text:
Network Working Group | R. Fielding, Editor |
Internet-Draft | Day Software |
Obsoletes: 2616 (if approved) | J. Gettys |
Intended status: Standards Track | One Laptop per Child |
Expires: March 2, 2009 | J. Mogul |
H. Frystyk | |
Microsoft | |
L. Masinter | |
Adobe Systems | |
P. Leach | |
Microsoft | |
T. Berners-Lee | |
Y. Lafon, Editor | |
J. Reschke, Editor | |
greenbytes | |
August 29, 2008 |
By submitting this Internet-Draft, each author represents that any applicable patent or other IPR claims of which he or she is aware have been or will be disclosed, and any of which he or she becomes aware will be disclosed, in accordance with Section 6 of BCP 79.¶
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Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as "work in progress".¶
The list of current Internet-Drafts can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/ietf/1id-abstracts.txt.¶
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This Internet-Draft will expire on March 2, 2009.¶
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP has been in use by the World Wide Web global information initiative since 1990. This document is Part 3 of the seven-part specification that defines the protocol referred to as "HTTP/1.1" and, taken together, obsoletes RFC 2616. Part 3 defines HTTP message content, metadata, and content negotiation.¶
Discussion of this draft should take place on the HTTPBIS working group mailing list (email@example.com). The current issues list is at <http://www.tools.ietf.org/wg/httpbis/trac/report/11> and related documents (including fancy diffs) can be found at <http://www.tools.ietf.org/wg/httpbis/>.¶
The changes in this draft are summarized in Appendix D.4.¶
This document defines HTTP/1.1 message payloads (a.k.a., content), the associated metadata header fields that define how the payload is intended to be interpreted by a recipient, the request header fields that may influence content selection, and the various selection algorithms that are collectively referred to as HTTP content negotiation.¶
This document is currently disorganized in order to minimize the changes between drafts and enable reviewers to see the smaller errata changes. The next draft will reorganize the sections to better reflect the content. In particular, the sections on entities will be renamed payload and moved to the first half of the document, while the sections on content negotiation and associated request header fields will be moved to the second half. The current mess reflects how widely dispersed these topics and associated requirements had become in [RFC2616].¶
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT", "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].¶
An implementation is not compliant if it fails to satisfy one or more of the MUST or REQUIRED level requirements for the protocols it implements. An implementation that satisfies all the MUST or REQUIRED level and all the SHOULD level requirements for its protocols is said to be "unconditionally compliant"; one that satisfies all the MUST level requirements but not all the SHOULD level requirements for its protocols is said to be "conditionally compliant."¶
This specification uses the ABNF syntax defined in Section 2.1 of [Part1] and the core rules defined in Section 2.2 of [Part1]: [abnf.dep: ABNF syntax and basic rules will be adopted from RFC 5234, see <http://tools.ietf.org/wg/httpbis/trac/ticket/36>.] ¶
ALPHA = <ALPHA, defined in [Part1], Section 2.2> DIGIT = <DIGIT, defined in [Part1], Section 2.2> OCTET = <OCTET, defined in [Part1], Section 2.2>
quoted-string = <quoted-string, defined in [Part1], Section 2.2> token = <token, defined in [Part1], Section 2.2>
The ABNF rules below are defined in other parts:¶
absoluteURI = <absoluteURI, defined in [Part1], Section 3.2.1> Content-Length = <Content-Length, defined in [Part1], Section 8.2> relativeURI = <relativeURI, defined in [Part1], Section 3.2.1> message-header = <message-header, defined in [Part1], Section 4.2>
Last-Modified = <Last-Modified, defined in [Part4], Section 7.6>
Content-Range = <Content-Range, defined in [Part5], Section 6.2>
Expires = <Expires, defined in [Part6], Section 16.3>
HTTP uses the same definition of the term "character set" as that described for MIME:¶
The term "character set" is used in this document to refer to a method used with one or more tables to convert a sequence of octets into a sequence of characters. Note that unconditional conversion in the other direction is not required, in that not all characters may be available in a given character set and a character set may provide more than one sequence of octets to represent a particular character. This definition is intended to allow various kinds of character encoding, from simple single-table mappings such as US-ASCII to complex table switching methods such as those that use ISO-2022's techniques. However, the definition associated with a MIME character set name MUST fully specify the mapping to be performed from octets to characters. In particular, use of external profiling information to determine the exact mapping is not permitted.¶
HTTP character sets are identified by case-insensitive tokens. The complete set of tokens is defined by the IANA Character Set registry (<http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets>).¶
Although HTTP allows an arbitrary token to be used as a charset value, any token that has a predefined value within the IANA Character Set registry MUST represent the character set defined by that registry. Applications SHOULD limit their use of character sets to those defined by the IANA registry.¶
HTTP uses charset in two contexts: within an Accept-Charset request header (in which the charset value is an unquoted token) and as the value of a parameter in a Content-Type header (within a request or response), in which case the parameter value of the charset parameter may be quoted.¶
Some HTTP/1.0 software has interpreted a Content-Type header without charset parameter incorrectly to mean "recipient should guess." Senders wishing to defeat this behavior MAY include a charset parameter even when the charset is ISO-8859-1 ([ISO-8859-1]) and SHOULD do so when it is known that it will not confuse the recipient.¶
Unfortunately, some older HTTP/1.0 clients did not deal properly with an explicit charset parameter. HTTP/1.1 recipients MUST respect the charset label provided by the sender; and those user agents that have a provision to "guess" a charset MUST use the charset from the content-type field if they support that charset, rather than the recipient's preference, when initially displaying a document. See Section 3.3.1.¶
Content coding values indicate an encoding transformation that has been or can be applied to an entity. Content codings are primarily used to allow a document to be compressed or otherwise usefully transformed without losing the identity of its underlying media type and without loss of information. Frequently, the entity is stored in coded form, transmitted directly, and only decoded by the recipient.¶
All content-coding values are case-insensitive. HTTP/1.1 uses content-coding values in the Accept-Encoding (Section 6.3) and Content-Encoding (Section 6.5) header fields. Although the value describes the content-coding, what is more important is that it indicates what decoding mechanism will be required to remove the encoding.¶
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) acts as a registry for content-coding value tokens. Initially, the registry contains the following tokens:¶
gzip ¶
compress ¶
deflate ¶
identity ¶
New content-coding value tokens SHOULD be registered; to allow interoperability between clients and servers, specifications of the content coding algorithms needed to implement a new value SHOULD be publicly available and adequate for independent implementation, and conform to the purpose of content coding defined in this section.¶
HTTP uses Internet Media Types [RFC2046] in the Content-Type (Section 6.9) and Accept (Section 6.1) header fields in order to provide open and extensible data typing and type negotiation.¶
Parameters MAY follow the type/subtype in the form of attribute/value pairs.¶
The type, subtype, and parameter attribute names are case-insensitive. Parameter values might or might not be case-sensitive, depending on the semantics of the parameter name. Linear white space (LWS) MUST NOT be used between the type and subtype, nor between an attribute and its value. The presence or absence of a parameter might be significant to the processing of a media-type, depending on its definition within the media type registry.¶
A parameter value that matches the token production may be transmitted as either a token or within a quoted-string. The quoted and unquoted values are equivalent.¶
Note that some older HTTP applications do not recognize media type parameters. When sending data to older HTTP applications, implementations SHOULD only use media type parameters when they are required by that type/subtype definition.¶
Media-type values are registered with the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA). The media type registration process is outlined in [RFC4288]. Use of non-registered media types is discouraged.¶
Internet media types are registered with a canonical form. An entity-body transferred via HTTP messages MUST be represented in the appropriate canonical form prior to its transmission except for "text" types, as defined in the next paragraph.¶
When in canonical form, media subtypes of the "text" type use CRLF as the text line break. HTTP relaxes this requirement and allows the transport of text media with plain CR or LF alone representing a line break when it is done consistently for an entire entity-body. HTTP applications MUST accept CRLF, bare CR, and bare LF as being representative of a line break in text media received via HTTP. In addition, if the text is represented in a character set that does not use octets 13 and 10 for CR and LF respectively, as is the case for some multi-byte character sets, HTTP allows the use of whatever octet sequences are defined by that character set to represent the equivalent of CR and LF for line breaks. This flexibility regarding line breaks applies only to text media in the entity-body; a bare CR or LF MUST NOT be substituted for CRLF within any of the HTTP control structures (such as header fields and multipart boundaries).¶
