text:
perltie - how to hide an object class in a simple variable
tie VARIABLE, CLASSNAME, LIST
$object = tied VARIABLE
untie VARIABLE
Prior to release 5.0 of Perl, a programmer could use dbmopen() to connect an on-disk database in the standard Unix dbm(3x) format magically to a %HASH in their program. However, their Perl was either built with one particular dbm library or another, but not both, and you couldn't extend this mechanism to other packages or types of variables.
Now you can.
The tie() function binds a variable to a class (package) that will provide the implementation for access methods for that variable. Once this magic has been performed, accessing a tied variable automatically triggers method calls in the proper class. The complexity of the class is hidden behind magic methods calls. The method names are in ALL CAPS, which is a convention that Perl uses to indicate that they're called implicitly rather than explicitly--just like the BEGIN() and END() functions.
In the tie() call, VARIABLE
is the name of the variable to be enchanted. CLASSNAME
is the name of a class implementing objects of the correct type. Any additional arguments in the LIST
are passed to the appropriate constructor method for that class--meaning TIESCALAR(), TIEARRAY(), TIEHASH(), or TIEHANDLE(). (Typically these are arguments such as might be passed to the dbminit() function of C.) The object returned by the "new" method is also returned by the tie() function, which would be useful if you wanted to access other methods in CLASSNAME
. (You don't actually have to return a reference to a right "type" (e.g., HASH or CLASSNAME
) so long as it's a properly blessed object.) You can also retrieve a reference to the underlying object using the tied() function.
Unlike dbmopen(), the tie() function will not use
or require
a module for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself.
A class implementing a tied scalar should define the following methods: TIESCALAR, FETCH, STORE, and possibly UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
Let's look at each in turn, using as an example a tie class for scalars that allows the user to do something like:
tie $his_speed, 'Nice', getppid();
tie $my_speed, 'Nice', $$;
And now whenever either of those variables is accessed, its current system priority is retrieved and returned. If those variables are set, then the process's priority is changed!
We'll use Jarkko Hietaniemi <firstname.lastname@example.com>'s BSD::Resource class (not included) to access the PRIO_PROCESS, PRIO_MIN, and PRIO_MAX constants from your system, as well as the getpriority() and setpriority() system calls. Here's the preamble of the class.
package Nice;
use Carp;
use BSD::Resource;
use strict;
$Nice::DEBUG = 0 unless defined $Nice::DEBUG;
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed reference to a new scalar (probably anonymous) that it's creating. For example:
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $pid = shift || $$; # 0 means me
if ($pid !~ /^\d+$/) {
carp "Nice::Tie::Scalar got non-numeric pid $pid" if $^W;
return undef;
unless (kill 0, $pid) { # EPERM or ERSCH, no doubt
carp "Nice::Tie::Scalar got bad pid $pid: $!" if $^W;
return undef;
return bless \$pid, $class;
This tie class has chosen to return an error rather than raising an exception if its constructor should fail. While this is how dbmopen() works, other classes may well not wish to be so forgiving. It checks the global variable $^W
to see whether to emit a bit of noise anyway.
This method will be triggered every time the tied variable is accessed (read). It takes no arguments beyond its self reference, which is the object representing the scalar we're dealing with. Because in this case we're using just a SCALAR ref for the tied scalar object, a simple $$self allows the method to get at the real value stored there. In our example below, that real value is the process ID to which we've tied our variable.
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
croak "usage error" if @_;
my $nicety;
local($!) = 0;
$nicety = getpriority(PRIO_PROCESS, $$self);
if ($!) { croak "getpriority failed: $!" }
return $nicety;
This time we've decided to blow up (raise an exception) if the renice fails--there's no place for us to return an error otherwise, and it's probably the right thing to do.
This method will be triggered every time the tied variable is set (assigned). Beyond its self reference, it also expects one (and only one) argument: the new value the user is trying to assign. Don't worry about returning a value from STORE; the semantic of assignment returning the assigned value is implemented with FETCH.
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
my $new_nicety = shift;
croak "usage error" if @_;
if ($new_nicety < PRIO_MIN) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d less than minimum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MIN if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MIN;
if ($new_nicety > PRIO_MAX) {
carp sprintf
"WARNING: priority %d greater than maximum system priority %d",
$new_nicety, PRIO_MAX if $^W;
$new_nicety = PRIO_MAX;
unless (defined setpriority(PRIO_PROCESS, $$self, $new_nicety)) {
confess "setpriority failed: $!";
This method will be triggered when the untie
occurs. This can be useful if the class needs to know when no further calls will be made. (Except DESTROY of course.) See "The untie
Gotcha" below for more details.
This method will be triggered when the tied variable needs to be destructed. As with other object classes, such a method is seldom necessary, because Perl deallocates its moribund object's memory for you automatically--this isn't C++, you know. We'll use a DESTROY method here for debugging purposes only.
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
confess "wrong type" unless ref $self;
carp "[ Nice::DESTROY pid $$self ]" if $Nice::DEBUG;
That's about all there is to it. Actually, it's more than all there is to it, because we've done a few nice things here for the sake of completeness, robustness, and general aesthetics. Simpler TIESCALAR classes are certainly possible.
A class implementing a tied ordinary array should define the following methods: TIEARRAY, FETCH, STORE, FETCHSIZE, STORESIZE and perhaps UNTIE and/or DESTROY.
FETCHSIZE and STORESIZE are used to provide $#array
and equivalent scalar(@array)
The methods POP, PUSH, SHIFT, UNSHIFT, SPLICE, DELETE, and EXISTS are required if the perl operator with the corresponding (but lowercase) name is to operate on the tied array. The Tie::Array class can be used as a base class to implement the first five of these in terms of the basic methods above. The default implementations of DELETE and EXISTS in Tie::Array simply croak
In addition EXTEND will be called when perl would have pre-extended allocation in a real array.
For this discussion, we'll implement an array whose elements are a fixed size at creation. If you try to create an element larger than the fixed size, you'll take an exception. For example:
use FixedElem_Array;
tie @array, 'FixedElem_Array', 3;
$array[0] = 'cat'; # ok.
$array[1] = 'dogs'; # exception, length('dogs') > 3.
