text:
As We May Think
by Vannevar Bush, 1945 original source → http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/computer/bushf.htm
As Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Dr. Vannevar Bush has coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare. In this significant article he holds up an incentive for scientists when the fighting has ceased. He urges that men of science should then turn to the massive task of making more accessible our bewildering store of knowledge. For years inventions have extended man's physical powers rather than the powers of his mind. Trip hammers that multiply the fists, microscopes that sharpen the eye, and engines of destruction and detection are new results, but not the end results, of modern science. Now, says Dr. Bush, instruments are at hand which, if properly developed, will give man access to and command over the inherited knowledge of the ages. The perfection of these pacific instruments should be the first objective of our scientists as they emerge from their war work. Like Emerson's famous address of 1837 on "The American Scholar," this paper by Dr. Bush calls for a new relationship between thinking man and the sum of our knowledge. –THE EDITOR
As We May Think
This has not been a scientist's war; it has been a war in which all have had a part. The scientists, burying their old professional competition in the demand of a common cause, have shared greatly and learned much. It has been exhilarating to work in effective partnership. Now, for many, this appears to be approaching an end. What are the scientists to do next?
For the biologists, and particularly for the medical scientists, there can be little indecision, for their war has hardly required them to leave the old paths. Many indeed have been able to carry on their war research in their familiar peacetime laboratories. Their objectives remain much the same.
It is the physicists who have been thrown most violently off stride, who have left academic pursuits for the making of strange destructive gadgets, who have had to devise new methods for their unanticipated assignments. They have done their part on the devices that made it possible to turn back the enemy, have worked in combined effort with the physicists of our allies. They have felt within themselves the stir of achievement. They have been part of a great team. Now, as peace approaches, one asks where they will find objectives worthy of their best.
part 1
Of what lasting benefit has been man's use of science and of the new instruments which his research brought into existence? First, they have increased his control of his material environment. They have improved his food, his clothing, his shelter; they have increased his security and released him partly from the bondage of bare existence. They have given him increased knowledge of his own biological processes so that he has had a progressive freedom from disease and an increased span of life. They are illuminating the interactions of his physiological and psychological functions, giving the promise of an improved mental health.
Science has provided the swiftest communication between individuals; it has provided a record of ideas and has enabled man to manipulate and to make extracts from that record so that knowledge evolves and endures throughout the life of a race rather than that of an individual.
There is a growing mountain of research. But there is increased evidence that we are being bogged down today as specialization extends. The investigator is staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers – conclusions which he cannot find time to grasp, much less to remember, as they appear. Yet specialization becomes increasingly necessary for progress, and the effort to bridge between disciplines is correspondingly superficial.
Professionally our methods of transmitting and reviewing the results of research are generations old and by now are totally inadequate for their purpose. If the aggregate time spent in writing scholarly works and in reading them could be evaluated, the ratio between these amounts of time might well be startling. Those who conscientiously attempt to keep abreast of current thought, even in restricted fields, by close and continuous reading might well shy away from an examination calculated to show how much of the previous month's efforts could be produced on call. Mendel's concept of the laws of genetics was lost to the world for a generation because his publication did not reach the few who were capable of grasping and extending it; and this sort of catastrophe is undoubtedly being repeated all about us, as truly significant attainments become lost in the mass of the inconsequential.
The difficulty seems to be, not so much that we publish unduly in view of the extent and variety of present day interests, but rather that publication has been extended far beyond our present ability to make real use of the record. The summation of human experience is being expanded at a prodigious rate, and the means we use for threading through the consequent maze to the momentarily important item is the same as was used in the days of square-rigged ships.
But there are signs of a change as new and powerful instrumentalities come into use. Photocells capable of seeing things in a physical sense, advanced photography which can record what is seen or even what is not, thermionic tubes capable of controlling potent forces under the guidance of less power than a mosquito uses to vibrate his wings, cathode ray tubes rendering visible an occurrence so brief that by comparison a microsecond is a long time, relay combinations which will carry out involved sequences of movements more reliably than any human operator and thousands of times as fast – there are plenty of mechanical aids with which to effect a transformation in scientific records.
Two centuries ago Leibnitz invented a calculating machine which embodied most of the essential features of recent keyboard devices, but it could not then come into use. The economics of the situation were against it: the labor involved in constructing it, before the days of mass production, exceeded the labor to be saved by its use, since all it could accomplish could be duplicated by sufficient use of pencil and paper. Moreover, it would have been subject to frequent breakdown, so that it could not have been depended upon; for at that time and long after, complexity and unreliability were synonymous.
Babbage, even with remarkably generous support for his time, could not produce his great arithmetical machine. His idea was sound enough, but construction and maintenance costs were then too heavy. Had a Pharaoh been given detailed and explicit designs of an automobile, and had he understood them completely, it would have taxed the resources of his kingdom to have fashioned the thousands of parts for a single car, and that car would have broken down on the first trip to Giza.
Machines with interchangeable parts can now be constructed with great economy of effort. In spite of much complexity, they perform reliably. Witness the humble typewriter, or the movie camera, or the automobile. Electrical contacts have ceased to stick when thoroughly understood. Note the automatic telephone exchange, which has hundreds of thousands of such contacts, and yet is reliable. A spider web of metal, sealed in a thin glass container, a wire heated to brilliant glow, in short, the thermionic tube of radio sets, is made by the hundred million, tossed about in packages, plugged into sockets – and it works! Its gossamer parts, the precise location and alignment involved in its construction, would have occupied a master craftsman of the guild for months; now it is built for thirty cents. The world has arrived at an age of cheap complex devices of great reliability; and something is bound to come of it.
part 2
A record if it is to be useful to science, must be continuously extended, it must be stored, and above all it must be consulted. Today we make the record conventionally by writing and photography, followed by printing; but we also record on film, on wax disks, and on magnetic wires. Even if utterly new recording procedures do not appear, these present ones are certainly in the process of modification and extension.
