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Version: 2010-09-05 (fedora - 01/12/10)
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perliol - C API for Perl's implementation of IO in Layers.SYNOPSIS
/* Defining a layer ... */ #include <perliol.h>
This document describes the behavior and implementation of the PerlIO abstraction described in perlapio when "USE_PERLIO" is defined (and "USE_SFIO" is not).History and Background
The PerlIO abstraction was introduced in perl5.003_02 but languished as just an abstraction until perl5.7.0. However during that time a number of perl extensions switched to using it, so the API is mostly fixed to maintain (source) compatibility.The aim of the implementation is to provide the PerlIO API in a flexible and platform neutral manner. It is also a trial of an ``Object Oriented C, with vtables'' approach which may be applied to Perl 6.
Basic Structure
PerlIO is a stack of layers.The low levels of the stack work with the low-level operating system calls (file descriptors in C) getting bytes in and out, the higher layers of the stack buffer, filter, and otherwise manipulate the I/O, and return characters (or bytes) to Perl. Terms above and below are used to refer to the relative positioning of the stack layers.
A layer contains a ``vtable'', the table of I/O operations (at C level a table of function pointers), and status flags. The functions in the vtable implement operations like ``open'', ``read'', and ``write''.
When I/O, for example ``read'', is requested, the request goes from Perl first down the stack using ``read'' functions of each layer, then at the bottom the input is requested from the operating system services, then the result is returned up the stack, finally being interpreted as Perl data.
The requests do not necessarily go always all the way down to the operating system: that's where PerlIO buffering comes into play.
When you do an open() and specify extra PerlIO layers to be deployed, the layers you specify are ``pushed'' on top of the already existing default stack. One way to see it is that ``operating system is on the left'' and ``Perl is on the right''.
What exact layers are in this default stack depends on a lot of things: your operating system, Perl version, Perl compile time configuration, and Perl runtime configuration. See PerlIO, ``PERLIO'' in perlrun, and open for more information.
binmode() operates similarly to open(): by default the specified layers are pushed on top of the existing stack.
However, note that even as the specified layers are ``pushed on top'' for open() and binmode(), this doesn't mean that the effects are limited to the ``top'': PerlIO layers can be very 'active' and inspect and affect layers also deeper in the stack. As an example there is a layer called ``raw'' which repeatedly ``pops'' layers until it reaches the first layer that has declared itself capable of handling binary data. The ``pushed'' layers are processed in left-to-right order.
sysopen() operates (unsurprisingly) at a lower level in the stack than open(). For example in Unix or Unix-like systems sysopen() operates directly at the level of file descriptors: in the terms of PerlIO layers, it uses only the ``unix'' layer, which is a rather thin wrapper on top of the Unix file descriptors.
Layers vs Disciplines
Initial discussion of the ability to modify IO streams behaviour used the term ``discipline'' for the entities which were added. This came (I believe) from the use of the term in ``sfio'', which in turn borrowed it from ``line disciplines'' on Unix terminals. However, this document (and the C code) uses the term ``layer''.This is, I hope, a natural term given the implementation, and should avoid connotations that are inherent in earlier uses of ``discipline'' for things which are rather different.
Data Structures
The basic data structure is a PerlIOl:typedef struct _PerlIO PerlIOl; typedef struct _PerlIO_funcs PerlIO_funcs; typedef PerlIOl *PerlIO; struct _PerlIO { PerlIOl * next; /* Lower layer */ PerlIO_funcs * tab; /* Functions for this layer */ IV flags; /* Various flags for state */ };
A "PerlIOl *" is a pointer to the struct, and the application level "PerlIO *" is a pointer to a "PerlIOl *" - i.e. a pointer to a pointer to the struct. This allows the application level "PerlIO *" to remain constant while the actual "PerlIOl *" underneath changes. (Compare perl's "SV *" which remains constant while its "sv_any" field changes as the scalar's type changes.) An IO stream is then in general represented as a pointer to this linked-list of ``layers''.
It should be noted that because of the double indirection in a "PerlIO *", a "&(perlio->next)" ``is'' a "PerlIO *", and so to some degree at least one layer can use the ``standard'' API on the next layer down.
A ``layer'' is composed of two parts:
- 1.
- The functions and attributes of the ``layer class''.
- 2.
- The per-instance data for a particular handle.
Functions and Attributes
The functions and attributes are accessed via the ``tab'' (for table) member of "PerlIOl". The functions (methods of the layer ``class'') are fixed, and are defined by the "PerlIO_funcs" type. They are broadly the same as the public "PerlIO_xxxxx" functions:struct _PerlIO_funcs { Size_t fsize; char * name; Size_t size; IV kind; IV (*Pushed)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f,const char *mode,SV *arg, PerlIO_funcs *tab); IV (*Popped)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); PerlIO * (*Open)(pTHX_ PerlIO_funcs *tab, PerlIO_list_t *layers, IV n, const char *mode, int fd, int imode, int perm, PerlIO *old, int narg, SV **args); IV (*Binmode)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); SV * (*Getarg)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, CLONE_PARAMS *param, int flags) IV (*Fileno)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); PerlIO * (*Dup)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, PerlIO *o, CLONE_PARAMS *param, int flags) /* Unix-like functions - cf sfio line disciplines */ SSize_t (*Read)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, void *vbuf, Size_t count); SSize_t (*Unread)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, const void *vbuf, Size_t count); SSize_t (*Write)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, const void *vbuf, Size_t count); IV (*Seek)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, Off_t offset, int whence); Off_t (*Tell)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); IV (*Close)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); /* Stdio-like buffered IO functions */ IV (*Flush)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); IV (*Fill)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); IV (*Eof)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); IV (*Error)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); void (*Clearerr)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); void (*Setlinebuf)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); /* Perl's snooping functions */ STDCHAR * (*Get_base)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); Size_t (*Get_bufsiz)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); STDCHAR * (*Get_ptr)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); SSize_t (*Get_cnt)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f); void (*Set_ptrcnt)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f,STDCHAR *ptr,SSize_t cnt); };
The first few members of the struct give a function table size for compatibility check ``name'' for the layer, the size to "malloc" for the per-instance data, and some flags which are attributes of the class as whole (such as whether it is a buffering layer), then follow the functions which fall into four basic groups:
- 1.
- Opening and setup functions
- 2.
- Basic IO operations
- 3.
- Stdio class buffering options.
- 4.
- Functions to support Perl's traditional ``fast'' access to the buffer.
A layer does not have to implement all the functions, but the whole table has to be present. Unimplemented slots can be NULL (which will result in an error when called) or can be filled in with stubs to ``inherit'' behaviour from a ``base class''. This ``inheritance'' is fixed for all instances of the layer, but as the layer chooses which stubs to populate the table, limited ``multiple inheritance'' is possible.
Per-instance Data
The per-instance data are held in memory beyond the basic PerlIOl struct, by making a PerlIOl the first member of the layer's struct thus:typedef struct { struct _PerlIO base; /* Base "class" info */ STDCHAR * buf; /* Start of buffer */ STDCHAR * end; /* End of valid part of buffer */ STDCHAR * ptr; /* Current position in buffer */ Off_t posn; /* Offset of buf into the file */ Size_t bufsiz; /* Real size of buffer */ IV oneword; /* Emergency buffer */ } PerlIOBuf;
In this way (as for perl's scalars) a pointer to a PerlIOBuf can be treated as a pointer to a PerlIOl.
