text:
There are several ways in which you can protect yourself and your family in the event of an untimely death.
Most people take out life assurance to provide for their families and alleviate any financial worries at a difficult time.
Level Term Assurance pays a lump sum in the event of death during the term of the policy. There is no investment element within a term assurance contract, so at the end of the term there is no maturity value and life cover ends. The benefit is paid tax-free. Premiums are usually monthly and fixed throughout the term. As the term and benefit are known from the outset, and there is no investment content. Term assurance can be a cost-effective method of protection.
Decreasing Term Assurance works in a similar way to Level Term Assurance, but the benefit is set at the outset and gradually decreases over the term of the policy. These policies can be used as cover for a repayment mortgage, or other loans where the amount of capital outstanding also decreases over time. As the benefit reduces over time, the premiums are usually lower than for Level Term Assurance.
Family Income Benefit works the same as term assurance but instead of paying a lump sum upon death, it will usually pay a regular monthly/annual tax-free income in the event of death to your dependants up until the end of the term of the policy.
Critical Illness Insurance is usually available as an addition to all term assurance plans but can be bought on a standalone basis. Critical illness provides a lump sum benefit / income in the event of diagnosis of certain critical illnesses, such as heart attack, stroke, transplant, blindness, total and permanent disability. The illnesses covered will be specified in the policy along with any exclusions and limitations – these differ between insurers.


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Last year, Denver's Porter Adventist Hospital announced that Warren Kortz, a general surgeon on staff, was the first in the Rocky Mountain region to use a technique known as robotic surgery to remove gall bladders through one incision in the belly button.
The operation, performed while the doctor sits at a videogame-like console, was "taking advantage of another breakthrough in robotic surgery" and is "easier on the patient," the hospital said in a press release.
"It's Star Wars stuff," Kortz was quoted as saying in another article put out by the hospital touting a 2010 robot-assisted parathyroid surgery. "My prediction is it will eventually replace everything else."
What the hospital and Kortz didn't reveal was the risk. Even as Kortz promoted robotic surgery, 10 patients he treated suffered injuries or complications between 2008 and 2011, according to an April complaint by the Colorado Medical Board. Five had arteries punctured or torn. Objects were temporarily left inside two, and others had nerve damage. One died and another needed cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The complaint charges Kortz with 14 counts of unprofessional conduct, including sometimes not advising patients on alternatives to the robot.
Robotic surgeries are on the rise, fueled by aggressive marketing by doctors, hospitals and Intuitive Surgical Inc., which makes the $1.5 million robot. Advertising on hospital and doctor websites, YouTube videos, billboards, and on radio and television has hyped robotic surgeries, often claimed fewer complications without proof, and sometimes ignored contradictory studies finding no advantage.
Robot operations haven't been proven in randomized trials to offer significant health benefits compared to standard, less-invasive surgery and multiple studies show they can cost thousands of dollars more.
Last year, U.S. hospitals used robot-assisted surgery in more than 350,000 operations — a 60 percent jump since 2010.
Robotic surgery is used to perform hysterectomies, gall bladder removals, prostate cancer treatment, heart valve operations and many other soft tissue operations. Half of general surgeons plan to add robotic systems within two years in response to general demand, according to a JPMorgan Chase & Co. survey reported Oct. 3.
The rise of Intuitive's robot surgery highlights flaws in FDA regulation of the marketing of medical devices. Only two full-time employees evaluate ads for such devices, which include radiation therapy machines, implanted devices such as artificial hips and cardiac defibrillators, drug infusion pumps, surgical instruments and surgical robots.
By comparison, the FDA has more than 60 people watching over prescription drug promotion.
The complexity of medical devices makes it hard to evaluate safety and efficacy claims, said Robert Steinbuch, a law professor at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock.
"Hospital advertising is essentially a free-for- all," Steinbuch said.
John Mulhall is a urologist at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York, where prostate cancer surgery is performed with and without the robot. Mulhall said, "If there was a Nobel Prize for marketing, it would go to Intuitive Surgical."
70 deaths since 2009
In February, Bloomberg News reported that the FDA was surveying surgeons about the robots after an increase in reported adverse events, including 70 deaths since 2009. Reports of injuries linked to robotic surgery have more than doubled in the first eight months of this year, based on when the reports were received by the FDA, compared with the same period last year.
In July, the FDA issued a warning to Intuitive Surgical after an inspection found the company inadequately reported device corrections and some poor outcomes.
Sales growth slowed in the second quarter on a decline in robot system sales. Since the first Bloomberg report in February, Intuitive Surgical's shares have fallen 34 percent to $380.99.
The company says looking at reporting dates, rather than the dates the incidents occurred, "is likely to seriously misrepresent the true performance of a device."
