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5 Tips For Back Pain in Lebanon
5 Tips For Back Pain in Lebanon
Our patients have always appreciated our 5 Tips for Back Pain from the top Lebanon chiropractor. Have you missed work, had to give up a recreational activity that you enjoy, or had trouble sleeping at night because of back pain? If so you're not alone. In fact, it was recently found that 80% of Americans will experience back pain at some point throughout their lives. In addition to this startling statistic, back pain has also risen to capture the number one spot as the leading cause of disability in the United States. While pain is the primary concern for sufferers of back pain, it often causes a significant financial burden as well. In 2012 alone, it was estimated that the American people spent nearly 30 billion dollars seeking treatment for their back pain.
With back pain rising to epidemic proportions, patients, doctors, and researchers are searching high and low for a cost effective solution. Our team at Wilson County Chiropractic hopes this article will give you some information on the latest discoveries in research about back pain.
Five Simple Tips to Help You Manage Your Back Pain:
1. While being overweight or obese has been shown to be correlated with a greater incidence of heart attack, stroke, and diabetes, it has also been found to be one of the biggest contributing factors for the development of back pain. Since our body's frame is designed to only carry a certain amount of weight, excess weight puts an immense strain not only on our spine, but also on other joints throughout our body. This excess strain has been shown to increase the rate of degeneration of the vertebrae in our back, leading to the early development of back pain.
In addition to the degenerative effects of being overweight, those extra pounds have been shown to increase the odds of developing osteoarthritis, a herniated disc, and sciatica. Unfortunately, people who are obese also have a greater tendency to undergo unwanted back surgeries. So the next time you feel the urge to stop at your favorite fast food establishment, think twice and head home to get some of those fresh fruits and veggies.
2. Since the time that cigarettes were invented there has always been someone saying smoking is bad for you. While many people have heard that smoking increases the risk of cancer, these same people may be surprised to hear that research is showing it also contributes to the development of back pain. In fact, smoking is related to spinal pain in a couple of different ways. First of all, smoking has been identified as one of the main factors in causing atherosclerosis (blockage of the small arteries throughout the body). The spine and its related tissues such, as the intervertebral discs, primarily receive their blood supply and nutrients from these small vessels. As these structures become obstructed due to smoking, the tissues are unable heal properly leading to early degeneration and pain.
In addition to the effects of atherosclerosis, the nicotine that is found in cigarettes has been shown to decrease the activity of the bone forming cells called osteoblasts. This can be considered another contributing factor to the spines decreased healing capability and as a direct result the presence of pain. These findings only give you another reason to quit smoking.
3. I bet you can still remember your parents yelling at you to sit up straight while at the dinner table or doing your homework. While you may have rebelled against your parents then, you should listen now; your posture has a large effect on your spine and the development of back pain. With the increased time people spend in the seated position at work or on the computer at home, learning how to correct your posture will go a long way in helping you obtain relief from back pain.
The effects of poor posture range from putting extra strain on the discs, vertebrae, and muscles throughout your back to causing an increase in pressure on the nerves exiting the spine. All of these factors contribute to pain not only in your back, but also throughout other areas of your body. So the next time you think about slouching in your chair, sit up straight and follow your chiropractors advice.
4. Have you ever noticed that you back pain becomes worse when sitting in one position for too long? It has been shown through research that inactivity is one of the primary factors for the development of long-term musculoskeletal pain. Not only does inactivity lead to weight gain (which causes back pain in itself), it also causes the structures that support the spine to weaken, resulting in a greater incidence of back pain. In addition to weakening, the muscles and discs tend to shorten as certain positions are maintained for long periods of time. Simply developing a daily exercise and stretching program can go a long way in helping you gain relief from your back pain.
5. While many people wait until they can hardly stand the pain to visit a chiropractor, it is important to understand that pain is your body's last mechanism for letting you know something is wrong. While the effectiveness and safety of chiropractic for the treatment of lower back pain is undebatable, many people are still unaware of exactly how chiropractic helps. Chiropractors simply focus on allowing the body to function properly, typically concentrating on the musculoskeletal and nervous system. While each patient is treated individually depending on their condition, chiropractors are skilled at identifying and correcting spinal misalignments. Since every message from your brain to your body travels through your spinal cord you can imagine how important the alignment of your spinal bones is for protecting this important structure. While chiropractic has been shown to be one of the most cost effective treatments for back pain, chiropractors are even better at preventing back pain from beginning in the first place.
To get additional advice or learn more about preventing back pain, contact our team at Wilson County Chiropractic today.
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- Anatomy
- Conditions
- Procedures
The knee is made up of four bones. The femur or thighbone is the bone connecting the hip to the knee. The tibia or shinbone connects the knee to the ankle. The patella (kneecap) is the small bone in front of the knee and rides on the knee joint as the knee bends. The fibula is a shorter and thinner bone running parallel to the tibia on its outside. The joint acts like a hinge but with some rotation.
The knee is a synovial joint, which means it is lined by synovium. The synovium produces fluid lubricating and nourishing the inside of the joint. Articular cartilage is the smooth surfaces at the end of the femur and tibia. It is the damage to this surface which causes arthritis.
The femur (thighbone) is the largest and the strongest bone in the body. It is the weight bearing bone of the thigh. It provides attachment to most of the muscles of the knee.
The two femoral condyles make up for the rounded end of the femur. Its smooth articular surface allows the femur to move easily over the tibial (shinbone) meniscus.
The tibia (shinbone), the second largest bone in the body, is the weight bearing bone of the leg. The menisci incompletely cover the superior surface of the tibia where it articulates with the femur. The menisci act as shock absorbers, protecting the articular surface of the tibia as well as assisting in rotation of the knee.
The fibula, although not a weight bearing bone, provides attachment sites for the Lateral collateral ligaments (LCL) and the biceps femoris tendon.
The articulation of the tibia and fibula also allows a slight degree of movement, providing an element of flexibility in response to the actions of muscles attaching to the fibula.
The patella (kneecap), attached to the quadriceps tendon above and the patellar ligament below, rests against the anterior articular surface of the lower end of the femur and protects the knee joint. The patella acts as a fulcrum for the quadriceps by holding the quadriceps tendon off the lower end of the femur.
The medial and the lateral meniscus are thin C-shaped layers of fibrocartilage, incompletely covering the surface of the tibia where it articulates with the femur. The majority of the meniscus has no blood supply and for that reason, when damaged, the meniscus is unable to undergo the normal healing process that occurs in the rest of the body. The menisci act as shock absorbers, protecting the articular surface of the tibia as well as assisting in rotation of the knee. As secondary stabilizers, the intact menisci interact with the stabilizing function of the ligaments and are most effective when the surrounding ligaments are intact.
Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is the major stabilizing ligament of the knee. The ACL is located in the centre of the knee joint and runs from the femur (thigh bone) to the tibia (shin bone), through the centre of the knee. The ACL prevents the femur from sliding backwards on the tibia (or the tibia sliding forwards on the femur). Together with the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), ACL stabilizes the knee in a rotational fashion. Thus, if one of these ligaments is significantly damaged, the knee will be unstable when planting the foot of the injured extremity and pivoting, causing the knee to buckle and give way.
Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL)
Much less research has been done on the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) because it is injured far less often than the ACL.
The PCL prevents the femur from moving too far forward over the tibia. The PCL is the knee's basic stabilizer and is almost twice as strong as the ACL. It provides a central axis about which the knee rotates.
Collateral Ligaments
Collateral Ligaments prevent hyperextension, adduction, and abduction
- Superficial MCL (Medial Collateral Ligament) connects the medial epicondyle of the femur to the medial condyle of the tibia and resists valgus force
- Deep MCL (Medial Collateral Ligament) connects the medial epicondyle of the femur with the medial meniscus
- LCL (Lateral Collateral Ligament) entirely separate from the articular capsule, connects the lateral epicondyle of the femur to the head of the fibula and resists varus force

subset: commoncrawl


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Locksmith Lock Store - Expert Locksmith 90045 - 310-844-9294
Locksmith Lock Store has been handling residential, automotive and commercial locksmithing requests in zip code 90045 for the past several years. We are a leading local locksmith in Los Angeles, CA 90045 on account of our tireless work ethics, superior workmanship and lightning-quick service. We can handle your lock-related request or emergency with ease – we use the best tools in the market for our work and our team is comprised of dedicated professionals that know the ins and outs of the locksmithing business.
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Our teams of locksmiths are experienced, have technical educational backgrounds and undergo constant training to help them perform their jobs better.
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Technological advancements are constant in the locksmithing world to keep security impregnable for everyday thieves and vandals. Locksmith Lock Store makes sure that we carry the latest high-security hardware to give you maximum possible security. We also use high-tech tools for our jobs, which significantly cuts down on work time.