Layers in action.
table perlio unix | | +-----------+ +----------+ +--------+ PerlIO ->| |--->| next |--->| NULL | +-----------+ +----------+ +--------+ | | | buffer | | fd | +-----------+ | | +--------+ | | +----------+
The above attempts to show how the layer scheme works in a simple case. The application's "PerlIO *" points to an entry in the table(s) representing open (allocated) handles. For example the first three slots in the table correspond to "stdin","stdout" and "stderr". The table in turn points to the current ``top'' layer for the handle - in this case an instance of the generic buffering layer ``perlio''. That layer in turn points to the next layer down - in this case the low-level ``unix'' layer.
The above is roughly equivalent to a ``stdio'' buffered stream, but with much more flexibility:
- *
- If Unix level "read"/"write"/"lseek" is not appropriate for (say) sockets then the ``unix'' layer can be replaced (at open time or even dynamically) with a ``socket'' layer.
- *
- Different handles can have different buffering schemes. The ``top'' layer could be the ``mmap'' layer if reading disk files was quicker using "mmap" than "read". An ``unbuffered'' stream can be implemented simply by not having a buffer layer.
- *
- Extra layers can be inserted to process the data as it flows through. This was the driving need for including the scheme in perl 5.7.0+ - we needed a mechanism to allow data to be translated between perl's internal encoding (conceptually at least Unicode as UTF-8), and the ``native'' format used by the system. This is provided by the ``:encoding(xxxx)'' layer which typically sits above the buffering layer.
- *
- A layer can be added that does ``\n'' to CRLF translation. This layer can be used on any platform, not just those that normally do such things.
Per-instance flag bits
The generic flag bits are a hybrid of "O_XXXXX" style flags deduced from the mode string passed to "PerlIO_open()", and state bits for typical buffer layers.- PERLIO_F_EOF
- End of file.
- Writes are permitted, i.e. opened as ``w'' or ``r+'' or ``a'', etc.
- Reads are permitted i.e. opened ``r'' or ``w+'' (or even ``a+'' - ick).
- An error has occurred (for "PerlIO_error()").
- Truncate file suggested by open mode.
- All writes should be appends.
- Layer is performing Win32-like ``\n'' mapped to CR,LF for output and CR,LF mapped to ``\n'' for input. Normally the provided ``crlf'' layer is the only layer that need bother about this. "PerlIO_binmode()" will mess with this flag rather than add/remove layers if the "PERLIO_K_CANCRLF" bit is set for the layers class.
- Data written to this layer should be UTF-8 encoded; data provided by this layer should be considered UTF-8 encoded. Can be set on any layer by ``:utf8'' dummy layer. Also set on ``:encoding'' layer.
- Layer is unbuffered - i.e. write to next layer down should occur for each write to this layer.
- The buffer for this layer currently holds data written to it but not sent to next layer.
- The buffer for this layer currently holds unconsumed data read from layer below.
- Layer is line buffered. Write data should be passed to next layer down whenever a ``\n'' is seen. Any data beyond the ``\n'' should then be processed.
- File has been "unlink()"ed, or should be deleted on "close()".
- Handle is open.
- This instance of this layer supports the "fast "gets"" interface. Normally set based on "PERLIO_K_FASTGETS" for the class and by the existence of the function(s) in the table. However a class that normally provides that interface may need to avoid it on a particular instance. The ``pending'' layer needs to do this when it is pushed above a layer which does not support the interface. (Perl's "sv_gets()" does not expect the streams fast "gets" behaviour to change during one ``get''.)
Methods in Detail
- fsize
Size_t fsize;
Size of the function table. This is compared against the value PerlIO code ``knows'' as a compatibility check. Future versions may be able to tolerate layers compiled against an old version of the headers.
- name
char * name;
The name of the layer whose open() method Perl should invoke on open(). For example if the layer is called APR, you will call:
open $fh, ">:APR", ...
and Perl knows that it has to invoke the PerlIOAPR_open() method implemented by the APR layer.
- size
Size_t size;
The size of the per-instance data structure, e.g.:
If this field is zero then "PerlIO_pushed" does not malloc anything and assumes layer's Pushed function will do any required layer stack manipulation - used to avoid malloc/free overhead for dummy layers. If the field is non-zero it must be at least the size of "PerlIOl", "PerlIO_pushed" will allocate memory for the layer's data structures and link new layer onto the stream's stack. (If the layer's Pushed method returns an error indication the layer is popped again.)
- kind
IV kind;
- *
The layer is buffered.
- *
The layer is acceptable to have in a binmode(FH) stack - i.e. it does not (or will configure itself not to) transform bytes passing through it.
- *
Layer can translate between ``\n'' and CRLF line ends.
- *
Layer allows buffer snooping.
- *
Used when the layer's open() accepts more arguments than usual. The extra arguments should come not before the "MODE" argument. When this flag is used it's up to the layer to validate the args.
- Pushed
IV (*Pushed)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f,const char *mode, SV *arg);
The only absolutely mandatory method. Called when the layer is pushed onto the stack. The "mode" argument may be NULL if this occurs post-open. The "arg" will be non-"NULL" if an argument string was passed. In most cases this should call "PerlIOBase_pushed()" to convert "mode" into the appropriate "PERLIO_F_XXXXX" flags in addition to any actions the layer itself takes. If a layer is not expecting an argument it need neither save the one passed to it, nor provide "Getarg()" (it could perhaps "Perl_warn" that the argument was un-expected).
Returns 0 on success. On failure returns -1 and should set errno.
- Popped
IV (*Popped)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Called when the layer is popped from the stack. A layer will normally be popped after "Close()" is called. But a layer can be popped without being closed if the program is dynamically managing layers on the stream. In such cases "Popped()" should free any resources (buffers, translation tables, ...) not held directly in the layer's struct. It should also "Unread()" any unconsumed data that has been read and buffered from the layer below back to that layer, so that it can be re-provided to what ever is now above.
Returns 0 on success and failure. If "Popped()" returns true then perlio.c assumes that either the layer has popped itself, or the layer is super special and needs to be retained for other reasons. In most cases it should return false.
- Open
PerlIO * (*Open)(...);
The "Open()" method has lots of arguments because it combines the functions of perl's "open", "PerlIO_open", perl's "sysopen", "PerlIO_fdopen" and "PerlIO_reopen". The full prototype is as follows:
PerlIO * (*Open)(pTHX_ PerlIO_funcs *tab, PerlIO_list_t *layers, IV n, const char *mode, int fd, int imode, int perm, PerlIO *old, int narg, SV **args);
Open should (perhaps indirectly) call "PerlIO_allocate()" to allocate a slot in the table and associate it with the layers information for the opened file, by calling "PerlIO_push". The layers is an array of all the layers destined for the "PerlIO *", and any arguments passed to them, n is the index into that array of the layer being called. The macro "PerlIOArg" will return a (possibly "NULL") SV * for the argument passed to the layer.
The mode string is an ""fopen()"-like" string which would match the regular expression "/^[I#]?[rwa]\+?[bt]?$/".
