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text:
by Massimo Pigliucci
About Rationally Speaking
Rationally Speaking is a blog maintained by Prof. Massimo Pigliucci, a philosopher at the City University of New York. The blog reflects the Enlightenment figure Marquis de Condorcet's idea of what a public intellectual (yes, we know, that's such a bad word) ought to be: someone who devotes himself to "the tracking down of prejudices in the hiding places where priests, the schools, the government, and all long-established institutions had gathered and protected them." You're welcome. Please notice that the contents of this blog can be reprinted under the standard Creative Commons license.
Saturday, October 27, 2012
From the naturalism workshop, part II
by Massimo Pigliucci
41 comments:
As to "free will" I think a Dennett-style reconciliation with physical determinism can be reached if we treat it as a legal or moral concept: somebody is free if they aren't inappropriately (normatively speaking) coerced or constrained by others. Says nothing about whether voluntary action is determined by physical/biological natures.
ReplyDeleteRepliesI have long said something vaguely similar to Dennett in some ways, but definitely different in others. I agree with the degrees of "free will" idea, but think that, because of that, we need to go beyond the idea of "free will vs. determinism." Related to that, and this post of Massimo's, I also mention that we need to do more with the idea of free will as an emergent property; this idea of degrees ties in with that, too. And, I hint that (per Kaufmann) we maybe need to move beyond being locked into the idea of "responsibility," too: http://socraticgadfly.blogspot.com/2012/01/mu-to-free-will.html
Very interesting. I have read some popular-press books that address some of these issues, (discredited for other reasons) Jonathan Lehrer's How We Decide and Dan Ariely's The Honest Truth about Dishonesty. Michael Shermer has digested some of this for the unwashed as well.
Ariely's Predictably Irrational is my current read, and I think some of his research may be of interst to the panel. We like to assume we "think" rationally because the purpose of thought is to reason, but he has found otherwise in his studies.- AnonymousOctober 28, 2012 12:04 AM
That human decision making is predominantly unconscious is well aligned with findings from computer science, which suggests computers can be made arbitrarily competent in a domain without benefit of consciousness. So why would consciousness (and not just "awareness") evolve? Seemingly primarily, and perhaps solely, for the purposes of communication. It was advantageous to have a compressed, "good enough" way to communicate to others over a relatively low bandwidth medium (acoustics). So a language-based "explanation engine" evolved that is grafted onto our unconscious substrate (similar to what we have to do for our computer systems when we endeavor to have them succinctly communicate to humans reasons for what are in actuality a mass of inscrutable "big data"-based calculations).
Then what's interesting is that the explanation engine can also communicate back to "us." So it seems it can indeed alter the operations of the unconscious to some degree ("self-inception") as hinted at by some of the workshop attendees. And because we take ourselves to be our explanation engines, my guess is that this complex recursion between our self (explanation engine) and our subconscious is what reinforces our sense of free will.
http://learninglayer.wordpress.com/2011/01/02/the-explanation-engine/ Great summary. My interest in naturalism lies in its implications for social policy, specifically inequality and fairness. It seems to me the basic political divide in America is between those who feel people generally deserve their lot in life (whether wealth or poverty) because they have chosen it as free agents, and those who feel people may have chosen it to some degree, but are ultimately products of genes and environment, and thus not *really* deserving of wealth or poverty.
My own view is that the latter is true, but utility requires a degree of deterrence and reward, both to promote desired behavior, as well as to acknowledge practical limits in social management. However, in setting policy, such as redistributive benefits, progressive taxation, or criminal justice, the degree of human agency one imagines to exist, and - more importantly - where they got that agency, seems highly important.
It seems to me that the concept of "privilege" with regards to class, manifesting itself not only in property wealth, but in all manner of learned human development - cognition, self-control, vocabulary, etc. - is highly determinative of social equity. For me, naturalism points us to a view of human nature in which we, as highly developmentally determined conscious agents, are morally responsible not only for our own actions, but just as much for those of our fellow man, benefiting as we have by mere circumstance within not only a shared system of governance, but human evolution as a whole.
The difficulty comes in designing optimal policy for all of this. But the issue of fairness is at the core an issue of how we view human development and agency. My interest in naturalism is in the degree to which it informs this central issue, and how to better clarify it.[from Matthias, posted on his behalf]
I was very curious about the results of the free will discussion at the workshop. The material you present in the lines above evoked some thoughts I´d like to present here.
You´ve written that some views of free will are downright incoherent. Was there a consensus at the workshop which are these incoherent views?
