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Petition to Add Form
Students who initially waived the student insurance plan can petition to add coverage if they experience a qualifying event. Qualifying events include:
- Reaching the age limit of another health insurance plan
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University of San Diego - Domestic Petition to Add Form.pdf
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The Bowling Night is the exclusive Photoshop PSD flyer template designed by ExclusiveFlyer to promote your Bowling Night. This is a modern, stylish flyer and just be used for a Bowling Tournament or Bowling Night Party etc. Dear customers! – you can also: Customize any flyers or Hire Us to create any unique product. Also, you can get unlimited access to all our templates. You can buy 1 month membership, 3 or 6 months membership or even 1 year membership plan and login on site, choose a design, click the button DOWNLOAD TEMPLATE and it's yours. No hassle, no checkout! When you paid the template, you can find it in your personal account and of course you've got a message to your e-mail (maybe in spam) with link to download. Also, you can find all templates, which you buy, in your personal account! All of our flyers have a very good quality (300DPI). And it means that you just need to download one of them and make the necessary modifications such as replace the elements or choose the colors and start to invite your guests! You can order from us design of Banner Ad, Bi-Fold Brochure, Tri-Fold Brochure, Business Card, Logo, One-Sided Flyer, Two-sided Flyer or Postcard. All you need is to checkout and write us all information on our e-mail or skype. (order now). There are a lot of free flyer templates, free business card templates on our site! Also there are a lot of categories of flyers such as club flyers, seasonal flyers, sport flyers and also business flyers. You have a great choise on our site, so good luck! Don't forget to follow our Facebook community, our page on Twitter, on Pinterest and on Tumblr and leave comments, cause we work for you! PSD is set up in 1275×1875 dimension (4" x 6" with 0,25" bleed). The PSD file is very well organised, with color coded groups and layers named appropriately. Remember, all stock images of models and other people used only for demonstration all charms of the flyer and don't included in the download!
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Hmmm, which of these things is not like the other?
Obviously the correct answer is the third thing, unless you believe the moon walk was faked, in which case I suppose I'd have to accept the second thing as well. So I guess it's really the first thing that's not like the others.
Never mind.
Meanwhile, commenter Leroy alerted me to this New York Times profile of "11 Artists Who Really, Really Love Their Bicycles:"
See, the thing about artists is that they have much more profound relationships with their bicycles than you or I do, which is what makes them better cyclists and better people. Take Frank Benson, for example, who appears to be a cross between a garden variety Fred and Dieter from "Sprockets:"
Frank Benson: "The rise of the urban cycling movement may not be enough to save the world from ecological collapse, but there is an asceticism to the lifestyle that is refreshing in this time of rampant excess. As a sculptor, I have a deep appreciation for the forms and materials developed to create bicycles of ever-greater speed and efficiency. The design of the new N.Y.C. bike rack, by Ian Mahaffy and Maarten de Greeve — which I used in my piece for the exhibit — clearly speaks to that aesthetic and deftly advertises its purpose while adding an appealing sculptural element to the street."
Really, the urban cycling movement isn't going to save the planet? This is terribly disappointing, because I thought sunburned 20-somethings in tank tops and jean shorts riding from Brooklyn to Fort Tilden was going to bring back the polar ice caps. Also, if he has such a "deep appreciation for the forms and materials developed to create bicycles of ever-greater speed and efficiency," then what's his excuse for that Schwinn?
And how about Kyle MacLachlan circa "Sex And The City" here?
Tim Barber: "My favorite perspective of N.Y.C. is from a fast-moving bike. Its like an insane flying video game of chaos. It's good to fear for your life sometimes, makes you feel alive!"
Oy. Even Lucas Brunelle just got "douche chills." You know, if the flat bars on your Bianchi were a mere five centimeters wider the handling on your bike would be considerably more confidence-inspiring and you wouldn't fear for your life so much--though you'd still get to savor the exhilarating risk of getting your blazer caught in the door of a Range Rover.
This one's just ironic:
Graham Macbeth: "After road biking for a couple of years I decided to try a race. Riding for the first time in the midst of dozens of riders in Prospect Park was a completely unique, completely engaging sensation. It's like being in a strange school of fish."
Wow. "Completely unique?" A Cat 5 race in Prospect Park is the very rolling embodiment of conformity. It makes happy hour at a bar in Murray Hill seem like living off the grid somewhere in Alaska. Only an artist could be so profoundly out of it that he would mistake being a total Fred for being an iconoclast.
Here's a sentiment it's difficult to argue with:
Julia Chiang: "Biking in New York is one of the best feelings. Everywhere is so crowded and then you get going on your bike and you're kind of alone even though there's traffic everywhere. You get to just focus on your senses — try to see things before they happen, hear things before it's too late — so everything else kind of disappears. It's also just a super fun fast way to get around!"
Though she forgot to add that it's a great way to air out your crotch.
And then there's this brainiac:
Andrew Guenther: "I didn't intend to sacrifice my own bicycle in planning the painting for this show. I wanted to use a found bicycle that matched my riding style and size and I spent a great deal of time searching for the perfect bike. It happened to be the one closest to me. I called a list of auto wreckers and scrap metal facilities to assist in smashing the bicycle. All of them were reluctant to help with the project so it was pretty easy to turn all that frustration into crushing power. I got my hands on a bench vise to flatten most of the tubing and frame."
Wow, you broke a bike, good for you. You should have saved yourself some time and gotten a bike made from crabon fiber, you could have destroyed it in 15 minutes using nothing but a salad fork.
As usual though, the worst thing about this story is the New York Times commenters:
Robin Manhattan
About half of these artists don't wear helmets...is that just the case because they're posing for pics, or do they never wear them? No helmet = goodbye, artist!
July 5, 2014 at 8:53 p.m.
Dear Robin,
You're a fucking idiot.
--Wildcat Rock Machine
Meanwhile, in other New York City news, four police were injured by a flying Barbie bike:
Four NYPD cops were walloped by a child's Barbie bike that was tossed at them from a fifth-floor balcony in Brooklyn while they were busting a gunman early Sunday, officials said.