Certainly progress in photography is not going to stop. Faster material and lenses, more automatic cameras, finer-grained sensitive compounds to allow an extension of the minicamera idea, are all imminent. Let us project this trend ahead to a logical, if not inevitable, outcome. The camera hound of the future wears on his forehead a lump a little larger than a walnut. It takes pictures 3 millimeters square, later to be projected or enlarged, which after all involves only a factor of 10 beyond present practice. The lens is of universal focus, down to any distance accommodated by the unaided eye, simply because it is of short focal length. There is a built-in photocell on the walnut such as we now have on at least one camera, which automatically adjusts exposure for a wide range of illumination. There is film in the walnut for a hundred exposures, and the spring for operating its shutter and shifting its film is wound once for all when the film clip is inserted. It produces its result in full color. It may well be stereoscopic, and record with two spaced glass eyes, for striking improvements in stereoscopic technique are just around the corner.
The cord which trips its shutter may reach down a man's sleeve within easy reach of his fingers. A quick squeeze, and the picture is taken. On a pair of ordinary glasses is a square of fine lines near the top of one lens, where it is out of the way of ordinary vision. When an object appears in that square, it is lined up for its picture. As the scientist of the future moves about the laboratory or the field, every time he looks at something worthy of the record, he trips the shutter and in it goes, without even an audible click. Is this all fantastic? The only fantastic thing about it is the idea of making as many pictures as would result from its use.
Will there be dry photography? It is already here in two forms. When Brady made his Civil War pictures, the plate had to be wet at the time of exposure. Now it has to be wet during development instead. In the future perhaps it need not be wetted at all. There have long been films impregnated with diazo dyes which form a picture without development, so that it is already there as soon as the camera has been operated. An exposure to ammonia gas destroys the unexposed dye, and the picture can then be taken out into the light and examined. The process is now slow, but someone may speed it up, and it has no grain difficulties such as now keep photographic researchers busy. Often it would be advantageous to be able to snap the camera and to look at the picture immediately.
Another process now in use is also slow, and more or less clumsy. For fifty years impregnated papers have been used which turn dark at every point where an electrical contact touches them, by reason of the chemical change thus produced in an iodine compound included in the paper. They have been used to make records, for a pointer moving across them can leave a trail behind. If the electrical potential on the pointer is varied as it moves, the line becomes light or dark in accordance with the potential.
This scheme is now used in facsimile transmission. The pointer draws a set of closely spaced lines across the paper one after another. As it moves, its potential is varied in accordance with a varying current received over wires from a distant station, where these variations are produced by a photocell which is similarly scanning a picture. At every instant the darkness of the line being drawn is made equal to the darkness of the point on the picture being observed by the photocell. Thus, when the whole picture has been covered, a replica appears at the receiving end.
A scene itself can be just as well looked over line by line by the photocell in this way as can a photograph of the scene. This whole apparatus constitutes a camera, with the added feature, which can be dispensed with if desired, of making its picture at a distance. It is slow, and the picture is poor in detail. Still, it does give another process of dry photography, in which the picture is finished as soon as it is taken.
It would be a brave man who would predict that such a process will always remain clumsy, slow, and faulty in detail. Television equipment today transmits sixteen reasonably good pictures a second, and it involves only two essential differences from the process described above. For one, the record is made by a moving beam of electrons rather than a moving pointer, for the reason that an electron beam can sweep across the picture very rapidly indeed. The other difference involves merely the use of a screen which glows momentarily when the electrons hit, rather than a chemically treated paper or film which is permanently altered. This speed is necessary in television, for motion pictures rather than stills are the object.
Use chemically treated film in place of the glowing screen, allow the apparatus to transmit one picture only rather than a succession, and a rapid camera for dry photography results. The treated film needs to be far faster in action than present examples, but it probably could be. More serious is the objection that this scheme would involve putting the film inside a vacuum chamber, for electron beams behave normally only in such a rarefied environment. This difficulty could be avoided by allowing the electron beam to play on one side of a partition, and by pressing the film against the other side, if this partition were such as to allow the electrons to go through perpendicular to its surface, and to prevent them from spreading out sideways. Such partitions, in crude form, could certainly be constructed, and they will hardly hold up the general development.
Like dry photography, microphotography still has a long way to go. The basic scheme of reducing the size of the record, and examining it by projection rather than directly, has possibilities too great to be ignored. The combination of optical projection and photographic reduction is already producing some results in microfilm for scholarly purposes, and the potentialities are highly suggestive. Today, with microfilm, reductions by a linear factor of 20 can be employed and still produce full clarity when the material is re-enlarged for examination. The limits are set by the graininess of the film, the excellence of the optical system, and the efficiency of the light sources employed. All of these are rapidly improving.
Assume a linear ratio of 100 for future use. Consider film of the same thickness as paper, although thinner film will certainly be usable. Even under these conditions there would be a total factor of 10,000 between the bulk of the ordinary record on books, and its microfilm replica. The Encyclopoedia Britannica could be reduced to the volume of a matchbox. A library of a million volumes could be compressed into one end of a desk. If the human race has produced since the invention of movable type a total record, in the form of magazines, newspapers, books, tracts, advertising blurbs, correspondence, having a volume corresponding to a billion books, the whole affair, assembled and compressed, could be lugged off in a moving van. Mere compression, of course, is not enough; one needs not only to make and store a record but also be able to consult it, and this aspect of the matter comes later. Even the modern great library is not generally consulted; it is nibbled at by a few.