I would agree with Coyne that there are people who think that free will is the idea that you are able to make decisions independently of your genes, your environments and their interactions.
I agree with Weinberg and Dennett that I may never arrive — given the same circumstances — to a different decision, but it is still my decision. My decisions are my own despite being the result of the lifelong gene-environment interactions.
The connection from emergent properties to free will was the thing I was the most curious about. You´ve written the following: Free will is an emergent property of the brain in a similar sense to which the second law is an emergent property of statistical mechanics. If it is an emergent property in the strong sense, it would follow laws respectively regularities that are independent from the laws on the lower level. So our decisions wouldn´t be dependent on the motions of the matter in our brain. The emergent property would come to life because of that matter, but after its birth, it has a life of its own. And here´s my main point: The only way to make decisions intelligible is to connect them to certain regularities, regardless of whether these regularities are on the lower level or on an emergent level. If there were no regularities, decisions would be arbitrary. What would be your vision if some day we will discover that free will really is an emergent property of the brain?
What laws / regularities would you expect? Was there the talk of emergent properties in connection to free will at the workshop? If yes, what were the positions?
Questions summary:
- Was there a consensus at the workshop which are these incoherent views?
- What would be your vision if some day we will discover that free will really is an emergent property of the brain?
- What laws / regularities would you expect?
- Was there the talk of emergent properties in connection to free will at the workshop? If yes, w3hat were the positions?Libet showed readiness in cortical activity before awareness of a decision to act, and more of it before the action itself. The subtle builds to become obvious, and can in any event be diverted in that build up by a simple change of mind,
particularly if the subject is shown the scan building
and freely decides otherwise. There is merely an ongoing
cycle of neurons representing functions, with inevitable
delays and transitions. Things don't happen immediately and totally attentively, they build.Richard,
> The behaviour of a system at a lower level entails a higher level phenomenon if the higher level phenomenon could in principle be seen in a simulation of the lower level entities. <
That's not what Weinberg and the others meant by entailment. They meant logical entailment, which means that if X is sufficient for Y to occur, then Y will occur any time there is X.
> would you call these cases of emergence? <
Yes, the bird example is a case of weak emergence, because we have a straightforward way to go from the lower to the higher level. Phase transitions are not like that, as explained in my recent posts, so they are candidates for strong emergence.
> Letting philosophy frame the discussion is as false as letting any other magical thinking and ideology. Ultimately, philosophy is just magical thinking:"words matter" - they don't. <
I'm getting tired of this sort of anti-intellectualism, so I'll call it for what it is: bullshit.
> You´ve written that some views of free will are downright incoherent. Was there a consensus at the workshop which are these incoherent views? <
Yes, anything that invokes contra-causality: if free will is supposed to float free of any causal interaction than the idea is incoherent, at least in light of naturalism.
> If it is an emergent property in the strong sense, it would follow laws respectively regularities that are independent from the laws on the lower level. So our decisions wouldn´t be dependent on the motions of the matter in our brain. <
No, that doesn't follow. New properties come into existence in complex systems, but they still come into existence because of the lower level properties of individual components of the system. Think of "temperature": it requires a large number of particles, as single particles don't have temperature, just kinetic energy.
For your other questions you might have to wait until the video comes out...RepliesAs far as humans having consciousness, I think it is an illusion, an illusion due to human hyperactive agency detection that experiences a false-positive agency detection of itself as an agent.
This provides an explanation for the perceived continuity of self over a lifetime, the self-agency pattern recognition doesn't have the resolution to perceive changes. This is probably because the agency-pattern recognition neuroanatomy uses itself as the pattern to compare to. The self will always map onto the self with perfect fidelity (unless the specific neuroanatomy that detects that one-to-one mapping is damaged (perhaps the cause of impostor syndrome or the Cotard delusion).
I think there is a misunderstanding of what "emergent phenomena" means. A book is a collections of atoms of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. The ideas that are instantiated by the printing in a book are dependent on the exact patterns of how hydrogen, carbon and oxygen are arranged, but the ideas in a book are not derivable from the properties of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. There are a very great number of possible books that are derivable from the properties of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Only a very tiny few will instantiate intelligible ideas.
Similarly, the human brain that develops from a lifetime of neurodevelopment exhibits only a tiny subset of the possible emergent properties that another collection of cells from a different lifetime of neurodevelopment could instantiate.
The number of possible emergent phenomena for something as large as a human brain is gigantic, on the order of n! (n factorial) where n is the number of atoms of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen (something like 10^26 factorial). The symmetry breaking that occurs to generate a single emergent human brain out of all those possibilities is enormous.