The attack raised fears of a new wave of anti-cop violence — with a police-union president blaming the assault on Mayor de Blasio and his crackdown on stop-and-frisk.
It's true. Stop-and-frisk really cut down on the number of people walking around with concealed Barbie bikes. Are you happy now, de Blasio?!? What happens when they start throwing fat bikes from Walmart?
Let that lie heavy on your conscience, Mister Mayor--as heavy as a big-box store child's bike, which last time I checked was about 85lbs.
I give it a week before they manage to use this bike-hurling incident as an excuse to tear out all the bike lanes.
And in news of innovation, Janosz Poha from "Ghostbusters II" has invented the mountain bike of the future:
Just listen to the robotic narrator for a few minutes and then skip to 6:15 in the video when the inventor starts talking.
I hope the bicycle shifts a lot more smoothly than that.


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By Chris Hedges
The warlords we champion in Afghanistan are as venal, as opposed to the rights of women and basic democratic freedoms, and as heavily involved in opium trafficking as the Taliban. The moral lines we draw between us and our adversaries are fictional. The uplifting narratives used to justify the war in Afghanistan are pathetic attempts to redeem acts of senseless brutality. War cannot be waged to instill any virtue, including democracy or the liberation of women. War always empowers those who have a penchant for violence and access to weapons. War turns the moral order upside down and abolishes all discussions of human rights. War banishes the just and the decent to the margins of society. And the weapons of war do not separate the innocent and the damned. An aerial drone is our version of an improvised explosive device. An iron fragmentation bomb is our answer to a suicide bomb. A burst from a belt-fed machine gun causes the same terror and bloodshed among civilians no matter who pulls the trigger.
"We need to tear the mask off of the fundamentalist warlords who after the tragedy of 9/11 replaced the Taliban," Malalai Joya, who was expelled from the Afghan parliament two years ago for denouncing government corruption and the Western occupation, told me during her visit to New York last week. "They used the mask of democracy to take power. They continue this deception. These warlords are mentally the same as the Taliban. The only change is physical. These warlords during the civil war in Afghanistan from 1992 to 1996 killed 65,000 innocent people. They have committed human rights violations, like the Taliban, against women and many others."
"In eight years less than 2,000 Talib have been killed and more than 8,000 innocent civilians has been killed," she went on. "We believe that this is not war on terror. This is war on innocent civilians. Look at the massacres carried out by NATO forces in Afghanistan. Look what they did in May in the Farah province, where more than 150 civilians were killed, most of them women and children. They used white phosphorus and cluster bombs. There were 200 civilians on 9th of September killed in the Kunduz province, again most of them women and children."
"In eight years less than 2,000 Talib have been killed and more than 8,000 innocent civilians has been killed," she went on. "We believe that this is not war on terror. This is war on innocent civilians. Look at the massacres carried out by NATO forces in Afghanistan. Look what they did in May in the Farah province, where more than 150 civilians were killed, most of them women and children. They used white phosphorus and cluster bombs. There were 200 civilians on 9th of September killed in the Kunduz province, again most of them women and children. You can see the Web site of professor Marc Herold, this democratic man, to know better the war crimes in Afghanistan imposed on our people. The United States and NATO eight years ago occupied my country under the banner of woman's rights and democracy. But they have only pushed us from the frying pan into the fire. They put into power men who are photocopies of the Taliban."
Afghanistan's boom in the trade in opium, used to produce heroin, over the past eight years of occupation has funneled hundreds of millions of dollars to the Taliban, al-Qaida, local warlords, criminal gangs, kidnappers, private armies, drug traffickers and many of the senior figures in the government of Hamid Karzai. The New York Times reported that the brother of President Karzai, Ahmed Wali Karzai, has been collecting money from the CIA although he is a major player in the illegal opium business. Afghanistan produces 92 percent of the world's opium in a trade that is worth some $65 billion, the United Nations estimates. This opium feeds some 15 million addicts worldwide and kills around 100,000 people annually. These fatalities should be added to the rolls of war dead.
Antonio Maria Costa, executive director of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), said that the drug trade has permitted the Taliban to thrive and expand despite the presence of 100,000 NATO troops.
"The Taliban's direct involvement in the opium trade allows them to fund a war machine that is becoming technologically more complex and increasingly widespread," said Costa.
The UNODC estimates the Taliban earned $90 million to $160 million a year from taxing the production and smuggling of opium and heroin between 2005 and 2009, as much as double the amount it earned annually while it was in power nearly a decade ago. And Costa described the Afghan-Pakistani border as "the world's largest free trade zone in anything and everything that is illicit," an area blighted by drugs, weapons and illegal immigration. The "perfect storm of drugs and terrorism" may be on the move along drug trafficking routes through Central Asia, he warned. Profits made from opium are being pumped into militant groups in Central Asia and "a big part of the region could be engulfed in large-scale terrorism, endangering its massive energy resources," Costa said.
"Afghanistan, after eight years of occupation, has become a world center for drugs," Joya told me. "The drug lords are the only ones with power. How can you expect these people to stop the planting of opium and halt the drug trade? How is it that the Taliban when they were in power destroyed the opium production and a superpower not only cannot destroy the opium production but allows it to increase? And while all this goes on, those who support the war talk to you about women's rights. We do not have human rights now in most provinces. It is as easy to kill a woman in my country as it is to kill a bird. In some big cities like Kabul, some women have access to jobs and education, but in most of the country the situation for women is hell. Rape, kidnapping and domestic violence are increasing. These fundamentalists during the so-called free elections made a misogynist law against Shia women in Afghanistan. This law has even been signed by Hamid Karzai. All these crimes are happening under the name of democracy."
Thousands of Afghan civilians have died from insurgent and foreign military violence. And American and NATO forces are responsible for almost half the civilian deaths in Afghanistan. Tens of thousands of Afghan civilians have also died from displacement, starvation, disease, exposure, lack of medical treatment, crime and lawlessness resulting from the war.