If an entity-body is encoded with a content-coding, the underlying data MUST be in a form defined above prior to being encoded.¶
The "charset" parameter is used with some media types to define the character set (Section 3.1) of the data. When no explicit charset parameter is provided by the sender, media subtypes of the "text" type are defined to have a default charset value of "ISO-8859-1" when received via HTTP. Data in character sets other than "ISO-8859-1" or its subsets MUST be labeled with an appropriate charset value. See Section 3.1.1 for compatibility problems.¶
MIME provides for a number of "multipart" types -- encapsulations of one or more entities within a single message-body. All multipart types share a common syntax, as defined in Section 5.1.1 of [RFC2046], and MUST include a boundary parameter as part of the media type value. The message body is itself a protocol element and MUST therefore use only CRLF to represent line breaks between body-parts. Unlike in RFC 2046, the epilogue of any multipart message MUST be empty; HTTP applications MUST NOT transmit the epilogue (even if the original multipart contains an epilogue). These restrictions exist in order to preserve the self-delimiting nature of a multipart message-body, wherein the "end" of the message-body is indicated by the ending multipart boundary.¶
In general, HTTP treats a multipart message-body no differently than any other media type: strictly as payload. The one exception is the "multipart/byteranges" type (Appendix A of [Part5]) when it appears in a 206 (Partial Content) response. In all other cases, an HTTP user agent SHOULD follow the same or similar behavior as a MIME user agent would upon receipt of a multipart type. The MIME header fields within each body-part of a multipart message-body do not have any significance to HTTP beyond that defined by their MIME semantics.¶
In general, an HTTP user agent SHOULD follow the same or similar behavior as a MIME user agent would upon receipt of a multipart type. If an application receives an unrecognized multipart subtype, the application MUST treat it as being equivalent to "multipart/mixed".¶
HTTP content negotiation (Section 5) uses short "floating point" numbers to indicate the relative importance ("weight") of various negotiable parameters. A weight is normalized to a real number in the range 0 through 1, where 0 is the minimum and 1 the maximum value. If a parameter has a quality value of 0, then content with this parameter is `not acceptable' for the client. HTTP/1.1 applications MUST NOT generate more than three digits after the decimal point. User configuration of these values SHOULD also be limited in this fashion.¶
"Quality values" is a misnomer, since these values merely represent relative degradation in desired quality.¶
Request and Response messages MAY transfer an entity if not otherwise restricted by the request method or response status code. An entity consists of entity-header fields and an entity-body, although some responses will only include the entity-headers.¶
In this section, both sender and recipient refer to either the client or the server, depending on who sends and who receives the entity.¶
Entity-header fields define metainformation about the entity-body or, if no body is present, about the resource identified by the request.¶
entity-header = Content-Encoding ; Section 6.5 | Content-Language ; Section 6.6 | Content-Length ; [Part1], Section 8.2 | Content-Location ; Section 6.7 | Content-MD5 ; Section 6.8 | Content-Range ; [Part5], Section 6.2 | Content-Type ; Section 6.9 | Expires ; [Part6], Section 16.3 | Last-Modified ; [Part4], Section 7.6 | extension-header extension-header = message-header
The extension-header mechanism allows additional entity-header fields to be defined without changing the protocol, but these fields cannot be assumed to be recognizable by the recipient. Unrecognized header fields SHOULD be ignored by the recipient and MUST be forwarded by transparent proxies.¶
The entity-body (if any) sent with an HTTP request or response is in a format and encoding defined by the entity-header fields.¶
entity-body = *OCTET
An entity-body is only present in a message when a message-body is present, as described in Section 4.3 of [Part1]. The entity-body is obtained from the message-body by decoding any Transfer-Encoding that might have been applied to ensure safe and proper transfer of the message.¶
When an entity-body is included with a message, the data type of that body is determined via the header fields Content-Type and Content-Encoding. These define a two-layer, ordered encoding model:¶
entity-body := Content-Encoding( Content-Type( data ) )
Content-Type specifies the media type of the underlying data. Content-Encoding may be used to indicate any additional content codings applied to the data, usually for the purpose of data compression, that are a property of the requested resource. There is no default encoding.¶
Any HTTP/1.1 message containing an entity-body SHOULD include a Content-Type header field defining the media type of that body. If and only if the media type is not given by a Content-Type field, the recipient MAY attempt to guess the media type via inspection of its content and/or the name extension(s) of the URI used to identify the resource. If the media type remains unknown, the recipient SHOULD treat it as type "application/octet-stream".¶
The entity-length of a message is the length of the message-body before any transfer-codings have been applied. Section 4.4 of [Part1] defines how the transfer-length of a message-body is determined.¶
Most HTTP responses include an entity which contains information for interpretation by a human user. Naturally, it is desirable to supply the user with the "best available" entity corresponding to the request. Unfortunately for servers and caches, not all users have the same preferences for what is "best," and not all user agents are equally capable of rendering all entity types. For that reason, HTTP has provisions for several mechanisms for "content negotiation" -- the process of selecting the best representation for a given response when there are multiple representations available. ¶
Any response containing an entity-body MAY be subject to negotiation, including error responses.¶
There are two kinds of content negotiation which are possible in HTTP: server-driven and agent-driven negotiation. These two kinds of negotiation are orthogonal and thus may be used separately or in combination. One method of combination, referred to as transparent negotiation, occurs when a cache uses the agent-driven negotiation information provided by the origin server in order to provide server-driven negotiation for subsequent requests.¶
If the selection of the best representation for a response is made by an algorithm located at the server, it is called server-driven negotiation. Selection is based on the available representations of the response (the dimensions over which it can vary; e.g. language, content-coding, etc.) and the contents of particular header fields in the request message or on other information pertaining to the request (such as the network address of the client).¶
Server-driven negotiation is advantageous when the algorithm for selecting from among the available representations is difficult to describe to the user agent, or when the server desires to send its "best guess" to the client along with the first response (hoping to avoid the round-trip delay of a subsequent request if the "best guess" is good enough for the user). In order to improve the server's guess, the user agent MAY include request header fields (Accept, Accept-Language, Accept-Encoding, etc.) which describe its preferences for such a response.¶
Server-driven negotiation has disadvantages: ¶
HTTP/1.1 includes the following request-header fields for enabling server-driven negotiation through description of user agent capabilities and user preferences: Accept (Section 6.1), Accept-Charset (Section 6.2), Accept-Encoding (Section 6.3), Accept-Language (Section 6.4), and User-Agent (Section 10.9 of [Part2]). However, an origin server is not limited to these dimensions and MAY vary the response based on any aspect of the request, including information outside the request-header fields or within extension header fields not defined by this specification.¶
The Vary header field (Section 16.5 of [Part6]) can be used to express the parameters the server uses to select a representation that is subject to server-driven negotiation.¶
With agent-driven negotiation, selection of the best representation for a response is performed by the user agent after receiving an initial response from the origin server. Selection is based on a list of the available representations of the response included within the header fields or entity-body of the initial response, with each representation identified by its own URI. Selection from among the representations may be performed automatically (if the user agent is capable of doing so) or manually by the user selecting from a generated (possibly hypertext) menu.¶
Agent-driven negotiation is advantageous when the response would vary over commonly-used dimensions (such as type, language, or encoding), when the origin server is unable to determine a user agent's capabilities from examining the request, and generally when public caches are used to distribute server load and reduce network usage.¶
Agent-driven negotiation suffers from the disadvantage of needing a second request to obtain the best alternate representation. This second request is only efficient when caching is used. In addition, this specification does not define any mechanism for supporting automatic selection, though it also does not prevent any such mechanism from being developed as an extension and used within HTTP/1.1.¶
