to-wall carpet cleaning services; i. carpet steam cleaning and dry carpet cleaning, our crew thrives with the most distinct challenges, such as:
Each of these everyday stain magnets will easily be remedied by our commitment to our attention to detail.
We have never once heard, "You missed a spot!" in our twenty years of service. Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD's technicians are trained in carpet cleaning: 101 before they are allowed to make house calls. We are a family of experts, that are proficient at applying the proper products to remove any stain imaginable while efficiently restoring even the toughest carpets to their showroom potential.
Whether you can't remember the last time you've cleaned your carpet or there is just that one ugly stain you can't seem to stop looking at, Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD is in business to customize our services to suit your precise personal needs.
And that's not all! We are also trained at cleaning your upholstered furniture and draperies! These household materials are often ignored, although they receive the same harsh punishment from everyday life, often absorbing a substantial amount of the same allergens your carpet is subject to.
We at Carpet Cleaning Chevy Chase, MD are here to fulfill your professional office/home cleaning needs! Contact us today at 301-969-1922 to get your free, no obligation estimate for any cleaning and maintenance needs you can think of.


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What We Investigate
Since 1991, we have been applying our expertise to solve structural engineering problems in Kearney. Our Structural Engineers have the experience necessary to thoroughly analyze a multitude of structural failures for buildings, components, and mechanisms. We have extensive experience in evaluations of damage caused by natural disasters such as flood, hail, tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, or lightning.
Even when the cause of damage appears straightforward; the options for repair often require the expertise of a structural engineering professional. We have experience in design, construction, and Nebraska local code compliance giving us a breadth of knowledge to find the most cost effective solutions.
We confirm the cause and extent of damage
- Foundation damage and settlement
- Roof, floor, and wall framing distress and failures
- Damage to structural members after fire, flood, storm, or earthquake
- Parking garage and parking lot deterioration concerns
- Water penetration issues
- Retaining wall distress and failures
- Structure and structural deterioration issues
- OSHA load ratings and structural retrofits
- Kearney Code compliance investigations
Get answers to questions surrounding your loss with a free consultation.
Contact UsForensic Engineering Investigations & Evaluations
Regardless of when your incident or loss happened, we can conduct a structural evaluation to find you all possible facts. No matter if it happened in Kearney or nearby, our team of experts are here to assist you. Our forensic engineers are trained to identify the crucial pieces of evidence that show how or why a failure occurred, and their extensive experience gives you the confidence that they understand the complexities of large losses.
We find you the facts to help move your investigation, litigation, or claim forward.
Contact UsWho We Work With
Engineering Specialists, Inc. is a true third party representative. Our mission is to provide our clients an honest and independent evaluation of the facts surrounding any forensic engineering need. We regularly work with a variety of clients and have been doing so in the Kearney area for over 30 years.
Unbiased and scientifically defendable facts for Kearney:
- Property Owners
- Appliance Manufacturers
- Retailers
- Attorneys
- Insurance Companies