text:
Vault Guide to Shipping Jobs, Second Edition
The Vault Guides to Jobs series provides essential information about key careers and industries, with an emphasis on preparing for a career and getting your foot in the door. Each volume is loaded with up-to-date information on industry trends, employment and earnings statistics, and what employers look for in job candidates. Vault editors have researched and analyzed information from government and industry sources, professional groups, news reports, career and job-search resources, and a variety of other sources to produce these valuable career planning resources. Each volume includes a featured article describing an industry or interest area plus a selection of detailed professions articles. For students making career choices and aspiring professionals planning their career path, these books offer a wealth of helpful information and resources.
Each profession article includes:
- Quick Facts: a snapshot of important job facts
- Overview: briefly introduces duties and responsibilities
- History: describes the origins and history of the job
- The Job: describes primary and secondary goals and duties
- Earnings: discusses salary ranges and typical fringe benefits
- Work Environment: looks at typical work conditions and surroundings associated with the job
- Exploring: offers suggestions on how to gain experience and knowledge about—or even test drive—a career before making a commitment
- Education and Training Requirements: discusses required high school and post-secondary education and training
- Certification, Licensing and Special Requirements: explains recommended and required certifications or prerequisites for the job
- Experience, Skills and Personality Traits: summarizes the personal traits and skills and professional experience needed to get started and succeed
- Employer Prospects: gives an overview of typical places of employment and the best ways to land a job
- Advancement Prospects: presents an expected career path and how to travel it
- Outlook: summarizes the job's potential growth or decline in terms of the general economy and industry projections
- Unions and Associations: lists essential and helpful professional groups
- Tips for Entry: additional tips for preparing for a career and getting a foot in the door
- For More Information: lists organizations that provide career information, networking and professional development
- Sidebars: short features showcasing stats, trivia and insight about a profession or industry
Vault Guide to Shipping Jobs, Second Edition covers the following 16 jobs:
- Boilermakers and Mechanics
- Customs Officials
- Diesel Mechanics
- Engineers
- Export-Import Specialists
- Industrial Traffic Managers
- Logistics Analysts
- Logistics Engineers
- Marine Engineers
- Marine Services Technicians
- Merchant Mariners
- Ship's Captains
- Stevedores
- Supply Chain Managers
- Transportation Engineers
- Transportation Planners


text:
Crossed eyes, also known as strabismus, refer to a condition in which both eyes do not look at the same place at the same time. Often times they both turn in, but may also turn out.
What Causes Crossed Eyes?
The six muscles attached to each eye, which control how it moves, receive signals from the brain. These signals direct the eye's movements. In normal circumstances, the eyes work in an organized fashion so that both point in the same direction at the same time. With crossed eyes, however, the muscles around the eyes do not work together because some are weaker than others. This causes the eyes to turn inward or in the opposite direction of each other.
It is important to have proper eye alignment. Misalignment can cause:
- Double vision
- Poor depth perception
- Poor vision in the turned eye
- Confusion
When the eyes are askew, the brain receives mixed images from each eye. In the beginning, the person may suffer from double vision and misperception. Over time, the brain becomes trained to ignore the image it receives from the weaker eye. But, if left untreated, the person may permanently lose vision in the weaker eye.
Risk factors for crossed eyes include family history, a considerable amount of uncorrected farsightedness and medical conditions like stroke, head injury, Down syndrome and cerebral palsy.
Though crossed eyes can develop in older children and adults, it typically develops in infants and young children by the age of three. Though babies are commonly affected, some experience a condition called false strabismus or pseudostrabismus, in which their eyes may appear misaligned, but they in fact are aiming at the same direction. This appearance of crossed eyes can be due to having excess skin over the inner corner of the eyes, or a wide bridge of the nose. As the child'face grows, the appearance of crossed eyes diminishes.
Ways to Treat Crossed Eyes
If the child does truly have crossed eyes, it is vital that he or she get treated. While some believe that the condition can be outgrown, it cannot. Crossed eyes can worsen without treatment. If you are the parent of a child who is older than four months and notice that his or her eyes do not appear to be straight at all times, an examination is in order.
In order to diagnose crossed eyes, a comprehensive eye exam will be performed, and it will concentrate on how the eyes focus and move. This may consist of:
- Visual acuity – reading letters on near and distance reading charts in order to measure and evaluate the degree to which vision is impacted
- A review of the patient's family history
- Refraction – an instrument known as a phoropter is used to conclude the right lens power needed to rectify refractive errors like astigmatism, nearsightedness and farsightedness. During the test, a series of lenses are placed in front of the patient's eyes while a handheld lighted instrument (retinoscope) gauges how they focus light.
- Focusing and alignment testing to determine how well your eyes move, focus and work in unison.
- An eye health examination to observe the internal and external structures of the eyes.
The information rendered from these tests will allow your optometrist to develop a treatment plan, which can involve prisms, vision therapy, eyeglasses or eye muscle surgery. If the condition is found and treated early, it can often be corrected with excellent outcomes.

subset: commoncrawl


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Two years ago, Reginald Murph was in prison for the second time. Today, he is a sophomore at Rutgers University. He credits Princeton University's Prison Teaching Initiative with helping give him a second chance.
The Prison Teaching Initiative (PTI) offers credit-earning college courses to inmates at three New Jersey correctional facilities. More than 70 Princeton faculty, staff, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and alumni volunteer to teach classes in English, mathematics, science, and other subjects spanning the liberal arts.
Since the program began eight years ago, nearly 500 inmates have earned college credits by taking PTI classes. Credits may be transferred to any community college in New Jersey as well as a handful of public colleges and universities in the state.
"The Princeton classes made me feel like a student. And feeling like a student in prison was a really good feeling," said Murph, who is studying social work at Rutgers-New Brunswick. "To sit at my desk and really focus on writing an essay. To step outside of myself for an hour and feel like a somewhat normal person.
"I was doing something in prison. I didn't lose hope. A lot of people in prison can go backward or stay the same. Or you can propel forward," Murph continued. "Education is necessary to propel forward."
PTI's mission is to reduce incarceration and recidivism rates in the state, especially among poor and minority communities, by providing inmates with the education and skills they need to lead productive, intellectually engaged lives while in prison and when they get out.
The program is coordinated by volunteers from Princeton's Departments of Astrophysical Sciences and English and is backed by the University's Pace Center for Civic Engagement.
"Princeton should be enormously proud of the people in this program," said Professor of Astrophysical Sciences Gillian Knapp, a longtime PTI teacher. "It's what this place is all about — Princeton in the nation's service. I can't really imagine many things that are quite as direct as this."
While PTI's greater goal may be large, its methods are modest and personal.
"It's pure teaching," said Knapp, who currently team teaches pre-algebra, pre-calculus, and environmental science classes in three prisons. "It's chalk. It's waving your hands. It's talking to people. It's doing your calculations, your essays, your corrections in pencil and paper."
Knapp said this stripped-down setting — and that classes are a special privilege for prisoners living in an otherwise restricted environment — make for an engaged classroom. It has led to some of the most heartening teaching moments in her career.
"The students want this. They value what we do," Knapp said. "They listen carefully for two hours … you have their attention totally."
Knapp said many of her students have experienced poverty, poorly performing schools, or other social and personal challenges that have limited their opportunities. The classes aim to provide them with practical skills and confidence to better their lives.
"They are some of the most motivated students I've ever met," said Beth Stroud, a doctoral student in the Department of Religion who teaches English and a new religion course for PTI.
Stroud has found her own motivation through the program as she fights advanced lung cancer. While she underwent intensive medical treatments last semester, she spent her first "day off" at a prison education workshop talking with current inmate college students.