Still the emergence red herring. Just aggregate from hydrogen & helium (or their constituents) after the Big bang all the way to humans, to understand how things become complicated from basics. Emergence is a total myth, just track history to understand the potential of the constiuents to aggregate. Amazing such company can't see through that.
I may or may not be sharing the view of emergence of the host of this blog of certain people at that meeting - have not read enough of the previous posts to be sure - but it is fairly clear that emergence is not a myth. At worst it is a useful concept.
Our mind is an emergent property of a bunch of molecules and electric charges, and Mona Lisa's smile is an emergent property of a bunch of colour particles. Of course there is nothing magical between the molecules and these large-scale phenomena, but nobody can seriously say that phenomena like obsessive-compulsive disorder or confirmation bias are "only" molecules and are best understood by looking at molecule interaction, or that history of art should proceed primarily by counting specks of pigment. I am surprised that one can read the above blog post and make some of the comments that I see here.RepliesThey are very complicated arrangements of constituents of molecules. You are over simplifying those 'phenomena' as nothing more than constituents. In fact, any attempt to track their history in making a person from the big bang is going to be extremely complicated, and so people are clearly not merely molecules (or constituents).
> Emergence is a total myth, just track history to understand the potential of the constiuents to aggregate. Amazing such company can't see through that. <
Amazing you can't seem to get out of your mental block. The very fact that "such company" takes the concept seriously enough - including a Nobel in physics - is not enough to even consider the idea? Wow.
> As far as humans having consciousness, I think it is an illusion, an illusion due to human hyperactive agency detection <
You realize that what you just wrote borders into incoherence? We are fooled by us into thinking that we are agents? Hmm...
> This provides an explanation for the perceived continuity of self over a lifetime <
Yes. A simpler explanation is that the self does indeed continue over a lifetime.Repliesthat's not an answer any more than emergence is anything more than aggregation of constituents.
DeleteExcept we know that the "self" of today is not self-identical to the "self" of yesterday. We know that many brain cells have died, been replaced (or not), new connections made, old connections lost. We know that there has been change, even if we can't perceive it. Other people can perceive changes in us, even if we can't.
If we know there has been change, but we are unable to perceive that change, the problem must be with our perception. We know that there are optical illusions; artifacts of our evolved visual pattern recognition systems. Why would there not be cognitive illusions or agency perception illusions; artifacts of our evolved agency recognition systems which evolved to be biased because false negative detection of predators is much more costly than false positives. Hyperactive agency detection is the basis for the perception of supernatural agents causing weather, crop growth, earth quakes and the demons many perceive to haunt the world. Why would our self-perception be immune to hyperactive agency detection?
The usual way to perceive something is to use pattern recognition and compare the thing to be perceived to a template. That is how visual perception works, the "templates" are generated implicitly by neuronal remodeling of the connections between light detecting cells and signal processing in the visual cortex. When the visual pattern recognition system perceives an impossible object, we call it an optical illusion. Many sensory systems use a template-pattern recognition system. Is there an alternative for agency detection? That evolved from earlier template-pattern recognition systems?
I appreciate that thinking about certain ideas is difficult (or even impossible) at first. We need to have neuroanatomy that can instantiate those thoughts, and that neuroanatomy only develops via neuronal plasticity and remodeling of already existing neuroanatomy. I think this is why learning requires a path, whereby the "idea templates" and "idea pattern recognition" are modified (or generated de novo) until they match the ideas that are trying to be thought about. Only when the neuroanatomy that can instantiate the ideas exists can the ideas be thought about.Amazing you can't reply at all to what I write, except to play up with rhetoric and abuse.
- AnonymousOctober 29, 2012 1:02 PM
Boy, the philosophers-ideologues-theologians are sure hung up on "morality." Why not study just study social behavior and reciprocity -- which seems to be what everyone is so hung up on, i.e., I want to make sure I get stuff when I do stuff. It's a silly topic.
Here is a single fact we all need to organize around - behavior appears to be triggered in 150 milliseconds (references available). Any talk about morality/reciprocal behavior/punishment has to do so in the context of this fact -- and many others. - AnonymousOctober 29, 2012 2:24 PM
Here is the central challenge to anyone who cares to engage, rather than run away from, the best brain science: behavior appears to be driven in 150 milliseconds completely reactively and unconsciously - by what is called "survival circuits."