Spokeswoman Angela Wonson said Intuitive follows regulatory guidance in every market in which it operates and continually updates the information it provides to medical professionals and the public.
Intuitive cannot control how hospitals market the device, Wonson said. "Ultimately, decisions about treatment must be made between the surgeon and the patient."
"The marketing material that Intuitive puts out is fair and balanced," said Myriam Curet, the company's chief medical adviser, noting its "robust program where we review all of the marketing material that goes out."
"We make sure that discussions of alternative procedures are on the marketing materials as well as discussions about risks," Curet said. She "would never expect a patient to depend on marketing material in terms of making their informed consent."
Porter Adventist Hospital cannot comment on the Kortz cases due to privacy laws, Thomas Drake, the hospital's chief medical officer for the hospital, said in a statement.
Safety is the top priority of the hospital, which responds "with swift and immediate action" to clinical concerns, Drake said. "Our approach to robotic surgery marketing is focused on consumer awareness."
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Military origins
Robotic surgery grew out of the U.S. military's attempts in the late 1980s to design remote-control devices that would enable surgeons at military bases far from the battlefield to treat wounded soldiers. The FDA cleared Intuitive Surgical's robot for use in 2000.
In robot-assisted surgery, a physician looks into a high-definition display at a console several feet from the patient. Foot pedals and hand controls maneuver mechanical arms equipped with tools, guided by a 3-D camera that shows the work as it is done inside a patient.
This differs from other minimally invasive operations in which doctors stand over the patient and manipulate instruments and a tiny camera through multiple small incisions.
Teresa Hershey, 41, of Bermuda Dunes, Calif., said she knew nothing about robotic surgery when her doctor proposed it as an alternative to standard hysterectomy.
"It sounded good. She sold me on it," Hershey recalled.
But during her 2010 operation at Desert Regional Medical Center, doctors punctured her bowel, a problem that wasn't discovered until she had been hospitalized in severe pain for nine days, Hershey said. It took nine operations to fix the problem, racking up almost $1 million in medical bills that were paid by her insurance.
A brochure her doctor gave her didn't mention that the same less-invasive hysterectomy can be done through small incisions without the robot, said Hershey, who plans to sue Intuitive Surgical.
"They are deceiving people," Hershey said of doctors and Intuitive Surgical. "People don't hear the cons. They only hear the pros."
Desert Regional spokesman Richard Ramhoff said the center puts its marketing materials "through a stringent marketing and advertising review process prior to publication."
"Our website, where we feature our robotic surgery offerings, explains that all surgical procedures, including those with robotic options, have risks and benefits," Ramhoff said in an email.
Aggressive marketing
Doctors and hospital officials say Intuitive Surgical is particularly aggressive in marketing to hospitals.
In gynecology, the company "came in and convinced surgeons this new technology is going to take over the market," said Wendel Naumann, a gynecologic surgeon at Levine Cancer Institute in Charlotte, N.C. "Learn to do this or you can get left behind." He no longer uses the robot because "it really didn't add anything."
Paul MacKoul, director of minimally invasive gynecology surgery at Holy Cross Hospital in Silver Spring, Md., has done thousands of the standard operations and can perform a hysterectomy through two small incisions in just 45 minutes.
In 2011, he said, he started losing business to gynecologists with less experience in the operations who had previously referred patients to him. They were instead keeping the patients by adopting the robot, even though the robot operations had more incisions than his method, he said.
"The marketing has been genius," MacKoul said. "You'd be surprised how many patients think the robot operates on the patient, not the doctor, and it is very sophisticated and precise and that is why it is better."
While Intuitive's marketing tactics are aggressive, "there is nothing ethically wrong with what they have done when you look at it from a business perspective," said Peter Carnegie, a former Intuitive cardiothoracic program development manager who left in 2010. Carnegie said he remains "very positive on the technology," which is "a monstrous leap" over what was available before.
When a hospital bought a robot, Intuitive Surgical provided an extensive marketing kit with everything from material for radio spots to television clips to Web pages the hospital could use for marketing, Carnegie said.
The sales reps were "masterful at being very aggressive" in playing a hospital off its local rivals to get it to buy a robot, said Carnegie, now a consultant for hospitals on complex robotic surgery. "They used every ounce of leverage they had in that monopoly to pressure hospitals into purchasing."
Once a hospital had one robot, sales people were "trained to drive conflicts" between surgeons so they would squabble over who got to use the robot at popular times, Carnegie said. If enough prominent doctors started complaining, hospital administrators might buy another.
Peter Dunn, executive medical director for perioperative services at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, described similar tactics.