The preamble code for the class is as follows:
package FixedElem_Array;
use Carp;
use strict;
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed reference through which the new array (probably an anonymous ARRAY ref) will be accessed.
In our example, just to show you that you don't really have to return an ARRAY reference, we'll choose a HASH reference to represent our object. A HASH works out well as a generic record type: the {ELEMSIZE}
field will store the maximum element size allowed, and the {ARRAY}
field will hold the true ARRAY ref. If someone outside the class tries to dereference the object returned (doubtless thinking it an ARRAY ref), they'll blow up. This just goes to show you that you should respect an object's privacy.
sub TIEARRAY {
my $class = shift;
my $elemsize = shift;
if ( @_ || $elemsize =~ /\D/ ) {
croak "usage: tie ARRAY, '" . __PACKAGE__ . "', elem_size";
return bless {
ELEMSIZE => $elemsize,
}, $class;
This method will be triggered every time an individual element the tied array is accessed (read). It takes one argument beyond its self reference: the index whose value we're trying to fetch.
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY}->[$index];
If a negative array index is used to read from an array, the index will be translated to a positive one internally by calling FETCHSIZE before being passed to FETCH. You may disable this feature by assigning a true value to the variable $NEGATIVE_INDICES
in the tied array class.
As you may have noticed, the name of the FETCH method (et al.) is the same for all accesses, even though the constructors differ in names (TIESCALAR vs TIEARRAY). While in theory you could have the same class servicing several tied types, in practice this becomes cumbersome, and it's easiest to keep them at simply one tie type per class.
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied array is set (written). It takes two arguments beyond its self reference: the index at which we're trying to store something and the value we're trying to put there.
In our example, undef
is really $self->{ELEMSIZE}
number of spaces so we have a little more work to do here:
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my( $index, $value ) = @_;
if ( length $value > $self->{ELEMSIZE} ) {
croak "length of $value is greater than $self->{ELEMSIZE}";
# fill in the blanks
$self->EXTEND( $index ) if $index > $self->FETCHSIZE();
# right justify to keep element size for smaller elements
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] = sprintf "%$self->{ELEMSIZE}s", $value;
Negative indexes are treated the same as with FETCH.
Returns the total number of items in the tied array associated with object this. (Equivalent to scalar(@array)
). For example:
sub FETCHSIZE {
my $self = shift;
return scalar @{$self->{ARRAY}};
Sets the total number of items in the tied array associated with object this to be count. If this makes the array larger then class's mapping of undef
should be returned for new positions. If the array becomes smaller then entries beyond count should be deleted.
In our example, 'undef' is really an element containing $self->{ELEMSIZE}
number of spaces. Observe:
sub STORESIZE {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
if ( $count > $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( $count - $self->FETCHSIZE() .. $count ) {
$self->STORE( $_, '' );
} elsif ( $count < $self->FETCHSIZE() ) {
foreach ( 0 .. $self->FETCHSIZE() - $count - 2 ) {
Informative call that array is likely to grow to have count entries. Can be used to optimize allocation. This method need do nothing.
In our example, we want to make sure there are no blank (undef
) entries, so EXTEND
will make use of STORESIZE
to fill elements as needed:
sub EXTEND {
my $self = shift;
my $count = shift;
$self->STORESIZE( $count );
Verify that the element at index key exists in the tied array this.
In our example, we will determine that if an element consists of $self->{ELEMSIZE}
spaces only, it does not exist:
sub EXISTS {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return 0 if ! defined $self->{ARRAY}->[$index] ||
$self->{ARRAY}->[$index] eq ' ' x $self->{ELEMSIZE};
return 1;
Delete the element at index key from the tied array this.
In our example, a deleted item is $self->{ELEMSIZE}
sub DELETE {
my $self = shift;
my $index = shift;
return $self->STORE( $index, '' );
Clear (remove, delete, ...) all values from the tied array associated with object this. For example:
sub CLEAR {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{ARRAY} = [];
Append elements of LIST to the array. For example:
sub PUSH {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $last = $self->FETCHSIZE();
$self->STORE( $last + $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
return $self->FETCHSIZE();
Remove last element of the array and return it. For example:
sub POP {
my $self = shift;
return pop @{$self->{ARRAY}};
Remove the first element of the array (shifting other elements down) and return it. For example:
sub SHIFT {
my $self = shift;
return shift @{$self->{ARRAY}};
Insert LIST elements at the beginning of the array, moving existing elements up to make room. For example:
sub UNSHIFT {
my $self = shift;
my @list = @_;
my $size = scalar( @list );
# make room for our list
@{$self->{ARRAY}}[ $size .. $#{$self->{ARRAY}} + $size ]
= @{$self->{ARRAY}};
$self->STORE( $_, $list[$_] ) foreach 0 .. $#list;
Perform the equivalent of splice
on the array.
offset is optional and defaults to zero, negative values count back from the end of the array.
length is optional and defaults to rest of the array.
LIST may be empty.
Returns a list of the original length elements at offset.
In our example, we'll use a little shortcut if there is a LIST:
sub SPLICE {
my $self = shift;
my $offset = shift || 0;
my $length = shift || $self->FETCHSIZE() - $offset;
my @list = ();
if ( @_ ) {
tie @list, __PACKAGE__, $self->{ELEMSIZE};
@list = @_;
return splice @{$self->{ARRAY}}, $offset, $length, @list;
Will be called when untie
happens. (See "The untie
Gotcha" below.)
This method will be triggered when the tied variable needs to be destructed. As with the scalar tie class, this is almost never needed in a language that does its own garbage collection, so this time we'll just leave it out.
Hashes were the first Perl data type to be tied (see dbmopen()). A class implementing a tied hash should define the following methods: TIEHASH is the constructor. FETCH and STORE access the key and value pairs. EXISTS reports whether a key is present in the hash, and DELETE deletes one. CLEAR empties the hash by deleting all the key and value pairs. FIRSTKEY and NEXTKEY implement the keys() and each() functions to iterate over all the keys. SCALAR is triggered when the tied hash is evaluated in scalar context. UNTIE is called when untie
happens, and DESTROY is called when the tied variable is garbage collected.