This is a "beautiful" and "elegant" set of results and theories in the same sense of physics since it leads to natural continuities with other species and biology > organic chemistry > chemistry > laws of thermodynamics > physics.
The lack of any brain science in this session is conspicuous by it's absence and suggest the philosopher ideologues conspired to deny the facts. It is embarrassing that the physicists would ever dare to speak on matters best left to neuroscientists. Why so silly?
You would think Dawkins, at least, would have raised his hand early and demanded some brain research data. duh - AnonymousOctober 29, 2012 2:33 PM
Very odd. Our comments have been blocked by Jerry Coyne from his blog. Fair enough, free thinkers are not immune to defensive fears.
However, on his blog post on this conference he talks about looking forward to learning more about physics from one of the attendees. Well, OK but the "answers" to behavior, "morality" free will, etc lie not in physics but brain research, yet free thinkers pile on each other to learn about astronomy and advanced physic while running away from the best brain research.
Even the citing of Libet is really way behind the curve, there is so much new research speaking to all the issues but the "best and the brightest" want to sit around and parse philosophical ideas, talk about advanced physics and morality!?
It is a good example of how powerful socially confined ideas and discourse can be. Forget quantum theory -- learn about vision research! brain4biz,
> the philosophers-ideologues-theologians are sure hung up on "morality." <
There wasn't a single theologian, and quite a number of scientists, at the workshop (including neuroscientists, btw). What the hell are you talking about?
> Here is a single fact we all need to organize around - behavior appears to be triggered in 150 milliseconds <
If you are referring to the Libet experiments, they have demonstrably nothing to do with the sort of deliberate thinking we are talking about.
> the best brain science: behavior appears to be driven in 150 milliseconds completely reactively and unconsciously - by what is called "survival circuits." <
That is not at all what "the best brain science" says. That figure is limited to specific types of non-conscious, reactive, behaviors. Human beings are more complicated than that.
> The lack of any brain science in this session is conspicuous <
Except that there was no such lack. David Poeppel, for one, is a neuroscientist, and that's also Simon DeDeo's area.
> You would think Dawkins, at least, would have raised his hand early and demanded some brain research data. duh <
Yes, just like I would have thought you read the report before commenting. Duh.
> Except we know that the "self" of today is not self-identical to the "self" of yesterday. <
Of course, but that's no counter-argument. Just because something changes over time it doesn't mean that something doesn't exist.
> Why would there not be cognitive illusions or agency perception illusions <
There are, they are just not as universal as you seem to think.
> Is there an alternative for agency detection? <
Of course there is, plenty of animals do without it.- AnonymousOctober 29, 2012 3:58 PM
Human exceptionalism is an ideological sales scam. The brain did not invent a separate set of processes for different kinds of behavior and for a different species.
Why is there no report of the brain researchers participating or any brain research being cited?
Higher order concepts and natural language are being abandoned by brain research. The HOC include: decision making, emotions, consciousness, choice, personality, etc. But apparently all present would rather speculate about physics than learn some brain physiology.
All matters related to behavior, in humans, by definition are a branch of psychiatry. In other species animal ethology. Physics, philosophy, etc are no more relevant in discussing brain processes than for any other physiological and medically based topic. How much is philosophy and physics relevant to knowledge of other organs of the body? Zero.
The brain is just another organ of the body. duh [from Matthias]
"New properties come into existence in complex systems, but they still come into existence because of the lower level properties of individual components of the system. Think of "temperature": it requires a large number of particles, as single particles don't have temperature, just kinetic energy."
I would agree with you that new properties come into existence because of the lower level properties. But once they emerged, don't the higher level properties follow also new emerged regularities? From that would follow that the higher levels could have for example probabilistic laws while the lower level could have deterministic laws?- AnonymousOctober 29, 2012 5:37 PM
Dear Massimo,
now I am property of google and I´m looking forward for your thoughts on the above. Thank you for posting representatively. Dave,
> There is no definition of emergence. <
It's in this post:
The 6-point definition in the middle.
> Pray tell what are these exceptional human behaviors and where did they originate genetically and ecologically? <
Don't know about the latter, but you are using one such ability: language.
> Ah, so censorship, not because the ideas contradict your beliefs but because of "style." <
Dude, it's my blog, if you don't like the rules, you can go write somewhere else. The internet is vast...- AnonymousOctober 30, 2012 1:53 PM
I would agree with you that new properties come into existence because of the lower level properties. But once they emerged, don't the higher level properties follow also new emerged regularities? Wouldn't follow from this that the higher levels could have for example probabilistic laws while the lower level could have deterministic laws? - AnonymousOctober 30, 2012 7:51 PM
Having read more of the background on the definition of emergence in the earlier posts, it only reinforces for me that the notion of algorithmic complexity has to be at the heart of any rigorous definition of emergence (at least a necessary if not sufficient definitional element).