HTTP/1.1 defines the 300 (Multiple Choices) and 406 (Not Acceptable) status codes for enabling agent-driven negotiation when the server is unwilling or unable to provide a varying response using server-driven negotiation.¶
Transparent negotiation is a combination of both server-driven and agent-driven negotiation. When a cache is supplied with a form of the list of available representations of the response (as in agent-driven negotiation) and the dimensions of variance are completely understood by the cache, then the cache becomes capable of performing server-driven negotiation on behalf of the origin server for subsequent requests on that resource.¶
Transparent negotiation has the advantage of distributing the negotiation work that would otherwise be required of the origin server and also removing the second request delay of agent-driven negotiation when the cache is able to correctly guess the right response.¶
This specification does not define any mechanism for transparent negotiation, though it also does not prevent any such mechanism from being developed as an extension that could be used within HTTP/1.1.¶
This section defines the syntax and semantics of HTTP/1.1 header fields related to the payload of messages.¶
For entity-header fields, both sender and recipient refer to either the client or the server, depending on who sends and who receives the entity.¶
The Accept request-header field can be used to specify certain media types which are acceptable for the response. Accept headers can be used to indicate that the request is specifically limited to a small set of desired types, as in the case of a request for an in-line image.¶
Accept = "Accept" ":" #( media-range [ accept-params ] ) media-range = ( "*/*" | ( type "/" "*" ) | ( type "/" subtype ) ) *( ";" parameter ) accept-params = ";" "q" "=" qvalue *( accept-extension ) accept-extension = ";" token [ "=" ( token | quoted-string ) ]
The asterisk "*" character is used to group media types into ranges, with "*/*" indicating all media types and "type/*" indicating all subtypes of that type. The media-range MAY include media type parameters that are applicable to that range.¶
Each media-range MAY be followed by one or more accept-params, beginning with the "q" parameter for indicating a relative quality factor. The first "q" parameter (if any) separates the media-range parameter(s) from the accept-params. Quality factors allow the user or user agent to indicate the relative degree of preference for that media-range, using the qvalue scale from 0 to 1 (Section 3.4). The default value is q=1. ¶
The example¶
Accept: audio/*; q=0.2, audio/basic
SHOULD be interpreted as "I prefer audio/basic, but send me any audio type if it is the best available after an 80% mark-down in quality."¶
If no Accept header field is present, then it is assumed that the client accepts all media types. If an Accept header field is present, and if the server cannot send a response which is acceptable according to the combined Accept field value, then the server SHOULD send a 406 (Not Acceptable) response.¶
A more elaborate example is¶
Accept: text/plain; q=0.5, text/html, text/x-dvi; q=0.8, text/x-c
Verbally, this would be interpreted as "text/html and text/x-c are the preferred media types, but if they do not exist, then send the text/x-dvi entity, and if that does not exist, send the text/plain entity."¶
Media ranges can be overridden by more specific media ranges or specific media types. If more than one media range applies to a given type, the most specific reference has precedence. For example,¶
Accept: text/*, text/html, text/html;level=1, */*
have the following precedence:¶
1) text/html;level=1 2) text/html 3) text/* 4) */*
The media type quality factor associated with a given type is determined by finding the media range with the highest precedence which matches that type. For example,¶
Accept: text/*;q=0.3, text/html;q=0.7, text/html;level=1, text/html;level=2;q=0.4, */*;q=0.5
would cause the following values to be associated:¶
text/html;level=1 = 1 text/html = 0.7 text/plain = 0.3 image/jpeg = 0.5 text/html;level=2 = 0.4 text/html;level=3 = 0.7
Note: A user agent might be provided with a default set of quality values for certain media ranges. However, unless the user agent is a closed system which cannot interact with other rendering agents, this default set ought to be configurable by the user.¶
The Accept-Charset request-header field can be used to indicate what character sets are acceptable for the response. This field allows clients capable of understanding more comprehensive or special-purpose character sets to signal that capability to a server which is capable of representing documents in those character sets.¶
Accept-Charset = "Accept-Charset" ":" 1#( ( charset | "*" ) [ ";" "q" "=" qvalue ] )
Character set values are described in Section 3.1. Each charset MAY be given an associated quality value which represents the user's preference for that charset. The default value is q=1. An example is¶
Accept-Charset: iso-8859-5, unicode-1-1;q=0.8
The special value "*", if present in the Accept-Charset field, matches every character set (including ISO-8859-1) which is not mentioned elsewhere in the Accept-Charset field. If no "*" is present in an Accept-Charset field, then all character sets not explicitly mentioned get a quality value of 0, except for ISO-8859-1, which gets a quality value of 1 if not explicitly mentioned.¶
If no Accept-Charset header is present, the default is that any character set is acceptable. If an Accept-Charset header is present, and if the server cannot send a response which is acceptable according to the Accept-Charset header, then the server SHOULD send an error response with the 406 (Not Acceptable) status code, though the sending of an unacceptable response is also allowed.¶
The Accept-Encoding request-header field is similar to Accept, but restricts the content-codings (Section 3.2) that are acceptable in the response.¶
Accept-Encoding = "Accept-Encoding" ":" #( codings [ ";" "q" "=" qvalue ] ) codings = ( content-coding | "*" )
Each codings value MAY be given an associated quality value which represents the preference for that encoding. The default value is q=1.¶
Examples of its use are:¶
Accept-Encoding: compress, gzip Accept-Encoding: Accept-Encoding: * Accept-Encoding: compress;q=0.5, gzip;q=1.0 Accept-Encoding: gzip;q=1.0, identity; q=0.5, *;q=0
A server tests whether a content-coding is acceptable, according to an Accept-Encoding field, using these rules: ¶
If an Accept-Encoding field is present in a request, and if the server cannot send a response which is acceptable according to the Accept-Encoding header, then the server SHOULD send an error response with the 406 (Not Acceptable) status code.¶
If no Accept-Encoding field is present in a request, the server MAY assume that the client will accept any content coding. In this case, if "identity" is one of the available content-codings, then the server SHOULD use the "identity" content-coding, unless it has additional information that a different content-coding is meaningful to the client. ¶
The Accept-Language request-header field is similar to Accept, but restricts the set of natural languages that are preferred as a response to the request. Language tags are defined in Section 3.5.¶
Accept-Language = "Accept-Language" ":" 1#( language-range [ ";" "q" "=" qvalue ] ) language-range = <language-range, defined in [RFC4647], Section 2.1>
Each language-range can be given an associated quality value which represents an estimate of the user's preference for the languages specified by that range. The quality value defaults to "q=1". For example,¶
Accept-Language: da, en-gb;q=0.8, en;q=0.7
would mean: "I prefer Danish, but will accept British English and other types of English."¶
For matching, the "Basic Filtering" matching scheme, defined in Section 3.3.1 of [RFC4647], is used:¶
A language range matches a particular language tag if, in a case-insensitive comparison, it exactly equals the tag, or if it exactly equals a prefix of the tag such that the first character following the prefix is "-".¶
The special range "*", if present in the Accept-Language field, matches every tag not matched by any other range present in the Accept-Language field. ¶
The language quality factor assigned to a language-tag by the Accept-Language field is the quality value of the longest language-range in the field that matches the language-tag. If no language-range in the field matches the tag, the language quality factor assigned is 0. If no Accept-Language header is present in the request, the server SHOULD assume that all languages are equally acceptable. If an Accept-Language header is present, then all languages which are assigned a quality factor greater than 0 are acceptable.¶
It might be contrary to the privacy expectations of the user to send an Accept-Language header with the complete linguistic preferences of the user in every request. For a discussion of this issue, see Section 8.1.¶
As intelligibility is highly dependent on the individual user, it is recommended that client applications make the choice of linguistic preference available to the user. If the choice is not made available, then the Accept-Language header field MUST NOT be given in the request. ¶
The Content-Encoding entity-header field is used as a modifier to the media-type. When present, its value indicates what additional content codings have been applied to the entity-body, and thus what decoding mechanisms must be applied in order to obtain the media-type referenced by the Content-Type header field. Content-Encoding is primarily used to allow a document to be compressed without losing the identity of its underlying media type.¶
Content-Encoding = "Content-Encoding" ":" 1#content-coding
Content codings are defined in Section 3.2. An example of its use is¶
Content-Encoding: gzip
The content-coding is a characteristic of the entity identified by the Request-URI. Typically, the entity-body is stored with this encoding and is only decoded before rendering or analogous usage. However, a non-transparent proxy MAY modify the content-coding if the new coding is known to be acceptable to the recipient, unless the "no-transform" cache-control directive is present in the message.¶