The 'I' prefix is used during creation of "stdin".."stderr" via special "PerlIO_fdopen" calls; the '#' prefix means that this is "sysopen" and that imode and perm should be passed to "PerlLIO_open3"; 'r' means read, 'w' means write and 'a' means append. The '+' suffix means that both reading and writing/appending are permitted. The 'b' suffix means file should be binary, and 't' means it is text. (Almost all layers should do the IO in binary mode, and ignore the b/t bits. The ":crlf" layer should be pushed to handle the distinction.)
If old is not "NULL" then this is a "PerlIO_reopen". Perl itself does not use this (yet?) and semantics are a little vague.
If fd not negative then it is the numeric file descriptor fd, which will be open in a manner compatible with the supplied mode string, the call is thus equivalent to "PerlIO_fdopen". In this case nargs will be zero.
If nargs is greater than zero then it gives the number of arguments passed to "open", otherwise it will be 1 if for example "PerlIO_open" was called. In simple cases SvPV_nolen(*args) is the pathname to open.
Having said all that translation-only layers do not need to provide "Open()" at all, but rather leave the opening to a lower level layer and wait to be ``pushed''. If a layer does provide "Open()" it should normally call the "Open()" method of next layer down (if any) and then push itself on top if that succeeds.
If "PerlIO_push" was performed and open has failed, it must "PerlIO_pop" itself, since if it's not, the layer won't be removed and may cause bad problems.
Returns "NULL" on failure.
- Binmode
IV (*Binmode)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Optional. Used when ":raw" layer is pushed (explicitly or as a result of binmode(FH)). If not present layer will be popped. If present should configure layer as binary (or pop itself) and return 0. If it returns -1 for error "binmode" will fail with layer still on the stack.
- Getarg
SV * (*Getarg)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, CLONE_PARAMS *param, int flags);
Optional. If present should return an SV * representing the string argument passed to the layer when it was pushed. e.g. ``:encoding(ascii)'' would return an SvPV with value ``ascii''. (param and flags arguments can be ignored in most cases)
"Dup" uses "Getarg" to retrieve the argument originally passed to "Pushed", so you must implement this function if your layer has an extra argument to "Pushed" and will ever be "Dup"ed.
- Fileno
IV (*Fileno)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Returns the Unix/Posix numeric file descriptor for the handle. Normally "PerlIOBase_fileno()" (which just asks next layer down) will suffice for this.
Returns -1 on error, which is considered to include the case where the layer cannot provide such a file descriptor.
- Dup
PerlIO * (*Dup)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, PerlIO *o, CLONE_PARAMS *param, int flags);
XXX: Needs more docs.
Used as part of the ``clone'' process when a thread is spawned (in which case param will be non-NULL) and when a stream is being duplicated via '&' in the "open".
Similar to "Open", returns PerlIO* on success, "NULL" on failure.
- Read
SSize_t (*Read)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, void *vbuf, Size_t count);
Basic read operation.
Typically will call "Fill" and manipulate pointers (possibly via the API). "PerlIOBuf_read()" may be suitable for derived classes which provide ``fast gets'' methods.
Returns actual bytes read, or -1 on an error.
- Unread
SSize_t (*Unread)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, const void *vbuf, Size_t count);
A superset of stdio's "ungetc()". Should arrange for future reads to see the bytes in "vbuf". If there is no obviously better implementation then "PerlIOBase_unread()" provides the function by pushing a ``fake'' ``pending'' layer above the calling layer.
Returns the number of unread chars.
- Write
SSize_t (*Write)(PerlIO *f, const void *vbuf, Size_t count);
Basic write operation.
Returns bytes written or -1 on an error.
- Seek
IV (*Seek)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, Off_t offset, int whence);
Position the file pointer. Should normally call its own "Flush" method and then the "Seek" method of next layer down.
Returns 0 on success, -1 on failure.
- Tell
Off_t (*Tell)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return the file pointer. May be based on layers cached concept of position to avoid overhead.
Returns -1 on failure to get the file pointer.
- Close
IV (*Close)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Close the stream. Should normally call "PerlIOBase_close()" to flush itself and close layers below, and then deallocate any data structures (buffers, translation tables, ...) not held directly in the data structure.
Returns 0 on success, -1 on failure.
- Flush
IV (*Flush)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Should make stream's state consistent with layers below. That is, any buffered write data should be written, and file position of lower layers adjusted for data read from below but not actually consumed. (Should perhaps "Unread()" such data to the lower layer.)
Returns 0 on success, -1 on failure.
- Fill
IV (*Fill)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
The buffer for this layer should be filled (for read) from layer below. When you ``subclass'' PerlIOBuf layer, you want to use its _read method and to supply your own fill method, which fills the PerlIOBuf's buffer.
Returns 0 on success, -1 on failure.
- Eof
IV (*Eof)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return end-of-file indicator. "PerlIOBase_eof()" is normally sufficient.
Returns 0 on end-of-file, 1 if not end-of-file, -1 on error.
- Error
IV (*Error)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return error indicator. "PerlIOBase_error()" is normally sufficient.
Returns 1 if there is an error (usually when "PERLIO_F_ERROR" is set, 0 otherwise.
- Clearerr
void (*Clearerr)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Clear end-of-file and error indicators. Should call "PerlIOBase_clearerr()" to set the "PERLIO_F_XXXXX" flags, which may suffice.
- Setlinebuf
void (*Setlinebuf)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Mark the stream as line buffered. "PerlIOBase_setlinebuf()" sets the PERLIO_F_LINEBUF flag and is normally sufficient.
- Get_base
STDCHAR * (*Get_base)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Allocate (if not already done so) the read buffer for this layer and return pointer to it. Return NULL on failure.
- Get_bufsiz
Size_t (*Get_bufsiz)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return the number of bytes that last "Fill()" put in the buffer.
- Get_ptr
STDCHAR * (*Get_ptr)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return the current read pointer relative to this layer's buffer.
- Get_cnt
SSize_t (*Get_cnt)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f);
Return the number of bytes left to be read in the current buffer.
- Set_ptrcnt
void (*Set_ptrcnt)(pTHX_ PerlIO *f, STDCHAR *ptr, SSize_t cnt);
Adjust the read pointer and count of bytes to match "ptr" and/or "cnt". The application (or layer above) must ensure they are consistent. (Checking is allowed by the paranoid.)
To ask for the next layer down use PerlIONext(PerlIO *f).To check that a PerlIO* is valid use PerlIOValid(PerlIO *f). (All this does is really just to check that the pointer is non-NULL and that the pointer behind that is non-NULL.)
PerlIOBase(PerlIO *f) returns the ``Base'' pointer, or in other words, the "PerlIOl*" pointer.
PerlIOSelf(PerlIO* f, type) return the PerlIOBase cast to a type.
Perl_PerlIO_or_Base(PerlIO* f, callback, base, failure, args) either calls the callback from the functions of the layer f (just by the name of the IO function, like ``Read'') with the args, or if there is no such callback, calls the base version of the callback with the same args, or if the f is invalid, set errno to EBADF and return failure.
Perl_PerlIO_or_fail(PerlIO* f, callback, failure, args) either calls the callback of the functions of the layer f with the args, or if there is no such callback, set errno to EINVAL. Or if the f is invalid, set errno to EBADF and return failure.