Joya argues that Karzai and his rival Abdullah Abdullah, who has withdrawn from the Nov. 7 runoff election, will do nothing to halt the transformation of Afghanistan into a narco-state. She said that NATO, by choosing sides in a battle between two corrupt and brutal opponents, has lost all its legitimacy in the country.
The recent resignation of a high-level U.S. diplomat in Afghanistan, Matthew Hoh, was in part tied to the drug problem. Hoh wrote in his resignation letter that Karzi's government is filled with "glaring corruption and unabashed graft." Karzi, he wrote, is a president "whose confidants and chief advisers comprise drug lords and war crimes villains who mock our own rule of law and counter-narcotics effort."
Joya said, "Where do you think the $36 billion of money poured into country by the international community have gone? This money went into the pockets of the drug lords and the warlords. There are 18 million people in Afghanistan who live on less than $2 a day while these warlords get rich. The Taliban and warlords together contribute to this fascism while the occupation forces are bombing and killing innocent civilians. When we do not have security how can we even talk about human rights or women's rights?"
"This election under the shade of Afghan war-lordism, drug-lordism, corruption and occupation forces has no legitimacy at all," she said. "The result will be like the same donkey but with new saddles. It is not important who is voting. It is important who is counting. And this is our problem. Many of those who go with the Taliban do not support the Taliban, but they are fed up with these warlords and this injustice, and they go with the Taliban to take revenge. I do not agree with them, but I understand them. Most of my people are against the Taliban and the warlords, which is why millions did not take part in this tragic drama of an election."
"The U.S. wastes taxpayers' money and the blood of their soldiers by supporting such a mafia corrupt system of Hamid Karzai," said Joya, who changes houses in Kabul frequently because of the numerous death threats made against her. "Eight years is long enough to learn about Karzai and Abdullah. They chained my country to the center of drugs. If Obama was really honest he would support the democratic-minded people of my country. We have a lot [of those people]. But he does not support the democratic-minded people of my country. He is going to start war in Pakistan by attacking in the border area of Pakistan. More civilians have been killed in the Obama period than even during the criminal Bush."
"My people are sandwiched between two powerful enemies," she lamented. "The occupation forces from the sky bomb and kill innocent civilians. On the ground, Taliban and these warlords deliver fascism. As NATO kills more civilians, the resistance to the foreign troops increases. If the U.S. government and NATO do not leave voluntarily, my people will give to them the same lesson they gave to Russia and to the English who three times tried to occupy Afghanistan. It is easier for us to fight against one enemy rather than two."
Chris Hedges, whose column is published on Truthdig every Monday, spent two decades as a foreign reporter covering wars in Latin America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East. He has written nine books, including "Empire of Illusion: The End of Literacy and the Triumph of Spectacle" (2009) and "War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning" (2003).


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You are purchasing a single unpainted resin miniature of a Halfling 2 poses available.
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We are committed to providing a professional service to all our clients and customers. When something goes wrong, we need you to tell us about it. This will help us to improve our standards.
If you have a complaint, please put it in writing, including as much detail as possible. We will then respond in line with the timeframes set out below (if you feel we have not sought to address your complaint within eight weeks, you may be able to refer your complaint to the Property Ombudsman to consider without our final viewpoint on the matter).
What will happen next?
- We will send you a letter acknowledging receipt of you complaint within three working days of receiving it, enclosing a copy of this procedure.
- We will then investigate your complaint. This will normally be dealt with by the office manager who will review your file and speak to the member of staff who dealt with you. A formal written outcome of our investigation will be sent to you within 15 working days of sending the acknowledgement letter.
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Stacer 539 Sea Ranger CC
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Description Eden 130 Wakeboard:
The Eden series is a shape that you don't have to learn how to ride, it will perform comfortably for all ability levels and styles. The Eden is shaped differently from edge to edge helping a rider compensate for the awkwardness edging, jumping and landing on a toeside edge. Our subtle 3-stage rocker provides a great pop off the wake while remaining a smooth carver. The Eden is a great board for riders getting into the sport or those who are looking for advancement in their skills on the board.


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Gildan Embroidered Women's Classic Ultra Cotton Tee
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Meet the women's version of world's best-selling t-shirt! Consistent quality, colors, sizing and availability over several decades have made this Gildan tee the perennial champion. The hearty 6-ounce fabric is comfortable and durable with a vast assortment of colors to satisfy all. The Gildan Printed Women's Classic Ultra Cotton Tee features a slightly open crew neck and a subtle taper in the cut. Like its men's counterpart, this tee is the industry standard as well as an excellent value.
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What are Bioidentical Hormones? BHRT in Stratham, NH
Let's Start With Hormones
Before you can truly grasp the concept of bioidentical hormones or bioidentical hormone replacement therapy (BHRT), it's best to begin by establishing the definition of "hormones." Hormones are chemical messengers the body sends out to control a variety of functions and processes. They are secreted into the blood stream through the endocrine glands, like the:
- Pancreas
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Once hormones are secreted from these glands, they bind to receptor sites where they induce chemical changes. These changes allow hormones to control such bodily functions as:
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- Hunger/cravings
- Menopause
- Perimenopause
- Andropause
Detecting Hormone Imbalance
Hormone imbalance is more common than most people think. Unfortunately, this is an issue that is often ignored or misidentified. Most people fail to make the link between physical or mental changes and hormone deficiency/imbalance. This may lead to certain symptoms going untreated. This often includes symptoms such as:
- Weight gain
- Insomnia
- Depression
- Irritability
- Excessive sweating
- Anxiety
- Low libido
Once an imbalance is detected, however, the solution is often simple. If you have low testosterone , find a treatment to raise your testosterone levels. If you've got low estrogen (oestrogen) , find a treatment to raise your estrogen (oestrogen) levels. This pattern applies to many treatment strategies and shown to be effective in restoring balance in the body.