If the content-coding of an entity is not "identity", then the response MUST include a Content-Encoding entity-header (Section 6.5) that lists the non-identity content-coding(s) used.¶
If the content-coding of an entity in a request message is not acceptable to the origin server, the server SHOULD respond with a status code of 415 (Unsupported Media Type).¶
If multiple encodings have been applied to an entity, the content codings MUST be listed in the order in which they were applied. Additional information about the encoding parameters MAY be provided by other entity-header fields not defined by this specification.¶
The Content-Language entity-header field describes the natural language(s) of the intended audience for the enclosed entity. Note that this might not be equivalent to all the languages used within the entity-body.¶
Content-Language = "Content-Language" ":" 1#language-tag
Language tags are defined in Section 3.5. The primary purpose of Content-Language is to allow a user to identify and differentiate entities according to the user's own preferred language. Thus, if the body content is intended only for a Danish-literate audience, the appropriate field is¶
Content-Language: da
If no Content-Language is specified, the default is that the content is intended for all language audiences. This might mean that the sender does not consider it to be specific to any natural language, or that the sender does not know for which language it is intended.¶
Multiple languages MAY be listed for content that is intended for multiple audiences. For example, a rendition of the "Treaty of Waitangi," presented simultaneously in the original Maori and English versions, would call for¶
Content-Language: mi, en
However, just because multiple languages are present within an entity does not mean that it is intended for multiple linguistic audiences. An example would be a beginner's language primer, such as "A First Lesson in Latin," which is clearly intended to be used by an English-literate audience. In this case, the Content-Language would properly only include "en".¶
Content-Language MAY be applied to any media type -- it is not limited to textual documents.¶
The Content-Location entity-header field MAY be used to supply the resource location for the entity enclosed in the message when that entity is accessible from a location separate from the requested resource's URI. A server SHOULD provide a Content-Location for the variant corresponding to the response entity; especially in the case where a resource has multiple entities associated with it, and those entities actually have separate locations by which they might be individually accessed, the server SHOULD provide a Content-Location for the particular variant which is returned.¶
Content-Location = "Content-Location" ":" ( absoluteURI | relativeURI )
The value of Content-Location also defines the base URI for the entity.¶
The Content-Location value is not a replacement for the original requested URI; it is only a statement of the location of the resource corresponding to this particular entity at the time of the request. Future requests MAY specify the Content-Location URI as the request-URI if the desire is to identify the source of that particular entity.¶
A cache cannot assume that an entity with a Content-Location different from the URI used to retrieve it can be used to respond to later requests on that Content-Location URI. However, the Content-Location can be used to differentiate between multiple entities retrieved from a single requested resource, as described in Section 8 of [Part6].¶
If the Content-Location is a relative URI, the relative URI is interpreted relative to the Request-URI.¶
The meaning of the Content-Location header in PUT or POST requests is undefined; servers are free to ignore it in those cases.¶
The Content-MD5 entity-header field, as defined in [RFC1864], is an MD5 digest of the entity-body for the purpose of providing an end-to-end message integrity check (MIC) of the entity-body. (Note: a MIC is good for detecting accidental modification of the entity-body in transit, but is not proof against malicious attacks.)¶
Content-MD5 = "Content-MD5" ":" md5-digest md5-digest = <base64 of 128 bit MD5 digest as per [RFC1864]>
The Content-MD5 header field MAY be generated by an origin server or client to function as an integrity check of the entity-body. Only origin servers or clients MAY generate the Content-MD5 header field; proxies and gateways MUST NOT generate it, as this would defeat its value as an end-to-end integrity check. Any recipient of the entity-body, including gateways and proxies, MAY check that the digest value in this header field matches that of the entity-body as received.¶
The MD5 digest is computed based on the content of the entity-body, including any content-coding that has been applied, but not including any transfer-encoding applied to the message-body. If the message is received with a transfer-encoding, that encoding MUST be removed prior to checking the Content-MD5 value against the received entity.¶
This has the result that the digest is computed on the octets of the entity-body exactly as, and in the order that, they would be sent if no transfer-encoding were being applied.¶
HTTP extends RFC 1864 to permit the digest to be computed for MIME composite media-types (e.g., multipart/* and message/rfc822), but this does not change how the digest is computed as defined in the preceding paragraph.¶
There are several consequences of this. The entity-body for composite types MAY contain many body-parts, each with its own MIME and HTTP headers (including Content-MD5, Content-Transfer-Encoding, and Content-Encoding headers). If a body-part has a Content-Transfer-Encoding or Content-Encoding header, it is assumed that the content of the body-part has had the encoding applied, and the body-part is included in the Content-MD5 digest as is -- i.e., after the application. The Transfer-Encoding header field is not allowed within body-parts.¶
Conversion of all line breaks to CRLF MUST NOT be done before computing or checking the digest: the line break convention used in the text actually transmitted MUST be left unaltered when computing the digest. ¶
The Content-Type entity-header field indicates the media type of the entity-body sent to the recipient or, in the case of the HEAD method, the media type that would have been sent had the request been a GET.¶
Content-Type = "Content-Type" ":" media-type
Media types are defined in Section 3.3. An example of the field is¶
Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-4
Further discussion of methods for identifying the media type of an entity is provided in Section 4.2.1.¶
The Message Header Registry located at <http://www.iana.org/assignments/message-headers/message-header-index.html> should be updated with the permanent registrations below (see [RFC3864]):¶
Header Field Name | Protocol | Status | Reference |
Accept | http | standard | Section 6.1 |
Accept-Charset | http | standard | Section 6.2 |
Accept-Encoding | http | standard | Section 6.3 |
Accept-Language | http | standard | Section 6.4 |
Content-Disposition | http | Appendix B.1 | |
Content-Encoding | http | standard | Section 6.5 |
Content-Language | http | standard | Section 6.6 |
Content-Location | http | standard | Section 6.7 |
Content-MD5 | http | standard | Section 6.8 |
Content-Type | http | standard | Section 6.9 |
MIME-Version | http | Appendix A.1 |
The change controller is: "IETF (email@example.com) - Internet Engineering Task Force".¶
This section is meant to inform application developers, information providers, and users of the security limitations in HTTP/1.1 as described by this document. The discussion does not include definitive solutions to the problems revealed, though it does make some suggestions for reducing security risks.¶
Accept request-headers can reveal information about the user to all servers which are accessed. The Accept-Language header in particular can reveal information the user would consider to be of a private nature, because the understanding of particular languages is often strongly correlated to the membership of a particular ethnic group. User agents which offer the option to configure the contents of an Accept-Language header to be sent in every request are strongly encouraged to let the configuration process include a message which makes the user aware of the loss of privacy involved.¶
An approach that limits the loss of privacy would be for a user agent to omit the sending of Accept-Language headers by default, and to ask the user whether or not to start sending Accept-Language headers to a server if it detects, by looking for any Vary response-header fields generated by the server, that such sending could improve the quality of service.¶
Elaborate user-customized accept header fields sent in every request, in particular if these include quality values, can be used by servers as relatively reliable and long-lived user identifiers. Such user identifiers would allow content providers to do click-trail tracking, and would allow collaborating content providers to match cross-server click-trails or form submissions of individual users. Note that for many users not behind a proxy, the network address of the host running the user agent will also serve as a long-lived user identifier. In environments where proxies are used to enhance privacy, user agents ought to be conservative in offering accept header configuration options to end users. As an extreme privacy measure, proxies could filter the accept headers in relayed requests. General purpose user agents which provide a high degree of header configurability SHOULD warn users about the loss of privacy which can be involved.¶
[RFC2183], from which the often implemented Content-Disposition (see Appendix B.1) header in HTTP is derived, has a number of very serious security considerations. Content-Disposition is not part of the HTTP standard, but since it is widely implemented, we are documenting its use and risks for implementors. See Section 5 of [RFC2183] for details.¶