Perl_PerlIO_or_Base_void(PerlIO* f, callback, base, args) either calls the callback of the functions of the layer f with the args, or if there is no such callback, calls the base version of the callback with the same args, or if the f is invalid, set errno to EBADF.
Perl_PerlIO_or_fail_void(PerlIO* f, callback, args) either calls the callback of the functions of the layer f with the args, or if there is no such callback, set errno to EINVAL. Or if the f is invalid, set errno to EBADF.
Implementing PerlIO Layers
If you find the implementation document unclear or not sufficient, look at the existing PerlIO layer implementations, which include:- *
- C implementations
The perlio.c and perliol.h in the Perl core implement the ``unix'', ``perlio'', ``stdio'', ``crlf'', ``utf8'', ``byte'', ``raw'', ``pending'' layers, and also the ``mmap'' and ``win32'' layers if applicable. (The ``win32'' is currently unfinished and unused, to see what is used instead in Win32, see ``Querying the layers of filehandles'' in PerlIO .)
PerlIO::encoding, PerlIO::scalar, PerlIO::via in the Perl core.
PerlIO::gzip and APR::PerlIO (mod_perl 2.0) on CPAN.
- *
- Perl implementations
PerlIO::via::QuotedPrint in the Perl core and PerlIO::via::* on CPAN.
If you are creating a PerlIO layer, you may want to be lazy, in other words, implement only the methods that interest you. The other methods you can either replace with the ``blank'' methods
PerlIOBase_noop_ok PerlIOBase_noop_fail
(which do nothing, and return zero and -1, respectively) or for certain methods you may assume a default behaviour by using a NULL method. The Open method looks for help in the 'parent' layer. The following table summarizes the behaviour:
method behaviour with NULL Clearerr PerlIOBase_clearerr Close PerlIOBase_close Dup PerlIOBase_dup Eof PerlIOBase_eof Error PerlIOBase_error Fileno PerlIOBase_fileno Fill FAILURE Flush SUCCESS Getarg SUCCESS Get_base FAILURE Get_bufsiz FAILURE Get_cnt FAILURE Get_ptr FAILURE Open INHERITED Popped SUCCESS Pushed SUCCESS Read PerlIOBase_read Seek FAILURE Set_cnt FAILURE Set_ptrcnt FAILURE Setlinebuf PerlIOBase_setlinebuf Tell FAILURE Unread PerlIOBase_unread Write FAILURE FAILURE Set errno (to EINVAL in Unixish, to LIB$_INVARG in VMS) and return -1 (for numeric return values) or NULL (for pointers) INHERITED Inherited from the layer below SUCCESS Return 0 (for numeric return values) or a pointer
Core Layers
The file "perlio.c" provides the following layers:- unix
- A basic non-buffered layer which calls Unix/POSIX "read()", "write()", "lseek()", "close()". No buffering. Even on platforms that distinguish between O_TEXT and O_BINARY this layer is always O_BINARY.
- perlio
- A very complete generic buffering layer which provides the whole of PerlIO API. It is also intended to be used as a ``base class'' for other layers. (For example its "Read()" method is implemented in terms of the "Get_cnt()"/"Get_ptr()"/"Set_ptrcnt()" methods).
``perlio'' over ``unix'' provides a complete replacement for stdio as seen via PerlIO API. This is the default for USE_PERLIO when system's stdio does not permit perl's ``fast gets'' access, and which do not distinguish between "O_TEXT" and "O_BINARY".
- stdio
- A layer which provides the PerlIO API via the layer scheme, but implements it by calling system's stdio. This is (currently) the default if system's stdio provides sufficient access to allow perl's ``fast gets'' access and which do not distinguish between "O_TEXT" and "O_BINARY".
- crlf
- A layer derived using ``perlio'' as a base class. It provides Win32-like ``\n'' to CR,LF translation. Can either be applied above ``perlio'' or serve as the buffer layer itself. ``crlf'' over ``unix'' is the default if system distinguishes between "O_TEXT" and "O_BINARY" opens. (At some point ``unix'' will be replaced by a ``native'' Win32 IO layer on that platform, as Win32's read/write layer has various drawbacks.) The ``crlf'' layer is a reasonable model for a layer which transforms data in some way.
- mmap
- If Configure detects "mmap()" functions this layer is provided (with ``perlio'' as a ``base'') which does ``read'' operations by mmap()ing the file. Performance improvement is marginal on modern systems, so it is mainly there as a proof of concept. It is likely to be unbundled from the core at some point. The ``mmap'' layer is a reasonable model for a minimalist ``derived'' layer.
- pending
- An ``internal'' derivative of ``perlio'' which can be used to provide Unread() function for layers which have no buffer or cannot be bothered. (Basically this layer's "Fill()" pops itself off the stack and so resumes reading from layer below.)
- raw
- A dummy layer which never exists on the layer stack. Instead when ``pushed'' it actually pops the stack removing itself, it then calls Binmode function table entry on all the layers in the stack - normally this (via PerlIOBase_binmode) removes any layers which do not have "PERLIO_K_RAW" bit set. Layers can modify that behaviour by defining their own Binmode entry.
- utf8
- Another dummy layer. When pushed it pops itself and sets the "PERLIO_F_UTF8" flag on the layer which was (and now is once more) the top of the stack.
In addition perlio.c also provides a number of "PerlIOBase_xxxx()" functions which are intended to be used in the table slots of classes which do not need to do anything special for a particular method.
Extension Layers
Layers can made available by extension modules. When an unknown layer is encountered the PerlIO code will perform the equivalent of :use PerlIO 'layer';
Where layer is the unknown layer. PerlIO.pm will then attempt to:
require PerlIO::layer;
If after that process the layer is still not defined then the "open" will fail.
The following extension layers are bundled with perl:
- :encoding
use Encoding;
makes this layer available, although PerlIO.pm ``knows'' where to find it. It is an example of a layer which takes an argument as it is called thus:
open( $fh, "<:encoding(iso-8859-7)", $pathname );
- :scalar
- Provides support for reading data from and writing data to a scalar.
open( $fh, "+<:scalar", \$scalar );
When a handle is so opened, then reads get bytes from the string value of $scalar, and writes change the value. In both cases the position in $scalar starts as zero but can be altered via "seek", and determined via "tell".
Please note that this layer is implied when calling open() thus:
open( $fh, "+<", \$scalar );
- :via
- Provided to allow layers to be implemented as Perl code. For instance:
use PerlIO::via::StripHTML; open( my $fh, "<:via(StripHTML)", "index.html" );
See PerlIO::via for details.
Things that need to be done to improve this document.- *
- Explain how to make a valid fh without going through open()(i.e. apply a layer). For example if the file is not opened through perl, but we want to get back a fh, like it was opened by Perl.
How PerlIO_apply_layera fits in, where its docs, was it made public?
Currently the example could be something like this:
PerlIO *foo_to_PerlIO(pTHX_ char *mode, ...) { char *mode; /* "w", "r", etc */ const char *layers = ":APR"; /* the layer name */ PerlIO *f = PerlIO_allocate(aTHX); if (!f) { return NULL; } PerlIO_apply_layers(aTHX_ f, mode, layers); if (f) { PerlIOAPR *st = PerlIOSelf(f, PerlIOAPR); /* fill in the st struct, as in _open() */ st->file = file; PerlIOBase(f)->flags |= PERLIO_F_OPEN; return f; } return NULL; }
- *
- fix/add the documentation in places marked as XXX.