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No matter where you are located in Los Angeles, CA 90045, we can be at your doorstep in a matter of minutes. Our mobile locksmith vans are portable locksmithing units that carry high-tech locksmithing tools and machines which can process and handle most locksmithing requests onsite.
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Locksmith Lock Store operates a 24-hour emergency locksmith service that you can call on even in the middle of the night for assistance. If you've managed to get yourself locked out of your office and need to urgently get at some files inside or if you've left your keys in your car, don't hesitate to call us.
Locksmith Lock Store can reach all areas of Los Angeles, CA 90045 in quick time. We will help you out of your bind in record time. Our team is friendly and can handle most emergency assistance requests with ease. We also provide free security consultations. If you're planning to get new locks or upgrade the security on your old building, don't hesitate to call Locksmith Lock Store on 310-844-9294 at any time for help with your options!


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Personalized notecards allow you to send invitations, introductions, expressions of thanks, and other correspondence to prospects, peers, and customers. Create excitement about an event, promote a corporate outing or meeting, advertise a seminar, or design original greeting cards to add that personal touch to your business correspondence.
- Perfect for greeting cards, announcements, and invitations.
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This week, Washington took on hip-hop royalty, when two Florida representatives went after Jay-Z and Beyonce for their recent trip to Cuba.
"We're saying that no one is above the law, even if you are the diva Beyoncé, and that's wonderful that she's famous and rich, and Jay-Z, everybody loves him, too. Terrific. But no one's above the law," Rep. Ileana Ros-Lehtinen told CNN.
As we reported, it was much ado about nothing, because the U.S. Treasury said the couple's trip was legal. They traveled with a group authorized by the U.S. government to conduct programs that "promote people-to-people contact" on the island.
Today, Jay-Z responded, dropping some rhymes, taking some swipes in an explosive song titled Open Letter. (We would embed it, but it's laced with expletives, so head to his website, if you want to listen.)
"Politician never did [anything] for me / Except lie to me distort history. / Wanna give me jail time and a fine? / Fine, let me commit a real crime. / I might buy a kilo for Chief Keef / out of spite, I just might flood these streets," he raps.
Then the chorus kicks in: "Ya'll gonna learn today," it repeats. And Jay-Z raps: "You almost wanna start a revolution. / You know whenever I'm threatened I start shooting."
During the White House briefing this afternoon, White House Press Secretary Jay Carney was asked about the song, specifically a line in which Jay-Z says a "boy from the hood (has) White House clearance."
Carney made light of it.
"I guess nothing rhymes with Treasury," he said.
MTV reports the song was recorded Wednesday night and published on Jay-Z's website Thursday morning.
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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- Products
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The MDI Compact® Sign System – sign and sign stand — sets up in less than 20 seconds – the quickest and easiest deployment in the industry. The sign has integrated, foldable crossbracing that is equipped with our patented Single Trigger Release Mechanism, which allows sign to deploy and take-down with just the push of a button. The MDI Compact Sign is used with WindMaster® sign stands models 4814®DLK, 4814®HDK, 5012NS, 5012SS. The sign stands feature kick-release legs, which also simplifies set-up.


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Amazon Disclaimer
While every attempt has been made to verify the information on this website or the product(s) being sold, neither the website/product owner, distributors, agents or publishers assume any responsibility for any error, inaccuracies, and or omissions or assume any responsibility or liability whatsoever on behalf of any purchaser or reader of these materials.
Any slight on people, organizations, companies, or products is unintentional. The income statements and examples on this website are not intended to represent or guarantee that everyone will achieve the same results. Each individual's success will be determined by his or her desire, dedication, marketing background, effort, motivation, and ability to follow the tips and techniques outlined within this blog.
Many products and services advertised on this website are promoted in the form of affiliate links, meaning that the owner and founder of this site will receive financial gain (commission) if such products and services are purchased through said affiliate links – For more information on affiliate links please click here.
This site is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.
The use of our information, products, and services should be based on your own due diligence and you agree that this site and the advertisers/sponsors of this website are not liable for any success or failure of your business that is directly or indirectly related to the purchase and use of our information, products, and services reviewed or advertised on this website.
There is no guarantee or duplicate results stated here. You recognize any business endeavor has an inherent risk for loss of capital.


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Events in the Winter Olympics can be highly technical, with arcane rules and specialized equipment that can defy easy explanation. On the question-and-answer site Quora, several interesting topics have come up in recent days, from why athletes use tape on their sleds to how a human can surpass 80 mph on skis.
We've been sifting through the questions people ask about the Sochi Games on Quora. As you might expect, one of the longest and most detailed exchanges (too long and detailed to fit in this post, in fact) centers on thecontroversial win by Russia's Adelina Sotnikova in women's figure skating.
Here are some of our favorite questions, with answers:
How many employees will NBC have in Sochi?
Answered by Jim Bell, Executive Producer, NBC Olympics:
About 2,500.
Curling: What does the "sweeping" do in curling?
Answered by Liz Lewis, Curling since 2006 at the Mayfield Curling Club, Cleveland, OH, USA:
To expand on what was already said, curling ice isn't smooth like skating ice. It's covered in little bumps, which is referred to as the pebble of the ice. So, sweeping melts the pebble down a bit to maintain speed or the trajectory of the rock.
The pebble is what makes the rocks curl. Without that pebble, you really can't control the path of the rock. I hope that helps!
Skeleton: What's up with the duct tape looking stuff on the skeleton sliders' sleds?
Answered by Brad Stewart, Athlete US Skeleton Team, Sundance Developer, Real Estate, Web Duder:
A skeleton sled has a soft-ish (think yoga mat) covering over the sled that makes it a flat surface and covers all the internal components. A special type of gaffer type is used to hold the covering to the sled.
The best tape is made by a company in Europe called Tesa. Each roll is around $60 and we hoard it since it's difficult to come by. The reasons we seek this brand out are because:
How do downhill skiers go as fast as 81 mph if terminal velocity is 120 mph?
"I was just watching Bode Miller's final training run, and at the bottom of the course, he got up to over 81 mph. Whoosh! How is that possible if terminal velocity - falling at a 90 degree angle to the earth with only wind resistance - is 120 mph?"
Answered by Mark Eichenlaub, PhD student in Physics:
The numbers you cited actually work out exactly like you'd naively expect.
The force of wind drag is proportional to velocity squared. 120 mph (falling) is 1.5 times as fast at 80 mph (skiing). That gives a force 1.5^2 =2.25 times as great. In other words, when you're skiing downhill at 80mph, you experience a bit less than half as much wind resistance as at 120 mph.
At a 30-degree slope, the force pushing you down the hill is exactly half your weight. So compared to a sky-diver, our skier has about half as much force pushing him down the hill and a bit less than half as much wind drag. So this speed is entirely reasonable.
To try to get more accuracy, you'd have a lot of things to consider:
Especially because we don't know the frictional forces, it's hard to get a highly-accurate estimate of how fast skiers should be expected to go. Indeed, by controlling the friction, gradient, and air drag, skiers can traverse the same course at a wide range of speeds. However, 80 mph is not at all unreasonable.
Winter Olympics: Is Nordic ski jumping scoring about more than distance? How does the scoring work?
Answered by Andy Warwick, Wrote and edited some Sochi 2014 educational materials:
Ski jumpers are judged on two elements: distance and style. Let's start with the latter, since this is the crux of the question.
Style: There are a maximum of 60 points awarded for style and competitors are judged on the technique not only of the flight itself, but also the timing of their take-off, the landing and movement down the hill after landing, called the outrun. During the jump judges are looking for aerodynamic efficiency, ski position (the 'V'), the position of the arms and legs and fluidity of movement between take-off, flight and landing positions. Jumpers thus receive style points in three areas: flight, landing and outrun.
The perfect flight:
Judges can deduct 5 points at their discretion.
The perfect landing sees the jumper:
Judges can deduct 5 points for landing; 2 points must be deducted for failure to adopt a true 'telemark' position.
The perfect outrun sees the jumper:
Judges can deduct 7 points for the outrun; jumpers receive the maximum deduction for falling before the 'fall line'. Points are deducted generally for losing balance or touching the snow with anything but the skis.
There are five judges. The three middle scores are added together while the highest and lowest are discarded.
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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Zoe Lofgren on EducationDemocratic Representative (CA-16) | |
Proponent's Argument for voting Yes:
[Rep. Bishop, R-UT]: In 1996, Congress insisted upon a charter school program in DC. You will hear from both sides of the aisle recognition of the great value that that program has, and justifiably so. There is a waiting list in DC for those charter schools.
This bill increases the percentage of funding going to charter schools in the District. In 2003, an Opportunity Scholarship was instituted, at the insistence of Congress. Again, there was a waiting list of people wanting the opportunity; disadvantaged kids who wanted the opportunity that this scholarship afforded them. There were 216 kids at the time scheduled to enter the program who were not allowed; the bill remedies that.