HTTP/1.1 uses many of the constructs defined for Internet Mail ([RFC2822]) and the Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME [RFC2045]) to allow entities to be transmitted in an open variety of representations and with extensible mechanisms. However, RFC 2045 discusses mail, and HTTP has a few features that are different from those described in RFC 2045. These differences were carefully chosen to optimize performance over binary connections, to allow greater freedom in the use of new media types, to make date comparisons easier, and to acknowledge the practice of some early HTTP servers and clients.¶
This appendix describes specific areas where HTTP differs from RFC 2045. Proxies and gateways to strict MIME environments SHOULD be aware of these differences and provide the appropriate conversions where necessary. Proxies and gateways from MIME environments to HTTP also need to be aware of the differences because some conversions might be required.¶
HTTP is not a MIME-compliant protocol. However, HTTP/1.1 messages MAY include a single MIME-Version general-header field to indicate what version of the MIME protocol was used to construct the message. Use of the MIME-Version header field indicates that the message is in full compliance with the MIME protocol (as defined in [RFC2045]). Proxies/gateways are responsible for ensuring full compliance (where possible) when exporting HTTP messages to strict MIME environments.¶
MIME-Version = "MIME-Version" ":" 1*DIGIT "." 1*DIGIT
MIME version "1.0" is the default for use in HTTP/1.1. However, HTTP/1.1 message parsing and semantics are defined by this document and not the MIME specification.¶
[RFC2045] requires that an Internet mail entity be converted to canonical form prior to being transferred, as described in Section 4 of [RFC2049]. Section 3.3.1 of this document describes the forms allowed for subtypes of the "text" media type when transmitted over HTTP. [RFC2046] requires that content with a type of "text" represent line breaks as CRLF and forbids the use of CR or LF outside of line break sequences. HTTP allows CRLF, bare CR, and bare LF to indicate a line break within text content when a message is transmitted over HTTP.¶
Where it is possible, a proxy or gateway from HTTP to a strict MIME environment SHOULD translate all line breaks within the text media types described in Section 3.3.1 of this document to the RFC 2049 canonical form of CRLF. Note, however, that this might be complicated by the presence of a Content-Encoding and by the fact that HTTP allows the use of some character sets which do not use octets 13 and 10 to represent CR and LF, as is the case for some multi-byte character sets.¶
Implementors should note that conversion will break any cryptographic checksums applied to the original content unless the original content is already in canonical form. Therefore, the canonical form is recommended for any content that uses such checksums in HTTP.¶
RFC 2045 does not include any concept equivalent to HTTP/1.1's Content-Encoding header field. Since this acts as a modifier on the media type, proxies and gateways from HTTP to MIME-compliant protocols MUST either change the value of the Content-Type header field or decode the entity-body before forwarding the message. (Some experimental applications of Content-Type for Internet mail have used a media-type parameter of ";conversions=<content-coding>" to perform a function equivalent to Content-Encoding. However, this parameter is not part of RFC 2045).¶
HTTP does not use the Content-Transfer-Encoding field of RFC 2045. Proxies and gateways from MIME-compliant protocols to HTTP MUST remove any Content-Transfer-Encoding prior to delivering the response message to an HTTP client.¶
Proxies and gateways from HTTP to MIME-compliant protocols are responsible for ensuring that the message is in the correct format and encoding for safe transport on that protocol, where "safe transport" is defined by the limitations of the protocol being used. Such a proxy or gateway SHOULD label the data with an appropriate Content-Transfer-Encoding if doing so will improve the likelihood of safe transport over the destination protocol.¶
HTTP/1.1 introduces the Transfer-Encoding header field (Section 8.7 of [Part1]). Proxies/gateways MUST remove any transfer-coding prior to forwarding a message via a MIME-compliant protocol.¶
HTTP implementations which share code with MHTML [RFC2557] implementations need to be aware of MIME line length limitations. Since HTTP does not have this limitation, HTTP does not fold long lines. MHTML messages being transported by HTTP follow all conventions of MHTML, including line length limitations and folding, canonicalization, etc., since HTTP transports all message-bodies as payload (see Section 3.3.2) and does not interpret the content or any MIME header lines that might be contained therein.¶
[RFC1945] and [RFC2068] document protocol elements used by some existing HTTP implementations, but not consistently and correctly across most HTTP/1.1 applications. Implementors are advised to be aware of these features, but cannot rely upon their presence in, or interoperability with, other HTTP/1.1 applications. Some of these describe proposed experimental features, and some describe features that experimental deployment found lacking that are now addressed in the base HTTP/1.1 specification.¶
A number of other headers, such as Content-Disposition and Title, from SMTP and MIME are also often implemented (see [RFC2076]).¶
The Content-Disposition response-header field has been proposed as a means for the origin server to suggest a default filename if the user requests that the content is saved to a file. This usage is derived from the definition of Content-Disposition in [RFC2183].¶
content-disposition = "Content-Disposition" ":" disposition-type *( ";" disposition-parm ) disposition-type = "attachment" | disp-extension-token disposition-parm = filename-parm | disp-extension-parm filename-parm = "filename" "=" quoted-string disp-extension-token = token disp-extension-parm = token "=" ( token | quoted-string )
An example is¶
Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="fname.ext"
The receiving user agent SHOULD NOT respect any directory path information present in the filename-parm parameter, which is the only parameter believed to apply to HTTP implementations at this time. The filename SHOULD be treated as a terminal component only.¶
If this header is used in a response with the application/octet-stream content-type, the implied suggestion is that the user agent should not display the response, but directly enter a `save response as...' dialog.¶
See Section 8.2 for Content-Disposition security issues.¶
Transfer-coding and message lengths all interact in ways that required fixing exactly when chunked encoding is used (to allow for transfer encoding that may not be self delimiting); it was important to straighten out exactly how message lengths are computed. (Section 4.2.2, see also [Part1], [Part5] and [Part6]).¶
Charset wildcarding is introduced to avoid explosion of character set names in accept headers. (Section 6.2)¶
Content-Base was deleted from the specification: it was not implemented widely, and there is no simple, safe way to introduce it without a robust extension mechanism. In addition, it is used in a similar, but not identical fashion in MHTML [RFC2557].¶
A content-coding of "identity" was introduced, to solve problems discovered in caching. (Section 3.2)¶
Quality Values of zero should indicate that "I don't want something" to allow clients to refuse a representation. (Section 3.4)¶
The Alternates, Content-Version, Derived-From, Link, URI, Public and Content-Base header fields were defined in previous versions of this specification, but not commonly implemented. See Section 19.6.2 of [RFC2068].¶
Clarify contexts that charset is used in. (Section 3.1)¶
Remove reference to non-existant identity transfer-coding value tokens. (Appendix A.4)¶
Closed issues: ¶
Ongoing work on ABNF conversion (<http://www3.tools.ietf.org/wg/httpbis/trac/ticket/36>): ¶
Closed issues: ¶
Ongoing work on IANA Message Header Registration (<http://www3.tools.ietf.org/wg/httpbis/trac/ticket/40>): ¶
Closed issues: ¶
Other changes: ¶
Copyright © The IETF Trust (2008).¶
This document is subject to the rights, licenses and restrictions contained in BCP 78, and except as set forth therein, the authors retain all their rights.¶
This document and the information contained herein are provided on an "AS IS" basis and THE CONTRIBUTOR, THE ORGANIZATION HE/SHE REPRESENTS OR IS SPONSORED BY (IF ANY), THE INTERNET SOCIETY, THE IETF TRUST AND THE INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY THAT THE USE OF THE INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY RIGHTS OR ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.¶
The IETF takes no position regarding the validity or scope of any Intellectual Property Rights or other rights that might be claimed to pertain to the implementation or use of the technology described in this document or the extent to which any license under such rights might or might not be available; nor does it represent that it has made any independent effort to identify any such rights. Information on the procedures with respect to rights in RFC documents can be found in BCP 78 and BCP 79.¶
Copies of IPR disclosures made to the IETF Secretariat and any assurances of licenses to be made available, or the result of an attempt made to obtain a general license or permission for the use of such proprietary rights by implementers or users of this specification can be obtained from the IETF on-line IPR repository at http://www.ietf.org/ipr.¶
The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary rights that may cover technology that may be required to implement this standard. Please address the information to the IETF at firstname.lastname@example.com.¶


text:
We regularly invite leading entrepreneurs and investors to host Q&A sessions with the Stripe Atlas community. Tom Blomfield, CEO of Monzo, recently answered questions from Stripe Atlas founders.