- *
- The handling of errors by the layer is not specified. e.g. when $! should be set explicitly, when the error handling should be just delegated to the top layer.
Probably give some hints on using SETERRNO() or pointers to where they can be found.
- *
- I think it would help to give some concrete examples to make it easier to understand the API. Of course I agree that the API has to be concise, but since there is no second document that is more of a guide, I think that it'd make it easier to start with the doc which is an API, but has examples in it in places where things are unclear, to a person who is not a PerlIO guru (yet).
Contenus ©2006-2024 Benjamin Poulain
Design ©2006-2024 Maxime Vantorre


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Important Factors When Creating a Good Website.
Make Your Website Look Good!
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- How long have they been building websites?
- Do they have a diverse team or just one person that does everything?
- Do they have hundreds of website clients… or just a few dozen?
- Has their service team earned any design or customer service awards?
- Do they have any Google certifications?
- Do they have verified reviews?
- Are they a Web Builder or a Conservative Christian WordPress Website Designer?
- Here's a biggie… Are they located physically IN the United States?
What is the difference between a Website Builder and a Conservative Christian WordPress Website Designer?
Actually, a lot! Website builders are the most common of those you might find online. Often an individual or small company, simply "assembles" a website. They might use WordPress or a white-label Wix builder with a pre-designed theme and plugins. That generally is their limitation. They lack the skills to code, construct, develop or create custom items within a website. They are limited by the software or the skill to really provide the customization that many Texas area clients seek today. The result is a low-performance, cookie-cutter build that probably costs too much… or too little.
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and let's get started.

subset: commoncrawl


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NEW YORK — Starbucks has a new way to wake up its customers: showing the calories in its drinks.
The Seattle-based coffee chain says it will start posting calorie counts on menu boards nationwide next week, ahead of a federal regulation that would require it to do so.
Calorie counts on menus are already required in some parts of the country, including New York City.
But starting June 25, Starbucks Corp. says customers at its more than 11,000 U.S. locations will be able to see that there are 300 calories in a small caramel Frappuccino and 230 calories in a small Iced Caffe Mocha.
Pastry cases will also show calorie information, in case customers want to save some calories and opt for a Morning Bun (350 calories) instead of a blueberry scone (460 calories).
The move by Starbucks comes as the Food and Drug Administration irons out the details of a regulation that would require companies with more than 20 locations to post calorie information on their menus. Other chains including McDonald's Corp. have also moved ahead with posting the information, saying they're providing it to be more transparent rather than because they're being forced to.
In its announcement, Starbucks highlighted the various steps it has taken over the years to give customers choices, such as adding sugar-free syrup in 1997 and making 2 percent milk the standard for core beverages in North America in 2007.
The company notes that it already provides nutrition information on its website, through its iPhone app and with printed brochures in cafes. It also says there are numerous ways people can reduce the calories in their drinks, such as by asking for non-fat milk, sugar-free syrup or no whipped cream.
A representative for the company did not know what percentage of customers ask to have their drinks customized.
It's not clear how posted calorie counts affect what people choose to order. But in announcing its plans to post calorie information nationwide last year, the head of McDonald's USA at the time said that providing the information doesn't really change the company's overall menu mix.
While a few national chains already put calorie information on their menus, a "large majority" are waiting for the FDA to issue its final guidelines, according to Sue Hensley, a spokeswoman for the National Restaurant Association.
The group expects the regulation to take effect by sometime next year.


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Altace is used for treating high blood pressure or decreasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, and death in certain patients. It may be used alone or with other medicines. It is used along with other medicines to manage heart failure and improve survival after a heart attack. Altace is an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor. It works by relaxing blood vessels. This helps to lower blood pressure.
Use Altace as directed by your doctor.
- Take Altace by mouth with or without food.
- Swallow this tablet whole unless your doctor tells you otherwise.
- Continue to take Altace even if you feel well. Do not miss any dose.
- If you miss a dose of Altace, take it as soon as possible. If it is almost time for your next dose, skip the missed dose and go back to your regular dosing schedule. Do not take 2 doses at once.
Ask your health care provider any questions you may have about how to use Altace.
Store Altace between 68 and 77 degrees F (20 and 25 degrees C). Brief storage at temperatures between 59 and 86 degrees F (15 and 30 degrees C) is permitted. Store away from heat, moisture, and light. Do not store in the bathroom. Keep Altace out of the reach of children and away from pets.
Active Ingredient: Ramipril.


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I'm back with another tutorial, review and giveaway! I've partnered again with one of my favorite companies, Sedona Lace, to show you their newest product - the 168 Pro Full Color Palette. If you haven't jumped on these eyeshadow palettes yet, this is the perfect time to start. The 168 Palette has the most colors of all the palettes out there and in the video I tell you how the quality is even a step above the others. I'll show you how to create a super flattering plum makeup look, and then of course there will be another giveaway!
Click here for more!
Check out the video!
My Thoughts on the Palette
If you haven't bought any of the 88 palettes before, this palette is an amazing start. It has all the colors you need from neutrals to smokey and brights. The finishes also range from shimmer to matte. I also noticed that the quality of these shadows is a bit better than the other ones I reviewed. The color doesn't fade when blending, the pigmentation is brighter and the shadows last longer. I'm not sure what happened in the production process but two thumbs up! Just rock the shadows with whatever eyeshadow base you like and you're good to go.
The final look!
Here's What I Used
NYX HD Primer
NYX HD Foundation in Medium
Eve Pearl HD Dual Powder in Tan
Tarte Medium Undereye Corrector
MAC Blunt Blush
NYX HD grinding blush in Menage a Trois
NYX Blush in Terra Cotta
NYX Eyeshadow base in skin tone
MAC Penultimate Liquid Liner
Sedona Lace 168 Palette
L'Oreal Infiniti Wear Ebony Pencil
Sonia Kashuk Glamour Lashes
NYX Fly with Me Mascara
Eve Pearl Pearlicious Lip Gloss in Climax
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- Follow my blog
- Leave a comment telling me why you'd like to win
- I'll pick someone at random and announce it on Monday.


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People Magazine got their hands on two new movie stills from "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn" featuring Edward and Bella. The upcoming film "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2" by director Bill Condon stars Robert Pattinson (Bel Ami, Water for Elephants), Kristen Stewart (The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, The Runaways), Nikki Reed, Ashley Greene (Skateland), Taylor Lautner, (The Twilight Saga: New Moon, My Own Worst Enemy), Jackson Rathbone (S. Darko, The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1), Dakota Fanning and Kellan Lutz.
Synopsis: In the highly anticipated next chapter of the blockbuster The Twilight Saga, the newfound married bliss of Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart) and vampire Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson) is cut short when a series of betrayals and misfortunes threatens to destroy their world.
After their wedding, Bella and Edward travel to Rio de Janeiro for their honeymoon, where they finally give in to their passions. Bella soon discovers she is pregnant, and during a nearly fatal childbirth, Edward finally fulfills her wish to become immortal.