The Bioidentical Difference
Traditional hormone replacement therapy has been the subject of much debate in recent years. Evidence points to an increased risk of heart attacks, stroke, and certain cancers for those using hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Arguments have been made for the increased safety and effectiveness of bioidentical hormone replacement therapy (BHRT). This is because bioidenticals are designed to imitate the structure of your body's hormones. This means the body has a hard time telling them apart from hormones it naturally produces. Their mimicry of naturally produced hormones is believed to play a role in the seemingly reduced risk of negative side effects and increased effectiveness.
Bioidentical Hormone Replacement Therapy
Another key benefit of BHRT is that the treatment is custom-tailored to your hormone levels for maximum effectiveness. It is, in part, because of this, that BHRT has yet to be approved by government regulatory authorities. It becomes infinitely harder to test for safety and effectiveness when each treatment and condition are unique to the patient.
The lack of solid scientific support of BHRT's safety over traditional HRT has fueled a great deal of debate over its use. However, much of the research that does exist regarding the safety of BHRT points to it being safer in the long-term.
Bioidentical hormones are widely delivered via injection. However, the implantation of a hormone pellet which releases hormones over an extended period is an option that is becoming increasingly popular. The popularity of pellets may be due in no small part to the fact that pellet therapy extends the intervals between treatments to once every 3-5 months.
Balancing your hormones with BHRT may help treat a wide variety of symptoms and conditions. Some of these include:
- Andropause
- Hot flashes (hot flushes)
- Menopause
- Perimenopause
- Muscle loss
- Night sweats
- Fatigue
- Depression
- Vaginal dryness
- Damaged skin
- Poor memory
- Hair loss
Bioidentical hormone replacement therapy is a treatment worth considering when struggling with these conditions. It is believed to be a stronger, healthier and safer approach to getting your hormones back on track. Learn more about BHRT treatment options today! Call (207) 536-9661 or contact Dr. Nicole Schertell online.
Holtorf, Kent. "The bioidentical hormone debate: are bioidentical hormones (estradiol, estriol, and progesterone) safer or more efficacious than commonly used synthetic versions in hormone replacement therapy?." Postgraduate medicine 121.1 (2009): 73-85.
Vibrant Health Naturopathic Medical Center
3 Riverside DriveGreenland, NH 03840
(207) 536-9661
8:30 am - 5:00 pm
9:00 am - 5:00 pm
10:30 am - 5:00 pm
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There are no bids for the lot at this time
This Auction will be live through Thursday March 9th, 2023. Auction will begin closing, 1 lot every 30 seconds beginning at 7PM on March 9th, 2023. Pick up for this auction will be in Fayetteville, GA 30215 on Sunday March 12th from 11am to 4pm.
SHIPPING -We do ship small and medium size items. If you are interested in us shipping an item directly to you then please email us at email@example.com (include lot# and the address for a quote) "ONLY SERIOUS BIDDERS, PLEASE".
There will be extended bidding which means if someone bids in the last 2 minutes the bidding time will reset to 2 minutes.
Pick up for this auction will be in Fayetteville, GA 30215 on Sunday March 12th from 11am to 4pm. Click Here To Make Appointment. You must have an appointment to pick up items.
BEFORE THE SALE ATTENTION: Read all terms. For payment, if you have a card on file with Estate Rescue Queens, LLC, it will be automatically charged at the close of the sale. Prospective Buyers are strongly advised to examine any property in which they are interested before the auction takes place. Condition reports are generally available on the item in a lot, or a clear photograph will be your inspection. All lots are sold AS-IS and without recourse and neither Estate Rescue Queens, LLC nor its consignor(s) makes any warranties or representations, express or implied with respect to such lots. The absence of any reference to the condition of a lot does not imply that the lot is in perfect condition or completely free from wear and tear, imperfections, or the effects of aging.
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Fayetteville, Georgia 30215
United States
Pick up for this auction will be in Fayetteville, GA 30215 on Sunday March 12th from 11am to 4pm. Click Here To Make Appointment. You must have an appointment to pick up items. Please bring your ID or confirmation email to pick up purchased items.


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Selling your house in Florida? Make sure you run the numbers so you know exactly what to expect! A traditional sale can cost a fortune whereas a direct sale won't usually cost you anything. In this blog, we discuss the costs and timeframe you can expect when selling your house in Florida!
Many people will blindly jump into a listing agreement with a [maret_city] real estate agent without first considering how the process will play out. Before signing an agreement or deciding how you want to sell your house in Florida, you should try to estimate how long it will take and what it will cost you. You should also consider multiple selling methods and how they will impact your situation. Keep reading to learn more about running the numbers for selling your house in Florida.
Repair Costs
The trouble with repair costs is that they can tend to snowball. A leaking pipe that seems like a quick fix, may actually be the source of major water damage to the home. Many homeowners find that once they fix one thing, several more repairs will follow. When putting your house on the MLS in Florida, you'll want to put your best foot forward. This means making and noticeable repairs and preparing to be faced with more after the inspection. Potential buyers will often try to negotiate after the appraisal and inspection process, forcing the seller to cough up even more cash. Some sellers will pay for an inspection on their own before listing so they know exactly what they are getting into.
Preparation Costs
A lot can go into preparing your house for the MLS in Florida. You may choose to remove personal belongings and store them elsewhere. Or you may want to stage the house, adding in some pieces here and there to make the house look professionally decorated. You may even go so far as to bring in an actual designer to make the house look as warm and welcoming as possible. No matter how great your house currently is, you will likely find yourself doing some work to make it even better.
Marketing Costs
If you decide to list your house with a real estate agent in Florida, make sure you know which types of marketing will be used to sell your home. Some agents all full-service, pulling out all the bells and whistles, while others will simply put your house on the MLS, hoping for a buyer to come along. Many homeowners find themselves paying for premium listings, professional photography, and other marketing materials.