Singularities are just one clue that we won't find compact (in space and/or time) algorithms that can predict phenomena from constituent parts. Hyper-sensitivity to initial conditions (chaos) and the curse of dimensionality are other drivers. As a practical rule of thumb, whenever someone says we "can in principle" predict collective behaviors but "in practice can't" it just implies that algorithmic complexity is high.
Of course, as others have hinted at in the comments, there is an asymmetry that should be recognized: one may not be able to prove that there does not exist a more compressible algorithm to predict a phenomenon; however, one can definitively prove that it does exist by inventing it.
Algorithmic complexity may not be sufficient, however, for an appealing definition of emergence since simply not being able to predict collective behaviors in a algorithmically compact way from elements would include phenomena that we may not want to categorize as truly emergent (e.g., the N body problem). So this may may be where we also apply the idea of basing emergence on the condition of needing to use very different predictive models with respect to the collective vs.the elements, which is mentioned in the previous posts/comments.
And in both parts of such a compound definition, 1) algorithmic complexity of predicting the behaviors of the whole, and 2) the difference in the types of predictive algorithmic techniques that are applied between the whole and the parts, it is a matter of degree, and in principle could be measured. Such metrics might allow us to actually rank phenomena on an emergence scale rather than forcing us to either place a phenomenon in the emergent category or not.
Your and Dennett's teleological response to the childhood trauma and tumor cases strikes me as strange, because it is not clear to me that bad or harmful influences amount to "more constraints." As determinists, we have to be especially careful about what we mean by one cause being more of a "constraint" than another.
Someone who's suffered trauma or has a tumor might be less predictable than an ordinary human. They might exhibit more varied behavior on average. And they might have, in total, fewer distinct causal influences on their behaviors. Yet you call them "more constrained," presumably on the grounds that they have less desirable or less ordinary constraints than do most people. A visual stimulus and a brain tumor can both determine (given my prior brain state) that my volitional drives will respond in a specific way, but we are more inclined to call the latter a 'constraint,' either because it is less biologically typical or simply because it conflicts with the expected aims of ordinary individuals.
I suspect typicalness is a red herring here. If a random brain tumor caused me to be much more compassionate, we'd intuit that my freedom is diminished. But if I instead put a mechanical implant in my brain to produce the same effect by the same neurological pathways, to improve my moral character, it would be far less clear that my 'free will' ends up hindered, even though implants are far less biologically normal than tumors. The biggest factor causing me to think of the tumor but not the implant as a 'constraint' is that the former is framed as undesirable; but what if medical science advanced to the point that I could use highly targeted radiation to create a benign tumor serving the same function as the implant? The assumption that behavior-modifying tumors constitute 'constraints' might evaporate overnight.
So our liking a determiner seems to play a big role in whether we view it as a 'constraint.' But since our desires and preferences are themselves determined by our brains, and can be altered or manipulated, there seems to be no 'view from nowhere' from which to stably and consistently sort the desirable influences from the constraints. Moreover, in the process we seem to have committed ourselves to saying that one is more free the more attractive are one's chains; a complete determiner of our actions makes us freer than an indeterministic (e.g., metaphysically probabilistic) antecedent, provided we (or some idealized human evaluator) like it more. Counterintuitiveness of this sort is a much bigger problem for compatibilists who rely heavily on the intuitiveness of their account to justify their very use of terms like 'free will.'
(Personally, I think our intuitions about what kind of 'freedom' or 'control' we want break down and yield no clear results in many cases. Judging by my own intuitions and anecdotal encounters, the evidence that folk psychology is wholly deterministic seems to me rather mixed. The apparent lack of a unified concept is a lot of what inclines me toward a radical Nagel-style incompatibilism / noncognitivism.)