"Among other things, they stressed that they wanted to be graded and held to the same standards as other students would be," she said. "From that point on, it felt like [teaching in the prisons] was one of the very worthwhile things that I got to do last semester. I was not able to study the way I wanted to. I wasn't able to do research the way I wanted to do. But just the fact that I could do this was meaningful."
From one class to consortium
PTI was developed in 2005 when Mark Krumholz, now an astronomer at the University of California-Santa Cruz, came to Princeton as a postdoctoral fellow. Krumholz had worked in the Prison University Project at San Quentin, Calif., and proposed starting a prison teaching program at Princeton. It launched with a single math course in 2006.
Over the years, PTI volunteers have taught at several men's, women's, and youth correctional facilities in New Jersey. PTI currently offers classes at A.C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility, East Jersey State Prison, and Garden State Youth Correctional Facility. The courses are accredited through Mercer County Community College, and credits can lead to an Associate of Liberal Arts degree.
The PTI classes are not counted as good behavior to reduce an inmate's sentence, and most prisoners participate with a sincere interest in learning.
"Students get a grade that appears on a transcript, and that is very important to them," said Matthew Spellberg, a doctoral student in comparative literature who came to Princeton, in part, because of the opportunity to teach in prisons. "It's a kind of sign that something they are doing inside the prison has real weight in the outside world."
Last year, PTI established a program coordinator, Sandra Sussman, to support the volunteer efforts. The program also has expanded its partnerships with other higher education institutions through the New Jersey Scholarship and Transformative Education in Prisons Consortium (NJ-STEP). The consortium coordinates prison teaching programs with the New Jersey Department of Corrections and the State Parole Board.
A number of PTI students have gone on to earn bachelor's degrees at Rutgers through its Mountainview Project, which offers support for students who were once in state youth correctional facilities. Former PTI student Murph credits the Mountainview Project and its founder, Rutgers Professor of History Donald Roden, with easing his transition from prison to college.
"Being in prison, sometimes you feel alone a lot. Out here, it's like a big sense of community," Murph said.
Knapp said she keeps in touch with many of her former students who are now undergraduates at Rutgers.
"To see for the first time, these guys who used to shamble into your class in their khakis … as ordinary young men, texting away, chatting happily, going about their lives and succeeding," she said. "It's just fantastic."
Separately, the University also is affiliated with the Petey Greene Prisoner Assistance Program. The independent nonprofit supports volunteers from colleges and universities to serve as tutors and teachers at state prisons, though those classes do not offer credit.
Teaching inside
So how do volunteers actually get inside the prisons to teach?
"You have to imagine that you're teaching a class in an airport," Stroud said. "That to get to your destination, you'll have to go through security. It'll take a long time, and there could be long waits."
In order to enter the prison, teachers go through metal detectors and a personal security check, following prison visitor protocols. PTI also must clear all teaching materials and books with prison security in advance.
Corrections officers escort teachers to their classrooms, though typically do not stay in the rooms. While PTI teachers have dealt with students being disruptive or goofing off, they said it has not gone beyond that.
"It's a very safe place to teach, oddly enough, however paradoxical that might sound," Knapp said.
PTI teachers describe the prison classes as fairly standard with blackboards and desks. There are, however, no calculators, projectors, or other equipment found in modern classrooms.
"It is definitely just you and the students and maybe some books," Spellberg said.
For the prisoners, being a student means writing assignments by hand, relying on books from the prison library for homework, and sharing one dictionary by sliding it under cell doors.
"It actually helps you be sharper because you're trying to perfectly write an essay," Murph said. "When I type an essay now [at Rutgers], I just do it quickly … I follow a very similar format that I learned from the Princeton classes that's going to help me probably throughout my whole life."
'Made me a better teacher'
Most PTI classes are team-taught to ensure someone is always available to cover the weekly sessions. Teachers create the syllabi for their classes, and over the years, PTI volunteers have developed new course offerings for the prisons.
Volunteers said the experience of leading their own classes through PTI also benefits their academic lives at Princeton.
Knapp credits PTI with helping her become a better listener; better at reading if her students — whether they are in a pre-algebra class in prison or an astrophysics class at Princeton — really understand the material.
The personal rewards are particularly gratifying for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in the early stages of their careers.
"You are genuinely pushed to be a better teacher because you will really be called out if you are not being a good teacher in this context," said Ross Lerner, a doctoral student in English who helps coordinate humanities courses for PTI.
Marcus Johnson, a doctoral student in politics and a new PTI volunteer, has already gleaned important wisdom: that teachers do not need to come prepared with all the answers.
"You can still go in and have an engaging discussion and help discover the answers together," Johnson said. "It has served as an opportunity for me to be encouraged that you have these experiences and you grow from them. And hopefully, everyone learns together if it's successful."
Spellberg put it simply: "Teaching in the prisons has made me a better teacher."
"It's really taught me to value a certain kind of directness or pragmatism in the classroom, that the goal of being in a classroom, at any given time, is to achieve something," he said. "It may be a very local goal, maybe just figuring out what this poem means. Or it may be a bigger goal like teaching someone how to write."
(First published by News at Princeton and used here by permission)
Published Jan 7, 2014 by Christopher Zoukis, JD, MBA | Last Updated by Christopher Zoukis, JD, MBA on Jul 10, 2024 at 11:07 am


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text:
SELECT, TABLE, WITH — retrieve rows from a table or view
[ WITH [ RECURSIVE ]with_query
[, ...] ] SELECT [ ALL | DISTINCT [ ON (expression
[, ...] ) ] ] [ * |expression
[ [ AS ]output_name
] [, ...] ] [ FROMfrom_item
[, ...] ] [ WHEREcondition
] [ GROUP BYgrouping_element
[, ...] ] [ HAVINGcondition
] [ WINDOWwindow_name
AS (window_definition
) [, ...] ] [ { UNION | INTERSECT | EXCEPT } [ ALL | DISTINCT ]select
] [ ORDER BYexpression
[ ASC | DESC | USINGoperator
] [ NULLS { FIRST | LAST } ] [, ...] ] [ LIMIT {count
| ALL } ] [ OFFSETstart
[ ROW | ROWS ] ] [ FETCH { FIRST | NEXT } [count
] { ROW | ROWS } ONLY ] [ FOR { UPDATE | NO KEY UPDATE | SHARE | KEY SHARE } [ OFtable_name
[, ...] ] [ NOWAIT | SKIP LOCKED ] [...] ] wherefrom_item
can be one of: [ ONLY ]table_name
[ * ] [ [ AS ]alias
[ (column_alias
[, ...] ) ] ] [ TABLESAMPLEsampling_method
[, ...] ) [ REPEATABLE (seed
) ] ] [ LATERAL ] (select
) [ AS ]alias
[ (column_alias
[, ...] ) ]with_query_name
[ [ AS ]alias
[ (column_alias
[, ...] ) ] ] [ LATERAL ]function_name
( [argument
[, ...] ] ) [ WITH ORDINALITY ] [ [ AS ]alias
[ (column_alias
[, ...] ) ] ] [ LATERAL ]function_name
( [argument
[, ...] ] ) [ AS ]alias
[, ...] ) [ LATERAL ]function_name
( [argument
[, ...] ] ) AS (column_definition
[, ...] ) [ LATERAL ] ROWS FROM(function_name
( [argument
[, ...] ] ) [ AS (column_definition
[, ...] ) ] [, ...] ) [ WITH ORDINALITY ] [ [ AS ]alias
[ (column_alias
[, ...] ) ] ]from_item
[ NATURAL ]join_type
[ ONjoin_condition
| USING (join_column
[, ...] ) ] andgrouping_element
can be one of: ( )expression
[, ...] ) ROLLUP ( {expression
| (expression
[, ...] ) } [, ...] ) CUBE ( {expression
| (expression
[, ...] ) } [, ...] ) GROUPING SETS (grouping_element
[, ...] ) andwith_query
[ (column_name
[, ...] ) ] AS (select
) TABLE [ ONLY ]table_name
[ * ]
retrieves rows from zero or more tables. The general processing of SELECT
is as follows:
All queries in the
list are computed. These effectively serve as temporary tables that can be referenced in theFROM
list. AWITH
query that is referenced more than once inFROM
is computed only once. (SeeWITH
Clause below.)All elements in the