Building and scaling Monzo
How did you decide that your MVP was good enough to share with the outside world?
We launched very, very, very early. Like, scary early. And so I'm not sure there's any sort of objective measure to know you're ready to launch beyond the Reed Hastings dictum: "If you're not embarrassed, you've launched too late."
Monzo is now a bank, but we started out as a prepaid card based on another bank's license and card processor. I don't think we even had cards at first—we just had an API where you could move money around. I think we gave out 15 demo cards at a hackathon. We invited people from our waiting list to come by and see what cool apps they could build atop our API.
And we gave out probably 50 cards the week later. And maybe 50% of the core account functionality worked, but at least 50% was still missing. So I absolutely do not regret launching that early.
It's like a superpower. When you have no real reputation, you can just put it all on the line and build a lot of customer love by launching early.
What were your early growing pains as the company started to get traction?
There are some really funny ones.
Everything breaks multiple times as you grow, and there are a few that spring to mind. For example, we initially mailed out all of our plastic prepaid cards from our office. So somebody would sit and stuff them into envelopes before the 5 p.m. deadline. And way more often than we'd like, it was 4 p.m. on a Friday and we'd be like: "Crap, we need to send out 3,000 cards in one hour." And so we'd have the whole team stuffing envelopes. And I mean everyone—me, the CFO, everyone. It was kind of stupid but we had to do it.
We had the same sort of thing for customer service as well. When we had big surges in customer reach outs, we'd have literally the whole company—the CEO, the CFO, everyone—on customer service, on Twitter, answering calls.
Can you talk about your early fundraising days? What worked and what didn't?
So the first thing to say is that, depending on how you count them, this is my third company, which is kind of cheating. The way to fundraise really well for your company is to do it for two other companies first. 😂
And then it becomes somewhat easier—though again, only in relative terms, because it's still excruciatingly painful. So, the fact that I'd done a couple of companies previously, and they'd both gotten into Y Combinator, that helped a lot.
So for our seed round, we went to a firm in London that I've known for 8 or 10 years, and just said: "Hey, we're starting a bank and need a couple million pounds." And relatively speaking, it was pretty quick to wrap up.
The subsequent rounds have been much harder. None of them have been super, super easy.
You know, as a founder, you read about these super, super hot rounds where Kleiner Perkins is bidding against Sequoia who is bidding against Andreessen and it ends in these massive valuations. And you have to remember that these are a tiny, tiny, tiny minority of rounds.
If you can get a single investor to give you a single term sheet, you are already far ahead of most people. Most people never get their first term sheet and just die a very silent death.
So comparing yourself against the mega round that some other company just raised—that's just kind of dumb.
You're always going to feel bad if you do that.
Yeah! There's only maybe one or two or three of those rounds per year, and it's not worth chasing. So the lesson I always come back to is: "Build something people want." Launch a product that gets traction and people are happy to pay for it and it grows organically. That's the easiest and the hardest thing to do.
How did you decide that now is the time to get your banking license?
So, we started on day one. We started the company with the intention of getting a banking license. And it was a convergence of a few things.
For one, there was a change in the banking regulations in 2013 that lowered capital requirements. And there was this document that explained how to start a bank, which made things easier.
The government was also talking about launching new banks, and the regulators were changing the capital requirements. I personally had built this company called GoCardless, which is a direct debit processor. So I knew how payments moved around the system.
I also had just gotten sacked from my last job at a dating startup. 😂
And so it was the convergence of those things that all came together that led to Monzo and starting a bank.
But how did you develop the connections needed to build a bank?
One thing that our regulators do very well is they're very approachable. They publish a guide to starting a bank. It's literally on their website!
So you don't have to be super well connected, politically, to start a bank. It's still very, very hard, but you just have to be very determined and follow the process.
I wouldn't say we're super well connected. We just went in the front door and followed all the rules and kept working at it and didn't try to take any shortcuts.
Banking is an incredibly regulated industry. How did you tackle the partnerships and regulations early on?
We took different approaches for those two things.
For partnerships, we tried not to partner too much; we tried not to outsource too much. Every time we outsourced something to a partner, it tended to go wrong. It didn't work very well. Legacy banking technology is expensive and slow and doesn't really do what you want. So we had a lot of success bringing it in-house.
And by the way, when I say outsourcer, I mean a partner that doesn't work very well. So there were a few notable exceptions. Stripe was a partner that worked really well. It doesn't feel like an outsourcer. It just feels like how card acquiring is supposed to work. It goes on in the background and it never fails, and that's super cool.
So, Stripe is a genuine partner, and we haven't thought about replacing it because it just works so well. On the other hand, we replaced our processor on the issuing side, because they were an outsourcer in the old-school sense of the word. And so we brought more and more of that in-house, and it worked much, much better.
On the regulatory side—oh gosh, it's funny. Investors sometimes say: "It's so easy to get a banking license in the UK." And that is not true!
It used to be impossible to get a banking license in the UK, and so relatively speaking, yes, it is easier now, but it's still excruciatingly difficult to get a banking license. So it took us two and a half years and probably 10,000 pages of documents by the end of it. And when I think about it, we had a few principles that helped us get through it.
One of them is that we went in really, really early, and we engaged with the regulators up front. We tried to understand what their process was and just do it. Rather than expecting them to change in any way, we told them: "We will just do whatever you want; just tell us what to do and we'll do it."
We also tried to describe what we were doing in terms that were familiar to them. We didn't go in and say: "We're going to change the world!" Instead we went in and said: "We're like every other bank you've ever seen, just with no branches." And that made it much more palatable.
At the end of the day, regulators have more tolerance for delays than you do. In three years, the regulator can still be going about their job. But as the entrepreneur, if you haven't solved the problem in three years, your company is dead. So there's a lot more incentive for you as the entrepreneur to change to meet their requirements than the other way around.
Advice and reflections
What challenges have you personally faced as CEO as you scaled Monzo?
I've found it challenging to deal with personal stress and anxiety and staying on top of my mental health. It's a combination of factors: I'm super, super busy at work, so I stop exercising; I have a bunch of investor dinners, so maybe I'm out every evening drinking too many glasses of wine; and then I feel worse the next day, and it gets worse and worse and worse and worse. And I spiral down into a physically and mentally bad place, where I have to rely on a cofounder to drag me out of it. It's great to have people you can rely on, but dealing with that kind of pressure and not letting it break you down is super hard.
People are talking about this a bit more now. It's like, there's this image of the superstar founder who's doing a million things—getting up at 5 a.m., going jogging in a redwood forest, and then getting to the office and crushing it. But that image is super unhelpful and makes things quite hard.
The second thing is that what makes you really successful as the founder of a 5- or 10-person startup is very different from when you're at 350 people. The skills are super, super different. Even managing people who want to join a 10-person startup versus who want to join at a senior leadership level at 350 people is very different.
You get different personalities coming in. They index much more toward being super agreeable and consensus building as you get much larger, and so retaining the right sense of urgency and bias to action while not being a total asshole is quite important.
And again, that's much easier when you're on your mental A game and everything is going well and investors think you're awesome and your metrics are looking good and the press thinks you're great… but as soon as those things start to go down, you can revert back to just being an asshole sometimes if you're not careful.