Compression is important, however, when it comes to costs. The material for the microfilm Britannica would cost a nickel, and it could be mailed anywhere for a cent. What would it cost to print a million copies? To print a sheet of newspaper, in a large edition, costs a small fraction of a cent. The entire material of the Britannica in reduced microfilm form would go on a sheet eight and one-half by eleven inches. Once it is available, with the photographic reproduction methods of the future, duplicates in large quantities could probably be turned out for a cent apiece beyond the cost of materials. The preparation of the original copy? That introduces the next aspect of the subject.
part 3
To make the record, we now push a pencil or tap a typewriter. Then comes the process of digestion and correction, followed by an intricate process of typesetting, printing, and distribution. To consider the first stage of the procedure, will the author of the future cease writing by hand or typewriter and talk directly to the record? He does so indirectly, by talking to a stenographer or a wax cylinder; but the elements are all present if he wishes to have his talk directly produce a typed record. All he needs to do is to take advantage of existing mechanisms and to alter his language.
At a recent World Fair a machine called a Voder was shown. A girl stroked its keys and it emitted recognizable speech. No human vocal chords entered into the procedure at any point; the keys simply combined some electrically produced vibrations and passed these on to a loud-speaker. In the Bell Laboratories there is the converse of this machine, called a Vocoder. The loudspeaker is replaced by a microphone, which picks up sound. Speak to it, and the corresponding keys move. This may be one element of the postulated system.
The other element is found in the stenotype, that somewhat disconcerting device encountered usually at public meetings. A girl strokes its keys languidly and looks about the room and sometimes at the speaker with a disquieting gaze. From it emerges a typed strip which records in a phonetically simplified language a record of what the speaker is supposed to have said. Later this strip is retyped into ordinary language, for in its nascent form it is intelligible only to the initiated. Combine these two elements, let the Vocoder run the stenotype, and the result is a machine which types when talked to.
Our present languages are not especially adapted to this sort of mechanization, it is true. It is strange that the inventors of universal languages have not seized upon the idea of producing one which better fitted the technique for transmitting and recording speech. Mechanization may yet force the issue, especially in the scientific field; whereupon scientific jargon would become still less intelligible to the layman.
One can now picture a future investigator in his laboratory. His hands are free, and he is not anchored. As he moves about and observes, he photographs and comments. Time is automatically recorded to tie the two records together. If he goes into the field, he may be connected by radio to his recorder. As he ponders over his notes in the evening, he again talks his comments into the record. His typed record, as well as his photographs, may both be in miniature, so that he projects them for examination.
Much needs to occur, however, between the collection of data and observations, the extraction of parallel material from the existing record, and the final insertion of new material into the general body of the common record. For mature thought there is no mechanical substitute. But creative thought and essentially repetitive thought are very different things. For the latter there are, and may be, powerful mechanical aids.
Adding a column of figures is a repetitive thought process, and it was long ago properly relegated to the machine. True, the machine is sometimes controlled by a keyboard, and thought of a sort enters in reading the figures and poking the corresponding keys, but even this is avoidable. Machines have been made which will read typed figures by photocells and then depress the corresponding keys; these are combinations of photocells for scanning the type, electric circuits for sorting the consequent variations, and relay circuits for interpreting the result into the action of solenoids to pull the keys down.
All this complication is needed because of the clumsy way in which we have learned to write figures. If we recorded them positionally, simply by the configuration of a set of dots on a card, the automatic reading mechanism would become comparatively simple. In fact if the dots are holes, we have the punched-card machine long ago produced by Hollorith for the purposes of the census, and now used throughout business. Some types of complex businesses could hardly operate without these machines.
Adding is only one operation. To perform arithmetical computation involves also subtraction, multiplication, and division, and in addition some method for temporary storage of results, removal from storage for further manipulation, and recording of final results by printing. Machines for these purposes are now of two types: keyboard machines for accounting and the like, manually controlled for the insertion of data, and usually automatically controlled as far as the sequence of operations is concerned; and punched-card machines in which separate operations are usually delegated to a series of machines, and the cards then transferred bodily from one to another. Both forms are very useful; but as far as complex computations are concerned, both are still in embryo.
Rapid electrical counting appeared soon after the physicists found it desirable to count cosmic rays. For their own purposes the physicists promptly constructed thermionic-tube equipment capable of counting electrical impulses at the rate of 100,000 a second. The advanced arithmetical machines of the future will be electrical in nature, and they will perform at 100 times present speeds, or more.
Moreover, they will be far more versatile than present commercial machines, so that they may readily be adapted for a wide variety of operations. They will be controlled by a control card or film, they will select their own data and manipulate it in accordance with the instructions thus inserted, they will perform complex arithmetical computations at exceedingly high speeds, and they will record results in such form as to be readily available for distribution or for later further manipulation. Such machines will have enormous appetites. One of them will take instructions and data from a whole roomful of girls armed with simple key board punches, and will deliver sheets of computed results every few minutes. There will always be plenty of things to compute in the detailed affairs of millions of people doing complicated things.
part 4
The repetitive processes of thought are not confined however, to matters of arithmetic and statistics. In fact, every time one combines and records facts in accordance with established logical processes, the creative aspect of thinking is concerned only with the selection of the data and the process to be employed and the manipulation thereafter is repetitive in nature and hence a fit matter to be relegated to the machine. Not so much has been done along these lines,beyond the bounds of arithmetic, as might be done, primarily because of the economics of the situation. The needs of business and the extensive market obviously waiting, assured the advent of mass-produced arithmetical machines just as soon as production methods were sufficiently advanced.
With machines for advanced analysis no such situation existed; for there was and is no extensive market; the users of advanced methods of manipulating data are a very small part of the population. There are, however, machines for solving differential equations – and functional and integral equations, for that matter. There are many special machines, such as the harmonic synthesizer which predicts the tides. There will be many more, appearing certainly first in the hands of the scientist and in small numbers.