The problem of sorting 'freeing' determiners from 'constraining' determiners suggests to me that 'free will,' at best, unhelpfully conflates a neural system's predictability, its executive (in particular, deliberative) involvement in behavior, its biologically 'normal' functioning, its tendency to achieve its own desired aims, and its tendency to achieve 'normal' human aims. These are all very different variables, and binding them up into a single package to try to appease and adequately mirror a culturally particular (and indeed substantially theological) decision-making discourse seems to me unenlightening, if not actively misleading. Perhaps I'll feel less uneasy when people follow your suggestion and more decisively switch over from 'free will' to 'volition.'RepliesSome very interesting thoughts, starting with the "typicalness" issue. But, not speaking for Massimo's POV, just me, I think "constraint" can legitimately be used. For example, take another brain tumor, that has clearly flattened the patient's range of emotional affect vs. pre-tumor mental state. That person is "constrained." Therefore, while "liking" or "disliking" an effect may at sometimes lead to a judgment call, not always.
The "view from nowhere"? I've commented on another thread that this, like free will, should perhaps be approached in a manner of degrees rather than an absolute nonexistence.
That said, I'm with you on the paragraph in parentheses, but for partially different reasons. I think we make our judgments on the desirability, or not, of certain types of freedom or control based on a short-term temporal focus. Ergo, per the pseudo-Chinese proverb with the repetitive phrase at the last line of each event, "Could be good, could be bad," we don't really know on issue of volition, often.
And, I'm with you on the last paragraph about the theological influence that still seems to pervade traditional discussions of free will. Heck, Massimo himself has admitted here before that the "responsibility" issue is a driver, for him, on his stance on this issue. And, with that, I once again recommend a reading of Kaufman's "Without Guilt and Justice." http://www.amazon.com/Without-Justice-Walter-Arnold-Kaufmann/product-reviews/0385286961/ref=cm_cr_dp_see_all_btm?ie=UTF8&showViewpoints=1&sortBy=bySubmissionDateDescendingWhat is it about the flattened affect, precisely, that makes this a 'constraint'?
If the assumption is simply that a reduced range of behavior or experience implies a reduction of one's freedom, then would you say that a tumor that increased the volatility and diversity of one's emotions would constitute an enhancement of one's freedom?
And what if I read a book that causes me to change my outlook on life, depriving me of a lot of life's simple joys and flattening my affect? Is the book (or the informtion I gained from the book) a constraint on my freedom? If not, in what generically relevant way does the book case differ from the tumor case?Given that our volition involves both emotional and rational elements, a lessening of a range of emotional sensitivity, analysis, insight, etc., a "flattening," I think would be seen by most all people as a constraint.
That said, given that I said some changes could be "liberating," I don't know why you have an objection to the other side of the coin, that some changes that seem constraining ... may actually be constraining. Folks wisdom or whatever isn't ALWAYS wrong, you know.I wouldn't separate free will and volition. The exercise of sufficient free choice by presenting ourselves with a range of options is just volition applied to options as one process. We present sufficient options to oursleves to be considered free to decide, and we voluntariy act upon them. Thought precedes action and responsibility follows.
DeleteGadfly: I'm not saying we have no intuitions about these cases. I'm just skeptical that any reasonably simple and objective criterion can capture those intuitions. You've provided no such criterion, beyond 'just assume our intuitions are basically right.' Hence I don't see much of a point in importing a gerrymandered or frequently unintuitive notion of 'free will' into psychological or neurological discourse. Possibly even our concept 'volition' only ultimately captures a species of brain activity in a very approximate way.
DeleteAs I said above and elsewhere, your answer is in the evolution of an anatomy that suits its environment. We have well demonstrated capacities for rationality and processing of environmental realities (even though these are our own constructs). 'Intuition' evolved, and we either have confidence in its rational use by humans or we do not, based on past evidence. You, apparently, do not.
DeleteFortunately, confidence comes in degrees. Equally fortunately, we can have confidence in some intuitions without having equivalent confidence in all of them. Even if volition, or for that matter 'free' volition, is not a natural kind, there may have been evolutionary benefits to thinking in terms of categories like 'free action' and 'constrained action' as though they were very sharply defined. And we can reconstruct more sophisticated versions of these categories for legal or biomedical or philosophical purposes. But our intuitions rarely, if ever, confer upon us direct and unmediated access to their own neurological underpinnings. There's no evolutionary reason for them to do so.
DeleteGood points, but to save time, my reply is to have a read of the free book here and think again www.thehumandesign.net

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Home Safety for Big Kids
Home Safety for Big Kids
Big kids are learning to be more independent, growing up and trying new things. By the time children turn 5, they sleep in bigger beds, eat new foods and play with different toys. As a result, big kids will experience an action-packed phase of development that affects their behavior and routines, so it's important to ensure that they stay safe.