Opponent's Argument for voting No:
[Rep. Hastings, D-FL]: In the last 41 years voters have rejected private school vouchers every time they have been proposed. In 1981, 89% of the people in a referendum in DC voted against vouchers. So how dare we come here to tell these people that we are going to thrust upon them something they don't want without a single public official in this community being consulted. Congress' oversight of the District is not an excuse for political pandering to the Republicans' special interest of the day du jour.
Proponent's argument to vote Yes: Rep. BETSY MARKEY (D, CO-4): This legislation will improve the learning environment for our children, reduce energy costs and create new jobs across the country. Green schools not only save school districts money but also teach the importance of sustainable living to children at a young age.
Opponent's argument to vote No: Rep. GLENN THOMPSON (R, PA-5): We all know our Nation is drowning in a sea of red ink. The bill we're debating today would add an estimated $40 billion in new spending. And despite the majority's hollow promises of fiscal responsibility, there's nothing in the legislation to offset this hefty price tag with spending reductions elsewhere. This is just more of the same borrow and spend, spend and borrow policy that we've seen under this majority and this administration.
Proponents support voting YES because:
Rep. OBEY: This bill, more than any other, determines how willing we are to make the investment necessary to assure the future strength of this country and its working families. The President has chosen to cut the investments in this bill by more than $7.5 billion in real terms. This bill rejects most of those cuts.
Opponents recommend voting NO because:
Rep. LEWIS: This bill reflects a fundamental difference in opinion on the level of funding necessary to support the Federal Government's role in education, health and workforce programs. The bill is $10.2 billion over the President's budget request. While many of these programs are popular on both sides of the aisle, this bill contains what can rightly be considered lower priority & duplicative programs. For example, this legislation continues three different programs that deal with violence prevention. An omnibus bill is absolutely the wrong and fiscally reckless approach to completing this year's work. It would negate any semblance of fiscal discipline demonstrated by this body in recent years.
Veto message from President Bush:
This bill spends too much. It exceeds [by $10.2 billion] the reasonable and responsible levels for discretionary spending that I proposed to balance the budget by 2012. This bill continues to fund 56 programs that I proposed to terminate because they are duplicative, narrowly focused, or not producing results. This bill does not sufficiently fund programs that are delivering positive outcomes. This bill has too many earmarks--more than 2,200 earmarks totaling nearly $1 billion. I urge the Congress to send me a fiscally responsible bill that sets priorities.
Proponents support voting YES because:
I believe that our Pledge of Allegiance with its use of the phrase "under God" is entirely consistent with our Nation's cultural and historic traditions. I also believe that the Court holding that use of this phrase is unconstitutional is wrong. But this court-stripping bill is not necessary. This legislation would bar a Federal court, including the Supreme Court, from reviewing any claim that challenges the recitation of the Pledge on first amendment grounds.
If we are a Nation of laws, we must be committed to allowing courts to decide what the law is. This bill is unnecessary and probably unconstitutional. It would contradict the principle of Marbury v. Madison, intrude on the principles of separation of powers, and degrade our independent Federal judiciary.
Opponents support voting NO because:
I was disappointed 4 years ago when two judges of the Ninth US Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that our Pledge, our statement of shared national values, was somehow unconstitutional. I do not take legislation that removes an issue from the jurisdiction of this court system lightly. This legislation is appropriate, however, because of the egregious conduct of the courts in dealing with the Pledge of Allegiance.
By striking "under God" from the Pledge, the Court has shown contempt for the Congress which approved the language, and, more importantly, shows a complete disregard for the millions of Americans who proudly recite the Pledge as a statement of our shared national values and aspirations. No one is required to recite the Pledge if they disagree with its message.
Create World-Class Public Schools
Now more than ever, quality public education is the key to equal opportunity and upward mobility in America. Yet our neediest children often attend the worst schools. While lifting the performance of all schools, we must place special emphasis on strengthening those institutions serving, and too often failing, low-income students.
To close this achievement and opportunity gap, underperforming public schools need more resources, and above all, real accountability for results. Accountability means ending social promotion, measuring student performance with standards-based assessments, and testing teachers for subject-matter competency.
As we demand accountability, we should ensure that every school has the resources needed to achieve higher standards, including safe and modern physical facilities, well-paid teachers and staff, and opportunities for remedial help after school and during summers. Parents, too, must accept greater responsibility for supporting their children�s education.
We need greater choice, competition, and accountability within the public school system, not a diversion of public funds to private schools that are unaccountable to taxpayers. With research increasingly showing the critical nature of learning in the early years, we should move toward universal access to pre-kindergarten education.
The National Education Association has a long, proud history as the nation's leading organization committed to advancing the cause of public education. Founded in 1857 "to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States," the NEA has remained constant in its commitment to its original mission as evidenced by the current mission statement:
To fulfill the promise of a democratic society, the National Education Association shall promote the cause of quality public education and advance the profession of education; expand the rights and further the interest of educational employees; and advocate human, civil, and economic rights for all.In pursuing its mission, the NEA has determined that it will focus the energy and resources of its 2.7 million members toward the "promotion of public confidence in public education." The ratings are based on the votes the organization considered most important; the numbers reflect the percentage of time the representative voted the organization's preferred position.
Award competitive grants to provide adolescents with comprehensive sex education to:
Opponent's argument against bill: (Nick Wing on Huffington Post) An abstinence-only effort, introduced the same day, the Abstinence Education Reallocation Act, stands as an effective counter to the Democratic-backed Real Education for Healthy Youth Act.
According to the text of the abstinence-only bill, sex education programs would need to be "medically accurate" and teach the "skills and benefits of sexual abstinence as the optimal sexual health behavior for youth" in order to qualify for grant money. The bill also calls for applicable programs to focus on the "holistic health, economic, and societal benefits that can be gained by refraining from non-marital sexual activity," as well as to provide an "understanding of how drugs, alcohol, and the irresponsible use of social media can influence sexual decision-making and can contribute to risky and often aggressive sexual behavior."
Congressional Summary:Student Loan Fairness Act:
Opponent's argument against bill: (Blog post on voices.yahoo.com, "Why I'm Against the Student Loan Fairness Act"): The two key points to this bill are:
Heritage Action Summary: The House will vote to reauthorize the Scholarships for Opportunity and Results (SOAR) Act (H.R. 10). The bill would continue funding through Fiscal Year 2021 and allow eligible students in Washington, D.C. to enroll in a participating private school.Analysis by Heritage Action:
ACLU recommendation to vote NO: (Letter to U.S.House, 3/29/2011): The ACLU urges Congress to oppose the SOAR Act, legislation to restart and expand Washington DC's failed private and religious school voucher pilot program. Originally started as a five-year pilot program in 2004, the DC voucher program is the nation's first and only federally-funded private and religious school voucher program. Under the federal voucher pilot program, funds were provided to schools even though they infuse their curricular materials with specific religious content and even though they are not covered by many of the nation's civil rights statutes that would otherwise protect students against discrimination. Additionally, each of the congressionally-mandated studies to explore the pilot program concluded that the voucher program had no significant effect on the academic achievement.
Cato Institute recommendation to vote YES: (4/28/2016): The Obama administration has repeatedly worked to undermine or eliminate the DC school choice program, even though it has the support of local Democratic politicians such as the DC Mayor and a majority of the DC City Council. Low-income students shouldn't be condemned to low-quality schools just because their parents cannot afford a home in a wealthy neighborhood. The DC program was an important step toward breaking the link between home prices and school quality.
Legislative outcome: Passed by the House 240-191-3; never came to a vote in the Senate.
Legislative Summary:This bill authorizes private civil causes of action for discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin, including anti-Semitism) in programs receiving federal financial assistance.
Trump's Statement of Administration Policy (against): The Administration strongly opposes passage of H.R. 2574. This bill fails to advance equality in education, while expanding bureaucracy, encouraging burdensome litigation, and imposing costs on recipients of Federal financial assistance. H.R. 2574 seeks to validate and expand the divisive regulatory agenda of the previous administration--advancing an ideological mission and enriching favored special interests like trial lawyers at the expense of students, educators, and taxpayers. The bill would require each recipient of Federal financial assistance to appoint a compliance coordinator, which would impose additional administrative burdens. H.R. 2574 would redirect vital resources that are needed to serve students in the pursuit of an ideological agenda.
Rep. Elaine Luria in support: H.R. 2574 would allow private individuals to file lawsuits under the Civil Rights Act's Title VI authority, allowing students and parents to remedy discrimination in education. "Every student has the right to access public education, free from discriminatory practices, said Congresswoman Luria. "By focusing on equity and inclusion, we move towards a public education system that is more just and will benefit every student, regardless of sex, ethnicity, ability, or their zip code."