Dunn recalled a sales manager visiting his hospital saying that a senior gynecologist couldn't get enough operating time on the robot, a claim that turned out to be false.
Another sales representative told a staff surgeon that training on the robot was worthwhile only if the doctor performed a certain number of cases, Dunn said. Sales representatives "were constantly coming in" with suggestions for how the hospital could form a partnership with the company.
"They would go to any avenue they could to infiltrate Mass General," said Dunn, who said the hospital uses the robot sparingly for urology and gynecology procedures. "We absolutely refused."
The company's marketing "has pushed the limits of truth," Dunn said.
Risks ignored
Marketing materials for robotic hysterectomy often has contained "cherry-picked and very misleading information," said Barbara Levy, vice president for health policy at the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.
The FDA is "especially weak when it comes to regulating ads for medical devices," said Diana Zuckerman, president of the National Research Center for Women & Families in Washington. FDA spokeswoman Synim Rivers said the agency is working on increasing the staff working on device promotion.
A September 2012 study by researchers at Columbia University revealed that 44 percent of hospital websites touted robot gynecology surgery, yet only 1.6 percent of the sites mentioned its potential complications.
Websites for hospitals doing robotic prostate surgery often have contained unproven claims of superiority in erectile dysfunction, a 2010 study by researchers at Memorial Sloan-Kettering found. Many sites had "generic information copied directly from the website of Intuitive Surgical."
A 2011 study by doctors at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine found that 164 hospital robot-surgery websites surveyed "overestimate benefits, largely ignore risks and are strongly influenced by the manufacturer," according to research in the Journal for Healthcare Quality.
But Intuitive's Curet said many studies have found that surgeons using the robot are less likely to run into difficulties that would require them to convert to traditional large incisions, compared with surgeons using less invasive methods.
"Where the robot brings value is when you get into more complex procedures" that cannot be done with standard, less invasive methods, Curet said. "You are taking a patient who would otherwise have a large incision and now operating minimally invasively."
Curet said that while randomized, controlled trials comparing surgical techniques are infrequently done, analyses of large patient databases "have shown a definitive advantage" to robotic prostate surgery compared with traditional large- incision prostate removal, including fewer operative complications.
A Stanford University study in the September issue of Urology found that men who received robotic prostate operations had shorter hospital stays, needed fewer blood transfusions, and had fewer complications and deaths in the 30 days after surgery.
Complaints against doctor
Kortz, a summa cum laude Dartmouth graduate, started performing robotic operations in 2005 and by 2012 had done 350 to 400 such operations, according to a court deposition.
In October 2009, Porter Adventist Hospital issued a press statement on Kortz's prowess, saying he was "the first surgeon in the Rocky Mountain region" to remove the parathyroid gland with the robot.
On May 21, 2010, Shanti Lechuga, 22, was to have her kidney removed for a donation. Kortz pierced her aorta at the beginning of the robotic surgery, necessitating an immediate operation to fix the problem, according to a malpractice lawsuit against Kortz.
A sponge was left inside her body that had to be removed during a second surgery, and Lechuga suffered a nerve injury. Court documents show the litigation was resolved last month.
Kortz's robotic operating room privileges were suspended at Porter Adventist around August 2010. He got them back early in 2011, he said in the 2012 deposition in the Lechuga case.
A few months later, Kortz, several other surgeons and the hospital created the Porter Robotics Institute. The parties involved signed "a joint marketing agreement" agreeing to split costs of promoting the institute, Kortz said in the deposition.
A local television station filmed a segment about new institute. The robot is "decreasing the trauma even further to the patient," Kortz said in a May 2011 web article accompanying the video on www.thedenverchannel.com.
Two months later, another Kortz patient died after his condition worsened following a robotic operation and a second non-robotic operation did not solve the problem, according to a wrongful death lawsuit by the patient's widow.
Drake, Porter Adventist's chief medical officer, said that "our marketing efforts are never meant to interfere with this physician-patient relationship or to supersede a physician's clinical judgment." Hospital spokesman Tim Shonsey said that while Kortz is on the hospital's medical staff, he is not an employee.
Kortz "strongly denies" unprofessional conduct and his complication rate "is not out of line with those of other experienced general surgeons," said Lisanne Leasure, a lawyer for Kortz, in an email. "To suggest or imply that it was somehow improper for Dr. Kortz to speak publicly about the proven benefits of robotic surgery even though a very small number of his patients had experienced complications is irresponsible and false."
The medical board complaint against Kortz is scheduled to be heard in February.
By Robert Langreth, Bloomberg
Posted Oct. 21, 2013, at 7:12 a.m.
Jason Stone Injury Lawyers and their team of Boston Personal Injury Attorneys encourage anyone who has suffered from injuries or complications due to robotic surgery to discuss their legal options with a qualified attorney immediately.