How important is domain expertise?
Domain expertise is like 10 percent of the input. And typically, domain experts just teach you about the screwups they made to help you not repeat them. But most genuinely impactful companies start from scratch and figure it out.
I'd say, out of the 350 people at Monzo, probably only 10 or 20 have ever worked in a bank before. It's good to have these people around, maybe even as consultants.
What we typically found in the early days is that you get some industry expert in for two days, and you suck all the information out of their brain, and then they're like a shriveled-up grape and they're not that useful anymore.
Rather than search for domain experts, we try to find people who are incredibly thoughtful and smart and self-directed. People who can keep working on a problem until it no longer exists. And domain expertise is a good input for those people to have, but it's not necessary by any stretch.
I'd prefer to have a bunch of really smart and driven people than a bunch of domain experts who are low energy.
How can a company know that it's making the right decisions?
You know, I think we're pretty good at making reversible decisions quite quickly. And in general, decisions should be made really, really fast. If you're not sure about something, just launch an experiment quickly and let the data tell you.
The best companies don't magically have the best intuition; they're the best at figuring it out from data. They are the most rapid experimenters.
How should a small startup think about partnerships and PR?
As a small company, talking to big companies about partnerships is generally a waste of time. You can literally waste years on it.
Landing big press stories is similar. You can hunt for months to get a journalist to write a story, but we hardly even see a dent in our numbers. We could appear on BBC Television or in The Guardian and it doesn't even show as a blip in our signups. It's just not impactful.
Launch early, build something people really, really love, and iterate quickly. Don't rely too much on PR or partnerships.
Besides MRR and ARR, what key metrics would you encourage a young startup to keep an eye on?
Retention is my favorite one. I think it's too easy to focus on new user acquisition and then ignore retention.
It's important to look at retention on a cohort basis. If I sign up 100 users in January, how many of those 100 users are still using it in March, April, or May?
And then for each subsequent month, you can draw these cohort graphs that are super, super useful to tell you if you have something sustainable or not. Do these cohorts plateau at some point? That's your core of long-term retained users. Or does each cohort just plunge to zero after a month or two? Then you've got a problem.
You can have the fastest-growing business in the world, but if you retain zero of them you're eventually going to die.
Do you consider it important to invest in technical infrastructure like servers and security in the early days of a company?
I think in many cases you can probably rely on partners to do much of that. Heroku, AWS. It's probably not your biggest problem.
Now, we're running a bank, and it's really important that we don't get hacked and we don't lose people's money. It's really, really important that that doesn't happen. Most companies aren't banks, though, and their biggest problem isn't the possibility of getting hacked—it's about, can you build something that people actually want?
So, using a platform like Stripe, for example, to take care of your payments so you don't have to worry about PCI compliance is a great thing. Or Heroku or Amazon—generally speaking you've got default options that are pretty good now. Don't try to do it all yourself.
Revolut seems to be going for as many countries as possible with their current offering, but it seems like Monzo is trying to build more and more value for its current market before expanding. What's the strategy there?
I think Revolut is doing a really good job with their approach. I think the difference in strategy really speaks to the difference in our products.
Monzo is about day-to-day, week-to-week, month-to-month visibility and control of your core finances. Our average customer is someone who works hard, is paid a decent salary—not a crazy salary but a good salary—but who worries about meeting their rent at the end of the month. And so they want to really keep track and know where everything is and get peace of mind that everything just sort of works.
We're trying to replace the core checking account experience for them. They probably have a bank already, and we're trying to replace that. So the bar of the service that we need to provide for them is super high. So we really need to have a product and customer service experience that is very on point. And our brand and focus and incentives need to really be aligned with our users in order to make them switch away from their existing current account.
Revolut is different. Because they're going for dramatically underserved niches, their prospective customers often don't really have many other options. And so they don't need to invest as much in market X before expanding to market Y. And so you can just enter a country like Poland, and for mainstream customers, Revolut is now the easiest way, by far, to trade cryptocurrencies.
So since there's not a lot of existing competition, they can just go fill all of these product niches and get great adoption. But it's quite a different experience than Monzo, where we're really trying to be at the core of a customer's finances, whereas for Revolut I think it's more trading crypto, trading FX, and less focus on the salary, rent, and bill pay kind of use cases.
How do you convince skeptics to jump over that hurdle and trust this thing called Monzo?
We don't say: "Switch your salary and your entire life savings over on day one." We just say: "Put 50 bucks in and try it out." And the next time you're out at dinner with friends, you can pay with Monzo and you can see how splitting the bill works.
It's like stepping-stones. After 50 bucks, the next month try putting in just your disposable income. Not your rent and your bill payment, just the 400 or 500 bucks you're going to use to live your life this month. Just put that in and then use our budgeting tool to see how easy it is to stay on track.
So it's a gradual upgrade process where the goal is clearly getting the salary. It's like getting married. You don't propose on the first date. You just say: "Hey, let's go for a drink." But eventually you reel them in!

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Doctors, surgery, hospitals, operations...
Wish a day full of smiles and laughter.
A romantic card for the 'doctor' in your life.
A Doctor's Day message to make a doctor smile.
Send this warm thank you greeting to your doctor on Doctor's Day.
A happy e-note for your dear doc.
Compliment and appreciate someone on Doctor's Day.
Make your doctor smile with this card on Doctor's Day.
Send compliments to your doctor on Doctor's Day.
Make someone feel good on Doctor's Day.
Compliment with flowers to your doctor on Doctor's Day with this ecard.
Bring a smile on your doctor's face with this complimenting ecard.
A beautiful e-wish for a great doctor you know.
A romantic way to wish your sweetheart on Doctor's Day.
Send this warm wish on Doctor's Day to the one whose smile drives your worries away.
Please wait...
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text:
The primary use of this server was intended to be server testing. The mfb or cfb code for any depth can be exercised with this server without the need for real hardware that supports the desired depths. The X community has found many other novel uses for Xvfb, including testing clients against unusual depths and screen configurations, doing batch processing with Xvfb as a background rendering engine, load testing, as an aid to porting the X server to a new platform, and providing an unobtrusive way to run applications that don't really need an X server but insist on having one anyway.
#define BuildServer YES /* if
you aren't already building other servers */
#define XVirtualFramebufferServer YES
In addition to the normal server options described in the Xserver(1) manual page, Xvfb accepts the following command line switches:
If neither -shmem nor -fbdir is specified, the framebuffer memory will be allocated with malloc().
X(7) , Xserver(1) , xwd(1) , xwud(1) , XWDFile.h


text:
The Experience
It only four pages long, but the U.S. Constitution is among the most influential and important documents in the history of the world.
The 160,000-square-foot National Constitution Center explores and explains this amazing document through high-tech exhibits, artifacts, and interactive displays. The Kimmel Theater, a 350-seat star-shaped theater, features Freedom Rising, a multimedia production combining film, a live actor and video projection on a 360° screen to tell the stirring story of We the people.
Then experience it yourself: don judicial robes to render your opinion on key Supreme Court cases, then take the Presidential oath of the office.
In Signers Hall, where life-size bronze figures of the Constitution´s signers and dissenters are displayed, visitors can choose to sign or dissent.
One of the rare original public copies of the Constitution is on display.
Freedom of speech, protection from unlawful search and seizure, and other individual rights were not part of the original Constitution. Recognizing its imperfections, the authors built in a mechanism to amend the Constitution, making it adaptable for unknown eventualities.
The first ten amendments guaranteeing numerous personal freedoms – The Bill of Rights – were not ratified until 1791.
Insider Tip
While the Center hosts amazing evergreen presentations, take a look at the Events Calendar for the latest premiere or traveling exhibit.
Kids Stuff
The Center frequently hosts special events with a focus on children that include informative and engaging hands-on activities. For specific information, check out the Center website.
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If you're moving from a large home into a smaller house or condo, you're probably looking forward to enjoying a lower utility bill and not having to do as much cleaning. But before you move, you'll want to take certain precautions to ensure that you're not overwhelmed.