But the arrival of their remarkable daughter, Renesmee, sets in motion a perilous chain of events that pits the Cullens and their allies against the Volturi, the fearsome council of vampire leaders, setting the stage for an all-out battle.
The suspenseful and deeply romantic Breaking Dawn continues the epic tale of supernatural fantasy and passionate love that has made The Twilight Saga a worldwide phenomenon.
Click Here for the top 30 photos from Breaking Dawn.


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The 16-year-old girl raped by two Ohio high school football players in a crime that has attracted wide attention has also been the victim of online harassment, the state's top prosecutor said late Monday.
Attorney General Mike DeWine announced that two Steubenville, Ohio, girls have been arrested and charged with threatening the other girl. Cleveland's Plain Dealer writes that the alleged harassers are 15- and 16-years-old, and:
"The 16-year-old is charged with one misdemeanor count of aggravated menacing for threatening the life of the victim on Twitter. The 15-year-old is charged with one misdemeanor count of menacing for threatening bodily harm to the victim on Facebook."
"Let me be clear," DeWine says in a statement on his official website. "Threatening a teenage rape victim will not be tolerated. If anyone makes a threat verbally or via the internet, we will take it seriously, we will find you, and we will arrest you."
According to Steubenville's Herald Star, police are also "pursing information about a juvenile male" who may have harassed the victim.
As we reported Monday, DeWine plans to have a grand jury consider whether other teens should be charged in connection with the rape, which happened last summer. The two teenage boys were convicted over the weekend.
The arrest of the two girls for allegedly harassing the victim online continues the crime's connection to the world of social media. Images of the victim and texts about her, posted by the boys who were eventually convicted of the crime and some of their friends, outraged many people around the nation and the world — and prompted an online movement to publicize the crime and push authorities to investigate.
Copyright 2020 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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What Are Vaccines?
A vaccine is a biologically active substance designed to protect children and adults from infections caused by bacteria and viruses. Vaccines are also called immunizations because they take advantage of our natural immune system's ability to prevent infectious illness. To understand how vaccines work, we need to consider how our immune system protects us from infections.
The Immune System
Our bodies are armed with a variety of methods to protect against infectious microorganisms (eg, bacteria and viruses). The most sophisticated of these methods involve activating specific immune system cells, some of which make proteins called antibodies. For the immune system to effectively respond to an infectious microorganism, the invader must carry some sort of identification that immune cells can recognize and respond to. These identifying markers are called antigens. Both bacteria and viruses carry their own antigens. In fact, different varieties, or strains, of the same microorganism possess their own unique antigen. Immune cells are able to recognize these highly specific antigens, appropriately identify their owners as threatening and respond accordingly.
The immune system's response actually consists of two parts. First, in the presence of a particular antigen, special immune cells, called lymphocytes, become active and take steps against the antigen and its owner, either by unleashing a direct assault on the invader or discharging antibodies to do the job. This usually works quite well, but the full response can take awhile (days to weeks), during which time we suffer the symptoms of the infectious illness (eg, fever, sore throat, , rash). It's only after the immune system gains the upper hand that we begin to recover.
The second, and equally important, part of the immune system response involves creating memory. Not all of the immune cells and antibodies initially stimulated are destined to destroy the invader. A portion of them is held back so they can fight another day. The purpose of these memory cells and antibodies are to attack promptly and overwhelmingly, and to destroy the invader if it were to attack again. In most cases, this memory capability is so efficient that when the same antigen reappears again in the future, we are completely unaware that we've been exposed. The term immunity is used to describe the situation in which an effective memory response has attacked the antigen of a particular microorganism.
Consider the example of chickenpox (varicella), a common viral infection. If you were born prior to the early 1990s (when the chickenpox vaccine was first introduced), you probably remember staying home from school for about a week with a fever and rash. You probably have also noticed that the same illness never reoccurred. This is true even though you've almost certainly been exposed to the virus many times since. Your immune system successfully remembers the chickenpox antigen from its initial encounter with the virus and reliably responds each time it is confronted with the identical antigen.
Now consider the flu . Why is it possible, even likely, to suffer from the flu winter after winter despite a healthy immune response every time? Well, unlike the varicella virus, different strains of influenza infect humans each season. Being immune to last year's flu strain may protect you for the duration of the season, but it will be of little use when next year's strains come around. There is only one strain of varicella (chickenpox) that infects humans.
Ways to Fool the System
So, where do vaccines fit in? The concept behind vaccinations is to stimulate a memory response without producing an actual illness. If successful, a vaccinated individual can enjoy the benefits of immunity without having to suffer through the original illness. To accomplish this, a vaccine must contain at least one antigen from the bacteria or virus of interest. The antigen may take many forms:
- A part of the toxin (poison) responsible for the ill effects of the infection (eg, tetanus and diphtheria )
- Tiny components of killed bacteria (eg, pertussis and pneumococcus)
- Viral protein produced by biotechnology (eg, hepatitis B )
- Killed viruses or parts of viruses (eg, inactivated polio )
- Live viruses that have been rendered harmless by a process called attenuation (eg, measles , mumps , rubella , chickenpox)
Once the vaccine enters the body, its antigen(s) begins to stimulate the development of immune cells and antibodies, which build up over the course of several weeks. Since the immune response produced by vaccines is not as robust as the immune response produced by an actual infectious microorganism, a single vaccine dose usually only provides limited protection. This is why almost all vaccines require multiple doses to insure that the recipient is sufficiently immune. For example, until recently, the vaccine for measles was only given one time in early childhood. When outbreaks of measles began to appear in previously vaccinated adolescents, it became clear that a second, or booster, dose was necessary. Now all children are recommended to receive a booster dose.
It is important to point out that vaccine antigens are often combined with other components for a variety of reasons. To increase the magnitude of the immune response, particularly in young children whose immune systems have yet to mature, antigens are often chemically combined with so-called adjuvant substances (eg, aluminum salts). In addition, a vaccine may contain by-products from the medium in which it was produced (eg, egg protein), as well as substances to preserve the effectiveness of the antigen and keep it sterile (eg, antibiotics). An apparent allergy to a vaccine may actually result from these additives rather than the antigen itself.
Active Versus Passive Immunity
The discussion so far has focused on so-called active immunity, which occurs when a person is exposed to an actual infection or receives a vaccination instead. In either case, the immune system responds by activating its own supply of cells and creating its own antibodies. There is, however, an alternative way to become immune.
In passive immunity, a person can benefit from someone else's immune response by receiving their pre-manufactured antibodies. This occurs naturally in the womb. Prior to birth, babies receive their mother's antibodies, which cross the placenta and protect the newborn from the hostile, germ-laden, environment they encounter in the outside world. Were it not for these antibodies, infants would have a difficult time surviving the many months it would take for them to actively build up their own immunity.
Passive immunity can also be created artificially by administering antibodies retrieved from individuals who have already acquired active immunity to a particular infection. Passive vaccines contain immunoglobulins, which is another term for antibodies. Passive immunity is most commonly used in individuals who have recently been exposed to a serious infection, or who are at high risk for such an exposure, and may not be fully protected. This is because the protection afforded by passive immunization is immediate, whereas active immunization takes weeks or even months to become fully protective.