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subset: commoncrawl


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The Nanny State
Published 12:00 am Tuesday, November 12, 2013
WASHINGTON (AP) — They are among our most personal daily decisions: what to eat or drink. Maybe what to inhale.
Now that the government's banning trans fat, does that mean it's revving up to take away our choice to consume all sorts of other unhealthy stuff?
What about salt? Soda? Cigarettes?
In the tug-of-war between public health and personal freedom, the Food and Drug Administration's decision to ban trans fats barely rates a ripple.
Hardly anyone defends the icky-sounding artificial ingredient anymore, two decades after health activists began warning Americans that it was clogging their arteries and causing heart attacks.
New York, Philadelphia, a few other localities and the state of California already have banned trans fat from restaurant food.
McDonald's, Taco Bell and KFC dropped it from their french fries, nachos and chicken years ago.
The companies that fill grocery shelves say they already have reduced their use of trans fat by nearly three-fourths since 2005.
Growers are promoting new soybean oils that they say will eliminate, within a few years, the need for partial hydrogenation, the process that creates trans fats still used to enhance the texture of some pie crusts, cookies and margarine.
Mostly, Americans' palates have moved on, and so have their arguments over what's sensible health policy and what amounts to a "nanny state" run amok.
When they aren't feuding over President Barack Obama's health care law, state politicians are busy weighing the wisdom of legalizing marijuana. Already 20 states and the District of Columbia have authorized it for medicinal use. Voters in Colorado and Washington state approved smoking pot just for fun.
The FDA is taking heat for delays in coming out with new rules on regular-old tobacco cigarettes under a law passed in 2009. There are the new e-cigarettes to worry about, too. More than 20 states have banned stores from selling electronic cigarettes to minors, but the federal government has yet to take them on.
New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg's attempt to stop restaurants from selling sodas larger than 16 ounces, and the federal government's efforts to impose healthier lunches on school kids are causing more of an uproar than the trans fat ban.
Still, Jeffrey Levi, executive director of the nonprofit Trust for America's Health, says a national trans fat ban is "a big deal." After all, the FDA estimates it will prevent 20,000 heart attacks and 7,000 deaths a year.
Levi doesn't see it as evidence that federal regulators are suddenly on a roll, however.
"There are other areas where regulation is sort of stuck — everything from nutrition labeling to food safety to the tobacco regulations that have not seen the light of day," Levi said.
Talk of new government regulation typically stirs up libertarians and conservatives. Yet the trans fat ban hasn't provoked much beefing.
Radio host Rush Limbaugh groused that bureaucrats shouldn't regulate what people eat because it's "none of their business" and research on nutrition keeps changing. After all, sticks of margarine made with trans fats used to be recommended as a healthier alternative to butter.
Heritage Foundation research fellow Daren Bakst, who specializes in agriculture issues, blogged that the FDA is "ignoring the most important issue: the freedom of Americans."
A few fans of ready-to-spread cake frostings and microwave popcorn that still contain trans fat griped via Twitter.
They don't have to worry immediately.
The FDA must consider comments from the food industry and the public before it comes up with a timeline for phasing out trans fats, also known as partially hydrogenated oils. It could take years to get them off the market.
Michael Jacobson, executive director of the nonprofit Center for Science in the Public Interest, has been warning about the dangers since the early 1990s. Advocacy by the center helped persuade the government to add trans fat to nutrition labels beginning in 2006.
That created consumer pressure on food companies to find tasty ways to replace partially hydrogenated oil with less harmful fats. The companies' success helped clear the way for the government to consider a trans fat ban, he said.
"It's a little bit of an exception, in that it's so harmful and it was so widely used," Jacobson said, "and there are substitutes so that people can't tell the difference when it's removed."
Next on Jacobson's wish list is something that would be much harder for industry and the FDA to accomplish: reducing the salt in processed foods.
"There are estimates that it's causing around 100,000 deaths prematurely every year in this country," he said. "That is just huge."


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How much does a baby photography cost?
Portrait photography provides parents with lasting images of the first whirlwind months of a newborn's life. The cost varies based on several factors, including the length and location of the session, the number of photos provided, and the amount of editing and retouching the photographer does. The national average cost for baby photos is $150-$200. Some baby photographers charge by the number of photos provided, typically ranging from an average of $299 for 20 high-resolution edited photos, to an average of $399 for 35 photos, to $499 for all of the images taken in a single session. Props and location affect the cost, too; an elaborate studio shoot with props and professional lighting may increase the cost to $600-$700 for 20-50 photos. Adding a second location or asking the photographer to travel can add $70-$250 to the cost of the session. Photographers may also charge extra fees for providing additional photos and DVDs, scheduling weekend sessions, and shooting siblings. Expect to pay at least a $50 deposit when you book a portrait photography session.