list are computed. (Each element in theFROM
list is a real or virtual table.) If more than one element is specified in theFROM
list, they are cross-joined together. (SeeFROM
Clause below.)If the
clause is specified, all rows that do not satisfy the condition are eliminated from the output. (SeeWHERE
Clause below.)If the
clause is specified, or if there are aggregate function calls, the output is combined into groups of rows that match on one or more values, and the results of aggregate functions are computed. If theHAVING
clause is present, it eliminates groups that do not satisfy the given condition. (SeeGROUP BY
Clause andHAVING
Clause below.)The actual output rows are computed using the
output expressions for each selected row or row group. (SeeSELECT
List below.)SELECT DISTINCT
eliminates duplicate rows from the result.SELECT DISTINCT ON
eliminates rows that match on all the specified expressions.SELECT ALL
(the default) will return all candidate rows, including duplicates. (SeeDISTINCT
Clause below.)Using the operators
, andEXCEPT
, the output of more than oneSELECT
statement can be combined to form a single result set. TheUNION
operator returns all rows that are in one or both of the result sets. TheINTERSECT
operator returns all rows that are strictly in both result sets. TheEXCEPT
operator returns the rows that are in the first result set but not in the second. In all three cases, duplicate rows are eliminated unlessALL
is specified. The noise wordDISTINCT
can be added to explicitly specify eliminating duplicate rows. Notice thatDISTINCT
is the default behavior here, even thoughALL
is the default forSELECT
itself. (SeeUNION
Clause, andEXCEPT
Clause below.)If the
clause is specified, the returned rows are sorted in the specified order. IfORDER BY
is not given, the rows are returned in whatever order the system finds fastest to produce. (SeeORDER BY
Clause below.)If the
(orFETCH FIRST
) orOFFSET
clause is specified, theSELECT
statement only returns a subset of the result rows. (SeeLIMIT
Clause below.)If
orFOR KEY SHARE
is specified, theSELECT
statement locks the selected rows against concurrent updates. (See The Locking Clause below.)
You must have SELECT
privilege on each column used in a SELECT
command. The use of FOR NO KEY UPDATE
or FOR KEY SHARE
requires UPDATE
privilege as well (for at least one column of each table so selected).
The WITH
clause allows you to specify one or more subqueries that can be referenced by name in the primary query. The subqueries effectively act as temporary tables or views for the duration of the primary query. Each subquery can be a SELECT
or DELETE
statement. When writing a data-modifying statement (INSERT
or DELETE
) in WITH
, it is usual to include a RETURNING
clause. It is the output of RETURNING
, not the underlying table that the statement modifies, that forms the temporary table that is read by the primary query. If RETURNING
is omitted, the statement is still executed, but it produces no output so it cannot be referenced as a table by the primary query.
A name (without schema qualification) must be specified for each WITH
query. Optionally, a list of column names can be specified; if this is omitted, the column names are inferred from the subquery.
If RECURSIVE
is specified, it allows a SELECT
subquery to reference itself by name. Such a subquery must have the form
UNION [ ALL | DISTINCT ]recursive_term
where the recursive self-reference must appear on the right-hand side of the UNION
. Only one recursive self-reference is permitted per query. Recursive data-modifying statements are not supported, but you can use the results of a recursive SELECT
query in a data-modifying statement. See Section 7.8 for an example.
Another effect of RECURSIVE
is that WITH
queries need not be ordered: a query can reference another one that is later in the list. (However, circular references, or mutual recursion, are not implemented.) Without RECURSIVE
queries can only reference sibling WITH
queries that are earlier in the WITH
A key property of WITH
queries is that they are evaluated only once per execution of the primary query, even if the primary query refers to them more than once. In particular, data-modifying statements are guaranteed to be executed once and only once, regardless of whether the primary query reads all or any of their output.
When there are multiple queries in the WITH
clause, RECURSIVE
should be written only once, immediately after WITH
. It applies to all queries in the WITH
clause, though it has no effect on queries that do not use recursion or forward references.
The primary query and the WITH
queries are all (notionally) executed at the same time. This implies that the effects of a data-modifying statement in WITH
cannot be seen from other parts of the query, other than by reading its RETURNING
output. If two such data-modifying statements attempt to modify the same row, the results are unspecified.
See Section 7.8 for additional information.
The FROM
clause specifies one or more source tables for the SELECT
. If multiple sources are specified, the result is the Cartesian product (cross join) of all the sources. But usually qualification conditions are added (via WHERE
) to restrict the returned rows to a small subset of the Cartesian product.
The FROM
clause can contain the following elements:
The name (optionally schema-qualified) of an existing table or view. If
is specified before the table name, only that table is scanned. IfONLY
is not specified, the table and all its descendant tables (if any) are scanned. Optionally,*
can be specified after the table name to explicitly indicate that descendant tables are included.alias
A substitute name for the
item containing the alias. An alias is used for brevity or to eliminate ambiguity for self-joins (where the same table is scanned multiple times). When an alias is provided, it completely hides the actual name of the table or function; for example givenFROM foo AS f
, the remainder of theSELECT
must refer to thisFROM
item asf
. If an alias is written, a column alias list can also be written to provide substitute names for one or more columns of the table.TABLESAMPLE
[, ...] ) [ REPEATABLE (seed
clause after atable_name
indicates that the specifiedsampling_method
should be used to retrieve a subset of the rows in that table. This sampling precedes the application of any other filters such asWHERE
clauses. The standard Postgres Pro distribution includes two sampling methods,BERNOULLI
, and other sampling methods can be installed in the database via extensions.The
sampling methods each accept a singleargument
which is the fraction of the table to sample, expressed as a percentage between 0 and 100. This argument can be anyreal
-valued expression. (Other sampling methods might accept more or different arguments.) These two methods each return a randomly-chosen sample of the table that will contain approximately the specified percentage of the table's rows. TheBERNOULLI
method scans the whole table and selects or ignores individual rows independently with the specified probability. TheSYSTEM
method does block-level sampling with each block having the specified chance of being selected; all rows in each selected block are returned. TheSYSTEM
method is significantly faster than theBERNOULLI
method when small sampling percentages are specified, but it may return a less-random sample of the table as a result of clustering effects.The optional
clause specifies aseed
number or expression to use for generating random numbers within the sampling method. The seed value can be any non-null floating-point value. Two queries that specify the same seed andargument
values will select the same sample of the table, if the table has not been changed meanwhile. But different seed values will usually produce different samples. IfREPEATABLE
is not given then a new random sample is selected for each query, based upon a system-generated seed. Note that some add-on sampling methods do not acceptREPEATABLE
, and will always produce new samples on each use.select
A sub-
can appear in theFROM
clause. This acts as though its output were created as a temporary table for the duration of this singleSELECT
command. Note that the sub-SELECT
must be surrounded by parentheses, and an alias must be provided for it. A VALUES command can also be used here.with_query_name
query is referenced by writing its name, just as though the query's name were a table name. (In fact, theWITH
query hides any real table of the same name for the purposes of the primary query. If necessary, you can refer to a real table of the same name by schema-qualifying the table's name.) An alias can be provided in the same way as for a table.function_name
Function calls can appear in the
clause. (This is especially useful for functions that return result sets, but any function can be used.) This acts as though the function's output were created as a temporary table for the duration of this singleSELECT