Holding Costs
Do you know how much it costs to own your home? Not only are you likely paying a mortgage each month, but you should also account for the utility bills, repairs costs, and the usual maintenance expenses. Ask any real estate investor and they will tell you that the longer you own a house, the more it is costing you. To end your holding costs right away, consider a direct sale of your house in Florida. Selling in days, not months, has the potential to save you thousands of dollars that you would have otherwise spent on the home.
Agent Commissions and Costs
Your agent's commission will be somewhere around 6% of your final sale price. So let's say your house sells for $250k. You will immediately be out about $15k plus any other fees or reimbursements due to your agent. When you include this hefty amount with all the other costs and fees you will likely face, you may find that a direct sale will be a better way for you to sell.
Closing Costs
Closing costs for a property seller will usually run anywhere from 1-3% of the final sale price. So again, if your house sells for $250k, you will likely be spending another $2,500-$7,500 once you reach the closing table. With a direct sale to The Fast Home Buyers, you won't have to worry about the closing costs. We will handle everything so you can sell your house fast and move on.
When deciding whether to list your house with a Florida real estate agent or sell it on your own, it's important to have a realistic grasp on what everything is really going to cost you. Don't just rely on your estimated final sale price to tell you which way to sell. You must factor in all of the costs you will face too. Putting your house on the MLS can be expensive. However, for some houses, it makes the most sense. For other properties, a direct sale will ultimately help the seller keep more money in their pocket while saving time and energy. It's important to look at your property and your situation to determine which selling method will be the best for you!


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Videos/Digital Show and Tell
Wiki edition
Continuing in the "firehose" tradition of Episode 01, Xiph.Org's second video on digital media explores multiple facets of digital audio signals and how they really behave in the real world.
Demonstrations of sampling, quantization, bit-depth, and dither explore digital audio behavior on real audio equipment using both modern digital analysis and vintage analog bench equipment, just in case we can't trust those newfangled digital gizmos. You can download the source code for each demo and try it all for yourself!
Supported players: VLC 1.1+, Firefox , Chrome , Opera. Or see other WebM or other Theora players.
If you're having trouble with playback in a modern browser or player, please visit our playback troubleshooting and discussion page.
"Hi, I'm Monty Montgomery from Red Hat and Xiph.Org.
"A few months ago, I wrote an article on digital audio and why 24bit/192kHz music downloads don't make sense. In the article, I mentioned--almost in passing--that a digital waveform is not a stairstep, and you certainly don't get a stairstep when you convert from digital back to analog.
"Of everything in the entire article, that was the number one thing people wrote about. In fact, more than half the mail I got was questions and comments about basic digital signal behavior. Since there's interest, let's take a little time to play with some simple digital signals. "
Veritas ex machina
If we pretend for a moment that we have no idea how digital signals really behave, then it doesn't make sense for us to use digital test equipment. Fortunately for this exercise, there's still plenty of working analog lab equipment out there.
We need a signal generator to provide us with analog input signals--in this case, an HP3325 from 1978.
We'll observe our analog waveforms on analog oscilloscopes, like this Tektronix 2246 from the mid-90s, one of the last and best analog scopes made.
Finally, we'll inspect the frequency spectrum of our signals using an analog spectrum analyzer, this HP3585 from the same product line as the signal generator. Like the other equipment here it has a rudimentary and hilariously large microcontroller, but the signal path from input to what you see on the screen is completely analog.
All of this equipment is vintage, but the specs are still quite good. We start with the signal generator set to output a 1 kHz sine wave at one Volt RMS. We see the sine wave on the oscilloscope, can verify that it is indeed 1 kHz at 1 Volt RMS, which is 2.8 Volts peak-to-peak, and that matches the measurement on the spectrum analyzer as well.
The analyzer also shows some low-level white noise and just a bit of harmonic distortion, with the highest peak about 70dB or so below the fundamental. This doesn't matter to the demos, but it's good to take notice of it now to avoid confusion later.
For digital conversion, we use a boring, consumer-grade, eMagic USB1 audio device. It's more than ten years old at this point, and it's getting obsolete.
A recent converter can easily have an order of magnitude better specs. Flatness, linearity, jitter, noise behavior, everything... You may not have noticed. Just because we can measure an improvement doesn't mean we can hear it, and even these old consumer boxes were already at the edge of ideal transparency.
The eMagic connects to my ThinkPad, which displays a digital waveform and spectrum for comparison, then the ThinkPad sends the digital signal right back out to the eMagic for re-conversion to analog and observation on the output scopes.
First demo: We begin by converting an analog signal to digital and then right back to analog again with no other steps.
The signal generator is set to produce a 1kHz sine wave just like before and we can see the analog sine wave on the input-side oscilloscope. The eMagic digitizes our signal to 16 bit PCM at 44.1kHz, same as on a CD. The spectrum of the digitized signal on the Thinkpad matches what we saw earlier and what we see now on the analog spectrum analyzer, aside from its high-impedance input being just a smidge noisier. For now, the waveform display shows our digitized sine wave as a stairstep pattern, one step for each sample.
When we look at the output signal that's been converted from digital back to analog, we see that it's exactly like the original sine wave. No stairsteps.
1 kHz is still a fairly low frequency, so perhaps the stairsteps are just hard to see or they're being smoothed away. Next, set the signal generator to 15kHz, which is much closer to Nyquist. Now the sine wave is represented by less than three samples per cycle, and the digital waveform appears rather poor! Yet the analog output is still a perfect sine wave, exactly like the original. As we keep increasing frequency, all the way to 20kHz, the output waveform is still perfect. No jagged edges, no dropoff, no stairsteps.
So where'd the stairsteps go? It's a trick question; they were never there. Drawing a digital waveform as a stairstep was wrong to begin with.
A stairstep is a continuous-time function. It's jagged, and it's piecewise, but it has a defined value at every point in time. A sampled signal is entirely different. It's discrete-time; it's only got a value right at each instantaneous sample point and it's undefined, there is no value at all, everywhere between. A discrete-time signal is properly drawn as a lollipop graph. The continuous, analog counterpart of a digital signal passes smoothly through each sample point, and that's just as true for high frequencies as it is for low.