If this seems like a lot, then feel free to inherit from merely the standard Tie::StdHash module for most of your methods, redefining only the interesting ones. See Tie::Hash for details.
Remember that Perl distinguishes between a key not existing in the hash, and the key existing in the hash but having a corresponding value of undef
. The two possibilities can be tested with the exists()
and defined()
Here's an example of a somewhat interesting tied hash class: it gives you a hash representing a particular user's dot files. You index into the hash with the name of the file (minus the dot) and you get back that dot file's contents. For example:
use DotFiles;
tie %dot, 'DotFiles';
if ( $dot{profile} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{login} =~ /MANPATH/ ||
$dot{cshrc} =~ /MANPATH/ )
print "you seem to set your MANPATH\n";
Or here's another sample of using our tied class:
tie %him, 'DotFiles', 'daemon';
foreach $f ( keys %him ) {
printf "daemon dot file %s is size %d\n",
$f, length $him{$f};
In our tied hash DotFiles example, we use a regular hash for the object containing several important fields, of which only the {LIST}
field will be what the user thinks of as the real hash.
whose dot files this object represents
where those dot files live
whether we should try to change or remove those dot files
the hash of dot file names and content mappings
Here's the start of Dotfiles.pm:
package DotFiles;
use Carp;
sub whowasi { (caller(1))[3] . '()' }
my $DEBUG = 0;
sub debug { $DEBUG = @_ ? shift : 1 }
For our example, we want to be able to emit debugging info to help in tracing during development. We keep also one convenience function around internally to help print out warnings; whowasi() returns the function name that calls it.
Here are the methods for the DotFiles tied hash.
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed reference through which the new object (probably but not necessarily an anonymous hash) will be accessed.
Here's the constructor:
sub TIEHASH {
my $self = shift;
my $user = shift || $>;
my $dotdir = shift || '';
croak "usage: @{[&whowasi]} [USER [DOTDIR]]" if @_;
$user = getpwuid($user) if $user =~ /^\d+$/;
my $dir = (getpwnam($user))[7]
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: no user $user";
$dir .= "/$dotdir" if $dotdir;
my $node = {
USER => $user,
HOME => $dir,
opendir(DIR, $dir)
|| croak "@{[&whowasi]}: can't opendir $dir: $!";
foreach $dot ( grep /^\./ && -f "$dir/$_", readdir(DIR)) {
$dot =~ s/^\.//;
$node->{LIST}{$dot} = undef;
closedir DIR;
return bless $node, $self;
It's probably worth mentioning that if you're going to filetest the return values out of a readdir, you'd better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't chdir() there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied hash is accessed (read). It takes one argument beyond its self reference: the key whose value we're trying to fetch.
Here's the fetch for our DotFiles example.
sub FETCH {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $dir = $self->{HOME};
my $file = "$dir/.$dot";
unless (exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot} || -f $file) {
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: no $dot file" if $DEBUG;
return undef;
if (defined $self->{LIST}->{$dot}) {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
} else {
return $self->{LIST}->{$dot} = `cat $dir/.$dot`;
It was easy to write by having it call the Unix cat(1) command, but it would probably be more portable to open the file manually (and somewhat more efficient). Of course, because dot files are a Unixy concept, we're not that concerned.
This method will be triggered every time an element in the tied hash is set (written). It takes two arguments beyond its self reference: the index at which we're trying to store something, and the value we're trying to put there.
Here in our DotFiles example, we'll be careful not to let them try to overwrite the file unless they've called the clobber() method on the original object reference returned by tie().
sub STORE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
my $user = $self->{USER};
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: $file not clobberable"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
open(my $f, '>', $file) || croak "can't open $file: $!";
print $f $value;
If they wanted to clobber something, they might say:
$ob = tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
$daemon_dots{signature} = "A true daemon\n";
Another way to lay hands on a reference to the underlying object is to use the tied() function, so they might alternately have set clobber using:
tie %daemon_dots, 'daemon';
The clobber method is simply:
sub clobber {
my $self = shift;
$self->{CLOBBER} = @_ ? shift : 1;
This method is triggered when we remove an element from the hash, typically by using the delete() function. Again, we'll be careful to check whether they really want to clobber files.
sub DELETE {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
my $file = $self->{HOME} . "/.$dot";
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove file $file"
unless $self->{CLOBBER};
delete $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
my $success = unlink($file);
carp "@{[&whowasi]}: can't unlink $file: $!" unless $success;
The value returned by DELETE becomes the return value of the call to delete(). If you want to emulate the normal behavior of delete(), you should return whatever FETCH would have returned for this key. In this example, we have chosen instead to return a value which tells the caller whether the file was successfully deleted.
This method is triggered when the whole hash is to be cleared, usually by assigning the empty list to it.
In our example, that would remove all the user's dot files! It's such a dangerous thing that they'll have to set CLOBBER to something higher than 1 to make it happen.
sub CLEAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
croak "@{[&whowasi]}: won't remove all dot files for $self->{USER}"
unless $self->{CLOBBER} > 1;
my $dot;
foreach $dot ( keys %{$self->{LIST}}) {
This method is triggered when the user uses the exists() function on a particular hash. In our example, we'll look at the {LIST}
hash element for this:
sub EXISTS {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $dot = shift;
return exists $self->{LIST}->{$dot};
This method will be triggered when the user is going to iterate through the hash, such as via a keys() or each() call.
sub FIRSTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
my $a = keys %{$self->{LIST}}; # reset each() iterator
each %{$self->{LIST}}
This method gets triggered during a keys() or each() iteration. It has a second argument which is the last key that had been accessed. This is useful if you're carrying about ordering or calling the iterator from more than one sequence, or not really storing things in a hash anywhere.
For our example, we're using a real hash so we'll do just the simple thing, but we'll have to go through the LIST field indirectly.
sub NEXTKEY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return each %{ $self->{LIST} }
This is called when the hash is evaluated in scalar context. In order to mimic the behaviour of untied hashes, this method should return a false value when the tied hash is considered empty. If this method does not exist, perl will make some educated guesses and return true when the hash is inside an iteration. If this isn't the case, FIRSTKEY is called, and the result will be a false value if FIRSTKEY returns the empty list, true otherwise.