command. When the optionalWITH ORDINALITY
clause is added to the function call, a new column is appended after all the function's output columns with numbering for each row.An alias can be provided in the same way as for a table. If an alias is written, a column alias list can also be written to provide substitute names for one or more attributes of the function's composite return type, including the column added by
if present.Multiple function calls can be combined into a single
-clause item by surrounding them withROWS FROM( ... )
. The output of such an item is the concatenation of the first row from each function, then the second row from each function, etc. If some of the functions produce fewer rows than others, null values are substituted for the missing data, so that the total number of rows returned is always the same as for the function that produced the most rows.If the function has been defined as returning the
data type, then an alias or the key wordAS
must be present, followed by a column definition list in the form(
. The column definition list must match the actual number and types of columns returned by the function.column_name
[, ... ])When using the
syntax, if one of the functions requires a column definition list, it's preferred to put the column definition list after the function call insideROWS FROM( ... )
. A column definition list can be placed after theROWS FROM( ... )
construct only if there's just a single function and noWITH ORDINALITY
clause.To use
together with a column definition list, you must use theROWS FROM( ... )
syntax and put the column definition list insideROWS FROM( ... )
One of
For the
join types, a join condition must be specified, namely exactly one ofNATURAL
, orjoin_condition
. See below for the meaning. Forjoin_column
, none of these clauses can appear.A
clause combines twoFROM
items, which for convenience we will refer to as "tables", though in reality they can be any type ofFROM
item. Use parentheses if necessary to determine the order of nesting. In the absence of parentheses,JOIN
s nest left-to-right. In any caseJOIN
binds more tightly than the commas separatingFROM
-list items.CROSS JOIN
andINNER JOIN
produce a simple Cartesian product, the same result as you get from listing the two tables at the top level ofFROM
, but restricted by the join condition (if any).CROSS JOIN
is equivalent toINNER JOIN ON (TRUE)
, that is, no rows are removed by qualification. These join types are just a notational convenience, since they do nothing you couldn't do with plainFROM
returns all rows in the qualified Cartesian product (i.e., all combined rows that pass its join condition), plus one copy of each row in the left-hand table for which there was no right-hand row that passed the join condition. This left-hand row is extended to the full width of the joined table by inserting null values for the right-hand columns. Note that only theJOIN
clause's own condition is considered while deciding which rows have matches. Outer conditions are applied afterwards.Conversely,
returns all the joined rows, plus one row for each unmatched right-hand row (extended with nulls on the left). This is just a notational convenience, since you could convert it to aLEFT OUTER JOIN
by switching the left and right tables.FULL OUTER JOIN
returns all the joined rows, plus one row for each unmatched left-hand row (extended with nulls on the right), plus one row for each unmatched right-hand row (extended with nulls on the left).ON
is an expression resulting in a value of typeboolean
(similar to aWHERE
clause) that specifies which rows in a join are considered to match.USING (
[, ...] )A clause of the form
USING ( a, b, ... )
is shorthand forON left_table.a = right_table.a AND left_table.b = right_table.b ...
. Also,USING
implies that only one of each pair of equivalent columns will be included in the join output, not both.NATURAL
is shorthand for aUSING
list that mentions all columns in the two tables that have matching names. If there are no common column names,NATURAL
is equivalent toON TRUE
key word can precede a sub-SELECT
item. This allows the sub-SELECT
to refer to columns ofFROM
items that appear before it in theFROM
list. (WithoutLATERAL
, each sub-SELECT
is evaluated independently and so cannot cross-reference any otherFROM
can also precede a function-callFROM
item, but in this case it is a noise word, because the function expression can refer to earlierFROM
items in any case.A
item can appear at top level in theFROM
list, or within aJOIN
tree. In the latter case it can also refer to any items that are on the left-hand side of aJOIN
that it is on the right-hand side of.When a
item containsLATERAL
cross-references, evaluation proceeds as follows: for each row of theFROM
item providing the cross-referenced column(s), or set of rows of multipleFROM
items providing the columns, theLATERAL
item is evaluated using that row or row set's values of the columns. The resulting row(s) are joined as usual with the rows they were computed from. This is repeated for each row or set of rows from the column source table(s).The column source table(s) must be
joined to theLATERAL
item, else there would not be a well-defined set of rows from which to compute each set of rows for theLATERAL
item. Thus, although a construct such as
is syntactically valid, it is not actually allowed forX
to referenceX
The optional WHERE
clause has the general form
WHERE condition
where condition
is any expression that evaluates to a result of type boolean
. Any row that does not satisfy this condition will be eliminated from the output. A row satisfies the condition if it returns true when the actual row values are substituted for any variable references.
The optional GROUP BY
clause has the general form
GROUP BY grouping_element
[, ...]
will condense into a single row all selected rows that share the same values for the grouped expressions. An expression
used inside a grouping_element
can be an input column name, or the name or ordinal number of an output column (SELECT
list item), or an arbitrary expression formed from input-column values. In case of ambiguity, a GROUP BY
name will be interpreted as an input-column name rather than an output column name.
If any of GROUPING SETS
or CUBE
are present as grouping elements, then the GROUP BY
clause as a whole defines some number of independent grouping sets
. The effect of this is equivalent to constructing a UNION ALL
between subqueries with the individual grouping sets as their GROUP BY
clauses. For further details on the handling of grouping sets see Section 7.2.4.
Aggregate functions, if any are used, are computed across all rows making up each group, producing a separate value for each group. (If there are aggregate functions but no GROUP BY
clause, the query is treated as having a single group comprising all the selected rows.) The set of rows fed to each aggregate function can be further filtered by attaching a FILTER
clause to the aggregate function call; see Section 4.2.7 for more information. When a FILTER
clause is present, only those rows matching it are included in the input to that aggregate function.
When GROUP BY
is present, or any aggregate functions are present, it is not valid for the SELECT
list expressions to refer to ungrouped columns except within aggregate functions or when the ungrouped column is functionally dependent on the grouped columns, since there would otherwise be more than one possible value to return for an ungrouped column. A functional dependency exists if the grouped columns (or a subset thereof) are the primary key of the table containing the ungrouped column.
Keep in mind that all aggregate functions are evaluated before evaluating any "scalar" expressions in the HAVING
clause or SELECT
list. This means that, for example, a CASE
expression cannot be used to skip evaluation of an aggregate function; see Section 4.2.14.
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified with GROUP BY
The optional HAVING
clause has the general form
HAVING condition
where condition
is the same as specified for the WHERE
eliminates group rows that do not satisfy the condition. HAVING
is different from WHERE
filters individual rows before the application of GROUP BY
, while HAVING
filters group rows created by GROUP BY
. Each column referenced in condition
must unambiguously reference a grouping column, unless the reference appears within an aggregate function or the ungrouped column is functionally dependent on the grouping columns.
The presence of HAVING
turns a query into a grouped query even if there is no GROUP BY
clause. This is the same as what happens when the query contains aggregate functions but no GROUP BY
clause. All the selected rows are considered to form a single group, and the SELECT
list and HAVING
clause can only reference table columns from within aggregate functions. Such a query will emit a single row if the HAVING
condition is true, zero rows if it is not true.