Legislative outcome:Passed House 232-188-10, roll no. 192 on Sept 16, 2020; died in Senate without a vote.


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Red Sox Nation? What a bunch of [expletive] that is. That was a creation of the Red Sox and ESPN, which is filled with Red Sox fans.What Mr. Hankee didn't say was that, two years ago, in an blatantly obvious attempt to be like the Red Sox, the Chokers created and sold "Yankee Universe" t-shirts.
Go anywhere in America and you won't see Red Sox hats and jackets, you'll see Yankee hats and jackets. This is a Yankee country. We're going to put the Yankees back on top and restore the universe to order.
This guy -- a winner of the lucky sperm contest -- is a solid-gold asshole who has no concept of the idea of a professional businessman keeping some of his thoughts to himself. The Hankapalooza Era is going to be non-stop fun. I hope he runs the MFY (into the ground) for the next three decades.


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(Updated 11:45 p.m. ET)
Massachusetts State Police Sgt. Sean Murphy, who released images that depict the capture and arrest of Boston Marathon bombing suspect Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, has reportedly been "relieved of duty," Boston Magazine reported Thursday night.
Boston Magazine was the recipient of the police photos. The magazine said that "Murphy has not been fired. The status of his duty is to be reviewed next week."
Earlier, Boston.com quoted a spokeswoman with the U.S. Attorney's office as saying that State Police would be "taking action" in response to Murphy's leak of the photos.
(our original post below)
Angered by Rolling Stone magazine's cover photo of accused Boston bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, which critics say glamorizes the face of a terrorist, Massachusetts State Police Sgt. Sean Murphy has given Boston Magazine a series of images he believes tell a truer story.
They include a gripping picture he took of the bloodied bombing suspect standing up in the boat where Tsarnaev was discovered. The red dot of a police sharpshooter's laser sight is centered on his forehead.
Tsarnaev and his brother Tamerlan (who died after a gun battle with police) are the lone suspects in the April 15 Boston Marathon bombings that killed 3 people and wounded more than 260. Dzhokhar Tsarnaev has been charged in the bombings and for the murder of MIT police officer Sean Collier three days later.
Sgt. Murphy's other photos include scenes of police officers during the manhunt for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and one of emergency medical personnel treating the suspect for the injuries he sustained.
Murphy tells Boston Magazine that:
"Glamorizing the face of terror is not just insulting to the family members of those killed in the line of duty, it also could be an incentive to those who may be unstable to do something to get their face on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine. ...
"What Rolling Stone did was wrong. This guy is evil. This is the real Boston bomber. Not someone fluffed and buffed for the cover of Rolling Stone magazine."
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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GIT-FAST-IMPORT(1) | Git Manual | GIT-FAST-IMPORT(1) |
git-fast-import - Backend for fast Git data importers
frontend | git fast-import [<options>]
This program is usually not what the end user wants to run directly. Most end users want to use one of the existing frontend programs, which parses a specific type of foreign source and feeds the contents stored there to git fast-import.
fast-import reads a mixed command/data stream from standard input and writes one or more packfiles directly into the current repository. When EOF is received on standard input, fast import writes out updated branch and tag refs, fully updating the current repository with the newly imported data.
The fast-import backend itself can import into an empty repository (one that has already been initialized by git init) or incrementally update an existing populated repository. Whether or not incremental imports are supported from a particular foreign source depends on the frontend program in use.
Only enable this option if you trust the program generating the fast-import stream! This option is enabled automatically for remote-helpers that use the `import` capability, as they are already trusted to run their own code.
Options for Frontends¶
Locations of Marks Files¶
Relative and non-relative marks may be combined by interweaving --(no-)-relative-marks with the --(import|export)-marks= options.
Submodule Rewriting¶
--rewrite-submodules-from=<name>:<file>, --rewrite-submodules-to=<name>:<file>
<name> may be any arbitrary string not containing a colon character, but the same value must be used with both options when specifying corresponding marks. Multiple submodules may be specified with different values for <name>. It is an error not to use these options in corresponding pairs.
These options are primarily useful when converting a repository from one hash algorithm to another; without them, fast-import will fail if it encounters a submodule because it has no way of writing the object ID into the new hash algorithm.
Performance and Compression Tuning¶
The design of fast-import allows it to import large projects in a minimum amount of memory usage and processing time. Assuming the frontend is able to keep up with fast-import and feed it a constant stream of data, import times for projects holding 10+ years of history and containing 100,000+ individual commits are generally completed in just 1-2 hours on quite modest (~$2,000 USD) hardware.
Most bottlenecks appear to be in foreign source data access (the source just cannot extract revisions fast enough) or disk IO (fast-import writes as fast as the disk will take the data). Imports will run faster if the source data is stored on a different drive than the destination Git repository (due to less IO contention).
A typical frontend for fast-import tends to weigh in at approximately 200 lines of Perl/Python/Ruby code. Most developers have been able to create working importers in just a couple of hours, even though it is their first exposure to fast-import, and sometimes even to Git. This is an ideal situation, given that most conversion tools are throw-away (use once, and never look back).
Like git push or git fetch, imports handled by fast-import are safe to run alongside parallel git repack -a -d or git gc invocations, or any other Git operation (including git prune, as loose objects are never used by fast-import).
fast-import does not lock the branch or tag refs it is actively importing. After the import, during its ref update phase, fast-import tests each existing branch ref to verify the update will be a fast-forward update (the commit stored in the ref is contained in the new history of the commit to be written). If the update is not a fast-forward update, fast-import will skip updating that ref and instead prints a warning message. fast-import will always attempt to update all branch refs, and does not stop on the first failure.
Branch updates can be forced with --force, but it's recommended that this only be used on an otherwise quiet repository. Using --force is not necessary for an initial import into an empty repository.
fast-import tracks a set of branches in memory. Any branch can be created or modified at any point during the import process by sending a commit command on the input stream. This design allows a frontend program to process an unlimited number of branches simultaneously, generating commits in the order they are available from the source data. It also simplifies the frontend programs considerably.
fast-import does not use or alter the current working directory, or any file within it. (It does however update the current Git repository, as referenced by GIT_DIR.) Therefore an import frontend may use the working directory for its own purposes, such as extracting file revisions from the foreign source. This ignorance of the working directory also allows fast-import to run very quickly, as it does not need to perform any costly file update operations when switching between branches.
With the exception of raw file data (which Git does not interpret) the fast-import input format is text (ASCII) based. This text based format simplifies development and debugging of frontend programs, especially when a higher level language such as Perl, Python or Ruby is being used.
fast-import is very strict about its input. Where we say SP below we mean exactly one space. Likewise LF means one (and only one) linefeed and HT one (and only one) horizontal tab. Supplying additional whitespace characters will cause unexpected results, such as branch names or file names with leading or trailing spaces in their name, or early termination of fast-import when it encounters unexpected input.
Stream Comments¶
To aid in debugging frontends fast-import ignores any line that begins with # (ASCII pound/hash) up to and including the line ending LF. A comment line may contain any sequence of bytes that does not contain an LF and therefore may be used to include any detailed debugging information that might be specific to the frontend and useful when inspecting a fast-import data stream.
Date Formats¶
The following date formats are supported. A frontend should select the format it will use for this import by passing the format name in the --date-format=<fmt> command-line option.
The time of the event is specified by <time> as the number of seconds since the UNIX epoch (midnight, Jan 1, 1970, UTC) and is written as an ASCII decimal integer.
The local offset is specified by <offutc> as a positive or negative offset from UTC. For example EST (which is 5 hours behind UTC) would be expressed in <tz> by "-0500" while UTC is "+0000". The local offset does not affect <time>; it is used only as an advisement to help formatting routines display the timestamp.
If the local offset is not available in the source material, use "+0000", or the most common local offset. For example many organizations have a CVS repository which has only ever been accessed by users who are located in the same location and time zone. In this case a reasonable offset from UTC could be assumed.
Unlike the rfc2822 format, this format is very strict. Any variation in formatting will cause fast-import to reject the value, and some sanity checks on the numeric values may also be performed.
An example value is "Tue Feb 6 11:22:18 2007 -0500". The Git parser is accurate, but a little on the lenient side. It is the same parser used by git am when applying patches received from email.
Some malformed strings may be accepted as valid dates. In some of these cases Git will still be able to obtain the correct date from the malformed string. There are also some types of malformed strings which Git will parse wrong, and yet consider valid. Seriously malformed strings will be rejected.
Unlike the raw format above, the time zone/UTC offset information contained in an RFC 2822 date string is used to adjust the date value to UTC prior to storage. Therefore it is important that this information be as accurate as possible.
If the source material uses RFC 2822 style dates, the frontend should let fast-import handle the parsing and conversion (rather than attempting to do it itself) as the Git parser has been well tested in the wild.