The interesting and non-obvious bit is that there's only one bandlimited signal that passes exactly through each sample point; it's a unique solution. If you sample a bandlimited signal and then convert it back, the original input is also the only possible output. A signal that differs even minutely from the original includes frequency content at or beyond Nyquist, breaks the bandlimiting requirement and isn't a valid solution.
So how did everyone get confused and start thinking of digital signals as stairsteps? I can think of two good reasons.
First: it's easy to convert a sampled signal to a true stairstep. Just extend each sample value forward until the next sample period. This is called a zero-order hold, and it's an important part of how some digital-to-analog converters work, especially the simplest ones. As a result, anyone who looks up digital-to-analog converter or digital-to-analog conversion is probably going to see a diagram of a stairstep waveform somewhere, but that's not a finished conversion, and it's not the signal that comes out.
Second, and this is probably the more likely reason, engineers who supposedly know better (yes, even I) draw stairsteps even though they're technically wrong. It's a sort of one-dimensional version of fat bits in an image editor. Pixels aren't squares either, they're samples of a 2-dimensional function space and so they're also, conceptually, infinitely small points. Practically, it's a real pain in the ass to see or manipulate infinitely small anything, so big squares it is.
Digital stairstep drawings are exactly the same thing. It's just a convenient drawing. The stairsteps aren't really there.
When we convert a digital signal back to analog, the result is also smooth regardless of the bit depth. It doesn't matter if it's 24 bits or 16 bits or 8 bits. So does that mean that the digital bit depth makes no difference at all? Of course not.
Channel 2 is the same sine wave input, but we quantize it with dither down to 8 bits. On the scope, we still see a nice smooth sine wave on channel 2. Look very close, and you'll also see a bit more noise. That's a clue.
If we look at the spectrum of the signal, our sine wave is still there unaffected, but the noise level of the 8-bit signal on the second channel is much higher. And that's the difference, the only difference, the number of bits makes.
When we digitize a signal, first we sample it. The sampling step is perfect; it loses nothing. But then we quantize it, and quantization adds noise. The number of bits determines how much noise and so the level of the noise floor.
What does this dithered quantization noise sound like? Those of you who have used analog recording equipment might think to yourselves, "My goodness! That sounds like tape hiss!" Well, it doesn't just sound like tape hiss, it acts like it too, and if we use a gaussian dither then it's mathematically equivalent in every way. It is tape hiss.
Intuitively, that means that we can measure tape hiss and thus the noise floor of magnetic audio tape in bits instead of decibels, in order to put things in a digital perspective. Compact cassettes, for those of you who are old enough to remember them, could reach as deep as 9 bits in perfect conditions. 5 to 6 bits was more typical, especially if it was a recording made on a tape deck. That's right; your old mix tapes were only about 6 bits deep if you were lucky!
The very best professional open reel tape used in studios could barely hit 13 bits with advanced noise reduction. That's why seeing 'D D D' on a Compact Disc used to be such a big, high-end deal.
We've been quantizing with dither. What is dither exactly and, more importantly, what does it do?
The simplest way to quantize a signal is to choose the digital
amplitude value closest to the original analog amplitude.
Unfortunately, the exact noise that results from this simple
quantization scheme depends somewhat on the input signal.
It may be inconsistent, cause distortion, or be
undesirable in some other way.
Going deeper…
- Cameron Nicklaus Christou's thesis Optimal Dither and Noise Shaping in Image Processing provides an excellent explanation of dither and noise shaping.
Dither is specially-constructed noise that substitutes for the noise produced by simple quantization. Dither doesn't drown out or mask quantization noise, it replaces it with noise characteristics of our choosing that aren't influenced by the input.
The signal generator has too much noise for this test so we produce a mathematically perfect sine wave with the ThinkPad and quantize it to 8 bits with dithering. We see the sine wave on waveform display and output scope, and a clean frequency peak with a uniform noise floor on both spectral displays just like before. Again, this is with dither.
Now I turn dithering off.
The quantization noise that dither had spread out into a nice, flat noise floor, piles up into harmonic distortion peaks. The noise floor is lower, but the level of distortion becomes nonzero, and the distortion peaks sit higher than the dithering noise did.
At 8 bits this effect is exaggerated. At 16 bits, even without dither, harmonic distortion is going to be so low as to be completely inaudible. Still, we can use dither to eliminate it completely if we so choose.
Turning the dither off again for a moment, you'll notice that the absolute level of distortion from undithered quantization stays approximately constant regardless of the input amplitude. But when the signal level drops below a half a bit, everything quantizes to zero.
In a sense, everything quantizing to zero is just 100% distortion! Dither eliminates this distortion too. When we reenable dither, we clearly see our signal at 1/4 bit with a nice flat noise floor.
The noise floor doesn't have to be flat. Dither is noise of our choosing, so it makes sense to choose a noise as inoffensive and difficult to notice as possible.
Human hearing is most sensitive in the midrange from 2kHz to 4kHz; that's where background noise is going to be the most obvious. We can shape dithering noise away from sensitive frequencies to where hearing is less sensitive, usually the highest frequencies.
Lastly, dithered quantization noise is higher power overall than undithered quantization noise, even though it often sounds quieter, and you can see that on a VU meter during passages of near-silence. However, dither isn't only an on or off choice. We can reduce the dither's power to balance less noise against a bit of distortion to minimize the overall effect.
For the next test, we also modulate the input signal like this to show how a varying input affects the quantization noise. At full dithering power, the noise is uniform, constant, and featureless just like we expect.
As we reduce the dither's power, the input increasingly affects the amplitude and the character of the quantization noise. Shaped dither behaves similarly, but noise shaping lends one more nice advantage; it can use a somewhat lower dither power before the input has as much effect on the output.
Despite all this text spent on dither, the differences exist 100 decibels or more below full scale. If the CD had been 14 bits as originally designed, perhaps dither might be more important. At 16 bits it's mostly a wash. It's reasonable to treat dither as an insurance policy that gives several extra decibels of dynamic range just in case. That said no one ever ruined a great recording by not dithering the final master.