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified with HAVING
The optional WINDOW
clause has the general form
AS (window_definition
) [, ...]
where window_name
is a name that can be referenced from OVER
clauses or subsequent window definitions, and window_definition
] [ PARTITION BYexpression
[, ...] ] [ ORDER BYexpression
[ ASC | DESC | USINGoperator
] [ NULLS { FIRST | LAST } ] [, ...] ] [frame_clause
If an existing_window_name
is specified it must refer to an earlier entry in the WINDOW
list; the new window copies its partitioning clause from that entry, as well as its ordering clause if any. In this case the new window cannot specify its own PARTITION BY
clause, and it can specify ORDER BY
only if the copied window does not have one. The new window always uses its own frame clause; the copied window must not specify a frame clause.
The elements of the PARTITION BY
list are interpreted in much the same fashion as elements of a GROUP BY
Clause, except that they are always simple expressions and never the name or number of an output column. Another difference is that these expressions can contain aggregate function calls, which are not allowed in a regular GROUP BY
clause. They are allowed here because windowing occurs after grouping and aggregation.
Similarly, the elements of the ORDER BY
list are interpreted in much the same fashion as elements of an ORDER BY
Clause, except that the expressions are always taken as simple expressions and never the name or number of an output column.
The optional frame_clause
defines the window frame for window functions that depend on the frame (not all do). The window frame is a set of related rows for each row of the query (called the current row). The frame_clause
can be one of
{ RANGE | ROWS }frame_start
{ RANGE | ROWS } BETWEENframe_start
where frame_start
and frame_end
can be one of
UNBOUNDED PRECEDINGvalue
PRECEDING CURRENT ROWvalue
If frame_end
is omitted it defaults to CURRENT ROW
. Restrictions are that frame_start
cannot be UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING
, frame_end
cannot be UNBOUNDED PRECEDING
, and the frame_end
choice cannot appear earlier in the above list than the frame_start
choice — for example RANGE BETWEEN CURRENT ROW AND
is not allowed. value
The default framing option is RANGE UNBOUNDED PRECEDING
, which is the same as RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW
; it sets the frame to be all rows from the partition start up through the current row's last peer (a row that ORDER BY
considers equivalent to the current row, or all rows if there is no ORDER BY
). In general, UNBOUNDED PRECEDING
means that the frame starts with the first row of the partition, and similarly UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING
means that the frame ends with the last row of the partition (regardless of RANGE
or ROWS
mode). In ROWS
mode, CURRENT ROW
means that the frame starts or ends with the current row; but in RANGE
mode it means that the frame starts or ends with the current row's first or last peer in the ORDER BY
ordering. The value
and value
cases are currently only allowed in ROWS
mode. They indicate that the frame starts or ends with the row that many rows before or after the current row. value
must be an integer expression not containing any variables, aggregate functions, or window functions. The value must not be null or negative; but it can be zero, which selects the current row itself.
Beware that the ROWS
options can produce unpredictable results if the ORDER BY
ordering does not order the rows uniquely. The RANGE
options are designed to ensure that rows that are peers in the ORDER BY
ordering are treated alike; all peer rows will be in the same frame.
The purpose of a WINDOW
clause is to specify the behavior of window functions appearing in the query's SELECT
List or ORDER BY
Clause. These functions can reference the WINDOW
clause entries by name in their OVER
clauses. A WINDOW
clause entry does not have to be referenced anywhere, however; if it is not used in the query it is simply ignored. It is possible to use window functions without any WINDOW
clause at all, since a window function call can specify its window definition directly in its OVER
clause. However, the WINDOW
clause saves typing when the same window definition is needed for more than one window function.
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified with WINDOW
Window functions are described in detail in Section 3.5, Section 4.2.8, and Section 7.2.5.
The SELECT
list (between the key words SELECT
and FROM
) specifies expressions that form the output rows of the SELECT
statement. The expressions can (and usually do) refer to columns computed in the FROM
Just as in a table, every output column of a SELECT
has a name. In a simple SELECT
this name is just used to label the column for display, but when the SELECT
is a sub-query of a larger query, the name is seen by the larger query as the column name of the virtual table produced by the sub-query. To specify the name to use for an output column, write AS
after the column's expression. (You can omit AS
, but only if the desired output name does not match any Postgres Pro keyword (see Appendix C). For protection against possible future keyword additions, it is recommended that you always either write AS
or double-quote the output name.) If you do not specify a column name, a name is chosen automatically by Postgres Pro. If the column's expression is a simple column reference then the chosen name is the same as that column's name. In more complex cases a function or type name may be used, or the system may fall back on a generated name such as ?column?
An output column's name can be used to refer to the column's value in ORDER BY
and GROUP BY
clauses, but not in the WHERE
or HAVING
clauses; there you must write out the expression instead.
Instead of an expression, *
can be written in the output list as a shorthand for all the columns of the selected rows. Also, you can write
as a shorthand for the columns coming from just that table. In these cases it is not possible to specify new names with table_name
; the output column names will be the same as the table columns' names.
According to the SQL standard, the expressions in the output list should be computed before applying DISTINCT
, or LIMIT
. This is obviously necessary when using DISTINCT
, since otherwise it's not clear what values are being made distinct. However, in many cases it is convenient if output expressions are computed after ORDER BY
and LIMIT
; particularly if the output list contains any volatile or expensive functions. With that behavior, the order of function evaluations is more intuitive and there will not be evaluations corresponding to rows that never appear in the output. Postgres Pro will effectively evaluate output expressions after sorting and limiting, so long as those expressions are not referenced in DISTINCT
or GROUP BY
. (As a counterexample, SELECT f(x) FROM tab ORDER BY 1
clearly must evaluate f(x)
before sorting.) Output expressions that contain set-returning functions are effectively evaluated after sorting and before limiting, so that LIMIT
will act to cut off the output from a set-returning function.
Postgres Pro versions before 9.6 did not provide any guarantees about the timing of evaluation of output expressions versus sorting and limiting; it depended on the form of the chosen query plan.
If SELECT DISTINCT
is specified, all duplicate rows are removed from the result set (one row is kept from each group of duplicates). SELECT ALL
specifies the opposite: all rows are kept; that is the default.
keeps only the first row of each set of rows where the given expressions evaluate to equal. The expression
expressions are interpreted using the same rules as for ORDER BY
(see above). Note that the "first row" of each set is unpredictable unless ORDER BY
is used to ensure that the desired row appears first. For example:
SELECT DISTINCT ON (location) location, time, report FROM weather_reports ORDER BY location, time DESC;
retrieves the most recent weather report for each location. But if we had not used ORDER BY
to force descending order of time values for each location, we'd have gotten a report from an unpredictable time for each location.
The DISTINCT ON
expression(s) must match the leftmost ORDER BY
expression(s). The ORDER BY
clause will normally contain additional expression(s) that determine the desired precedence of rows within each DISTINCT ON
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified with DISTINCT
The UNION
clause has this general form:
UNION [ ALL | DISTINCT ]select_statement
is any SELECT
statement without an ORDER BY
, or FOR KEY SHARE
clause. (ORDER BY
and LIMIT
can be attached to a subexpression if it is enclosed in parentheses. Without parentheses, these clauses will be taken to apply to the result of the UNION
, not to its right-hand input expression.)
The UNION
operator computes the set union of the rows returned by the involved SELECT
statements. A row is in the set union of two result sets if it appears in at least one of the result sets. The two SELECT
statements that represent the direct operands of the UNION
must produce the same number of columns, and corresponding columns must be of compatible data types.
The result of UNION
does not contain any duplicate rows unless the ALL
option is specified. ALL
prevents elimination of duplicates. (Therefore, UNION ALL
is usually significantly quicker than UNION
; use ALL
when you can.) DISTINCT
can be written to explicitly specify the default behavior of eliminating duplicate rows.
Multiple UNION
operators in the same SELECT
statement are evaluated left to right, unless otherwise indicated by parentheses.