Frontends should prefer the raw format if the source material already uses UNIX-epoch format, can be coaxed to give dates in that format, or its format is easily convertible to it, as there is no ambiguity in parsing.
This is a toy format. The current time and time zone of this system is always copied into the identity string at the time it is being created by fast-import. There is no way to specify a different time or time zone.
This particular format is supplied as it's short to implement and may be useful to a process that wants to create a new commit right now, without needing to use a working directory or git update-index.
If separate author and committer commands are used in a commit the timestamps may not match, as the system clock will be polled twice (once for each command). The only way to ensure that both author and committer identity information has the same timestamp is to omit author (thus copying from committer) or to use a date format other than now.
fast-import accepts several commands to update the current repository and control the current import process. More detailed discussion (with examples) of each command follows later.
Create or update a branch with a new commit, recording one logical change to the project.
'commit' SP <ref> LF
('author' (SP <name>)? SP LT <email> GT SP <when> LF)?
'committer' (SP <name>)? SP LT <email> GT SP <when> LF
('encoding' SP <encoding>)?
('from' SP <commit-ish> LF)?
('merge' SP <commit-ish> LF)*
(filemodify | filedelete | filecopy | filerename | filedeleteall | notemodify)*
where <ref> is the name of the branch to make the commit on. Typically branch names are prefixed with refs/heads/ in Git, so importing the CVS branch symbol RELENG-1_0 would use refs/heads/RELENG-1_0 for the value of <ref>. The value of <ref> must be a valid refname in Git. As LF is not valid in a Git refname, no quoting or escaping syntax is supported here.
A mark command may optionally appear, requesting fast-import to save a reference to the newly created commit for future use by the frontend (see below for format). It is very common for frontends to mark every commit they create, thereby allowing future branch creation from any imported commit.
The data command following committer must supply the commit message (see below for data command syntax). To import an empty commit message use a 0 length data. Commit messages are free-form and are not interpreted by Git. Currently they must be encoded in UTF-8, as fast-import does not permit other encodings to be specified.
Zero or more filemodify, filedelete, filecopy, filerename, filedeleteall and notemodify commands may be included to update the contents of the branch prior to creating the commit. These commands may be supplied in any order. However it is recommended that a filedeleteall command precede all filemodify, filecopy, filerename and notemodify commands in the same commit, as filedeleteall wipes the branch clean (see below).
The LF after the command is optional (it used to be required). Note that for reasons of backward compatibility, if the commit ends with a data command (i.e. it has no from, merge, filemodify, filedelete, filecopy, filerename, filedeleteall or notemodify commands) then two LF commands may appear at the end of the command instead of just one.
An author command may optionally appear, if the author information might differ from the committer information. If author is omitted then fast-import will automatically use the committer's information for the author portion of the commit. See below for a description of the fields in author, as they are identical to committer.
The committer command indicates who made this commit, and when they made it.
Here <name> is the person's display name (for example "Com M Itter") and <email> is the person's email address ("email@example.com"). LT and GT are the literal less-than (\x3c) and greater-than (\x3e) symbols. These are required to delimit the email address from the other fields in the line. Note that <name> and <email> are free-form and may contain any sequence of bytes, except LT, GT and LF. <name> is typically UTF-8 encoded.
The time of the change is specified by <when> using the date format that was selected by the --date-format=<fmt> command-line option. See "Date Formats" above for the set of supported formats, and their syntax.
The optional encoding command indicates the encoding of the commit message. Most commits are UTF-8 and the encoding is omitted, but this allows importing commit messages into git without first reencoding them.
The from command is used to specify the commit to initialize this branch from. This revision will be the first ancestor of the new commit. The state of the tree built at this commit will begin with the state at the from commit, and be altered by the content modifications in this commit.
Omitting the from command in the first commit of a new branch will cause fast-import to create that commit with no ancestor. This tends to be desired only for the initial commit of a project. If the frontend creates all files from scratch when making a new branch, a merge command may be used instead of from to start the commit with an empty tree. Omitting the from command on existing branches is usually desired, as the current commit on that branch is automatically assumed to be the first ancestor of the new commit.
As LF is not valid in a Git refname or SHA-1 expression, no quoting or escaping syntax is supported within <commit-ish>.
Here <commit-ish> is any of the following:
The reason fast-import uses : to denote a mark reference is this character is not legal in a Git branch name. The leading : makes it easy to distinguish between the mark 42 (:42) and the branch 42 (42 or refs/heads/42), or an abbreviated SHA-1 which happened to consist only of base-10 digits.
Marks must be declared (via mark) before they can be used.
The special case of restarting an incremental import from the current branch value should be written as:
from refs/heads/branch^0
The ^0 suffix is necessary as fast-import does not permit a branch to start from itself, and the branch is created in memory before the from command is even read from the input. Adding ^0 will force fast-import to resolve the commit through Git's revision parsing library, rather than its internal branch table, thereby loading in the existing value of the branch.
Includes one additional ancestor commit. The additional ancestry link does not change the way the tree state is built at this commit. If the from command is omitted when creating a new branch, the first merge commit will be the first ancestor of the current commit, and the branch will start out with no files. An unlimited number of merge commands per commit are permitted by fast-import, thereby establishing an n-way merge.
Here <commit-ish> is any of the commit specification expressions also accepted by from (see above).
Included in a commit command to add a new file or change the content of an existing file. This command has two different means of specifying the content of the file.
External data format
'M' SP <mode> SP <dataref> SP <path> LF
Here usually <dataref> must be either a mark reference (:<idnum>) set by a prior blob command, or a full 40-byte SHA-1 of an existing Git blob object. If <mode> is 040000` then <dataref> must be the full 40-byte SHA-1 of an existing Git tree object or a mark reference set with --import-marks.
Inline data format
'M' SP <mode> SP 'inline' SP <path> LF
See below for a detailed description of the data command.
In both formats <mode> is the type of file entry, specified in octal. Git only supports the following modes:
In both formats <path> is the complete path of the file to be added (if not already existing) or modified (if already existing).
A <path> can be written as unquoted bytes or a C-style quoted string.
When a <path> does not start with a double quote ("), it is an unquoted string and is parsed as literal bytes without any escape sequences. However, if the filename contains LF or starts with double quote, it cannot be represented as an unquoted string and must be quoted. Additionally, the source <path> in filecopy or filerename must be quoted if it contains SP.
When a <path> starts with a double quote ("), it is a C-style quoted string, where the complete filename is enclosed in a pair of double quotes and escape sequences are used. Certain characters must be escaped by preceding them with a backslash: LF is written as \n, backslash as \\, and double quote as \". Some characters may optionally be written with escape sequences: \a for bell, \b for backspace, \f for form feed, \n for line feed, \r for carriage return, \t for horizontal tab, and \v for vertical tab. Any byte can be written with 3-digit octal codes (e.g., \033). All filenames can be represented as quoted strings.
A <path> must use UNIX-style directory separators (forward slash /) and its value must be in canonical form. That is it must not:
The root of the tree can be represented by an empty string as <path>.
<path> cannot contain NUL, either literally or escaped as \000. It is recommended that <path> always be encoded using UTF-8.
Included in a commit command to remove a file or recursively delete an entire directory from the branch. If the file or directory removal makes its parent directory empty, the parent directory will be automatically removed too. This cascades up the tree until the first non-empty directory or the root is reached.
'D' SP <path> LF
here <path> is the complete path of the file or subdirectory to be removed from the branch. See filemodify above for a detailed description of <path>.
Recursively copies an existing file or subdirectory to a different location within the branch. The existing file or directory must exist. If the destination exists it will be completely replaced by the content copied from the source.
'C' SP <path> SP <path> LF
here the first <path> is the source location and the second <path> is the destination. See filemodify above for a detailed description of what <path> may look like. To use a source path that contains SP the path must be quoted.
A filecopy command takes effect immediately. Once the source location has been copied to the destination any future commands applied to the source location will not impact the destination of the copy.
Renames an existing file or subdirectory to a different location within the branch. The existing file or directory must exist. If the destination exists it will be replaced by the source directory.
'R' SP <path> SP <path> LF
here the first <path> is the source location and the second <path> is the destination. See filemodify above for a detailed description of what <path> may look like. To use a source path that contains SP the path must be quoted.
A filerename command takes effect immediately. Once the source location has been renamed to the destination any future commands applied to the source location will create new files there and not impact the destination of the rename.
Note that a filerename is the same as a filecopy followed by a filedelete of the source location. There is a slight performance advantage to using filerename, but the advantage is so small that it is never worth trying to convert a delete/add pair in source material into a rename for fast-import. This filerename command is provided just to simplify frontends that already have rename information and don't want bother with decomposing it into a filecopy followed by a filedelete.