Where is the best place to take baby pictures?
Baby pictures are among the most popular types of portrait photography, and most newborn photographers are well versed in the best places to take baby pictures in their local areas. Some newborn photographers will come to the hospital to shoot the baby within a day or two of birth, while others have set up their studios to accommodate the needs of infants. Some parents prefer to have the newborn photographer come to their home or travel to a favorite park or other outdoor location. Like any portrait photography, the best place to take baby pictures is the place you like best and that will yield the types of photos you want of your baby, whether that's posed and carefully lit studio portraits or spontaneous, casual photos at home. Work with a local newborn photographer to find a safe, calm location with great lighting and some privacy for your family.
How much do photographers charge for family portraits?
Family portraits are a great way to mark the passage of time, create lifelong keepsakes and have gorgeous-looking photos for your annual holiday card. The national average cost for hiring family photographers ranges from $150 to $200. Pricing can range higher depending on where you live, length of the photo shoot, the number of edited photos you request, and the background and reputation of your family photographer. Before hiring, make sure you understand their fees up front. Ask how many finished images are included in the quoted price and whether you will receive all the photos taken (not just edited photos). Ask whether you'll be able to download digital photos or if you'll have to print them or purchase digital copies through the photographer. Here are some average examples of family photographer pricing:
- $175 for a one-hour studio session in Kansas.
- $200 for a one-hour studio or outdoor session in Georgia. Includes two outfit changes, access to an online gallery, and about 200 high-resolution, edited digital photo files on a DVD, with permission to print.
- $400 for a one-hour outdoor session in Southern California. Includes 25-30 fully edited photos accessible online or via CD/DVD.
- $425 or more for a one-hour outdoor or in-home session in Illinois. Includes more than 50 professionally edited images, online access and print release.
When should you take newborn photos?
Few styles of portrait photography are as tricky as newborn photos — the unpredictable infant is always in charge! The best way to ensure a successful photo shoot is to work with a local newborn photographer within the first two weeks of the baby's life. Some photographers even work with hospitals to offer newborn sessions within a day of the baby's birth. But newborn photographers usually recommend scheduling a shoot during the baby's first two weeks of life, while the baby is still sleepy and relatively cooperative, especially for posed or studio shots. During this time, babies are easier to swaddle in blankets and dress in hats or headbands, and, because they often nap or nurse, can be staged with various props or be cuddled by their parents. For casual photos, most newborn photographers recommend shooting within the first six weeks of a baby's life. Lifestyle portrait photography is more flexible and doesn't require the baby to cooperate with multiple poses or props.
Do you tip a photographer for family photos?
Tipping a photographer for family portraits is not standard etiquette. A great way to recognize a family photographer who goes above and beyond is to write them a glowing review. You probably found your photographer by reading online reviews, so paying it forward by letting everyone know how much you appreciate their work is a great gift. Write your review after they have delivered the final edited photos on time and you've confirmed that you're happy with the terrific portraits they took.
What should you wear for a family photo?
A family photographer captures your family in a series of professionally edited portraits. You can be goofy, you can be formal, you can be exactly how you want to be. To that end, you can wear what makes you feel comfortable and confident — feeling good translates to looking good in photos. However, top family photographers do have some style suggestions that will make your family photos more visually cohesive:
- Ask the photographer for color suggestions if you're doing an outdoor photo shoot. Location and time of day can affect which shades will fade in the sunlight and what will stand out in a good way.
- Stay away from a mix of stripes or plaids on multiple people — the effect is too busy.
- Steer clear of tiny patterns, which blend together too much.
- Avoid wearing matching outfits.
- Do wear outfits that are complementary in color.
- Choose color over black-and-white outfits.
- Do choose a theme, such as pastels, fall colors or summer colors.
- Opt for tonally similar colors.
- Go easy on makeup for outdoor photo shoots.


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Facts Summary:
The Pillar Coral (Dendrogyra cylindrus) is a species of concern belonging in the species group "corals, jellyfish, and sea anemones" and found in the following area(s): Central America, Europe, North America (including United States), South America.