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Buzz (cute-and-available-to-boys) is presently employed in the men's department of the Marshall Field's at snooty Water Tower Place on Michigan Avenue. Is there, I ask you, a greater joy on earth than a buddy who can tell you when Hugo Boss is going to go on sale? Perhaps a buddy who can tell you when the cashmere yarn is going to go on sale, but we're talking shades of difference.
I arrived near the end of his shift, met his (cute-and-available-to-boys) coworker Charlie, and made him wait on me while I threatened in loud tones of voice to have him fired. Good times. Then we hung out for a bit at a coffee shop in the atrium and dished the world in general. I finished my first sock all the way to the end of the toe, with only the Kitchener left undone.
Knitters: what would you do in this situation, sitting in an uppity bistro surrounded by North Shore housewives and well-heeled bourgeois tourists? Why, you'd do what I did. I took off one boot and tried on the sock.
It speaks to Buzz's remarkable sense of empathy that he, who does not knit, did not even blink. On the contrary, he expressed great joy at my accomplishment and even whipped out his camera phone to record the moment.
I thought the starchy couple at the next table was going to collapse into a heap of Ralph Lauren woven pastel separates. Honestly, some people are too easily mortified. It's not as though I put my foot on their plate of rugelach.
The Kitchener was completed the next day, following the traditional pattern of:
- Try it once, feeling confident, and screw it up royally.
- Undo it at the rate of three vile oaths per stitch.
- Turn off the television, the computer, and the phone; draw the shades; arrange seven reference books on the table; take a deep breath; and get it done right.
- Try it on. Dance around. And around and around and around and around.


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This is probably a suitable apartment dog because they do not do well in harsh climates. This dog breed is also known as the American gentlemen. They are playful and very well-mannered if trained right. They are also affectionate and the perfect family pet. Discover more about our Boston Terrier puppies for sale below!
Breed History
The Boston terrier was discovered in the 1800s. They are said to have been the product of a crossbreed. The English Terrier was bred with the bulldog to bring about the Boston terrier. They are the first non-sporting dogs to be recognized by the American Kennel Club.
Their distinct color and markings were also included in their description making it an essential part of their features. It is still one of the most popular breeds in America.
This dog breed as previously stated is an American gentleman. They are intelligent, smart and affectionate. They need adequate training to achieve all of these as any dog could be aggressive. They also need to be socialized early so they can get accustomed to meeting people and other pets alike.
They are lively for the most part and enjoy playing fetch. They learn quickly and could be a bit reserved around people they do not know.
This dog breed can adapt very well to apartment life. If you are the type who works all day, this is the dog for you as they can adapt to the lifestyle. They are also friendly towards children and are small enough not to knock them over. So, if you have children, this is a good idea for your Boston terrier.
They merely tolerate harsh weather conditions and should be mostly indoors except its playtime. They are also quite tolerant of other pets too. Large crowds may not work well with this breed because they may be knocked over in the process.
The Boston terrier may be a small dog breed but they definitely love to get a lot of exercise. They are very playful and will literally wear you out. They need an average of 45 minutes to one hour of play or exercise daily. They may be small but they are incredibly energetic.
You could let them play in the yard for as long as they want or you could take them out on short or long walks. The key is to keep them exercised enough so they do not develop health problems.
Caring for a Boston terrier isn't quite difficult. You would need to brush his coat weekly and bathe him with dog shampoo as it's necessary. His eyes are incredibly large so you should clean his face daily and examine him for redness.
Clean his ears and check for bad odor which could indicate the presence of infection. Trim his nails so they do not scratch the couch. He will shed but very lightly and this should be easy to deal with. Just brush his coat a lot more to remove excess hair. Overall, they are low maintenance and should be easy to groom.
Our Boston Terrier puppies for sale come from either USDA licensed commercial breeders or hobby breeders with no more than 5 breeding mothers. USDA licensed commercial breeders account for less than 20% of all breeders in the country.
The unregulated breeders who are selling outside of the USDA regulations and without a license are what we consider to be "Puppy Mills." We are committed to offering Boston Terrier puppies who will grow up to become important members of your family. We only purchase puppies from the very best sources, and we stand behind every puppy we sell.
Contact us today to learn more about the availability of our Boston Terrier puppies for sale. We look forward to helping you find your next family member. Our pet counselors can answer any questions you have about our Boston Terrier puppies.
Ten Frequently Asked Questions about the Boston Terrier
What diseases are the Boston Terrier susceptible to?
They could be prone to cataracts, cherry eye, patella luxation, heart murmurs, brain tumors, etc. Regular appointments with the vet should keep all of these in check.
How much daily exercise do the Boston Terriers need?