If scientific reasoning were limited to the logical processes of arithmetic, we should not get far in our understanding of the physical world. One might as well attempt to grasp the game of poker entirely by the use of the mathematics of probability. The abacus, with its beads strung on parallel wires, led the Arabs to positional numeration and the concept of zero many centuries before the rest of the world; and it was a useful tool – so useful that it still exists.
It is a far cry from the abacus to the modern keyboard accounting machine. It will be an equal step to the arithmetical machine of the future. But even this new machine will not take the scientist where he needs to go. Relief must be secured from laborious detailed manipulation of higher mathematics as well, if the users of it are to free their brains for something more than repetitive detailed transformations in accordance with established rules. A mathematician is not a man who can readily manipulate figures; often he cannot. He is not even a man who can readily perform the transformations of equations by the use of calculus. He is primarily an individual who is skilled in the use of symbolic logic on a high plane, and especially he is a man of intuitive judgment in the choice of the manipulative processes he employs.
All else he should be able to turn over to his mechanism, just as confidently as he turns over the propelling of his car to the intricate mechanism under the hood. Only then will mathematics be practically effective in bringing the growing knowledge of atomistics to the useful solution of the advanced problems of chemistry, metallurgy, and biology. For this reason there still come more machines to handle advanced mathematics for the scientist. Some of them will be sufficiently bizarre to suit the most fastidious connoisseur of the present artifacts of civilization.
part 5
The scientist, however, is not the only person who manipulates data and examines the world about him by the use of logical processes, although he sometimes preserves this appearance by adopting into the fold anyone who becomes logical, much in the manner in which a British labor leader is elevated to knighthood. Whenever logical processes of thought are employed – that is, whenever thought for a time runs along an accepted groove – there is an opportunity for the machine. Formal logic used to be a keen instrument in the hands of the teacher in his trying of students' souls. It is readily possible to construct a machine which will manipulate premises in accordance with formal logic, simply by the clever use of relay circuits. Put a set of premises into such a device and turn the crank, and it will readily pass out conclusion after conclusion, all in accordance with logical law, and with no more slips than would be expected of a keyboard adding machine.
Logic can become enormously difficult, and it would undoubtedly be well to produce more assurance in its use. The machines for higher analysis have usually been equation solvers. Ideas are beginning to appear for equation transformers, which will rearrange the relationship expressed by an equation in accordance with strict and rather advanced logic. Progress is inhibited by the exceedingly crude way in which mathematicians express their relationships. They employ a symbolism which grew like Topsy and has little consistency; a strange fact in that most logical field.
A new symbolism, probably positional, must apparently precede the reduction of mathematical transformations to machine processes. Then, on beyond the strict logic of the mathematician, lies the application of logic in everyday affairs. We may some day click off arguments on a machine with the same assurance that we now enter sales on a cash register. But the machine of logic will not look like a cash register, even of the streamlined model.
So much for the manipulation of ideas and their insertion into the record. Thus far we seem to be worse off than before – for we can enormously extend the record; yet even in its present bulk we can hardly consult it. This is a much larger matter than merely the extraction of data for the purposes of scientific research; it involves the entire process by which man profits by his inheritance of acquired knowledge. The prime action of use is selection, and here we are halting indeed. There may be millions of fine thoughts, and the account of the experience on which they are based, all encased within stone walls of acceptable architectural form; but if the scholar can get at only one a week by diligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep up with the current scene.
Selection, in this broad sense, is a stone adze in the hands of a cabinetmaker. Yet, in a narrow sense and in other areas, something has already been done mechanically on selection. The personnel officer of a factory drops a stack of a few thousand employee cards into a selecting machine, sets a code in accordance with an established convention, and produces in a short time a list of all employees who live in Trenton and know Spanish. Even such devices are much too slow when it comes, for example, to matching a set of fingerprints with one of five million on file. Selection devices of this sort will soon be speeded up from their present rate of reviewing data at a few hundred a minute. By the use of photocells and microfilm they will survey items at the rate of a thousand a second, and will print out duplicates of those selected.
This process, however, is simple selection: it proceeds by examining in turn every one of a large set of items, and by picking out those which have certain specified characteristics. There is another form of selection best illustrated by the automatic telephone exchange. You dial a number and the machine selects and connects just one of a million possible stations. It does not run over them all. It pays attention only to a class given by a first digit, then only to a subclass of this given by the second digit, and so on; and thus proceeds rapidly and almost unerringly to the selected station. It requires a few seconds to make the selection, although the process could be speeded up if increased speed were economically warranted. If necessary, it could be made extremely fast by substituting thermionic-tube switching for mechanical switching, so that the full selection could be made in one one-hundredth of a second. No one would wish to spend the money necessary to make this change in the telephone system, but the general idea is applicable elsewhere.
Take the prosaic problem of the great department store. Every time a charge sale is made, there are a number of things to be done. The inventory needs to be revised, the salesman needs to be given credit for the sale, the general accounts need an entry, and, most important, the customer needs to be charged. A central records device has been developed in which much of this work is done conveniently. The salesman places on a stand the customer's identification card, his own card, and the card taken from the article sold – all punched cards. When he pulls a lever, contacts are made through the holes, machinery at a central point makes the necessary computations and entries, and the proper receipt is printed for the salesman to pass to the customer.
But there may be ten thousand charge customers doing business with the store, and before the full operation can be completed someone has to select the right card and insert it at the central office. Now rapid selection can slide just the proper card into position in an instant or two, and return it afterward. Another difficulty occurs, however. Someone must read a total on the card, so that the machine can add its computed item to it. Conceivably the cards might be of the dry photography type I have described. Existing totals could then be read by photocell, and the new total entered by an electron beam.