Included in a commit command to remove all files (and also all directories) from the branch. This command resets the internal branch structure to have no files in it, allowing the frontend to subsequently add all interesting files from scratch.
'deleteall' LF
This command is extremely useful if the frontend does not know (or does not care to know) what files are currently on the branch, and therefore cannot generate the proper filedelete commands to update the content.
Issuing a filedeleteall followed by the needed filemodify commands to set the correct content will produce the same results as sending only the needed filemodify and filedelete commands. The filedeleteall approach may however require fast-import to use slightly more memory per active branch (less than 1 MiB for even most large projects); so frontends that can easily obtain only the affected paths for a commit are encouraged to do so.
Included in a commit <notes-ref> command to add a new note annotating a <commit-ish> or change this annotation contents. Internally it is similar to filemodify 100644 on <commit-ish> path (maybe split into subdirectories). It's not advised to use any other commands to write to the <notes-ref> tree except filedeleteall to delete all existing notes in this tree. This command has two different means of specifying the content of the note.
External data format
'N' SP <dataref> SP <commit-ish> LF
Here <dataref> can be either a mark reference (:<idnum>) set by a prior blob command, or a full 40-byte SHA-1 of an existing Git blob object.
Inline data format
'N' SP 'inline' SP <commit-ish> LF
See below for a detailed description of the data command.
In both formats <commit-ish> is any of the commit specification expressions also accepted by from (see above).
Arranges for fast-import to save a reference to the current object, allowing the frontend to recall this object at a future point in time, without knowing its SHA-1. Here the current object is the object creation command the mark command appears within. This can be commit, tag, and blob, but commit is the most common usage.
'mark' SP ':' <idnum> LF
where <idnum> is the number assigned by the frontend to this mark. The value of <idnum> is expressed as an ASCII decimal integer. The value 0 is reserved and cannot be used as a mark. Only values greater than or equal to 1 may be used as marks.
New marks are created automatically. Existing marks can be moved to another object simply by reusing the same <idnum> in another mark command.
Provides the name of the object in the original source control system. fast-import will simply ignore this directive, but filter processes which operate on and modify the stream before feeding to fast-import may have uses for this information
'original-oid' SP <object-identifier> LF
where <object-identifier> is any string not containing LF.
Creates an annotated tag referring to a specific commit. To create lightweight (non-annotated) tags see the reset command below.
'tag' SP <name> LF
'from' SP <commit-ish> LF
'tagger' (SP <name>)? SP LT <email> GT SP <when> LF
where <name> is the name of the tag to create.
Tag names are automatically prefixed with refs/tags/ when stored in Git, so importing the CVS branch symbol RELENG-1_0-FINAL would use just RELENG-1_0-FINAL for <name>, and fast-import will write the corresponding ref as refs/tags/RELENG-1_0-FINAL.
The value of <name> must be a valid refname in Git and therefore may contain forward slashes. As LF is not valid in a Git refname, no quoting or escaping syntax is supported here.
The from command is the same as in the commit command; see above for details.
The tagger command uses the same format as committer within commit; again see above for details.
The data command following tagger must supply the annotated tag message (see below for data command syntax). To import an empty tag message use a 0 length data. Tag messages are free-form and are not interpreted by Git. Currently they must be encoded in UTF-8, as fast-import does not permit other encodings to be specified.
Signing annotated tags during import from within fast-import is not supported. Trying to include your own PGP/GPG signature is not recommended, as the frontend does not (easily) have access to the complete set of bytes which normally goes into such a signature. If signing is required, create lightweight tags from within fast-import with reset, then create the annotated versions of those tags offline with the standard git tag process.
Creates (or recreates) the named branch, optionally starting from a specific revision. The reset command allows a frontend to issue a new from command for an existing branch, or to create a new branch from an existing commit without creating a new commit.
'reset' SP <ref> LF
('from' SP <commit-ish> LF)?
For a detailed description of <ref> and <commit-ish> see above under commit and from.
The LF after the command is optional (it used to be required).
The reset command can also be used to create lightweight (non-annotated) tags. For example:
reset refs/tags/938 from :938
would create the lightweight tag refs/tags/938 referring to whatever commit mark :938 references.
Requests writing one file revision to the packfile. The revision is not connected to any commit; this connection must be formed in a subsequent commit command by referencing the blob through an assigned mark.
'blob' LF
The mark command is optional here as some frontends have chosen to generate the Git SHA-1 for the blob on their own, and feed that directly to commit. This is typically more work than it's worth however, as marks are inexpensive to store and easy to use.
Supplies raw data (for use as blob/file content, commit messages, or annotated tag messages) to fast-import. Data can be supplied using an exact byte count or delimited with a terminating line. Real frontends intended for production-quality conversions should always use the exact byte count format, as it is more robust and performs better. The delimited format is intended primarily for testing fast-import.
Comment lines appearing within the <raw> part of data commands are always taken to be part of the body of the data and are therefore never ignored by fast-import. This makes it safe to import any file/message content whose lines might start with #.
Exact byte count format
'data' SP <count> LF
<raw> LF?
where <count> is the exact number of bytes appearing within <raw>. The value of <count> is expressed as an ASCII decimal integer. The LF on either side of <raw> is not included in <count> and will not be included in the imported data.
The LF after <raw> is optional (it used to be required) but recommended. Always including it makes debugging a fast-import stream easier as the next command always starts in column 0 of the next line, even if <raw> did not end with an LF.
Delimited format
'data' SP '<<' <delim> LF
<raw> LF
<delim> LF
where <delim> is the chosen delimiter string. The string <delim> must not appear on a line by itself within <raw>, as otherwise fast-import will think the data ends earlier than it really does. The LF immediately trailing <raw> is part of <raw>. This is one of the limitations of the delimited format, it is impossible to supply a data chunk which does not have an LF as its last byte.
The LF after <delim> LF is optional (it used to be required).
Record that a mark refers to a given object without first creating any new object.
'alias' LF
'to' SP <commit-ish> LF
For a detailed description of <commit-ish> see above under from.
Forces fast-import to close the current packfile, start a new one, and to save out all current branch refs, tags and marks.
'checkpoint' LF
Note that fast-import automatically switches packfiles when the current packfile reaches --max-pack-size, or 4 GiB, whichever limit is smaller. During an automatic packfile switch fast-import does not update the branch refs, tags or marks.
As a checkpoint can require a significant amount of CPU time and disk IO (to compute the overall pack SHA-1 checksum, generate the corresponding index file, and update the refs) it can easily take several minutes for a single checkpoint command to complete.
Frontends may choose to issue checkpoints during extremely large and long running imports, or when they need to allow another Git process access to a branch. However given that a 30 GiB Subversion repository can be loaded into Git through fast-import in about 3 hours, explicit checkpointing may not be necessary.
The LF after the command is optional (it used to be required).
Causes fast-import to print the entire progress line unmodified to its standard output channel (file descriptor 1) when the command is processed from the input stream. The command otherwise has no impact on the current import, or on any of fast-import's internal state.
'progress' SP <any> LF
The <any> part of the command may contain any sequence of bytes that does not contain LF. The LF after the command is optional. Callers may wish to process the output through a tool such as sed to remove the leading part of the line, for example:
frontend | git fast-import | sed 's/^progress //'
Placing a progress command immediately after a checkpoint will inform the reader when the checkpoint has been completed and it can safely access the refs that fast-import updated.
Causes fast-import to print the SHA-1 corresponding to a mark to stdout or to the file descriptor previously arranged with the --cat-blob-fd argument. The command otherwise has no impact on the current import; its purpose is to retrieve SHA-1s that later commits might want to refer to in their commit messages.
'get-mark' SP ':' <idnum> LF
See "Responses To Commands" below for details about how to read this output safely.
Causes fast-import to print a blob to a file descriptor previously arranged with the --cat-blob-fd argument. The command otherwise has no impact on the current import; its main purpose is to retrieve blobs that may be in fast-import's memory but not accessible from the target repository.
'cat-blob' SP <dataref> LF
The <dataref> can be either a mark reference (:<idnum>) set previously or a full 40-byte SHA-1 of a Git blob, preexisting or ready to be written.
Output uses the same format as git cat-file --batch:
<sha1> SP 'blob' SP <size> LF <contents> LF
This command can be used where a filemodify directive can appear, allowing it to be used in the middle of a commit. For a filemodify using an inline directive, it can also appear right before the data directive.
See "Responses To Commands" below for details about how to read this output safely.
Prints information about the object at a path to a file descriptor previously arranged with the --cat-blob-fd argument. This allows printing a blob from the active commit (with cat-blob) or copying a blob or tree from a previous commit for use in the current one (with filemodify).
The ls command can also be used where a filemodify directive can appear, allowing it to be used in the middle of a commit.
Reading from the active commit
'ls' SP <path> LF
Reading from a named tree
'ls' SP <dataref> SP <path> LF
See filemodify above for a detailed description of <path>.