The Boston terrier is a high energy dog breed and would need a lot of exercise. Occasional walks will not cut it as the dog needs a lot of playtimes. You could just let him run around the yard and provide him with toys to play with, where there are no children.
Can a Boston Terrier be left alone for a long time?
Yes. They could be suitable apartment dogs and can be left for 4 to 8 hours as long as they are left in a cage or a controlled environment. The only problem would be if they have not learned to control their bowels.
Are Boston Terriers family dogs?
Yes, they are. They are known to be one of the best family dog breeds available. They are affectionate and very friendly.
Do the Boston Terriers love to cuddle?
Yes. They are very friendly and would love some family time on the couch or under the covers.
How do you clean Boston Terriers eyes?
Seeing they are prone to eye discharge, you should use a damp or wet cloth when cleaning their eyes. Be sure to do this daily so the discharge does not dry up and cause him discomfort.
How do you care for a Boston Terrier?
It's quite easy. Brush him daily and bathe him occasionally. Feed him appropriately and give him an adequate amount of playtime possible.
How do I keep a Boston Terrier safe from harsh weather conditions?
If it is too hot, you could keep him in front of a fan and let him drink cold water occasionally. If it is too cold, then wrap him in a blanket and light a fire.
Do Boston Terriers overheat?
Yes, they do. You would need to check the weather conditions to be sure he is not going to pant in search of cooler air when taking him out for a walk.
When do Boston Terriers stop growing?
The Boston terriers may stop growing at 12 months for much smaller dogs and at 14 months for the bigger ones.
A Boston terrier is in all sense of the word an American gentleman and is a breed you would want to have as a pet.
The Miniature American Shepherd is a fascinating breed with a rich history and distinct characteristics. Here are some lesser-known facts about this breed that might pique your ...
What Is a Dog Harness? A dog harness is a type of equipment designed to secure and control a dog during walks or other activities. Unlike traditional collars, which put pressure...
Dogs possess an extraordinary sense of hearing, which allows them to detect and interpret sounds far beyond human capabilities. Their acute auditory system is finely tuned to pe...
Service dogs are well-trained professional dogs that help to those who need them. Each service dog has a specific set of skills that require training and testing to master. Serv...
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Crate training is a popular method used by dog owners to train their furry friends. It involves using a crate or kennel as a safe and comfortable space for the dog to rest, slee...
Dogs are known for their playful and active nature, which often leads to accidents and injuries. One common injury that dog owners may encounter is a bleeding nail bed. A bleedi...
The average life expectancy of a dog varies based on several things. Keeping a proper diet, maintaining a healthy weight, and routine veterinarian wellness checks are all very i...
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Despite their intimidating appearance, larger dog breeds are generally well-tempered, caring, and friendly animals! Throughout history, many of these dogs have been relied on fo...
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CCC is a nationwide certification program which establishes rigorous standards for breeders. The CCC's audit guidelines are the first to comprehensively focus on behavior and physical health of dogs.
Source: vet.purdue.edu/ccc/consumers.php


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There's no evidence that he wrote anything obscene.
His messages could be easily erased.
And they don't seem to have upset many, if any, people.
But in San Diego, 40-year-old Jeffrey Olson is on trial for expressing his opinions on sidewalks outside three Bank of America branches. He's charged with 13 counts of vandalism. Jury deliberations began Friday, our colleagues at KPBS say. If convicted on all counts, they add, he faces up to 13 years in prison.
Just what did Olson say on the sidewalks from February 2012 to August 2012 that led to complaints from the bank and the vandalism charges?
According to Gawker, the things Olson wrote to express his anger over the financial mess that banks got into and the federal bailout they needed in 2008 included:
-- "No Thanks, Big Banks"
-- "Shame on Bank of America"
The messages were "always on city sidewalks, washable chalk, never crude messages, never vulgar, clearly topical," Olson told the local CBS affiliate before the judge imposed a gag order on the prosecution and defense.
This case has understandably raised questions in San Diego about whether authorities should be prosecuting Olson. The Union-Tribune writes that:
"If the city loses the case, it might be chalked up to jurors who question if the city should be spending taxpayer money bringing charges against someone who plied his activism — or vandalism — using something that can be easily washed away with a hose.
"During jury selection, Deputy City Attorney Paige Hazard asked 12 potential jurors if they thought the case against Olson was a poor use of taxpayer money. At least six hands shot up.
" 'I think this is a tremendous waste,' said one."
We have a question (not a scientific survey of public opinion).
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