An example of this could be an infant who has not yet received the active measles vaccine. The infant may be given the passive measles immunoglobulin in the event of a household exposure, such as an older sibling with a measles infection. While passive immunizations are useful in selected cases, only active immunizations are used routinely. This is because passive immunity lasts a few months at best, whereas the protective effects of active immunity, with proper booster doses, should last a lifetime.
Vaccines to Prevent Other Diseases
All vaccines are designed to target infections. However, two commonly recommended vaccines have the added benefit of protecting against cancer. This is true because of the close association of certain viruses with the development of certain cancers. Hepatitis B is the first example of a vaccine (introduced in 1982) that also reduces the risk of cancer. Hepatitis B is a major cause of primary liver cancer , with others being alcoholic cirrhosis and hepatitis C . By essentially eliminating the risk of hepatitis B, the vaccine protects against its associated cancer, but has no affect on the risk of liver cancer associated with excessive alcohol consumption or hepatitis C.
A more recent example of an anticancer immunization is the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine , introduced in 2006. Since HPV is the leading cause of cervical cancer , immunized women should experience a lower risk of Pap smear abnormalities including pre-cancers ( cervical dysplasia ) and cancer. Based on a number of studies documenting the vaccine's effectiveness, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention currently recommends that all girls aged 11 or 12 receive the three-dose vaccination. There's a "catch-up" vaccine for females aged 13-26.
Why Should Everyone Be Vaccinated?
Imagine for a moment a disease contracted every year by more than 50 million people worldwide. Thirty percent die of this disease and the majority of those that survive are left with disfiguring skin lesions (most prominently on the face), rendered totally blind or both. Now imagine this same disease, which has been in existence for at least 3,000 years, being completely eliminated from the face of the earth in as few as 25 years. From over 50 million to not a single case anywhere! What medical advance could possibly be that powerful? The smallpox vaccine .
No medical intervention in the history of humanity has been more successful than immunizations, as measured by the sheer number of people who have benefited. While smallpox is the shining example of a totally successful vaccine, the success rates of other vaccines are equally impressive. Where vaccines are readily available and routinely administered, the rates of measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis B, and many other infections have plummeted. In 1952, for example, there were 21,000 cases of polio resulting in paralysis in the US. By 1980, there were zero, and health officials are on the brink of worldwide polio eradication.
Based on this tremendously successful track record, great efforts are made in many countries to ensure that every child is immunized against a constantly growing number of infections. Despite these efforts only 83% of children received all their required vaccines by three years of age in 2004. While this level of compliance is apparently sufficient to keep extremely rare infections from returning, it has probably contributed to recent localized epidemics of measles and pertussis infections (whooping cough).
To completely eradicate an infectious illness in a population, high levels of immunization rates are necessary. This is due to the concept of herd immunity. Say an inadequately immunized person with measles enters a new community. That case of measles will have no impact on that community if all of its members (the entire "herd") are already immune to measles, ideally through appropriate and timely vaccination. However, if some members of community are insufficiently immunized against measles, it will likely spread rapidly with the introduction of this new case. It can also spread outside the community if an infected member travels elsewhere. The only way to prevent such a scenario is to make sure the entire community is immunized against measles.
Ironically, some reluctant parents argue against vaccinating their children precisely because the universal vaccination program has been so successful. They reason that these infections have become so rare, that they are no longer even worth the small risk of harmful effects. In essence, they are saying that their children need not contribute to herd immunity since so many other children already have. After all, the smallpox vaccine was discontinued in the US in 1972, five years before the infection was officially declared eradicated worldwide. Health professionals counter that as long as these infections continue to exist in the world, they can be easily reintroduced into a population that is not adequately protected and cause considerable devastation.
All states require students to have updated immunizations before enrolling in public schools. However, many states also permit parents to send their children to public schools without being immunized by officially registering their objection.
Vaccines recommended universally for all children, adolescents, and/or adults in the US include:
In addition to the routinely recommended immunizations there are a number of other vaccines indicated for only select people at increased risk. These include:
Anthrax | Rabies |
BCG (tuberculosis) | Smallpox (vaccinia) |
Herpes zoster (shingles) | Typhoid |
Japanese encephalitis | Yellow fever |
How and When Are Vaccines Given?
Most vaccines are injected with a needle deep inside a muscle. In infants, the preferred site for injections is in the thigh a little off the side because it is the largest muscle suitable for this purpose. In older children and adults the preferred site is the deltoid muscle (upper arm) because any lingering pain will not interfere with walking. The buttocks area is not ideal because it contains a lot of fat, and it risks damaging the sciatic nerve, which runs nearby.
Vaccines are also administered just beneath the skin (eg, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella); orally (eg, rotavirus); and inhaled through the nose (one type of an influenza vaccine).
The optimal timing of vaccines is based on two, sometimes competing, factors: when a recipient is first capable of responding to the antigen and when he first needs the protection. If a vaccine is given too early, a child will not be able to mount an adequate immune response and will not become adequately protected. This is true, for example, with the live viral vaccines (measles, mumps, and rubella), which should not generally be given prior to a child's first birthday. If a vaccine is given too late, however, a child may contract the infection.
Another consideration involves the need for booster doses. Most vaccines do not stimulate an adequate immune response after the first dose and must be repeated with booster doses at optimal intervals to insure adequate protection for a lifetime. This increases considerably the number of doses a child must receive before he is fully immunized. Fortunately, multiple vaccines can be administered simultaneously without compromising safety and effectiveness. This is particularly important now that children routinely receive 14 different immunizations by the time they reach age seven.
With the rapid growth in the number of recommended vaccines, the schedule has become quite complicated. Here is a timetable of all routine vaccines in children up through age six.
Indicates age range to administer dose(s) |
Indicates vaccines only recommended for certain high risk groups |
Vaccine | Birth | 1 Month | 2 Months | 4 Months | 6 Months | 12 Months | 15 Months | 18 Months | 19-23 Months | 2-3 Years | 4-6 Years | |
Hepatitis B | Hepatitis B | HepB | HepB | HepB | ||||||||
Rotavirus | Rotavirus | RV | RV | RV | ||||||||
Diptheria, tetanus, pertussis | DTaP | DTaP | DTaP | DTaP | DTaP | DTaP | ||||||
Haemophilus influenza type b | Hib | Hib | Hib | Hib a | Hib | |||||||
Pneumococcal | PCV and PPSV | PCV | PCV | PCV | PCV | PPSV b | ||||||
Inactivated poliovirus | IPV | IPV | IPV | IPV | IPV | |||||||
Influenza | Influenza | Influenza | ||||||||||
Measles, mumps, rubella | MMR | MMR | MMR | |||||||||
Varicella | Varcicella | Varicella | Varc | |||||||||
Hepatitis A | Hepatitis A | HepA (2 doses) | HepA Series | |||||||||
Meningococcal | MCV | MCV | ||||||||||
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines.