Output uses the same format as git ls-tree <tree> -- <path>:
<mode> SP ('blob' | 'tree' | 'commit') SP <dataref> HT <path> LF
The <dataref> represents the blob, tree, or commit object at <path> and can be used in later get-mark, cat-blob, filemodify, or ls commands.
If there is no file or subtree at that path, git fast-import will instead report
missing SP <path> LF
See "Responses To Commands" below for details about how to read this output safely.
Require that fast-import supports the specified feature, or abort if it does not.
'feature' SP <feature> ('=' <argument>)? LF
The <feature> part of the command may be any one of the following:
date-format, export-marks, relative-marks, no-relative-marks, force
import-marks, import-marks-if-exists
get-mark, cat-blob, ls
Processes the specified option so that git fast-import behaves in a way that suits the frontend's needs. Note that options specified by the frontend are overridden by any options the user may specify to git fast-import itself.
'option' SP <option> LF
The <option> part of the command may contain any of the options listed in the OPTIONS section that do not change import semantics, without the leading -- and is treated in the same way.
Option commands must be the first commands on the input (not counting feature commands), to give an option command after any non-option command is an error.
The following command-line options change import semantics and may therefore not be passed as option:
If the done feature is not in use, treated as if EOF was read. This can be used to tell fast-import to finish early.
If the --done command-line option or feature done command is in use, the done command is mandatory and marks the end of the stream.
New objects written by fast-import are not available immediately. Most fast-import commands have no visible effect until the next checkpoint (or completion). The frontend can send commands to fill fast-import's input pipe without worrying about how quickly they will take effect, which improves performance by simplifying scheduling.
For some frontends, though, it is useful to be able to read back data from the current repository as it is being updated (for example when the source material describes objects in terms of patches to be applied to previously imported objects). This can be accomplished by connecting the frontend and fast-import via bidirectional pipes:
mkfifo fast-import-output frontend <fast-import-output | git fast-import >fast-import-output
A frontend set up this way can use progress, get-mark, ls, and cat-blob commands to read information from the import in progress.
To avoid deadlock, such frontends must completely consume any pending output from progress, ls, get-mark, and cat-blob before performing writes to fast-import that might block.
If fast-import is supplied invalid input it will terminate with a non-zero exit status and create a crash report in the top level of the Git repository it was importing into. Crash reports contain a snapshot of the internal fast-import state as well as the most recent commands that lead up to the crash.
All recent commands (including stream comments, file changes and progress commands) are shown in the command history within the crash report, but raw file data and commit messages are excluded from the crash report. This exclusion saves space within the report file and reduces the amount of buffering that fast-import must perform during execution.
After writing a crash report fast-import will close the current packfile and export the marks table. This allows the frontend developer to inspect the repository state and resume the import from the point where it crashed. The modified branches and tags are not updated during a crash, as the import did not complete successfully. Branch and tag information can be found in the crash report and must be applied manually if the update is needed.
An example crash:
$ cat >in <<END_OF_INPUT # my very first test commit commit refs/heads/master committer Shawn O. Pearce <spearce> 19283 -0400 # who is that guy anyway? data <<EOF this is my commit EOF M 644 inline .gitignore data <<EOF .gitignore EOF M 777 inline bob END_OF_INPUT
$ git fast-import <in fatal: Corrupt mode: M 777 inline bob fast-import: dumping crash report to .git/fast_import_crash_8434
$ cat .git/fast_import_crash_8434 fast-import crash report:
fast-import process: 8434
parent process : 1391
at Sat Sep 1 00:58:12 2007
fatal: Corrupt mode: M 777 inline bob
Most Recent Commands Before Crash ---------------------------------
# my very first test commit
commit refs/heads/master
committer Shawn O. Pearce <spearce> 19283 -0400
# who is that guy anyway?
data <<EOF
M 644 inline .gitignore
data <<EOF * M 777 inline bob
Active Branch LRU -----------------
active_branches = 1 cur, 5 max
pos clock name ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1) 0 refs/heads/master
Inactive Branches ----------------- refs/heads/master:
status : active loaded dirty
tip commit : 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000
old tree : 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000
cur tree : 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000
commit clock: 0
last pack :
The following tips and tricks have been collected from various users of fast-import, and are offered here as suggestions.
Use One Mark Per Commit¶
When doing a repository conversion, use a unique mark per commit (mark :<n>) and supply the --export-marks option on the command line. fast-import will dump a file which lists every mark and the Git object SHA-1 that corresponds to it. If the frontend can tie the marks back to the source repository, it is easy to verify the accuracy and completeness of the import by comparing each Git commit to the corresponding source revision.
Coming from a system such as Perforce or Subversion, this should be quite simple, as the fast-import mark can also be the Perforce changeset number or the Subversion revision number.
Freely Skip Around Branches¶
Don't bother trying to optimize the frontend to stick to one branch at a time during an import. Although doing so might be slightly faster for fast-import, it tends to increase the complexity of the frontend code considerably.
The branch LRU builtin to fast-import tends to behave very well, and the cost of activating an inactive branch is so low that bouncing around between branches has virtually no impact on import performance.
Handling Renames¶
When importing a renamed file or directory, simply delete the old name(s) and modify the new name(s) during the corresponding commit. Git performs rename detection after-the-fact, rather than explicitly during a commit.
Use Tag Fixup Branches¶
Some other SCM systems let the user create a tag from multiple files which are not from the same commit/changeset. Or to create tags which are a subset of the files available in the repository.
Importing these tags as-is in Git is impossible without making at least one commit which "fixes up" the files to match the content of the tag. Use fast-import's reset command to reset a dummy branch outside of your normal branch space to the base commit for the tag, then commit one or more file fixup commits, and finally tag the dummy branch.
For example since all normal branches are stored under refs/heads/ name the tag fixup branch TAG_FIXUP. This way it is impossible for the fixup branch used by the importer to have namespace conflicts with real branches imported from the source (the name TAG_FIXUP is not refs/heads/TAG_FIXUP).
When committing fixups, consider using merge to connect the commit(s) which are supplying file revisions to the fixup branch. Doing so will allow tools such as git blame to track through the real commit history and properly annotate the source files.
After fast-import terminates the frontend will need to do rm .git/TAG_FIXUP to remove the dummy branch.
Import Now, Repack Later¶
As soon as fast-import completes the Git repository is completely valid and ready for use. Typically this takes only a very short time, even for considerably large projects (100,000+ commits).
However repacking the repository is necessary to improve data locality and access performance. It can also take hours on extremely large projects (especially if -f and a large --window parameter is used). Since repacking is safe to run alongside readers and writers, run the repack in the background and let it finish when it finishes. There is no reason to wait to explore your new Git project!
If you choose to wait for the repack, don't try to run benchmarks or performance tests until repacking is completed. fast-import outputs suboptimal packfiles that are simply never seen in real use situations.
Repacking Historical Data¶
If you are repacking very old imported data (e.g. older than the last year), consider expending some extra CPU time and supplying --window=50 (or higher) when you run git repack. This will take longer, but will also produce a smaller packfile. You only need to expend the effort once, and everyone using your project will benefit from the smaller repository.
Include Some Progress Messages¶
Every once in a while have your frontend emit a progress message to fast-import. The contents of the messages are entirely free-form, so one suggestion would be to output the current month and year each time the current commit date moves into the next month. Your users will feel better knowing how much of the data stream has been processed.
When packing a blob fast-import always attempts to deltify against the last blob written. Unless specifically arranged for by the frontend, this will probably not be a prior version of the same file, so the generated delta will not be the smallest possible. The resulting packfile will be compressed, but will not be optimal.
Frontends which have efficient access to all revisions of a single file (for example reading an RCS/CVS ,v file) can choose to supply all revisions of that file as a sequence of consecutive blob commands. This allows fast-import to deltify the different file revisions against each other, saving space in the final packfile. Marks can be used to later identify individual file revisions during a sequence of commit commands.
The packfile(s) created by fast-import do not encourage good disk access patterns. This is caused by fast-import writing the data in the order it is received on standard input, while Git typically organizes data within packfiles to make the most recent (current tip) data appear before historical data. Git also clusters commits together, speeding up revision traversal through better cache locality.
For this reason it is strongly recommended that users repack the repository with git repack -a -d after fast-import completes, allowing Git to reorganize the packfiles for faster data access. If blob deltas are suboptimal (see above) then also adding the -f option to force recomputation of all deltas can significantly reduce the final packfile size (30-50% smaller can be quite typical).
Instead of running git repack you can also run git gc --aggressive, which will also optimize other things after an import (e.g. pack loose refs). As noted in the "AGGRESSIVE" section in git-gc(1) the --aggressive option will find new deltas with the -f option to git-repack(1). For the reasons elaborated on above using --aggressive after a fast-import is one of the few cases where it's known to be worthwhile.