The cards may be in miniature, so that they occupy little space. They must move quickly. They need not be transferred far, but merely into position so that the photocell and recorder can operate on them. Positional dots can enter the data. At the end of the month a machine can readily be made to read these and to print an ordinary bill. With tube selection, in which no mechanical parts are involved in the switches, little time need be occupied in bringing the correct card into use – a second should suffice for the entire operation. The whole record on the card may be made by magnetic dots on a steel sheet if desired, instead of dots to be observed optically, following the scheme by which Poulsen long ago put speech on a magnetic wire. This method has the advantage of simplicity and ease of erasure. By using photography, however one can arrange to project the record in enlarged form and at a distance by using the process common in television equipment.
One can consider rapid selection of this form, and distant projection for other purposes. To be able to key one sheet of a million before an operator in a second or two, with the possibility of then adding notes thereto, is suggestive in many ways. It might even be of use in libraries, but that is another story. At any rate, there are now some interesting combinations possible. One might, for example, speak to a microphone, in the manner described in connection with the speech controlled typewriter, and thus make his selections. It would certainly beat the usual file clerk.
part 6
The real heart of the matter of selection, however, goes deeper than a lag in the adoption of mechanisms by libraries, or a lack of development of devices for their use. Our ineptitude in getting at the record is largely caused by the artificiality of systems of indexing. When data of any sort are placed in storage, they are filed alphabetically or numerically, and information is found (when it is) by tracing it down from subclass to subclass. It can be in only one place, unless duplicates are used; one has to have rules as to which path will locate it, and the rules are cumbersome. Having found one item, moreover, one has to emerge from the system and re-enter on a new path.
The human mind does not work that way. It operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain. It has other characteristics, of course; trails that are not frequently followed are prone to fade, items are not fully permanent, memory is transitory. Yet the speed of action, the intricacy of trails, the detail of mental pictures, is awe-inspiring beyond all else in nature.
Man cannot hope fully to duplicate this mental process artificially, but he certainly ought to be able to learn from it. In minor ways he may even improve, for his records have relative permanency. The first idea, however, to be drawn from the analogy concerns selection. Selection by association, rather than indexing, may yet be mechanized. One cannot hope thus to equal the speed and flexibility with which the mind follows an associative trail, but it should be possible to beat the mind decisively in regard to the permanence and clarity of the items resurrected from storage.
Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and, to coin one at random, "memex" will do. A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory.
It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks like an ordinary desk.
In one end is the stored material. The matter of bulk is well taken care of by improved microfilm. Only a small part of the interior of the memex is devoted to storage, the rest to mechanism. Yet if the user inserted 5000 pages of material a day it would take him hundreds of years to fill the repository, so he can be profligate and enter material freely.
Most of the memex contents are purchased on microfilm ready for insertion. Books of all sorts, pictures, current periodicals, newspapers, are thus obtained and dropped into place. Business correspondence takes the same path. And there is provision for direct entry. On the top of the memex is a transparent platen. On this are placed longhand notes, photographs, memoranda, all sorts of things. When one is in place, the depression of a lever causes it to be photographed onto the next blank space in a section of the memex film, dry photography being employed.
There is, of course, provision for consultation of the record by the usual scheme of indexing. If the user wishes to consult a certain book, he taps its code on the keyboard, and the title page of the book promptly appears before him, projected onto one of his viewing positions. Frequently-used codes are mnemonic, so that he seldom consults his code book; but when he does, a single tap of a key projects it for his use. Moreover, he has supplemental levers. On deflecting one of these levers to the right he runs through the book before him, each page in turn being projected at a speed which just allows a recognizing glance at each. If he deflects it further to the right, he steps through the book 10 pages at a time; still further at 100 pages at a time. Deflection to the left gives him the same control backwards.
A special button transfers him immediately to the first page of the index. Any given book of his library can thus be called up and consulted with far greater facility than if it were taken from a shelf. As he has several projection positions, he can leave one item in position while he calls up another. He can add marginal notes and comments, taking advantage of one possible type of dry photography, and it could even be arranged so that he can do this by a stylus scheme, such as is now employed in the telautograph seen in railroad waiting rooms, just as though he had the physical page before him.
part 7
All this is conventional, except for the projection forward of present-day mechanisms and gadgetry. It affords an immediate step, however, to associative indexing, the basic idea of which is a provision whereby any item may be caused at will to select immediately and automatically another. This is the essential feature of the memex. The process of tying two items together is the important thing.
When the user is building a trail, he names it, inserts the name in his code book, and taps it out on his keyboard. Before him are the two items to be joined, projected onto adjacent viewing positions. At the bottom of each there are a number of blank code spaces, and a pointer is set to indicate one of these on each item. The user taps a single key, and the items are permanently joined. In each code space appears the code word. Out of view, but also in the code space, is inserted a set of dots for photocell viewing; and on each item these dots by their positions designate the index number of the other item.
Thereafter, at any time, when one of these items is in view, the other can be instantly recalled merely by tapping a button below the corresponding code space. Moreover, when numerous items have been thus joined together to form a trail, they can be reviewed in turn, rapidly or slowly, by deflecting a lever like that used for turning the pages of a book. It is exactly as though the physical items had been gathered together from widely separated sources and bound together to form a new book. It is more than this, for any item can be joined into numerous trails.
The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin and properties of the bow and arrow. Specifically he is studying why the short Turkish bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly pertinent books and articles in his memex. First he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item, and ties the two together. Thus he goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the main trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. When it becomes evident that the elastic properties of available materials had a great deal to do with the bow, he branches off on a side trail which takes him through textbooks on elasticity and tables of physical constants. He inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own. Thus he builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials available to him.