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified either for a UNION
result or for any input of a UNION
The INTERSECT
clause has this general form:
INTERSECT [ ALL | DISTINCT ]select_statement
is any SELECT
statement without an ORDER BY
, or FOR KEY SHARE
The INTERSECT
operator computes the set intersection of the rows returned by the involved SELECT
statements. A row is in the intersection of two result sets if it appears in both result sets.
The result of INTERSECT
does not contain any duplicate rows unless the ALL
option is specified. With ALL
, a row that has m
duplicates in the left table and n
duplicates in the right table will appear min(m
) times in the result set. DISTINCT
can be written to explicitly specify the default behavior of eliminating duplicate rows.
Multiple INTERSECT
operators in the same SELECT
statement are evaluated left to right, unless parentheses dictate otherwise. INTERSECT
binds more tightly than UNION
. That is, A UNION B INTERSECT C
will be read as A UNION (B INTERSECT C)
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified either for an INTERSECT
result or for any input of an INTERSECT
The EXCEPT
clause has this general form:
EXCEPT [ ALL | DISTINCT ]select_statement
is any SELECT
statement without an ORDER BY
, or FOR KEY SHARE
The EXCEPT
operator computes the set of rows that are in the result of the left SELECT
statement but not in the result of the right one.
The result of EXCEPT
does not contain any duplicate rows unless the ALL
option is specified. With ALL
, a row that has m
duplicates in the left table and n
duplicates in the right table will appear max(m
,0) times in the result set. DISTINCT
can be written to explicitly specify the default behavior of eliminating duplicate rows.
Multiple EXCEPT
operators in the same SELECT
statement are evaluated left to right, unless parentheses dictate otherwise. EXCEPT
binds at the same level as UNION
Currently, FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
cannot be specified either for an EXCEPT
result or for any input of an EXCEPT
The optional ORDER BY
clause has this general form:
ORDER BYexpression
[ ASC | DESC | USINGoperator
The ORDER BY
clause causes the result rows to be sorted according to the specified expression(s). If two rows are equal according to the leftmost expression, they are compared according to the next expression and so on. If they are equal according to all specified expressions, they are returned in an implementation-dependent order.
Each expression
can be the name or ordinal number of an output column (SELECT
list item), or it can be an arbitrary expression formed from input-column values.
The ordinal number refers to the ordinal (left-to-right) position of the output column. This feature makes it possible to define an ordering on the basis of a column that does not have a unique name. This is never absolutely necessary because it is always possible to assign a name to an output column using the AS
It is also possible to use arbitrary expressions in the ORDER BY
clause, including columns that do not appear in the SELECT
output list. Thus the following statement is valid:
SELECT name FROM distributors ORDER BY code;
A limitation of this feature is that an ORDER BY
clause applying to the result of a UNION
, or EXCEPT
clause can only specify an output column name or number, not an expression.
If an ORDER BY
expression is a simple name that matches both an output column name and an input column name, ORDER BY
will interpret it as the output column name. This is the opposite of the choice that GROUP BY
will make in the same situation. This inconsistency is made to be compatible with the SQL standard.
Optionally one can add the key word ASC
(ascending) or DESC
(descending) after any expression in the ORDER BY
clause. If not specified, ASC
is assumed by default. Alternatively, a specific ordering operator name can be specified in the USING
clause. An ordering operator must be a less-than or greater-than member of some B-tree operator family. ASC
is usually equivalent to USING <
and DESC
is usually equivalent to USING >
. (But the creator of a user-defined data type can define exactly what the default sort ordering is, and it might correspond to operators with other names.)
If NULLS LAST
is specified, null values sort after all non-null values; if NULLS FIRST
is specified, null values sort before all non-null values. If neither is specified, the default behavior is NULLS LAST
when ASC
is specified or implied, and NULLS FIRST
when DESC
is specified (thus, the default is to act as though nulls are larger than non-nulls). When USING
is specified, the default nulls ordering depends on whether the operator is a less-than or greater-than operator.
Note that ordering options apply only to the expression they follow; for example ORDER BY x, y DESC
does not mean the same thing as ORDER BY x DESC, y DESC
Character-string data is sorted according to the collation that applies to the column being sorted. That can be overridden at need by including a COLLATE
clause in the expression
, for example ORDER BY mycolumn COLLATE "en_US"
. For more information see Section 4.2.10 and Section 23.2.
The LIMIT
clause consists of two independent sub-clauses:
LIMIT {count
| ALL } OFFSETstart
specifies the maximum number of rows to return, while start
specifies the number of rows to skip before starting to return rows. When both are specified, start
rows are skipped before starting to count the count
rows to be returned.
If the count
expression evaluates to NULL, it is treated as LIMIT ALL
, i.e., no limit. If start
evaluates to NULL, it is treated the same as OFFSET 0
SQL:2008 introduced a different syntax to achieve the same result, which Postgres Pro also supports. It is:
{ ROW | ROWS } FETCH { FIRST | NEXT } [count
In this syntax, the start
or count
value is required by the standard to be a literal constant, a parameter, or a variable name; as a Postgres Pro extension, other expressions are allowed, but will generally need to be enclosed in parentheses to avoid ambiguity. If count
is omitted in a FETCH
clause, it defaults to 1. ROW
and ROWS
as well as FIRST
and NEXT
are noise words that don't influence the effects of these clauses. According to the standard, the OFFSET
clause must come before the FETCH
clause if both are present; but Postgres Pro is laxer and allows either order.
When using LIMIT
, it is a good idea to use an ORDER BY
clause that constrains the result rows into a unique order. Otherwise you will get an unpredictable subset of the query's rows — you might be asking for the tenth through twentieth rows, but tenth through twentieth in what ordering? You don't know what ordering unless you specify ORDER BY
The query planner takes LIMIT
into account when generating a query plan, so you are very likely to get different plans (yielding different row orders) depending on what you use for LIMIT
and OFFSET
. Thus, using different LIMIT
values to select different subsets of a query result will give inconsistent results unless you enforce a predictable result ordering with ORDER BY
. This is not a bug; it is an inherent consequence of the fact that SQL does not promise to deliver the results of a query in any particular order unless ORDER BY
is used to constrain the order.
It is even possible for repeated executions of the same LIMIT
query to return different subsets of the rows of a table, if there is not an ORDER BY
to enforce selection of a deterministic subset. Again, this is not a bug; determinism of the results is simply not guaranteed in such a case.
The command
TABLE name
is equivalent to
SELECT * FROM name
It can be used as a top-level command or as a space-saving syntax variant in parts of complex queries. Only the WITH
and FOR
locking clauses can be used with TABLE
; the WHERE
clause and any form of aggregation cannot be used.
To join the table films
with the table distributors
SELECT f.title, f.did, d.name, f.date_prod, f.kind FROM distributors d, films f WHERE f.did = d.did title | did | name | date_prod | kind -------------------+-----+--------------+------------+---------- The Third Man | 101 | British Lion | 1949-12-23 | Drama The African Queen | 101 | British Lion | 1951-08-11 | Romantic ...