However, you should not blindly rely on perl always doing the right thing. Particularly, perl will mistakenly return true when you clear the hash by repeatedly calling DELETE until it is empty. You are therefore advised to supply your own SCALAR method when you want to be absolutely sure that your hash behaves nicely in scalar context.
In our example we can just call scalar
on the underlying hash referenced by $self->{LIST}
sub SCALAR {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
my $self = shift;
return scalar %{ $self->{LIST} }
This is called when untie
occurs. See "The untie
Gotcha" below.
This method is triggered when a tied hash is about to go out of scope. You don't really need it unless you're trying to add debugging or have auxiliary state to clean up. Here's a very simple function:
sub DESTROY {
carp &whowasi if $DEBUG;
Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge lists when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the each() function to iterate over such. Example:
# print out history file offsets
use NDBM_File;
tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
This is partially implemented now.
A class implementing a tied filehandle should define the following methods: TIEHANDLE, at least one of PRINT, PRINTF, WRITE, READLINE, GETC, READ, and possibly CLOSE, UNTIE and DESTROY. The class can also provide: BINMODE, OPEN, EOF, FILENO, SEEK, TELL - if the corresponding perl operators are used on the handle.
When STDERR is tied, its PRINT method will be called to issue warnings and error messages. This feature is temporarily disabled during the call, which means you can use warn()
inside PRINT without starting a recursive loop. And just like __WARN__
and __DIE__
handlers, STDERR's PRINT method may be called to report parser errors, so the caveats mentioned under "%SIG" in perlvar apply.
All of this is especially useful when perl is embedded in some other program, where output to STDOUT and STDERR may have to be redirected in some special way. See nvi and the Apache module for examples.
When tying a handle, the first argument to tie
should begin with an asterisk. So, if you are tying STDOUT, use *STDOUT
. If you have assigned it to a scalar variable, say $handle
, use *$handle
. tie $handle
works, too, but that is considered a bug and will be fixed in Perl 5.16. It is supposed to tie the scalar $handle
, not the handle inside it. tie $handle
emits a deprecation warning as of Perl 5.14.
In our example we're going to create a shouting handle.
package Shout;
This is the constructor for the class. That means it is expected to return a blessed reference of some sort. The reference can be used to hold some internal information.
sub TIEHANDLE { print "<shout>\n"; my $i; bless \$i, shift }
This method will be called when the handle is written to via the syswrite
sub WRITE {
$r = shift;
my($buf,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "WRITE called, \$buf=$buf, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
This method will be triggered every time the tied handle is printed to with the print()
or say()
functions. Beyond its self reference it also expects the list that was passed to the print function.
sub PRINT { $r = shift; $$r++; print join($,,map(uc($_),@_)),$\ }
acts just like print()
except $\ will be localized to \n
so you need do nothing special to handle say()
in PRINT()
This method will be triggered every time the tied handle is printed to with the printf()
function. Beyond its self reference it also expects the format and list that was passed to the printf function.
sub PRINTF {
my $fmt = shift;
print sprintf($fmt, @_);
This method will be called when the handle is read from via the read
or sysread
sub READ {
my $self = shift;
my $bufref = \$_[0];
my(undef,$len,$offset) = @_;
print "READ called, \$buf=$bufref, \$len=$len, \$offset=$offset";
# add to $$bufref, set $len to number of characters read
This method is called when the handle is read via <HANDLE>
or readline HANDLE
As per readline
, in scalar context it should return the next line, or undef
for no more data. In list context it should return all remaining lines, or an empty list for no more data. The strings returned should include the input record separator $/
(see perlvar), unless it is undef
(which means "slurp" mode).
sub READLINE {
my $r = shift;
if (wantarray) {
return ("all remaining\n",
"lines up\n",
"to eof\n");
} else {
return "READLINE called " . ++$$r . " times\n";
This method will be called when the getc
function is called.
sub GETC { print "Don't GETC, Get Perl"; return "a"; }
This method will be called when the eof
function is called.
Starting with Perl 5.12, an additional integer parameter will be passed. It will be zero if eof
is called without parameter; 1
if eof
is given a filehandle as a parameter, e.g. eof(FH)
; and 2
in the very special case that the tied filehandle is ARGV
and eof
is called with an empty parameter list, e.g. eof()
sub EOF { not length $stringbuf }
This method will be called when the handle is closed via the close
sub CLOSE { print "CLOSE called.\n" }
As with the other types of ties, this method will be called when untie
happens. It may be appropriate to "auto CLOSE" when this occurs. See "The untie
Gotcha" below.
As with the other types of ties, this method will be called when the tied handle is about to be destroyed. This is useful for debugging and possibly cleaning up.
sub DESTROY { print "</shout>\n" }
Here's how to use our little example:
print FOO "hello\n";
$a = 4; $b = 6;
print FOO $a, " plus ", $b, " equals ", $a + $b, "\n";
print <FOO>;
You can define for all tie types an UNTIE method that will be called at untie(). See "The untie
Gotcha" below.
Gotcha If you intend making use of the object returned from either tie() or tied(), and if the tie's target class defines a destructor, there is a subtle gotcha you must guard against.
As setup, consider this (admittedly rather contrived) example of a tie; all it does is use a file to keep a log of the values assigned to a scalar.
package Remember;
use strict;
use warnings;
use IO::File;
sub TIESCALAR {
my $class = shift;
my $filename = shift;
my $handle = IO::File->new( "> $filename" )
or die "Cannot open $filename: $!\n";
print $handle "The Start\n";
bless {FH => $handle, Value => 0}, $class;
sub FETCH {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{Value};
sub STORE {
my $self = shift;
my $value = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "$value\n";
$self->{Value} = $value;
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle "The End\n";
close $handle;
Here is an example that makes use of this tie:
use strict;
use Remember;
my $fred;
tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
This is the output when it is executed:
The Start
The End
So far so good. Those of you who have been paying attention will have spotted that the tied object hasn't been used so far. So lets add an extra method to the Remember class to allow comments to be included in the file; say, something like this:
sub comment {
my $self = shift;
my $text = shift;
my $handle = $self->{FH};
print $handle $text, "\n";
And here is the previous example modified to use the comment
method (which requires the tied object):
use strict;
use Remember;
my ($fred, $x);
$x = tie $fred, 'Remember', 'myfile.txt';
$fred = 1;
$fred = 4;
comment $x "changing...";
$fred = 5;
untie $fred;
system "cat myfile.txt";
When this code is executed there is no output. Here's why:
When a variable is tied, it is associated with the object which is the return value of the TIESCALAR, TIEARRAY, or TIEHASH function. This object normally has only one reference, namely, the implicit reference from the tied variable. When untie() is called, that reference is destroyed. Then, as in the first example above, the object's destructor (DESTROY) is called, which is normal for objects that have no more valid references; and thus the file is closed.