Indicates age range to administer dose(s) |
Indicates vaccines only recommended for certain high risk groups |
Catch-up immunizations |
Vaccine | 7-10 years | 11-12 years | 13-18 years |
Diptheria, tetanus, pertussis | Tdap | Tdap | |
Human papillomavirus | HPV (3 doses) | HPV series | |
Meningococcal | MCV | MCV | MCV |
Pneumococcal | PPSV b | ||
Influenza | Influenza (yearly) | ||
Hepatitis A | Hep A series | ||
Hepatitis B | Hep B series | ||
Inactivated poliovirus | IPV series | ||
Measles, mumps, rubella | MMR series | ||
Varicella | Varicella series |
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines.
a Not required if PedvaxHIB or ComVax were given at 2 and 4 months
b With underlying medical conditions
Children who fall off the recommended schedule and those in certain high-risk groups may receive these and other vaccines on a modified schedule. Parents and caregivers of children who have missed doses on the recommended schedule should discuss with their child's pediatrician an alternate vaccination schedule. There are catch-up schedules for children who miss doses: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/recs/schedules .
How Safe Are Vaccines?
Vaccines are one of the safest and most effective medical interventions every devised. Consider measles. The risk of a life-threatening reaction to the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine is approximately 1-2 per 1,000,000 doses given. Conversely, the risk of death from measles itself is 1-3 per 1,000 cases, which means that a child who contracts measles is approximately 500 times more likely to die from the infection than a child who is immunized against it (children receive two MMR vaccines). All routinely administered vaccines have a similar mortality rate measured in cases per million.
The fact that vaccines are rarely life threatening does not, of course, mean they are completely safe. Vaccines are associated with a variety of adverse effects ranging from mild discomfort at the injection site to serious neurologic complications. The vast majority of unwanted reactions are mild and transient. These include localized pain, redness and swelling, as well as low-grade fever and rash. The benefits of the routine vaccinations far outweigh the risks of these mild, self-limited and unavoidable reactions.
However, since routine vaccines are given to perfectly healthy individuals who only have a small risk of future infection, any potential for significant, long-term harm must be taken extremely seriously. As the potential for adverse reactions increase, at some point the risk of harming a healthy child in the present no longer outweigh the benefits of protecting him or her in the future. Despite repeated assurances from numerous government agencies and independent research scientists that routine vaccinations meet the highest standards of safety and effectiveness, a small yet vocal group of parents and consumer advocacy organizations remain unconvinced. They have raised concerns about the connection between various vaccines and a variety of serious health conditions including autism , multiple sclerosis , sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and cancer . One reason this controversy persists is that it can be difficult to prove a causal connection between vaccines, which are given often, and most of these conditions, which occur rarely. Even if a child develops, say, autistic behavior soon after receiving a vaccine, it does not mean the vaccine was responsible. To date, there has been no convincing study published that supports a cause and effect relationship between vaccines and a substantially increased risk of these chronic conditions.
Nevertheless, serious adverse reactions do rarely take place, and it is essential to monitor these events carefully. The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of 1986 requires healthcare providers who administer vaccines to maintain permanent immunization records and to report serious adverse reactions to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). Consistent reporting by physicians nationwide provides clues to unanticipated adverse reactions from all vaccines, but particularly the newer ones for which there is relatively limited experience. In addition, VAERS can monitor the frequency of known reactions, identify possible risk factors for these reactions, and help locate a bad vaccine batch. If you are concerned your child may have developed a serious reaction to a recently administered vaccine, contact your child's pediatrician. In addition, you may report your concerns directly to VAERS, where patient-identifying information is kept confidential.
In the event of serious injury or death thought to be caused by a vaccination, patients and their families can be compensated through the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, a no fault system covering most of the vaccines given routinely to children and adults.
Precautions and Contraindications
Contraindications refer to situations in which a vaccine or vaccines should not be administered to an individual under any circumstances because the risks clearly outweigh the benefits. Precautions refer to a situation where the vaccine may be safely given, but the benefits and risks must be carefully weighed before proceeding. Contraindications and precautions may be temporary or permanent, and they may apply to all vaccines or only certain ones. A severe, life-threatening allergic (anaphylactic) reaction to a particular vaccine is a contraindication to its further use, although, the same individual may receive other vaccines safely.
As a rule of thumb, precautions should be observed if a recipient has ever had a serious, but non-life-threatening reaction from which he completely recovered (eg, high fever, seizure , or persistent inconsolable crying). Future precautions are, of course, unnecessary in situations where the recipient experienced minor, transient reactions that are not unexpected. Furthermore, if a recipient arrives for a vaccine with acute moderate or severe illness, it is usually best to wait until the illness resolves before administering the vaccine. However, precautions are generally unnecessary for minor illnesses; vaccines can generally be administered safely even in the presence of a low-grade fever.
Special considerations are necessary for patients with compromised immune systems (ie, immunodeficiency). The safety and effectiveness of immunizations will depend on the severity and cause of the immunodeficiency (eg, AIDS or congenital condition) and the type of vaccine being considered. Vaccines containing live viruses, for example, may actually cause the infectious illness in such patients, and even perfectly safe vaccines may not produce a sufficiently protective immune response. In some cases, the household contacts of immunocompromised patients (eg, siblings) should not receive live vaccines (eg, oral polio) since the virus can be spread on rare occasions. In addition to immunodeficiencies, other illness, or medications to treat them, can impair vaccine safety and effectiveness. For example, children receiving corticosteroids, which at high doses can have profound effects on the immune system, may require special precautions. The same may be true for children with a history of seizures.
Many children have their immunization unnecessarily delayed or even forgone due to common misconceptions among both physicians and parents regarding when vaccines are contraindicated. Routinely administered vaccines are generally not contraindicated under the following common circumstances:
- Mild acute illness with or without low-grade fever in an otherwise well child
- A child in the recovery phase of illness
- Current use of antibiotics
- Recent exposure to an infectious illness
- Reaction to a previous vaccine dose involving only localized soreness, redness, or swelling
- Infants born prematurely
- Breastfeeding mother
- History of nonspecific allergies or relatives with allergies
- History of allergies to penicillin or any other antimicrobial agent, except anaphylactic reactions to neomycin or streptomycin
- Family history of seizures, sudden infant death syndrome, or adverse events after immunization
American Academy of Family Physicians
Vaccines & Immunizations
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2010 child & adolescent immunization schedules. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/recs/schedules/child-schedule.htm#printable. Accessed January 19, 2010.
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/recs/acip/default.htm .
MMWR Weekly: Recommended immunization schedules for 0-18 years-United States, 2008. Center for Disease Control website. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5701a8.htm . Updated January 11, 2008. Accessed January 24, 2008.
National Center for Health Statistics. Center for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs.
National Immunization Program. Center for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines.
Pickering LK, Baker CJ, Long SS, McMillan JA, eds. Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases . 27th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2006.
1/28/2008 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed/what.php : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0-18 years—United States, 2008. MMWR 2008;56(51&52):Q1-Q4.
1/19/2010 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed/what.php: Recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 Through 18 years—United States, 2010. MMWR. 2010;58(51&52):1-4.
Last reviewed January 2009 by David L. Horn, MD, FACP
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © 2007 EBSCO Publishing All rights reserved.


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Jonas Wood -Coalition for the Homeless Plate
Jonas Wood -Coalition for the Homeless Plate
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Artist: Jonas Wood
Title: Coalition for the Homeless Plate
Year: 2020
Edition: Edition of 175
Medium: Bone China
Size: 26.7 cm
Condition: Brand New
Certificate Of Authenticity: None provided.
Hand signed and numbered: Unsigned
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