To sum the column len
of all films and group the results by kind
SELECT kind, sum(len) AS total FROM films GROUP BY kind; kind | total ----------+------- Action | 07:34 Comedy | 02:58 Drama | 14:28 Musical | 06:42 Romantic | 04:38
To sum the column len
of all films, group the results by kind
and show those group totals that are less than 5 hours:
SELECT kind, sum(len) AS total FROM films GROUP BY kind HAVING sum(len) < interval '5 hours'; kind | total ----------+------- Comedy | 02:58 Romantic | 04:38
The following two examples are identical ways of sorting the individual results according to the contents of the second column (name
SELECT * FROM distributors ORDER BY name; SELECT * FROM distributors ORDER BY 2; did | name -----+------------------ 109 | 20th Century Fox 110 | Bavaria Atelier 101 | British Lion 107 | Columbia 102 | Jean Luc Godard 113 | Luso films 104 | Mosfilm 103 | Paramount 106 | Toho 105 | United Artists 111 | Walt Disney 112 | Warner Bros. 108 | Westward
The next example shows how to obtain the union of the tables distributors
and actors
, restricting the results to those that begin with the letter W in each table. Only distinct rows are wanted, so the key word ALL
is omitted.
distributors: actors: did | name id | name -----+-------------- ----+---------------- 108 | Westward 1 | Woody Allen 111 | Walt Disney 2 | Warren Beatty 112 | Warner Bros. 3 | Walter Matthau ... ... SELECT distributors.name FROM distributors WHERE distributors.name LIKE 'W%' UNION SELECT actors.name FROM actors WHERE actors.name LIKE 'W%'; name ---------------- Walt Disney Walter Matthau Warner Bros. Warren Beatty Westward Woody Allen
This example shows how to use a function in the FROM
clause, both with and without a column definition list:
CREATE FUNCTION distributors(int) RETURNS SETOF distributors AS $$ SELECT * FROM distributors WHERE did = $1; $$ LANGUAGE SQL; SELECT * FROM distributors(111); did | name -----+------------- 111 | Walt Disney CREATE FUNCTION distributors_2(int) RETURNS SETOF record AS $$ SELECT * FROM distributors WHERE did = $1; $$ LANGUAGE SQL; SELECT * FROM distributors_2(111) AS (f1 int, f2 text); f1 | f2 -----+------------- 111 | Walt Disney
Here is an example of a function with an ordinality column added:
SELECT * FROM unnest(ARRAY['a','b','c','d','e','f']) WITH ORDINALITY; unnest | ordinality --------+---------- a | 1 b | 2 c | 3 d | 4 e | 5 f | 6 (6 rows)
This example shows how to use a simple WITH
WITH t AS ( SELECT random() as x FROM generate_series(1, 3) ) SELECT * FROM t UNION ALL SELECT * FROM t x -------------------- 0.534150459803641 0.520092216785997 0.0735620250925422 0.534150459803641 0.520092216785997 0.0735620250925422
Notice that the WITH
query was evaluated only once, so that we got two sets of the same three random values.
This example uses WITH RECURSIVE
to find all subordinates (direct or indirect) of the employee Mary, and their level of indirectness, from a table that shows only direct subordinates:
WITH RECURSIVE employee_recursive(distance, employee_name, manager_name) AS ( SELECT 1, employee_name, manager_name FROM employee WHERE manager_name = 'Mary' UNION ALL SELECT er.distance + 1, e.employee_name, e.manager_name FROM employee_recursive er, employee e WHERE er.employee_name = e.manager_name ) SELECT distance, employee_name FROM employee_recursive;
Notice the typical form of recursive queries: an initial condition, followed by UNION
, followed by the recursive part of the query. Be sure that the recursive part of the query will eventually return no tuples, or else the query will loop indefinitely. (See Section 7.8 for more examples.)
This example uses LATERAL
to apply a set-returning function get_product_names()
for each row of the manufacturers
SELECT m.name AS mname, pname FROM manufacturers m, LATERAL get_product_names(m.id) pname;
Manufacturers not currently having any products would not appear in the result, since it is an inner join. If we wished to include the names of such manufacturers in the result, we could do:
SELECT m.name AS mname, pname FROM manufacturers m LEFT JOIN LATERAL get_product_names(m.id) pname ON true;
Of course, the SELECT
statement is compatible with the SQL standard. But there are some extensions and some missing features.
Omitted FROM
Postgres Pro allows one to omit the FROM
clause. It has a straightforward use to compute the results of simple expressions:
SELECT 2+2; ?column? ---------- 4
Some other SQL databases cannot do this except by introducing a dummy one-row table from which to do the SELECT
Note that if a FROM
clause is not specified, the query cannot reference any database tables. For example, the following query is invalid:
SELECT distributors.* WHERE distributors.name = 'Westward';
PostgreSQL releases prior to 8.1 would accept queries of this form, and add an implicit entry to the query's FROM
clause for each table referenced by the query. This is no longer allowed.
Empty SELECT
The list of output expressions after SELECT
can be empty, producing a zero-column result table. This is not valid syntax according to the SQL standard. Postgres Pro allows it to be consistent with allowing zero-column tables. However, an empty list is not allowed when DISTINCT
is used.
Omitting the AS
Key Word
In the SQL standard, the optional key word AS
can be omitted before an output column name whenever the new column name is a valid column name (that is, not the same as any reserved keyword). Postgres Pro is slightly more restrictive: AS
is required if the new column name matches any keyword at all, reserved or not. Recommended practice is to use AS
or double-quote output column names, to prevent any possible conflict against future keyword additions.
In FROM
items, both the standard and Postgres Pro allow AS
to be omitted before an alias that is an unreserved keyword. But this is impractical for output column names, because of syntactic ambiguities.
and Inheritance
The SQL standard requires parentheses around the table name when writing ONLY
, for example SELECT * FROM ONLY (tab1), ONLY (tab2) WHERE ...
. Postgres Pro considers these parentheses to be optional.
Postgres Pro allows a trailing *
to be written to explicitly specify the non-ONLY
behavior of including child tables. The standard does not allow this.
(These points apply equally to all SQL commands supporting the ONLY
Clause Restrictions
The TABLESAMPLE
clause is currently accepted only on regular tables and materialized views. According to the SQL standard it should be possible to apply it to any FROM
Function Calls in FROM
Postgres Pro allows a function call to be written directly as a member of the FROM
list. In the SQL standard it would be necessary to wrap such a function call in a sub-SELECT
; that is, the syntax FROM
is approximately equivalent to func
(...) alias
. Note that func
(...)) alias
is considered to be implicit; this is because the standard requires LATERAL
semantics for an UNNEST()
item in FROM
. Postgres Pro treats UNNEST()
the same as other set-returning functions.
Namespace Available to GROUP BY
and ORDER BY
In the SQL-92 standard, an ORDER BY
clause can only use output column names or numbers, while a GROUP BY
clause can only use expressions based on input column names. Postgres Pro extends each of these clauses to allow the other choice as well (but it uses the standard's interpretation if there is ambiguity). Postgres Pro also allows both clauses to specify arbitrary expressions. Note that names appearing in an expression will always be taken as input-column names, not as output-column names.
SQL:1999 and later use a slightly different definition which is not entirely upward compatible with SQL-92. In most cases, however, Postgres Pro will interpret an ORDER BY
or GROUP BY
expression the same way SQL:1999 does.
Functional Dependencies
Postgres Pro recognizes functional dependency (allowing columns to be omitted from GROUP BY
) only when a table's primary key is included in the GROUP BY
list. The SQL standard specifies additional conditions that should be recognized.
Clause Restrictions
The SQL standard provides additional options for the window frame_clause
. Postgres Pro currently supports only the options listed above.
and OFFSET
The clauses LIMIT
and OFFSET
are Postgres Pro-specific syntax, also used by MySQL. The SQL:2008 standard has introduced the clauses OFFSET ... FETCH {FIRST|NEXT} ...
for the same functionality, as shown above in LIMIT
Clause. This syntax is also used by IBM DB2. (Applications written for Oracle frequently use a workaround involving the automatically generated rownum
column, which is not available in Postgres Pro, to implement the effects of these clauses.)
Although FOR UPDATE
appears in the SQL standard, the standard allows it only as an option of DECLARE CURSOR
. Postgres Pro allows it in any SELECT
query as well as in sub-SELECT
s, but this is an extension. The FOR NO KEY UPDATE
and FOR KEY SHARE
variants, as well as the NOWAIT
and SKIP LOCKED
options, do not appear in the standard.