In the second example, however, we have stored another reference to the tied object in $x. That means that when untie() gets called there will still be a valid reference to the object in existence, so the destructor is not called at that time, and thus the file is not closed. The reason there is no output is because the file buffers have not been flushed to disk.
Now that you know what the problem is, what can you do to avoid it? Prior to the introduction of the optional UNTIE method the only way was the good old -w
flag. Which will spot any instances where you call untie() and there are still valid references to the tied object. If the second script above this near the top use warnings 'untie'
or was run with the -w
flag, Perl prints this warning message:
untie attempted while 1 inner references still exist
To get the script to work properly and silence the warning make sure there are no valid references to the tied object before untie() is called:
undef $x;
untie $fred;
Now that UNTIE exists the class designer can decide which parts of the class functionality are really associated with untie
and which with the object being destroyed. What makes sense for a given class depends on whether the inner references are being kept so that non-tie-related methods can be called on the object. But in most cases it probably makes sense to move the functionality that would have been in DESTROY to the UNTIE method.
If the UNTIE method exists then the warning above does not occur. Instead the UNTIE method is passed the count of "extra" references and can issue its own warning if appropriate. e.g. to replicate the no UNTIE case this method can be used:
sub UNTIE
my ($obj,$count) = @_;
carp "untie attempted while $count inner references still exist" if $count;
See DB_File or Config for some interesting tie() implementations. A good starting point for many tie() implementations is with one of the modules Tie::Scalar, Tie::Array, Tie::Hash, or Tie::Handle.
The bucket usage information provided by scalar(%hash)
is not available. What this means is that using %tied_hash in boolean context doesn't work right (currently this always tests false, regardless of whether the hash is empty or hash elements).
Localizing tied arrays or hashes does not work. After exiting the scope the arrays or the hashes are not restored.
Counting the number of entries in a hash via scalar(keys(%hash))
or scalar(values(%hash)
) is inefficient since it needs to iterate through all the entries with FIRSTKEY/NEXTKEY.
Tied hash/array slices cause multiple FETCH/STORE pairs, there are no tie methods for slice operations.
You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as a hash of hashes) to a dbm file. The first problem is that all but GDBM and Berkeley DB have size limitations, but beyond that, you also have problems with how references are to be represented on disk. One module that does attempt to address this need is DBM::Deep. Check your nearest CPAN site as described in perlmodlib for source code. Note that despite its name, DBM::Deep does not use dbm. Another earlier attempt at solving the problem is MLDBM, which is also available on the CPAN, but which has some fairly serious limitations.
Tied filehandles are still incomplete. sysopen(), truncate(), flock(), fcntl(), stat() and -X can't currently be trapped.
Tom Christiansen
TIEHANDLE by Sven Verdoolaege <firstname.lastname@example.com> and Doug MacEachern <email@example.com>
UNTIE by Nick Ing-Simmons <email@example.com>
SCALAR by Tassilo von Parseval <firstname.lastname@example.com>
Tying Arrays by Casey West <firstname.lastname@example.com>

subset: commoncrawl


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More than 120 Princeton student-athletes spent Sunday, April 5, working in conjunction with the Princeton Varsity Club and Isles Inc. on a rebuilding and beautification project titled "Weapons of Mass Construction."
They were helping to renovate a 19th-century textile mill on a 6.5-acre site near the Northeast Corridor rail line in Hamilton Township. The mill eventually will be converted into offices for Isles and other public interest and environmental organizations, a training facility for local youth, condominiums and artists' studios. The environmental challenges and other unique aspects of the mill were addressed in a fall course in Princeton's Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Athletes from nine Princeton teams participated in the project, demolishing interior walls, bathrooms and ceilings as well as outdoor structures; scraping old paint and priming and painting walls; and cleaning up the grounds, and planting flowers and bulbs.
The teams that participated included football, men's and women's swimming and diving, women's basketball, women's hockey, women's squash, women's cross country and track and field, women's tennis and field hockey. Princeton head coaches Roger Hughes (football), Kathy Sell (tennis) and Peter Farrell (women's cross country and track field) also worked on the site, along with swimming assistant coaches Phil Spaniello and Jamie Holder and women's tennis assistant coach Courtney Nagle.
Evan O'Reilly, a 2008 alumnus and former football player, was another volunteer. O'Reilly wrote his senior thesis on the history and development of Isles as a nonprofit community and environmental organization.
Marty Johnson, a 1981 alumnus who played football and baseball, started Isles after graduation as an extension of an undergraduate community service project. Isles remains committed to its mission statement of "fostering more self-reliant families in healthy, sustainable communities."
Among its areas of focus are community planning and research, housing and real estate, youth education and training, financial self-reliance, environmental and community health, and energy and "green" job training.


text:
To most of America, the downfall of decorated CIA chief David Petraeus was a shock. Aides and associates have long described the retired four-star general as a talented military tactician and sound leader, with accomplishments "comparable to what World War II generals achieved," says Jack Keane, a one-time Army vice chief of staff and a key architect of the Iraq surge Petraeus led. Among civiilians, the general's image was even shinier, burnished by hagiographic media accounts like the one penned by biographer Paula Broadwell, the woman with whom he had an affair.