A smaller home won't have as much room for your belongings, which means you may need to get creative. Here's how you can downsize without losing your mind.
Decide What You're Going To Keep
Before you do anything else, choose which of your belongings are coming with you. Unless you've habitually been getting rid of things you no longer need over the years, chances are you have a large stash of things you'll never use again. That's the kind of clutter you'll need to eliminate before moving into a smaller home.
The obvious exceptions would be anything of significant sentimental or monetary value, but you'll want to get rid of lots of your everyday objects – for instance, there's no reason why you need three soup ladles. Having trouble deciding what to throw out? Here's a simple rule of thumb: If you can't remember the last time you used it, you probably don't need it.
Have Anything In Storage? Find A Storage Solution Now
Most homeowners nowadays have the luxury of large storage spaces like basements or attics – but if you're moving into a condo or a small starter home, storage will be at a premium. And that means anything stored in your basement, garage, or attic will probably need to find a new home. You'll want to look for a storage solution earlier rather than later.
Perhaps you could rent a storage locker in your neighborhood, or let children or relatives hold onto your belongings until you decide what to do with them.
On Your Moving Day: Move Large Items First, And Put Away Stored Items Before Anything Else
When the day comes for you to move into your new home, you'll want to try to find the best configuration for the space right away – before your new home is filled with boxes stacked six feet high. Before you do anything else, move your furniture and other large items into the space first, and get them set up so they're out of the way.
Once all of your boxes are in your new home, put storage items away before anything else – it'll help you avoid unnecessary stress and sorting later.
Downsizing can be stressful, but with a solid plan and a great real estate agent, you can find a smaller home and move in without issues.


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New Orleans is known for being different. The trial of the man accused in the 2010 murder of "social-media celebrity Anthony Barre, better known as Messy Mya," is adding to the city's reputation.
As The Times-Picayune reports, the trial was halted Monday after the district attorney's office "got wind of a YouTube video of the 7th Ward slaying and dropped the murder charge against Jason Baptiste Hamilton in an attempt to track down the footage."
Officials then "quickly filed a new charge of manslaughter — a way to keep Hamilton in custody pending a new murder indictment in the case."
How they learned of the video is odd, to say the least. According to the Times-Picayune, "word of the alleged YouTube video came out on Friday after Hamilton's defense attorney, Martin Regan, declared that he would present an alibi defense. A courtroom worker then spoke up, saying she had seen a video of Barre's murder."
What prosecutors don't have, though, is the video itself. It's apparently been pulled off YouTube.
As for the victim, a "rapper and comedian" as well as a local social-media celebrity who was known for his "fluorescent hair shades and caustic barbs," the newspaper has an extensive archive of stories about him and his death. Check out how word broke of his murder:
"Moments after gunshots roared through the 7th Ward on Sunday night, a lone snapshot appeared on the Internet.
"In it, a 22-year-old man is lying cheek to the ground, crimson pooling around his neck. His eyes are closed, his torso curled.
"Chaos explodes around him, with the arms of others pressed to the back of his head. And someone is holding a cell phone just inches from his face.
"This is how the world learned of Messy Mya's death."
(H/T to NPR.org's Wright Bryan.)
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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From the kitchen of One Perfect Bite...Today the thermostat soared into territory so rarefied that a local weatherman tried to fry an egg on the pavement at the county fairgrounds. While the egg didn't cook, it coagulated, as did most of the fairgoers who dared to brave the heat. The climate here is temperate and summer is marked by days that are comfortably warm and evenings that are cool. We have heat spells, to be sure, but Oregonians don't respond well to temperatures that flirt with the 100 degree mark. Sensible Oregonians seek air conditioned comfort or the cool natural breezes of the coast or mountains. Sensible Oregonians. The Silver Fox and I were at the fair. I knew the day was going to be long and difficult, so I wanted to offset it with a light, cool meal that would be table ready when we finally got home. I've been experimenting with salads lately and I like this one well enough to make again and share with you. While the dish is put together in two stages, both are simple and I think you'll find this very easy to make. The first stage, which involves making shrimp in escabeche, should be completed the day before you plan to serve the salad. To accomplish this, shrimp are poached or steamed and then placed, while still warm, in a light brine to marinate for a day or so. The following day they are tossed with cucumbers, honeydew melon and pineapple and allowed to sit just until the flavors meld. I love the crispness of the shrimp and cucumbers and the way the sweet melon and pineapple play against the pickle of the briny shrimp. This is a perfect dish for warm summer nights when appetites are lagging. It is light and delicious and I really think you'll enjoy it. Here's how the salad is made.
1 small red onion chopped
1/4 cup white vinegar
1/4 teaspoon dried oregano
1 teaspoon salt
1/3 cup extra-virgin olive oil
1 bay leaf
1 clove garlic, smashed
1 teaspoon black peppercorns
2 cups honeydew melon, cut in 1-inch cubes
2 cups seedless cucumber, cut in 1-inch cubes
1 cup fresh or canned pineapple chunks
1 tablespoon finely chopped jalapeno pepper
1/4 cup chopped red onion
1/4 cup chopped cilantro + cilantro for garnish
1 tablespoon minced fresh ginger
2 to 3 teaspoons teaspoons honey
Salt to taste
Lime wedges for garnish
1) To prepare shrimp: Combine onion, vinegar, oregano and salt in a shallow glass dish. Set aside. Simmer oil, bay leaf, garlic and peppercorns in a small saucepan for 10 minutes. Set aside. Bring 4 quarts of water to a boil in pot. Add 2 tablespoons salt and bring to a boil again. Add shrimp, then remove from heat and let stand uncovered for 5 minutes. Drain well, then add shrimp and oil mixture to onion mixture in glass dish. Allow shrimp to cool to room temperature, then chill, covered, turning occasionally, for at least 12 hours. When ready to proceed, remove shrimp from marinade. Place in a large bowl. Strain and reserve marinade in a large bowl.
2) To prepare salad: Add ginger and honey to reserved marinade. Add salt as required to taste. Add melon, cucumber, pineapple, red onion, cilantro and jalapeno pepper, tossing to coat ingredients with marinade. Fold in shrimp. Cover and chill for 1 hour. Transfer to a serving platter or to individual plates. Garnish with lime wedges. Yield: 4 servings.
One Year Ago Today: Crispy Butter Pecan Ice Cream Cake
Two Years Ago Today: Pumpkin Apple Bread
Three Years Ago Today: Twice-Baked Blue Cheese Potatoes


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18K YWG Round Brilliant Solitaire Diamond Ring
Crafted in 18k yellow gold with 18k white gold settings, this solitaire style ring champions a 0.50ct round brilliant cut diamond at its centre.
Finger Size
18K YWG Round Brilliant Solitaire Diamond Ring
Hogans Family Jewellers
241 Margaret Street
Toowoomba QLD 4350
This piece has already been crafted and is ready to ship. Please allow up to 48 hours for your piece to be packaged by one of our team members and lodged with Australia Post's express postal service. Delivery timeframes are dependent on Australia Post.
Please visit our shipping policy page for more information.
At Hogans we offer a lifetime of complimentary cleaning at our workshop located at 241 Margaret Street, Toowoomba. Simply visit our showroom where our jewellers will inspect the piece before it is cleaned.
For more information, read our full jewellery care guide or contact our team on (07) 4632 2361.
If you like this piece, but have a customisation request please contact our team to discuss booking an obligation free design consultation.
All of our pieces are packaged in our signature gift wrapping which includes a suede jewellery box, branded tissue paper, and mail box. Corresponding documentation will also be included if your piece incorporates certified gemstones.
At Hogans, we offer complimentary shipping across Australia and New Zealand, paid shipping to select regions around the World, and a click & collect service from our showroom. All of our orders are either dispatched or made available for collection from our showroom and workshop located at 241 Margaret Street, Toowoomba. Read our full shipping policy and refund policy.
Perfect Fit
Because we want your piece to fit perfectly when it arrives, we offer complimentary ring resizing within two sizes (+/-)
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Lifetime Complimentary Cleaning
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