Wikipedia Article Copyright Notice: This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Pillar coral". |
Featured ArticleThe Seven Sea Turtle Species of the World
Sea turtles are graceful saltwater reptiles, well adapted to life at sea. Unlike
turtles on land, sea turtles cannot retract their legs and head. But with streamlined bodies and flipper-like
limbs, they are graceful swimmers able to
navigate across the oceans of the world. Here, we look at the seven species that can be found today, all of which are said to have been around since the time of the dinosaurs. Read More... |


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Provided by: git-man_2.17.1-1ubuntu0.18_all
git-filter-branch - Rewrite branches
git filter-branch [--setup <command>] [--subdirectory-filter <directory>] [--env-filter <command>] [--tree-filter <command>] [--index-filter <command>] [--parent-filter <command>] [--msg-filter <command>] [--commit-filter <command>] [--tag-name-filter <command>] [--prune-empty] [--original <namespace>] [-d <directory>] [-f | --force] [--state-branch <branch>] [--] [<rev-list options>...]
Lets you rewrite Git revision history by rewriting the branches mentioned in the <rev-list options>, applying custom filters on each revision. Those filters can modify each tree (e.g. removing a file or running a perl rewrite on all files) or information about each commit. Otherwise, all information (including original commit times or merge information) will be preserved. The command will only rewrite the positive refs mentioned in the command line (e.g. if you pass a..b, only b will be rewritten). If you specify no filters, the commits will be recommitted without any changes, which would normally have no effect. Nevertheless, this may be useful in the future for compensating for some Git bugs or such, therefore such a usage is permitted. NOTE: This command honors .git/info/grafts file and refs in the refs/replace/ namespace. If you have any grafts or replacement refs defined, running this command will make them permanent. WARNING! The rewritten history will have different object names for all the objects and will not converge with the original branch. You will not be able to easily push and distribute the rewritten branch on top of the original branch. Please do not use this command if you do not know the full implications, and avoid using it anyway, if a simple single commit would suffice to fix your problem. (See the "RECOVERING FROM UPSTREAM REBASE" section in git-rebase(1) for further information about rewriting published history.) Always verify that the rewritten version is correct: The original refs, if different from the rewritten ones, will be stored in the namespace refs/original/. Note that since this operation is very I/O expensive, it might be a good idea to redirect the temporary directory off-disk with the -d option, e.g. on tmpfs. Reportedly the speedup is very noticeable. Filters The filters are applied in the order as listed below. The <command> argument is always evaluated in the shell context using the eval command (with the notable exception of the commit filter, for technical reasons). Prior to that, the $GIT_COMMIT environment variable will be set to contain the id of the commit being rewritten. Also, GIT_AUTHOR_NAME, GIT_AUTHOR_EMAIL, GIT_AUTHOR_DATE, GIT_COMMITTER_NAME, GIT_COMMITTER_EMAIL, and GIT_COMMITTER_DATE are taken from the current commit and exported to the environment, in order to affect the author and committer identities of the replacement commit created by git-commit-tree(1) after the filters have run. If any evaluation of <command> returns a non-zero exit status, the whole operation will be aborted. A map function is available that takes an "original sha1 id" argument and outputs a "rewritten sha1 id" if the commit has been already rewritten, and "original sha1 id" otherwise; the map function can return several ids on separate lines if your commit filter emitted multiple commits.
--setup <command> This is not a real filter executed for each commit but a one time setup just before the loop. Therefore no commit-specific variables are defined yet. Functions or variables defined here can be used or modified in the following filter steps except the commit filter, for technical reasons. --subdirectory-filter <directory> Only look at the history which touches the given subdirectory. The result will contain that directory (and only that) as its project root. Implies the section called "Remap to ancestor". --env-filter <command> This filter may be used if you only need to modify the environment in which the commit will be performed. Specifically, you might want to rewrite the author/committer name/email/time environment variables (see git-commit-tree(1) for details). --tree-filter <command> This is the filter for rewriting the tree and its contents. The argument is evaluated in shell with the working directory set to the root of the checked out tree. The new tree is then used as-is (new files are auto-added, disappeared files are auto-removed - neither .gitignore files nor any other ignore rules HAVE ANY EFFECT!). --index-filter <command> This is the filter for rewriting the index. It is similar to the tree filter but does not check out the tree, which makes it much faster. Frequently used with git rm --cached --ignore-unmatch ..., see EXAMPLES below. For hairy cases, see git-update- index(1). --parent-filter <command> This is the filter for rewriting the commit's parent list. It will receive the parent string on stdin and shall output the new parent string on stdout. The parent string is in the format described in git-commit-tree(1): empty for the initial commit, "-p parent" for a normal commit and "-p parent1 -p parent2 -p parent3 ..." for a merge commit. --msg-filter <command> This is the filter