There are a number of factors which affect how much memory fast-import requires to perform an import. Like critical sections of core Git, fast-import uses its own memory allocators to amortize any overheads associated with malloc. In practice fast-import tends to amortize any malloc overheads to 0, due to its use of large block allocations.
per object¶
fast-import maintains an in-memory structure for every object written in this execution. On a 32 bit system the structure is 32 bytes, on a 64 bit system the structure is 40 bytes (due to the larger pointer sizes). Objects in the table are not deallocated until fast-import terminates. Importing 2 million objects on a 32 bit system will require approximately 64 MiB of memory.
The object table is actually a hashtable keyed on the object name (the unique SHA-1). This storage configuration allows fast-import to reuse an existing or already written object and avoid writing duplicates to the output packfile. Duplicate blobs are surprisingly common in an import, typically due to branch merges in the source.
per mark¶
Marks are stored in a sparse array, using 1 pointer (4 bytes or 8 bytes, depending on pointer size) per mark. Although the array is sparse, frontends are still strongly encouraged to use marks between 1 and n, where n is the total number of marks required for this import.
per branch¶
Branches are classified as active and inactive. The memory usage of the two classes is significantly different.
Inactive branches are stored in a structure which uses 96 or 120 bytes (32 bit or 64 bit systems, respectively), plus the length of the branch name (typically under 200 bytes), per branch. fast-import will easily handle as many as 10,000 inactive branches in under 2 MiB of memory.
Active branches have the same overhead as inactive branches, but also contain copies of every tree that has been recently modified on that branch. If subtree include has not been modified since the branch became active, its contents will not be loaded into memory, but if subtree src has been modified by a commit since the branch became active, then its contents will be loaded in memory.
As active branches store metadata about the files contained on that branch, their in-memory storage size can grow to a considerable size (see below).
fast-import automatically moves active branches to inactive status based on a simple least-recently-used algorithm. The LRU chain is updated on each commit command. The maximum number of active branches can be increased or decreased on the command line with --active-branches=.
per active tree¶
Trees (aka directories) use just 12 bytes of memory on top of the memory required for their entries (see "per active file" below). The cost of a tree is virtually 0, as its overhead amortizes out over the individual file entries.
per active file entry¶
Files (and pointers to subtrees) within active trees require 52 or 64 bytes (32/64 bit platforms) per entry. To conserve space, file and tree names are pooled in a common string table, allowing the filename "Makefile" to use just 16 bytes (after including the string header overhead) no matter how many times it occurs within the project.
The active branch LRU, when coupled with the filename string pool and lazy loading of subtrees, allows fast-import to efficiently import projects with 2,000+ branches and 45,114+ files in a very limited memory footprint (less than 2.7 MiB per active branch).
Sending SIGUSR1 to the git fast-import process ends the current packfile early, simulating a checkpoint command. The impatient operator can use this facility to peek at the objects and refs from an import in progress, at the cost of some added running time and worse compression.
Everything below this line in this section is selectively included from the git-config(1) documentation. The content is the same as what's found there:
Part of the git(1) suite
05/31/2024 | Git 2.45.2 |


text:
Facebook users can "look back" at highlights of their experience on the site with this tool: https://www.facebook.com/lookback
MENLO PARK (AP) — It has been 10 years since a Harvard sophomore named Mark Zuckerberg created a website called Thefacebook.com to let his classmates find their friends online.
They did. And in the decade since, so have more than a billion people, not just American college students but also farmers in India, activists in Egypt and pop stars in South Korea.
Facebook has transformed how much of the world communicates. Zuckerberg's insistence that people use real identities, not quirky screen names, helped blur, if not erase entirely, the divide between our online and offline worlds. Long-lost friends are no longer lost. They are on Facebook.
From its roots as a website with no ads, no business plan and a hacker ethic, Facebook has grown into a company worth $150 billion, with 6,337 employees and sprawling headquarters in the heart of Silicon Valley. Born in the age of desktop computers, three years before the iPhone's debut, Facebook is now mainly accessed on mobile devices. Many of these mobile users never had a PC.
"People often ask if I always knew that Facebook would become what it is today. No way," Zuckerberg wrote — where else — on his Facebook page Tuesday. "I remember getting pizza with my friends one night in college shortly after opening Facebook. I told them I was excited to help connect our school community, but one day someone needed to connect the whole world."
Facebook has had plenty of stumbles along the way, from privacy concerns to user protests when Facebook introduced new features, not to mention a rocky public stock debut in 2012. Even its origin was the subject of a lawsuit and a Hollywood movie.
So far, though, Facebook has trudged on.
As Facebook enters its second decade, the company faces a new set of challenges in reaching the next billion users, the billion after that, and the one after that, including the majority of the world without Internet access. It must also keep the existing set interested even as younger, hipper rivals emerge and try to lure them away.
There are 1.23 billion Facebook users today, or roughly 17 percent of the world's population. Although that's far from connecting the whole world, Facebook is here to stay. It's reached critical mass.
"One of the things Facebook has been good at is that it's very easy to use and understand," said Paul Levinson, professor of communications and media studies at Fordham University. "It's a much friendlier system than any email system."
Javier Olivan joined Facebook Inc. as vice president of growth and analytics in 2007. It was a different time. Myspace was the dominant online hangout with 200 million members. Facebook had 30 million.
Facebook's user base had been accelerating steadily, Olivan said, as it expanded from Harvard's campus to other colleges, then high schools, and in 2006, anyone over 13. Users in the U.K. and other English-speaking countries then began signing up.
But around 2007, growth plateaued.
"The thinking at the time was (that) we'll never have 100 million users," Olivan said. "That's when the growth team was created."
If Facebook was going to connect the world, as its mission states, it couldn't be an English-only service. So Facebook turned to its users to help translate the site. A Spanish version came in 2008, followed by dozens of others. Growth accelerated again, and volunteer translators are still adding new tongues, whether that's native African languages or pirate slang.
Facebook got its 100 million users by August 2008 and half a billion two years later. By 2012, a billion people were logging in to Facebook at least once a month.
While sharing photos and updates with friends is a universal experience, Facebook is customized depending on where you live. In Japan, for example, users can list their blood type on their profiles, as it's something that would typically come up in conversation when you meet someone — kind of like horoscopes in the U.S.
Beyond language, another hurdle was mobile. The iPhone came along in 2007, and Facebook's iPhone app soon followed. But the app was slow and buggy, fueling concerns that it wouldn't be able to transform into a "mobile-first" company, as it wanted to be. About the time of its initial public offering of stock, potential investors fretted about its ability to make money from mobile ads.
That's no longer an issue. Facebook's stock is trading near record highs. The majority of the company's advertising revenue now comes from mobile, rather than Web ads.
No doubt other challenges will come.
"At some point there will be barriers such as illiteracy, (creating) hardware for people who can't read and write," Olivan said.
Content on the Internet will have to be translated into languages that are barely represented online today.
"That's why this is a 10-year undertaking," he said. "The entire industry has to tackle the problem."
On any given day, 81 percent of Facebook's users are outside the U.S. and Canada.
"My day is not complete without checking my Facebook account," said Syaiful Anwar, a 47-year-old restaurant owner in Pekanbaru on Indonesia's Sumatra island. "To find out what is happening in this world, to bring together my friends and relatives (is) now just a click (of a) mouse away."
Indonesia has 65 million users who log in at least once a month. That's about a quarter of the country's population. India boasts another 93 million.
As Facebook's user base started growing in emerging markets, another hurdle emerged: the high cost of smartphones and Internet access. So, in 2011, Facebook launched an app called Facebook for Every Phone. It lets people without fancy smartphones access the most popular features, such as reading status updates and sharing photos. More than 100 million people use it each month.
Facebook is the first Internet experience for many people in India and other emerging markets, said Kevin D'Souza, Facebook's growth manager in India. That means people who have never used email are signing up for Facebook, using their phone numbers instead of an email address to log in.
"Facebook addresses a universal need," D'Souza said. "Everybody around the world wants to connect with people they care about."
Last summer, Facebook launched Internet.org, aimed at getting everyone in the world online.
"When I reflect on the last 10 years, one question I ask myself is: why were we the ones to build this? We were just students. We had way fewer resources than big companies. If they had focused on this problem, they could have done it," Zuckerberg wrote Tuesday. "The only answer I can think of is: we just cared more."
As far as birthdays go, Facebook's brought out reflection, nostalgia and lots of memories.
Connie Zong, who signed up for Facebook during her sophomore year at Harvard 10 years ago, remembers when she heard that Zuckerberg was dropping out of Harvard to work on Facebook.
"I remember thinking that guy is making such a big mistake," she said. "He's giving up a really great degree at a great university, and we're never going to hear from him again."