And his trails do not fade. Several years later, his talk with a friend turns to the queer ways in which a people resist innovations, even of vital interest. He has an example, in the fact that the outraged Europeans still failed to adopt the Turkish bow. In fact he has a trail on it. A touch brings up the code book. Tapping a few keys projects the head of the trail. A lever runs through it at will, stopping at interesting items, going off on side excursions. It is an interesting trail, pertinent to the discussion. So he sets a reproducer in action, photographs the whole trail out, and passes it to his friend for insertion in his own memex, there to be linked into the more general trail.
part 5
Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified. The lawyer has at his touch the associated opinions and decisions of his whole experience, and of the experience of friends and authorities. The patent attorney has on call the millions of issued patents, with familiar trails to every point of his client's interest. The physician, puzzled by a patient's reactions, strikes the trail established in studying an earlier similar case, and runs rapidly through analogous case histories, with side references to the classics for the pertinent anatomy and histology. The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory, with trails following the analogies of compounds, and side trails to their physical and chemical behavior
The historian, with a vast chronological account of a people, parallels it with a skip trail which stops only on the salient items, and can follow at any time contemporary trails which lead him all over civilization at a particular epoch. There is a new profession of trail blazers, those who find delight in the task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass of the common record. The inheritance from the master becomes, not only his additions to the world's record, but for his disciples the entire scaffolding by which they were erected.
Thus science may implement the ways in which man produces, stores, and consults the record of the race. It might be striking to outline the instrumentalities of the future more spectacularly, rather than to stick closely to methods and elements now known and undergoing rapid development, as has been done here. Technical difficulties of all sorts have been ignored, certainly, but also ignored are means as yet unknown which may come any day to accelerate technical progress as violently as did the advent of the thermionic tube. In order that the picture may not be too commonplace, by reason of sticking to present-day patterns, it may be well to mention one such possibility, not to prophesy but merely to suggest, for prophecy based on extension of the known has substance, while prophecy founded on the unknown is only a doubly involved guess.
All our steps in creating or absorbing material of the record proceed through one of the senses – the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible that some day the path may be established more directly?
We know that when the eye sees, all the consequent information is transmitted to the brain by means of electrical vibrations in the channel of the optic nerve. This is an exact analogy with the electrical vibrations which occur in the cable of a television set: they convey the picture from the photocells which see it to the radio transmitter from which it is broadcast. We know further that if we can approach that cable with the proper instruments, we do not need to touch it; we can pick up those vibrations by electrical induction and thus discover and reproduce the scene which is being transmitted, just as a telephone wire may be tapped for its message.
The impulses which flow in the arm nerves of a typist convey to her fingers the translated information which reaches her eye or ear, in order that the fingers may be caused to strike the proper keys. Might not these currents be intercepted, either in the original form in which information is conveyed to the brain, or in the marvelously metamorphosed form in which they then proceed to the hand?
By bone conduction we already introduce sounds: into the nerve channels of the deaf in order that they may hear. Is it not possible that we may learn to introduce them without the present cumbersomeness of first transforming electrical vibrations to mechanical ones, which the human mechanism promptly transforms back to the electrical form? With a couple of electrodes on the skull the encephalograph now produces pen-and-ink traces which bear some relation to the electrical phenomena going on in the brain itself. True, the record is unintelligible, except as it points out certain gross misfunctioning of the cerebral mechanism; but who would now place bounds on where such a thing may lead?
In the outside world, all forms of intelligence whether of sound or sight, have been reduced to the form of varying currents in an electric circuit in order that they may be transmitted. Inside the human frame exactly the same sort of process occurs. Must we always transform to mechanical movements in order to proceed from one electrical phenomenon to another? It is a suggestive thought, but it hardly warrants prediction without losing touch with reality and immediateness.
Presumably man's spirit should be elevated if he can better review his shady past and analyze more completely and objectively his present problems. He has built a civilization so complex that he needs to mechanize his records more fully if he is to push his experiment to its logical conclusion and not merely become bogged down part way there by overtaxing his limited memory. His excursions may be more enjoyable if he can reacquire the privilege of forgetting the manifold things he does not need to have immediately at hand, with some assurance that he can find them again if they prove important.
The applications of science have built man a well-supplied house, and are teaching him to live healthily therein. They have enabled him to throw masses of people against one another with cruel weapons. They may yet allow him truly to encompass the great record and to grow in the wisdom of race experience. He may perish in conflict before he learns to wield that record for his true good. Yet, in the application of science to the needs and desires of man, it would seem to be a singularly unfortunate stage at which to terminate the process, or to lose hope as to the outcome.
Copyright ©1945 by Vannevar Bush. All rights reserved. The Atlantic Monthly; July, 1945; As We May Think; Volume 176, No. 1; pages 101-108.


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Option: standard option
Download the CAD (2D, 3D) files of this product in different formats. | ⚠ Caution: CAD files should not be used for computer-controlled (CNC) cutting of countertops or similar and are for space-planning & room rendering purposes only. Upon request cut-out templates are available from LAUFEN. All drawings contain the necessary measurements (mm) which are subject to standard tolerances. Exact measurements, in particular for customized installation scenarios, can only be taken from the finished product.

subset: commoncrawl


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Newer Vehicles Generate as Much As 25GB of Data/Hour according to McKinsey. Now That is Extremely Interesting! It is also daunting as we now need to know "what data" right? You also want to know where it is going if anywhere and who owns the data? All interesting questions that we never thought about. Just get in and drive, choose a destination and if a light goes off in the dash you call us here at Virgil's Auto RV & Diesel to schedule an appointment. We want our Lake Havasu City drivers to be informed as always and able to make their choices based on having facts. This is a big change in the automotive-truck service industry and it really has not hit the news at all, so it is up to us to get you up-to-date and informed. Here are the facts and where you can find more information!
Our diagnostic equipment download codes from your computer when you have an issue from data stored on your vehicle but newer vehicles transmit data straight to the manufacturers as well.