for rewriting the commit messages. The argument is evaluated in the shell with the original commit message on standard input; its standard output is used as the new commit message. --commit-filter <command> This is the filter for performing the commit. If this filter is specified, it will be called instead of the git commit-tree command, with arguments of the form "<TREE_ID> [(-p <PARENT_COMMIT_ID>)...]" and the log message on stdin. The commit id is expected on stdout. As a special extension, the commit filter may emit multiple commit ids; in that case, the rewritten children of the original commit will have all of them as parents. You can use the map convenience function in this filter, and other convenience functions, too. For example, calling skip_commit "$@" will leave out the current commit (but not its changes! If you want that, use git rebase instead). You can also use the git_commit_non_empty_tree "$@" instead of git commit-tree "$@" if you don't wish to keep commits with a single parent and that makes no change to the tree. --tag-name-filter <command> This is the filter for rewriting tag names. When passed, it will be called for every tag ref that points to a rewritten object (or to a tag object which points to a rewritten object). The original tag name is passed via standard input, and the new tag name is expected on standard output. The original tags are not deleted, but can be overwritten; use "--tag-name-filter cat" to simply update the tags. In this case, be very careful and make sure you have the old tags backed up in case the conversion has run afoul. Nearly proper rewriting of tag objects is supported. If the tag has a message attached, a new tag object will be created with the same message, author, and timestamp. If the tag has a signature attached, the signature will be stripped. It is by definition impossible to preserve signatures. The reason this is "nearly" proper, is because ideally if the tag did not change (points to the same object, has the same name, etc.) it should retain any signature. That is not the case, signatures will always be removed, buyer beware. There is also no support for changing the author or timestamp (or the tag message for that matter). Tags which point to other tags will be rewritten to point to the underlying commit. --prune-empty Some filters will generate empty commits that leave the tree untouched. This option instructs git-filter-branch to remove such commits if they have exactly one or zero non-pruned parents; merge commits will therefore remain intact. This option cannot be used together with --commit-filter, though the same effect can be achieved by using the provided git_commit_non_empty_tree function in a commit filter. --original <namespace> Use this option to set the namespace where the original commits will be stored. The default value is refs/original. -d <directory> Use this option to set the path to the temporary directory used for rewriting. When applying a tree filter, the command needs to temporarily check out the tree to some directory, which may consume considerable space in case of large projects. By default it does this in the .git-rewrite/ directory but you can override that choice by this parameter. -f, --force git filter-branch refuses to start with an existing temporary directory or when there are already refs starting with refs/original/, unless forced. --state-branch <branch> This option will cause the mapping from old to new objects to be loaded from named branch upon startup and saved as a new commit to that branch upon exit, enabling incremental of large trees. If <branch> does not exist it will be created. <rev-list options>... Arguments for git rev-list. All positive refs included by these options are rewritten. You may also specify options such as --all, but you must use -- to separate them from the git filter-branch options. Implies the section called "Remap to ancestor". Remap to ancestor By using git-rev-list(1) arguments, e.g., path limiters, you can limit the set of revisions which get rewritten. However, positive refs on the command line are distinguished: we don't let them be excluded by such limiters. For this purpose, they are instead rewritten to point at the nearest ancestor that was not excluded.
Suppose you want to remove a file (containing confidential information or copyright violation) from all commits: git filter-branch --tree-filter 'rm filename' HEAD However, if the file is absent from the tree of some commit, a simple rm filename will fail for that tree and commit. Thus you may instead want to use rm -f filename as the script. Using --index-filter with git rm yields a significantly faster version. Like with using rm filename, git rm --cached filename will fail if the file is absent from the tree of a commit. If you want to "completely forget" a file, it does not matter when it entered history, so we also add --ignore-unmatch: git filter-branch --index-filter 'git rm --cached --ignore-unmatch filename' HEAD Now, you will get the rewritten history saved in HEAD. To rewrite the repository to look as if foodir/ had been its project root, and discard all other history: git filter-branch --subdirectory-filter foodir -- --all Thus you can, e.g., turn a library subdirectory into a repository of its own. Note the -- that separates filter-branch options from revision options, and the --all to rewrite all branches and tags. To set a commit (which typically is at the tip of another history) to be the parent of the current initial commit, in order to paste the other history behind the current history: git filter-branch --parent-filter 'sed "s/^\$/-p <graft-id>/"' HEAD (if the parent string is empty - which happens when we are dealing with the initial commit - add graftcommit as a parent). Note that this assumes history with a single root (that is, no merge without common ancestors happened). If this is not the case, use: git filter-branch --parent-filter \ 'test $GIT_COMMIT = <commit-id> && echo "-p <graft-id>" || cat' HEAD or even simpler: echo "$commit-id $graft-id" >> .git/info/grafts git filter-branch $graft-id..HEAD To remove commits authored by "Darl McBribe" from the history: git filter-branch --commit-filter ' if [ "$GIT_AUTHOR_NAME" = "Darl McBribe" ]; then skip_commit "$@"; else git commit-tree "$@"; fi' HEAD The function skip_commit is defined as follows: skip_commit() { shift; while [ -n "$1" ]; do shift; map "$1"; shift; done; } The shift magic first throws away the tree id and then the -p parameters. Note that this handles merges properly! In case Darl committed a merge between P1 and P2, it will be propagated properly and all children of the merge will become merge commits with P1,P2 as their parents instead of the merge commit. NOTE the changes introduced by the commits, and which are not reverted by subsequent commits, will still be in the rewritten branch. If you want to throw out changes together with the commits, you should use the interactive mode of git rebase. You can rewrite the commit log messages using --msg-filter. For example, git svn-id strings in a repository created by git svn can be removed this way: git filter-branch --msg-filter ' sed -e "/^git-svn-id:/d" ' If you need to add Acked-by lines to, say, the last 10 commits (none of which is a merge), use this command: git filter-branch --msg-filter ' cat && echo "Acked-by: Bugs Bunny <email@example.com>" ' HEAD~10..HEAD The --env-filter option can be used to modify committer and/or author identity. For example, if you found out that your commits have the wrong identity due to a misconfigured user.email, you can make a correction, before publishing the project, like this: git filter-branch --env-filter ' if test "$GIT_AUTHOR_EMAIL" = "root@localhost" then email@example.com fi if test "$GIT_COMMITTER_EMAIL" = "root@localhost" then email@example.com fi ' -- --all To restrict rewriting to only part of the history, specify a revision range in addition to the new branch name. The new branch name will point to the top-most revision that a git rev-list of this range will print. Consider this history: D--E--F--G--H / / A--B-----C To rewrite only commits D,E,F,G,H, but leave A, B and C alone, use: git filter-branch ... C..H To rewrite commits E,F,G,H, use one of these: git filter-branch ... C..H --not D git filter-branch ... D..H --not C To move the whole tree into a subdirectory, or remove it from there: git filter-branch --index-filter \ 'git ls-files -s | sed "s-\t\"*-&newsubdir/-" | GIT_INDEX_FILE=$GIT_INDEX_FILE.new \ git update-index --index-info && mv "$GIT_INDEX_FILE.new" "$GIT_INDEX_FILE"' HEAD
git-filter-branch can be used to get rid of a subset of files, usually with some combination of --index-filter and --subdirectory-filter. People expect the resulting repository to be smaller than the original, but you need a few more steps to actually make it smaller, because Git tries hard not to lose your objects until you tell it to. First make sure that: • You really removed all variants of a filename, if a blob was moved over its lifetime. git log --name-only --follow --all -- filename can help you find renames. • You really filtered all refs: use --tag-name-filter cat -- --all when calling git-filter-branch. Then there are two ways to get a smaller repository. A safer way is to clone, that keeps your original intact. • Clone it with git clone file:///path/to/repo. The clone will not have the removed objects. See git-clone(1). (Note that cloning with a plain path just hardlinks everything!) If you really don't want to clone it, for whatever reasons, check the following points instead (in this order). This is a very destructive approach, so make a backup or go back to cloning it. You have been warned. • Remove the original refs backed up by git-filter-branch: say git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" refs/original/ | xargs -n 1 git update-ref -d. • Expire all reflogs with git reflog expire --expire=now --all. • Garbage collect all unreferenced objects with git gc --prune=now (or if your git-gc is not new enough to support arguments to --prune, use git repack -ad; git prune instead).
git-filter-branch allows you to make complex shell-scripted rewrites of your Git history, but you probably don't need this flexibility if you're simply removing unwanted data like large files or passwords. For those operations you may want to consider The BFG Repo-Cleaner[1], a JVM-based alternative to git-filter-branch, typically at least 10-50x faster for those use-cases, and with quite different characteristics: • Any particular version of a file is cleaned exactly once. The BFG, unlike git-filter-branch, does not give you the opportunity to handle a file differently based on where or when it was committed within your history. This constraint gives the core performance benefit of The BFG, and is well-suited to the task of cleansing bad data - you don't care where the bad data is, you just want it gone. • By default The BFG takes full advantage of multi-core machines, cleansing commit file-trees in parallel. git-filter-branch cleans commits sequentially (i.e. in a single-threaded manner), though it is possible to write filters that include their own parallelism, in the scripts executed against each commit. • The command options[2] are much more restrictive than git-filter branch, and dedicated just to the tasks of removing unwanted data- e.g: --strip-blobs-bigger-than 1M.
Part of the git(1) suite
1. The BFG Repo-Cleaner http://rtyley.github.io/bfg-repo-cleaner/ 2. command options http://rtyley.github.io/bfg-repo-cleaner/#examples


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