Bandlimitation and timing
We've been using sine waves. They're the obvious choice when what we want to see is a system's behavior at a given isolated frequency. Now let's look at something a bit more complex. What should we expect to happen when I change the input to a square wave?
The input scope confirms a 1kHz square wave. The output scope shows... exactly what it should.
What is a square wave really?
We can say it's a waveform that's some positive value for half a cycle and then transitions instantaneously to a negative value for the other half.
But that doesn't really tell us anything useful about how that input becomes this output.
We remember that any waveform is also the sum of discrete frequencies, and a square wave is particularly simple sum: a fundamental and an infinite series of odd harmonics.
At first glance, that doesn't seem very useful either; you'd have to sum an infinite number of harmonics to get the answer! However, we don't have an infinite number of harmonics.
We're using a quite sharp anti-aliasing filter that cuts off right above 20kHz, so our signal is bandlimited. Only the first ten terms make it through, and that's exactly what we see on the output scope.
Going deeper…
The rippling you see around sharp edges in a bandlimited signal is called the Gibbs effect. It happens whenever you slice off part of the frequency domain in the middle of nonzero energy.
The usual rule of thumb you'll hear is "the sharper the cutoff, the stronger the rippling", which is approximately true, but we have to be careful how we think about it. For example, what would you expect our quite sharp anti-aliasing filter to do if I run our signal through it a second time?
Aside from adding a few fractional cycles of delay, the answer is: Nothing at all. The signal is already bandlimited. Bandlimiting it again doesn't do anything. A second pass can't remove frequencies that we already removed.
That's important. People tend to think of the ripples as a kind of artifact that's added by anti-aliasing and anti-imaging filters, implying that the ripples get worse each time the signal passes through. We see that in this case that didn't happen, so it wasn't really the filter that added the ripples the first time through. It's a subtle distinction, but Gibbs effect ripples aren't added by filters, they're just part of what a bandlimited signal is.
Even if we synthetically construct what looks like a perfect digital square wave it's still limited to the channel bandwidth. Remember that the stairstep representation is misleading. What we really have here are instantaneous sample points and only one bandlimited signal fits those points. All we did when we drew our apparently perfect square wave was line up the sample points just right so it appeared that there were no ripples if we played connect-the-dots. The original bandlimited signal, complete with ripples, was still there.
That leads us to one more important point. You've probably heard that the timing precision of a digital signal is limited by its sample rate; put another way, that digital signals can't represent anything that falls between the samples.. implying that impulses or fast attacks have to align exactly with a sample, or the timing gets mangled or they just disappear. At this point, we can easily see why that's wrong.
Again, our input signals are bandlimited. And digital signals are samples, not stairsteps, not 'connect-the-dots'. We most certainly can, for example, put the rising edge of our bandlimited square wave anywhere we want between samples.
It's represented perfectly and it's reconstructed perfectly.
Like in A Digital Media Primer for Geeks, we've covered a broad range of topics, and yet barely scratched the surface of each one. If anything, my sins of omission are greater this time around.
Thus I encourage you to dig deeper and experiment. I chose my demos carefully to be simple and give clear results. You can reproduce every one of them on your own if you like, but let's face it: sometimes we learn the most about a spiffy toy by breaking it open and studying all the pieces that fall out. Play with the demo parameters, hack up the code, set up alternate experiments. The source code for everything, including the little push-button demo application, is at the end of this transcript.
In the course of experimentation, you're likely to run into something that you didn't expect and can't explain. Don't worry! My earlier snark aside, Wikipedia is fantastic for exactly this kind of casual research. If you're really serious about understanding signals, several universities have advanced materials online, such as the 6.003 and RES.6-007 Signals and Systems modules at MIT OpenCourseWare. And, of course, there's always the community here at Xiph.Org.
Written by: Christopher (Monty) Montgomery and the Xiph.Org Community
Special thanks to:
- Heidi Baumgartner, for the second Tektronix oscilloscope
- Gregory Maxwell and Dr. Timothy Terriberry, for additional technical review
Intro, title and credits music:
"Andy Warhol Is Gone", by Lousy Robot
Used by permission of Lousy Robot.
Original source track All Rights Reserved.
This Video Was Produced Entirely With Free and Open Source Software:
All trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
A Co-Production of Xiph.Org and Red Hat, Inc.
(C) 2012-2013, Some Rights Reserved
Use The Source Luke
As stated in the Epilogue, everything that appears in the video demos is driven by open source software, which means the source is both available for inspection and freely usable by the community. The Thinkpad that appears in the video was running Fedora 17 and Gnome Shell (Gnome 3). The demonstration software does not require Fedora specifically, but it does require Gnu/Linux to run in its current form. In all, the video involved just under 50,000 lines of new and custom-purpose code (including contributions to non-Xiph projects such as Cinelerra and Gromit).
The Spectrum and Waveform Viewer
The realtime software spectrum analyzer application that appears in the video was a preexisting application that was dusted off and updated for use in the video. The waveform viewer (effectively a simple software oscilloscope) was written from scratch making use of some of the internals from the spectrum analyzer application. Both are available from Xiph.Org svn:
- Source for the Spectrum and Waveform applications is found at:
- The source can be checked out of svn using the following command line:
svn co https://svn.xiph.org/trunk/spectrum
- Trac is a convenient way to browse the source without checking out a copy:
Spectrum and Waveform both expect an input stream on the command line, either as raw data or as a WAV file.
The touch-controlled application used in the video is named 'gtk-bounce' and was custom-written for the sole purpose of the in-video demonstrations. It is so named because, for the most part, all it does is read the input from an audio device, and then immediately write the same data back out for playback. It also forwards a copy of this data to up to two external monitoring applications, and in several demos, applies simple filters or generates simple waveforms. It includes several demos not included in the video.