Beneath this glowing reputation, however, Petraeus also had his critics. These detractors, including some from within the military his career helped shape, paint a picture of Petraeus that is sharply at odds with his public persona. They believe the general's ambitions outpaced his accomplishments. They privately dubbed him "King David" for his high self-regard and chumminess with reporters. And they describe him as a man who found power by cozying up to senior officers and maintained it by working the press.
"Petraeus is a remarkable piece of fiction created and promoted by neocons in government, the media and academia," argues Douglas Macgregor, a retired Army colonel and author known for his book Breaking the Phalanx, which takes the Army to task for the way it organizes and uses its ground forces.
Macgregor describes Petraeus as a "man who for 35 years shamelessly reinforced whatever dumb idea his superior advanced regardless of its impact on soldiers, let alone the nation, a man who served repeatedly as a sycophantic aide-de-camp." Petraeus "was always a useful fool in the Leninist sense for his political superiors — Wolfowitz, Rumsfeld, and Gates," he says. "And that is precisely how history will judge him."
As a young cadet at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, Petraeus found his first important Army mentor in the form of Lieut. General William Knowlton, the father of his future wife Holly and West Point's superintendent. A top graduate, Petraeus did stints in anonymity – but close to power — carrying bags for Army generals like NATO commander John Galvin, Army chief of staff Carl Vuono, and Henry Shelton, who would go on to become chairman of the Joint Chiefs.
Some colleagues criticized Petraeus for spending too much time with the brass, and not enough with the troops. In person, he seemed to be a coiled spring perpetually under tension. His ambition burned brightly, and kept him from becoming close friends with many comrades. Instead, he relied on a coterie of junior officers, many of whom had served multiple tours with him in Iraq and Afghanistan. Petraeus never fit the mold of a traditional back-slapping, hale-fellow-well-met Army officer. He had the aura of a cerebral general, a whip-smart but somewhat aloof commander who knew – or at least you suspected he believed – that he was the smartest guy in the war room.
As he rose through the ranks, Petraeus carefully nurtured this image. He raised eyebrows when he invited outsiders into his war rooms to question strategy and sent them out in military aircraft as professional second-guessers. "The man has always been controversial, and therefore his legacy was going to be controversial," says Stephen Biddle, a military expert at George Washington University who says the lack of any formal review of the U.S. military's successes and failures in the post-9/11 wars will make Petraeus' fall from grace cast a long shadow over the conflicts.
Biddle served on three Petraeus advisory teams – one for Afghanistan, one for Iraq, and one when the general took over Central Command – and says he was stunned by the general's undoing. "Petraeus is one of the most disciplined humans who ever walked the face of the Earth," he says. "I find the analogy to John Edwards kind of interesting, personally. Here are two very accomplished, very ambitious, very self-aware people, who both fell for their biographer. A certain degree of narcissism looked like it had something to do with both men's falls."
Though the affair was out of character, Petraeus has overstepped boundaries before. In July 2009, when he was the chief of the U.S. Central Command, he gave a speech to an annual Marine Corps Association Foundation dinner that made the Air Force the butt of a joke about pilots' ponytails. Air Force partisans got wind of the comments and described them as "beyond outrageous," arguing they "belittled the contributions of the Air Force to the joint force."
The following year, when Army General Stan McChrystal was forced out for insubordination, Petraeus effectively took a demotion to replace him as commander of the Afghan campaign. Obama and his advisers had been somewhat leery of Petraeus; there was a whiff of desperation in the air when they tapped him to succeed McChrystal. Obama was determined to keep Petraeus at arms-length, several links away in the chain of command. Pentagon officials exulted at the change; there would be far less direct communication between the commander-in-chief and his most famous commander.
While the majority of the military is still singing Petraeus's praises, others have greeted his downfall with an unsparing appraisal. "When a man becomes more reputation than substance, his reputation had better be invulnerable," says Ralph Peters, a retired Army officer and author. "Every successful man has encountered at least one Paula Broadwell. The smart ones don't take her calls."


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Sadie And Sage La Luna Linen Blend Jacket With Pockets: Oatmeal
We are a family owned and operated clothing store located in Jesup, Georgia. Established in 1972, David's is known for providing Southeast Georgia with a large selection of well known and sought after brands as well as providing excellent customer service for over 50 years!
Orders placed after 9am ship out next business day. (Some delays are expected in holiday seasons).
Clothing: Shipping is $7 under $75, Free over $75.
Shoes: are $8.95 to ship for one pair and $3.95 per pair after (if multiple pairs purchased).
No. All shipping is non refundable. When you return an item, original shipping is not refunded.
The return window is 30 days from day you received your item.
A Return label can be given for a charge of $7 deducted from refund.
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The cost of the item minus a $7 return label fee. For example: your Jacket was $100. It will be $100 - $7= $93. If you paid original shipping, that amount is nonrefundable also. Just think of the cost of the item minus $7.
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text:
Chapter 7
Fire comes down from heaven and consumes the sacrifices and burnt offerings—The Lord appears to Solomon and promises to bless the people—The Israelites will prosper if they keep the commandments.
1 Now when Solomon had made an end of praying, the fire came down from heaven, and consumed the burnt offering and the sacrifices; and the glory of the Lord filled the house.
2 And the priests could not enter into the house of the Lord, because the glory of the Lord had filled the Lord's house.
3 And when all the children of Israel saw how the fire came down, and the glory of the Lord upon the house, they bowed themselves with their faces to the ground upon the pavement, and worshipped, and praised the Lord, saying, For he is good; for his mercy endureth for ever.
4 ¶ Then the king and all the people offered sacrifices before the Lord.
5 And king Solomon offered a sacrifice of twenty and two thousand oxen, and an hundred and twenty thousand sheep: so the king and all the people dedicated the house of God.
6 And the priests waited on their offices: the Levites also with instruments of musick of the Lord, which David the king had made to praise the Lord, because his mercy endureth for ever, when David praised by their ministry; and the priests sounded trumpets before them, and all Israel stood.
7 Moreover Solomon hallowed the middle of the court that was before the house of the Lord: for there he offered burnt offerings, and the fat of the peace offerings, because the brasen altar which Solomon had made was not able to receive the burnt offerings, and the meat offerings, and the fat.
8 ¶ Also at the same time Solomon kept the feast seven days, and all Israel with him, a very great congregation, from the entering in of Hamath unto the river of Egypt.