Your vehicle gathers data as you would expect about your location and the overall health of the engine, transmission, electrical equipment as well as tires and everything else you see on your dash as you scroll through the many new system diagnostics on your new vehicle.
It also knows how fast you drive, vehicle performance, location, how hard you brake and "biometric data on people in the vehicle" including HOW MUCH YOU WEIGH? Why it would record that is something I personally would like to know?
The newer vehicles also have internet packages available so we should have made the connection sooner that our data would be wirelessly transmitted straight from our vehicle to the manufacturer.
Who owns the data? Not You! If it is stored on the computer you can control who accesses it but not if it is transmitted straight to the car manufacturer.
Why does it matter?
1. If you don't control your data then you can not control who works on your vehicle or who has access to the data.
2. They could share and sell it with a third party without your consent or knowledge for research and advertising. There is no opt-out.
3. Car data is important to the maintenance and repair of your vehicle. You should control where you take your vehicle for repairs so that it is convenient for you and the right choice for your family.
Want to know more? Take the Quiz and see what your vehicle knows about you? How much data does it collect? https://quiz.yourcaryourdata.org/
There is a new Driver's Bill of Rights with Your Car. Your Data. Your Choice. You can also find more information - join a petition - share it with friends and family if you like. We want you informed and this is truly an interesting twist in-vehicle news. Who knew they kept track of our "biometric weight". If you have any questions or want to know more go to https://yourcaryourdata.org/
Thank you for visiting Virgil's Auto RV & Diesel in Lake Havasu City, AZ. Count on our automotive repair technicians to keep your car, truck, suv, or van on the roads longer and safer.
Schedule your appointment today (928) 453-5585 or REQUEST APPOINTMENT HERE.


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It has come to my attention that my essay is a menace to society. This afternoon, I got the following email:
Just read your piece in Redbook about Halloween. Actually, about your decision to be "quirky" and not dress up in costume when you trick-or-treat with your kids. That's really not quirky - it's rude, boring, and shows a lack of spirit. Sure, Halloween is for kids to get candy, but my reason for staying home that day and handing out candy is for my amusement, too - to see all of the unique costumes and the creativity and planning that kids and parents put into dressing up. If more people decide to take the easy, quirky (?) way out and not dress up, my days of answering the door for trick-or-treaters will soon end. If your kids don't wanna dress up, don't take them out. Period.
At first, I took the situation rather lightly and responded:
Actually, it was the kids' decision not to wear costumes (if you really read the piece). I will be sure to inform my children that they are rude, boring and lack spirit, especially my child with special needs. Cheers!
I got this answer in return:
I read the piece...you are the adult - let the kids know that if they won't dress up, they won't get candy. If they're too young to understand, just skip going out at all. Just take a poll and see how many people enjoy handing out candy to kids that aren't in costume. Its people like you that ruin the spirit of that day. I just hope that folks don't read your article and all decide to take the easy way out. Best regards!
By this point, I was getting worked up by the prospect that my essay had the potential to ruin Halloween for millions of door answerers everywhere.
I do not want people protesting outside my home, pelting me with candy corn as I make a dash for my minivan.
I do not want to appear on Letterman and publicly apologize for what I have done.
I do not want to go down in history as the lady who destroyed Halloween.
Unfortunately, it is too late to get Redbook to slap a "Caution: contents may be hazardous to your Halloween health" sticker on the October issue. It looks so fun and full of good things; one would never suspect the killjoy essay that lurks inside.
So please, be very, very careful when you read the issue and you get to my piece. It may just influence you to let your kids celebrate Halloween in their own way and otherwise do evil.
You have been duly warned.


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The Audi R8 5.2 FSI quattro: breathtaking performance
Audi is launching the next variant of its top-of-the-line model. With the R8, the brand has established itself at the forefront of high-end sports cars from the very start – and now comes the R8 V10. Its 5.2-liter, ten-cylinder engine churns out 386 kW (525 hp) and 530 Nm (390.91 lb-ft) of torque, which makes for breathtaking performance. With superior Audi technologies such as quattro all-wheel drive, the lightweight aluminum body, the innovative all-LED headlights, and its striking design, the R8 V10 takes pole position against the competition.
The V10 engine in the production sports car will be almost identical in construction to the one in the racing version. Its displacement is 5,204 cc, at 6,500 rpm it delivers 530 Nm (390.91 lb-ft) of torque, at 8,000 rpm its power tops out at 386 kW (525 hp).
The specific power output is 100.9 hp per liter of displacement – and each hp has to propel only 3.09 kilograms (6.91 lb) of weight, because the Audi R8 V10 in the version with the six-speed manual gearshift weighs only 1,620 kilograms (3571 lb). The engine accounts for 258 of these kilograms (569 lb) – that's only 31 kilos (68 lb) more than the V8.
The Audi R8 5.2 FSI quattro rockets from zero to 100 km/h (62.14 mph) in 3.9 seconds. In the version with the sequentially shifting R tronic it reaches 200 km/h (124.27 mph) in another 8.1 seconds. Even then its propulsive power hardly lessens: it's sufficient to reach a top speed of 316 km/h (196.35 mph). The immense force, the spontaneity and the thrust of the acceleration, plus the sound of the engine – all these impressions coalesce into a breathtaking sports car experience. The V10 plays a concert with growling bass tones and powerful high notes, which grows into a grandiose fortissimo as the engine revs up. This sonorous acceleration doesn't reach its limit until 8,700 rpm.
The 5.2-liter powerplant uses direct injection according to the FSI principle developed by Audi. A common rail system injects the fuel into the combustion chambers with up to 120 bar of pressure. Direct injection reduces the susceptibility to knocking and provides a certain amount of cooling through the evaporation of the fuel, which in turn supports a high compression ratio of 12.5:1. This in turn contributes to superior performance and improves fuel economy. The R8 V10 with R tronic gets by on an average of 13.7 liters per 100 km (17.17 US mpg).