Data-Modifying Statements in WITH
Postgres Pro allows INSERT
, and DELETE
to be used as WITH
queries. This is not found in the SQL standard.
Nonstandard Clauses
is an extension of the SQL standard.
is an extension of the SQL standard.


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More XKCD cartoons can be found here.
Talkback: Discuss this article with The Answer Gang
I'm just this guy, you know? I'm a CNU graduate with a degree in physics. Before starting xkcd, I worked on robots at NASA's Langley Research Center in Virginia. As of June 2007 I live in Massachusetts. In my spare time I climb things, open strange doors, and go to goth clubs dressed as a frat guy so I can stand around and look terribly uncomfortable. At frat parties I do the same thing, but the other way around.


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Welcome to Ten Things of Thankful!
We gather here each weekend to share our posts about the things we are thankful for in our lives, and sometimes just to report that we've survived a difficult week; when we start focusing on the positives and the silver linings, we are able see that life is good. We also encourage each other by sharing pieces of our own journey. The people who participate in TToT are a truly awesome bunch from all age groups and all walks of life; I hope you'll join us and invite your blog friends to do the same, everyone is welcome!
At Ten Things of Thankful we believe that there are many little things in our lives to be thankful for each day as well as the big things that stand out. Keep in mind that you are not required to list ten things if you can't come up with that many, nobody is keeping score, just do the best you can! You'll find that once you get started, more things tend to pop into your head. There is no specific format required for your post, you are encouraged to do it your way. Variety makes it interesting! :-)
This week's TToT link-up will open shortly after midnight (Central Time) on Thursday night, and will remain open until Tuesday night, so you have plenty of time to work on your post.
Please visit as many of the links as possible, sharing your thoughts is what this group is all about; and PLEASE check back next week for new links that were added later, those folks will appreciate your comments too!
Thank you for your part in making our Ten Things of Thankful blog such an uplifting experience!
Josie Two Shoes
TToT Coordinator
Please take a moment to answer the following question in the comments section below. It's a fun way for us to get to know each other a little better. As we enter the holiday season, what are some of your most favorite holiday traditions/memories?


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Lesson Plan Subtitles: Are you looking for Lesson Plan English Subtitles? If you are searching for this subtitle, then you have come to the right place. From here, you can get the Lesson Plan subtitles for free. The subtitle you are going to download is a ZIP file. In the zip file, there is the original subtitle file with SRT format. So you have to unzip the file you downloaded from here, then you can use the Lesson Plan SRT file in your media.
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Lesson Plan Subtitles
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Index Of Lesson Plan
TITLE | Lesson Plan |
RELEASED | 23 Nov 2022 |
RUNTIME | 101 min |
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No deliveries are made on Saturdays and Sundays in most countries where 5 day work culture. In many Islamic countries Fridays are normal off days. Some times we can try to organize deliveries on Saturdays also on some extra cost on case to case basis, if possible.
further deliveries are generally made during normal working hours of courier companies and these vary from country to country.
Please note that there are no shipments made from the store on Sundays and public holidays as our logistics partner, does not make any pick-ups on those days.
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From 1st July 2021, VAT would be applicable on all shipments delivered in EU. The duty and VAT has to be borne by the customers. The prices which you shown on products are not included TAXES & VAT amount.
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Billing Address is the address where a customer gets his bills from the credit card company. Shipping address is the address where the customer wants to receive their shipment.
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If a shipment is lost in transit, we wait for 15 days and then reprocess/reship the order.
If you have any question about our shipping policies, we'll do our best to answer them. Please contact us at email@example.com


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Private Placement Memorandum Luxembourg
A private placement memorandum is a disclosure document that is drafted by an issuing company and given to investors for their capital (hopefully). Our team has been involved in the preparation and writing of private placement memorandum business documents for over 15 years. We have helped thousands of companies – in all the world's major business hubs – create their offering documents. The importance of writing an private placement memorandum, also referred to as an "OM" for short, can make the difference between getting funding and not being taken seriously by investors. Along with the business plan of the company an OM will guide the investor through the securities features of the offering, including the terms. The OM is essentially a long contract, the last part being the subscription agreement.
The offering memo will also discuss the management team and their skills, as well as the risk factors of the company. It is important to list the risk factors of the business so that investor can make an educated choice regarding investing. In addition, tax implications of the investor will also be discussed, as well as various rules and regulations involving foreign investment. The private placement memorandum is an opportunity to tell the story of the company, its product and service offerings, the benefits to investors, long term payout and strategy and more. Giving a potential prospect an investor ready private placement memorandum is good business practice and looks professional.
Luxembourg Private Placement Memorandum
Offering memorandum business document issued by companies typically issue either equity or debt, or a mixture of both.
Equity: Soliciting investment capital with a private placement memorandum is common for corporations and funds, like hedge and mutual funds, both onshore and offshore. Selling equities implies that some form of company ownership is being sold to investors. This is almost certainly the case for publicly traded companies selling equities, but in a private placement normally shares of a corporation or units of an LLC are sold privately. Mutual funds and hedge funds also sell shares, but most often this does not grant voting rights like in a corporation. Regardless if the entity is fund or corporation or an LLC a private placement memorandum is the standard document given to invest for investment consideration.
Debt: In a debt private placement offering, securities such as notes, bonds, convertible securities, debentures and others are sold to investors. The private placement memorandum will outline the terms of the debt issuance and offer, giving such details as the interest rate, maturity date, payment dates, risk factors and vital information on the product, the management team and company goals.
Our staff specializes in structuring and writing private placement memorandum offering documents for debt and equity issuance.
Private Placements
The usage and popularity of the term private placement memorandum is understood worldwide to mean a document, referred to as a "memorandum", which details what the company is "offering" in return for investment capital. Read it backwards and you get "memorandum placement private", i.e. a document detailing the offering of securities via a private offering. In addition to the term private placement memorandum the most popular word for such a document is a prospectus and an offering circular and a private placement memorandum, as well a red herring and others are also employed.
Subscription Agreement
The private placement memorandum will usually contain the subscription agreement, which is the contract between the company selling securities and the investor who is buying them. The subscription agreement outlines the terms, and has numerous places for the investor to fill out and usually gives instruction where to send a check for subscribing to the securities, or bank wire details. The subscription agreement is of vital importance for any issuer, and the private placement documents should includeit. The subscription agreement is vital for the private placement memorandum as it is the remaining section of the document, that without an investor cannot give his capital.
Prospectus' team of consultants and lawyers can help draft your Luxembourg private placement memorandum for either debt or equity issuance in an effective, fast and cost affordable way. Reach out to us any time or meet us in any of our offices worldwide for a free consultation.


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- Two-Tone Mirror Patent Vegan Leather
- Soft, felt-like backing
- 8x11 inch sheets (1cm variance may occur)
- Sew-able, flexible, cuts clean
- Wipe clean with damp cloth, do not machine wash
This material is mostly used for creating bows, jewelry, embroidery, appliques, shoes, wallets & so much more!
This materials finish is more delicate due to its high shine mirror-like appearance. Because of this, it is extremely hard to get a perfect piece, so the fabric may have extremely small imperfections.
Although we try to capture the most accurate coloring of fabrics, colors may appear different on computer screens.
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US Shipping:
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If you purchase multiple orders, we can not refund shipping charges for combined orders. To avoid paying domestic shipping, you can purchase an order $50 and up and receive FREE shipping.
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To avoid delays, you must ensure your name and address used for checkout exactly matches your subscription address. Orders with addresses that do not exactly match will be prioritized last as it takes more time to ensure the order is combined with the correct subscription.
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