9 And in the eighth day they made a solemn assembly: for they kept the dedication of the altar seven days, and the feast seven days.
10 And on the three and twentieth day of the seventh month he sent the people away into their tents, glad and merry in heart for the goodness that the Lord had shewed unto David, and to Solomon, and to Israel his people.
11 Thus Solomon finished the house of the Lord, and the king's house: and all that came into Solomon's heart to make in the house of the Lord, and in his own house, he prosperously effected.
12 ¶ And the Lord appeared to Solomon by night, and said unto him, I have heard thy prayer, and have chosen this place to myself for an house of sacrifice.
13 If I shut up heaven that there be no rain, or if I command the locusts to devour the land, or if I send pestilence among my people;
14 If my people, which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin, and will heal their land.
15 Now mine eyes shall be open, and mine ears attent unto the prayer that is made in this place.
16 For now have I chosen and sanctified this house, that my name may be there for ever: and mine eyes and mine heart shall be there perpetually.
17 And as for thee, if thou wilt walk before me, as David thy father walked, and do according to all that I have commanded thee, and shalt observe my statutes and my judgments;
18 Then will I stablish the throne of thy kingdom, according as I have covenanted with David thy father, saying, There shall not fail thee a man to be ruler in Israel.
19 But if ye turn away, and forsake my statutes and my commandments, which I have set before you, and shall go and serve other gods, and worship them;
20 Then will I pluck them up by the roots out of my land which I have given them; and this house, which I have sanctified for my name, will I cast out of my sight, and will make it to be a proverb and a byword among all nations.
21 And this house, which is high, shall be an astonishment to every one that passeth by it; so that he shall say, Why hath the Lord done thus unto this land, and unto this house?
22 And it shall be answered, Because they forsook the Lord God of their fathers, which brought them forth out of the land of Egypt, and laid hold on other gods, and worshipped them, and served them: therefore hath he brought all this evil upon them.


text:
Last week I asked: what gets you to read a book?
What works to convince you to pick up that book and start reading?
That post generated over 180 comments.
It's actually pretty enlightening — I'd suggest that writers and publishers and anybody peripherally related to the publishing industry poke through those comments. It's a long read, but contains some surprising answers (f'rex, blurbs figure in more than I would've imagined).
This week, I want to look at the other side of the question:
Once you've picked up a book, what gets you to set it down?
More importantly, what ensures you won't likely pick it up again?
What is it about a story, the writing, the author that stops you from reading further? What for you is the story-killer? Something about the wordsmithy? Something about the content or about a character? I will, as always, hang up and wait for your answer.


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In the UK, the cost of inpatient rehab averages at about £2000-6000 per week, depending on the complexity of the addiction treatment. However, this is a highly flexible estimate, and a lot of different factors can influence the overall cost of the treatment options you end up choosing. Sometimes, even the smallest difference can make private rehab a lot cheaper or much more expensive, such as:
We can work with each patient in Reading to provide the right private drug and alcohol treatment options for their individual needs, from group therapy via support groups to in-depth residential rehab that targets behavioural addictions at their source. [
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Our private rehab clinic offers a huge range of benefits over other forms of substance abuse and alcohol rehab.
We aim to provide the best private drug and alcohol rehab options in Reading, pushing for better clinical care in every part of our work. The main benefits of our addiction treatment and rehab options include the following:
We do our best to provide a wide range of addiction treatment methods, from family support to direct and focused treatment procedures.
We understand addictions and the difficulty involved in getting rid of them, and our drug and alcohol rehab specialists work to help each patient recover comfortably. Addiction does not just impact physical health but also mental health. At our private rehab centre, patients can use the support groups and one-to-one help they need to focus on recovering, something that many treatment centres struggle to provide.
Our combination of structured drug addiction and alcohol rehab programmes means that we can tackle each patient's addiction carefully, tailoring the process to their exact situation.
Drug addiction covers a lot of different addiction types, often relating to specific drugs.
Even the most harmless of drugs can have a significant impact on a person's mind and body if they develop an addiction, and our addiction treatment is there to aid recovery from even the most extreme addictions.
Alcohol addiction is one of the most common drug addiction types out there due to how easily a person can access alcohol.
Alcohol can cause significant physical and psychological problems, making private alcohol rehab incredibly important. Our private alcohol rehab options allow an alcoholic to regain control of their life and ideally cut alcohol out of their life in the long term.
Even in small amounts, cocaine can be dangerous. Due to its addictive nature, many addicts will destroy their life trying to get more due to how difficult it can be to access this in most parts of the UK.
Our private rehab options enable an addict to break their habit and recover from the significant damage that long-term cocaine use can do to their body and mind.
Crack cocaine is an even worse form of regular cocaine, offering more potency and increased danger to the body.
Once again, we can provide the private rehab clinic facilities needed to beat this addiction before it does any more permanent damage to the patient.
Crystal meth can destroy a person's life without them even realising it. Many people underestimate how powerful meth can be or how much damage it can do, and we aim to provide the private rehab options needed to recover before it causes irreversible harm.
Ketamine can be extremely addictive and cause a wide range of different side effects. While causing euphoria in the user, this can also do massive damage to the body and lead to significant psychological and behavioural problems.
Using drugs as part of your sex life poses a significant risk to you and everybody else involved.
Our private addiction rehab can work to provide treatment before your chemsex addiction causes permanent changes in your brain chemistry or the way that you perceive sex, drugs, and your body's relationship with them both.
Our private rehab also covers a range of other addictions, many of which can be just as dangerous as others until the patient receives treatment.
Our team can also provide treatment plans for alcoholism, eating disorders, mental illness disorders like anxiety, depression and much more. To speak to a professional about our inpatient treatment, please fill in our enquiry form.
Private rehab is exactly what the name implies: private addiction rehab, a form of residential rehab focused on addictions and addiction treatment. This includes both drug and private alcohol rehab, both of which require more than a simple detox attempt to cure.
This kind of rehab can mean multiple treatments, therapies and sources of long-term support to even deal with the initial addiction, let alone the side effects and withdrawal concerns.