- Source for gtk-bounce is found at:
- The source can be checked out of svn using the following command line:
svn co https://svn.xiph.org/trunk/Xiph-episode-II/bounce/
- Trac is a convenient way to browse the source without checking out a copy:
Starting Gtk-bounce
The application is somewhat hardwired for specific demo parameters, but most of the hardwired settings can be found at the top of each source file. As found in SVN, the application expects an ALSA hardware audio device at hw:1, and if none if found, it will wait for one to appear. Once a sound device is successfully initialized, it expects to find and open two pipes named pipe0 and pipe1 for output in the current directory. In the video, the waveform and spectrum applications are started to take input from pipe0 and pipe1 respectively. The output sent to the two pipes is identical, and in most demos matches the output data sent to the hardware device for conversion to analog. The only exception is the tenth demo panel (which does not appear in the video) where gtk-bounce can be set to monitor the hardware inputs instead while the outputs are used to produce test waveforms.
Assuming gtk-bounce, spectrum and waveform have been checked out and built, the configuration seen in the video can be started using the following commands:
- make the pipe fifos for the applications to communicate (only needs to be done once)
mkfifo pipe0 pipe1
- start all three applications
waveform pipe0 & spectrum pipe1 & gtk-bounce &
Using Gtk-bounce
Gtk-bounce consists of eleven pushbutton panels (numbered zero through ten) that can be selected by scrolling up and down with the arrow buttons on the right side. Each panel is intended for a specific demo or part of a demo.
- Panel 0: This panel presents buttons that allow the sound card to be configured in several sampling rates and bit depths. Samples read from the audio inputs are sent to the output pipes and audio outputs for playback without modification.
- Panel 1: Both channels are forwarded to the outputs, however the user may select the bit depth of each channel independently. When the sound card is running in 16 bit mode and 16-bit depth is selected, the data is untouched. Requantization to a lower bit depth is performed with a flat triangle dither.
- Panel 2: Both channels are re-quantized to the selected bit depth. Requantization to a lower bit depth is performed with a flat triangle dither.
- Panel 3: 'generate sine wave' discards the audio inputs and instead internally generates a sine wave at 32 bit precision, which is then quantized to the selected bit depth, optionally with dither. The resulting signal is then forwarded to the output.
- Panel 4: gtk-bounce generates a 16-bit sine wave of the selected amplitude, optionally with dither, and forwards the resulting signal to the outputs. The audio input from the audio device is discarded. Note that the slider sets the peak amplitude, not the peak-to-peak amplitude.
- Panel 5: generates a 16-bit sine wave, optionally quantized using dither. The user may additionally select a flat or a shaped dither. The 'notch and gain' button applies a notch filter to the resulting signal, and boosts the gain of the remaining noise so that it's easily audible. The audio input from the audio device is discarded.
- Panel 6: allows the user to play with the power of the dithering noise applied before quantizing the sine wave. Shaped or flat dither are available. The sine wave may also be modulated with a varying amplitude to highlight correlations between the input and the resulting quantization noise. The 'notch and gain' button applies a notch filter to the resulting signal, and boosts the gain of the remaining noise so that it's easily audible. The audio input from the audio device is discarded.
- Panel 7: applies a sharper antialiasing (lowpass) filter than is likely to be built into the sound-card hardware (as there's generally no reason to use a filter quite this sharp in practice). The very sharp filter allows us to bandpass the demonstration square wave without any harmonics landing in the transition band. The input is read from the audio device, passed through this sharper filter, and then forwarded to the outputs.
- Panel 8: when selected, generate a synthetic 'square wave' (this is not quite equivalent to a bandlimited analog square wave; the harmonic amplitudes are a bit different) that when aligned with the sampling phase just right gives the appearance of having infinite rise and fall time. The slider allows us to shift the waveform sample alignment back and forth by +/- one sample to reveal that the underlying signal is still band-limited.
- Panel 9: as in panel 8, generate a 'perfect' synthetic 'square wave'. However, the slider now allows us to shift the sample alignment of the second channel with respect to the first, instead of shifting both channels. This allows us the trigger/lock the scope timing to the channel 1 waveform so we can see the fractional sample movement and alignment of the waveform on channel 2. The audio input from the audio device is discarded.
- Panel 10: not used in the video; The audio device is configured to 24-bit input/output. The user may produce one of a range of test signals that are output to both the external applications and the audio device on the first channel. The input on the second channel is passed-through to the applications and audio device outputs unchanged. The first channel input is unused unless 'two input mode' is selected. When two input mode is selected, both input channels are read and the data sent to the external applications. Generated test signals are sent only to the audio hardware (on the first channel). This combination of test signals and input modes allows self-references frequency response, phase, noise, distortion and crosstalk testing of a given audio device.
Cairo Animations
The animations featured throughout the Episode 2 video were rapid-development spaghetti hack-jobs coded by hand in raw Cairo. Each module generated a series of PNG stills that were then stitched into an animation with Cinelerra or mplayer. In the interest of pointing and laughing at what really bad code looks like...
- Source for the Cairo animations is found at:
- The source can be checked out of svn using the following command line:
svn co https://svn.xiph.org/trunk/Xiph-episode-II/cairo/
- Trac is a convenient way to browse the source without checking out a copy:


text:
Italian restaurants, cafes and places to eat in Enfield in the UK (England, Scotland, Wales)
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the Cutter
Linux destop
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text:
No, no it isn't. But "googling" is. Go fig.
[shrug] Ok, on to the pastry!
Remember those gingerbread "men" horrors I featured last week? Well, it could be worse. Meet the regular bread man:
1 out of 4 Spider-Mans agree: these chocolate cupcakes are "da bomb!"
The purple flower is what really sells it.
I can't say I understand what's going on with these cream horns:
Packed with pistachio, these chocolate dipped knuckle sandwiches really satisfy!
Still, nothing gets a rise out of a paying customer quite like a...a...
April K., Danielle B., Malisa I., Margie J., Amy N., Amanda W., Yunn C., Eva M., Malin R., no matter how you slice it, something here definitely went a rye. When you knead your Peeps toasty, that's gonna cost a lotta dough!
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