We offer luxury clinic facilities Reading: a spa, gym, sauna, and a range of other unique and exclusive treatment options. Alongside this is our private cottage, providing true privacy for celebrities or high-profile patients who require secrecy and extra care.
Make sure you contact our admissions team today if you or a loved one need help. You will need to go through the admissions process first and take our free confidential assessment to ensure you receive the correct care for you.
The exact success rate of residential rehabilitation is not easy to judge. However, many of the best rehab clinics see at least 60% of patients overcome their addictions in a single attempt, if not more.
The average patient will stay in rehabilitation for between 28 and 90 days, although there is no exact average to give. This all depends on the level of rehabilitation needed – 14 days is effectively a detox, while 90 days is often reserved for much more extreme cases.
Private rehabs have smaller waiting lists with fast access into the centre. For more information, please make sure to call us today.
Drug addiction recovery can involve a range of therapies, from psychotherapy and biofeedback to massage therapy sessions and yoga.
Each patient is different and requires their own treatment plan if they want to achieve a full recovery.
Private rehabilitation is effectively just confidential rehabilitation, with a focus on providing complete privacy from everybody except possibly family members.
Even then, a patient may choose to keep their family members out of the loop, too, if needed.
Our rehab clinics have on-site chefs to allow for custom and carefully-prepared meals, ensuring that even the most extreme drug or private alcohol rehab patients can get food that will keep them comfortable.
If rehabilitation is the only option, and privacy is a concern, then private clinics are the ideal place to turn.
This privacy could be due to preference or to protect the patient from abusive, dangerous, or judgemental people in their life that may take advantage of their situation.
Use the content form to submit your application to our admissions team, and we will get back to you as soon as possible.
We do provide dual diagnosis treatment. Dual diagnosis is when a client has a mental disorder and a drug or alcohol problem. Our team can help with these issues and find out ways to help the individual on their way to sobriety.
This may be done through a 12 step program, holistic therapy, speaking to therapists and various other treatments.
We offer a huge range of rehabilitation options including 1-1 and group therapy sessions all across Great Britain. By providing patients with the options they need to recover from their addictions, each client will get the best services for them.
No matter how server the problem is, our experts can provide the therapies and ongoing support you need to get yourself clean. Contact us if you want to know more about our rehabilitation programme and other treatment options.
The sooner you get in touch, the sooner we can help you find the option that works for you.
Make sure you contact us today for private drug and alcohol rehab in South East. We offer bespoke treatments to meet unique needs for the best chance of recovery.
Here are some towns we cover near Reading.
Berkshire, Woodley, Wokingham, Crowthorne, BracknellWe absolutely love the service provided. Their approach is really friendly but professional. We went out to five different companies and found Private Drug Rehab to be value for money and their service was by far the best. Thank you for your really awesome work, we will definitely be returning!
Charles FoxWe have used Private Drug Rehab for many years as they are certainly the best in the UK. The attention to detail and professional setup is what makes this company our go-to company for all our work. I highly recommend the team for the immense work - we highly recommend them!
Ewan JonesFor more information on drug rehab in Reading, fill in the contact form below to receive a free quote today.
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All basic PHP functions which i tried returned unexpected results. I would just like to check whether some variable only contains numbers. For example: when i spread my script to the public i cannot require users to only use numbers as string or as integer. For those situation i wrote my own function which handles all inconveniences of other functions and which is not depending on regular expressions. Some people strongly believe that regular functions slow down your script.
The reason to write this function:
1. is_numeric() accepts values like: +0123.45e6 (but you would expect it would not)
2. is_int() does not accept HTML form fields (like: 123) because they are treated as strings (like: "123").
3. ctype_digit() excepts all numbers to be strings (like: "123") and does not validate real integers (like: 123).
4. Probably some functions would parse a boolean (like: true or false) as 0 or 1 and validate it in that manner.
My function only accepts numbers regardless whether they are in string or in integer format.
* Check input for existing only of digits (numbers)
* @author Tim Boormans <firstname.lastname@example.com>
* @param $digit
* @return bool
function is_digit($digit) {
if(is_int($digit)) {
return true;
} elseif(is_string($digit)) {
return ctype_digit($digit);
} else {
// booleans, floats and others
return false;


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text: Ancien menu du Polidor, restaurant pas cher et historique de Paris Post navigation Previous articleMiroir_Menu_Polidor Start the conversation Share your knowledge or ask a question.. Cancel replyWhat's your comment or question? *Let's start a personal, meaningful conversation. What is your background around this topic? * Example: Practical philosopher, therapist and writer. What is your name? * What is your email address? *It will not be published or shared with others. Save my details in this browser for the next time I comment. Add this comment Link copied to your clipboard


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To convert length x width dimensions from inches to millimeters we should multiply each amount by the conversion factor. One inch equals 25.4 millimeters, in order to convert 26.98 x 5.32 inches to millimeters we have to multiply each amount of inches by 25.4 to obtain the length and width in millimeters. In this case to convert 26.98 x 5.32 inches into millimeters we should multiply the length which is 26.98 by 25.4 and the width which is 5.32 by 25.4. The result is the following:
26.98 x 5.32 inches = 685.29 x 135.13 millimeters
An inch (symbol: in) is a unit of length. It is defined as 1⁄12 of a foot, also is 1⁄36 of a yard. Though traditional standards for the exact length of an inch have varied, it is equal to exactly 25.4 mm. The inch is a popularly used customary unit of length in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
The millimeter (symbol: mm) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to 1/1000 meter (or 1E-3 meter), which is also an engineering standard unit. 1 inch = 25.4 mm.
To calculate a inch value to the corresponding value in millimeters, just multiply the quantity in inches by 25.4 (the conversion factor).
millimeters = inches * 25.4
The factor 25.4 is the result from the division 1 / 0.0393701 (millimeter definition). Therefore, another way would be:
millimeters = inches / 0.0393701
- How many mm are in 26.98 by 5.32 inches?
- 26.98 x 5.32 inches is equal to how many mm?
- How to convert 26.98 inches x 5.32 inches to mm?
- What is 26.98 inches by 5.32 inches in mm?
- How many is 26.98in x 5.32in in mm?
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