For maximum dynamics: low center of gravity engine
The technical refinements of the long-stroke ten-cylinder engine include dry sump lubrication, which allows the engine to be mounted low within the chassis. The wide cylinder angle of 90 degrees also makes for a low center of gravity. The crankcase is a high-strength aluminum-alloy casting produced in a complex process. The connecting rods are made of forged steel, the pistons of aluminum. The four camshafts are chain-driven and each is adjustable through 42 degrees. This provides great latitude in controlling the valve timing. In combination with the straight, flow-optimized ducts of the intake manifold, this improves the charge throughout the entire speed range.
The R8 5.2 FSI quattro has a six-speed transmission. A precise and smooth-shifting manual transmission comes as standard equipment. The sequential R tronic is available as an option. The high-tech gearshift conveys an authentic racing feel – with the rocker switches at the steering wheel and the short shifting times of usually less than one-tenth of a second. When the driver actuates the Launch Control program by pressing a button, the R8 V10 takes off in a vehement quick-start with electronically controlled tire slip – both with the R tronic and with the manual transmission.
A contributing factor to the wide lead in traction and driving safety of the Audi R8 V10 over the competition is quattro all-wheel drive – it's the superior technology especially for a high-performance sports car. Four powered wheels get more grip than two. They enable the driver to step on the gas sooner when coming out of a curve. It's not only the traction that benefits, but also the transverse dynamics and the stability.
44 to 56 percent – the ideal axle load distribution
The Audi R8 chassis offers both dynamic performance and astonishing levels of comfort on long distances. This high-performance sports car from Audi eagerly responds to any steering action with instant ease, achieves lateral acceleration of up to 1.2 g, and handles any situation with superb driving safety. Its mid-engine design provides an ideal axle load distribution of 44 to 56 percent.
The wheel suspensions on dual aluminum wishbones front and rear – a classic racing technology – are optimized for neutral self-steering characteristics. Even more than in the eight-cylinder R8, this setup is designed for maximum performance. 19-inch wheels equipped with tire pressure monitoring display are standard equipment. Their 10-spoke Y design is exclusive to the R8 V10. Tire sizes are 235/35 front and 295/30 rear.
The car features a high-end damper technology as standard: Audi magnetic ride adapts the characteristics of the suspension in milliseconds to the nature of the road surface and to the driving style. Suspended in the oil of the shock absorbers are tiny magnetic particles which, when a voltage is applied, rearrange themselves so as to slow down the flow of oil through the valves.
In the R8 V10, deceleration is provided by an extremely muscular braking system – eight brake pistons at the front and four at the rear grasp the brake disks, which are ventilated and perforated to ensure unimpeded heat transfer. The brake disks on the front axle have a diameter of 380 millimeters (15 in); the rear discs span 356 millimeters (14 in).
The R8 5.2 FSI quattro is optionally available with a ceramic brake system whose disks are made of a composite material containing high-strength carbon fibers and abrasion-resistant silicon carbide. These are especially light: their combined weight is nine kilograms (19.84 lb) less than the weight of equivalent steel disks. The ceramic brakes can easily cope with the harsher requirements of racing, won't corrode, and have a typical service life of 300,000 kilometers (186,400 miles). Their calipers are painted charcoal gray and emblazoned with the inscription "Audi ceramicâ€.
Typically Audi: Sharp lines and an elegantly curved roof
The wide, full shape of the R8 5.2 FSI quattro seems to hug the road. The brawny proportions and prominent wheel wells underscore its potential. The high-precision styling of the lines and the elegant curve of the roof are typical Audi features. A continuous contour optically connects the front, the wheel wells, the sides and the rear. Located well forward, the cab visually expresses the mid-engine design. The vertical air scoops (sideblades) on the sides are also indicative of the engine location. The massive aluminum gas cap is mounted flush within the right sideblade.
The design of the Audi R8 has already impressed experts, as evidenced by the double victory in the "World Car of the Year Awards 2008â€. In the ten-cylinder model, the styling has been sharpened up even more.
The front air inlets, which feed air to the coolers, and the lip of the front apron are painted in high-gloss black. The number of cross-braces has been reduced from four to two. The vanes of the single-frame grille have a striking chrome finish.
A very distinctive highlight of the R8 V10 are the all-LED headlights as standard equipment. Audi is the world's first automaker to use LEDs for the high beam, low beam, daytime running lights, and turn signals. Each headlight integrates 54 of these high-tech light sources. With a color temperature of 6,000 Kelvin the LED light closely resembles daylight, which is less tiring to the eyes in night driving. Further advantages of the LEDs include brilliant illumination, low energy consumption, and a virtually unlimited service life.
Special details also distinguish the body of the R8 V10. Its sideblades are more accentuated than in the eight-cylinder version. The side sills are more striking and wider; the exhaust grilles at the rear windows have a matt aluminum look. Through the large rear window, the ten-cylinder engine is clearly visible in its consummate technical beauty.
When in motion, this Audi high-performance sports car creates a downforce that keeps it in firm contact with the road – thanks to a rear spoiler which deploys automatically at 100 km/h and the fully enclosed underbody, which terminates in a sharply upward-curved diffuser. The dominant color at the rear end is high-gloss black, including the settings of the LED tail lights. The air outlets at the rear end also have only two cross-braces, and the exhaust system terminates in two large oval tailpipes.
Audi sets the example – in body weight and rigidity
The body of a sports car must be especially lightweight and rigid. Audi meets these requirements with the technology of the Audi Space Frame (ASF) and its high-tech aluminum construction. The body-in-white of the R8 V10, which includes an engine frame made of ultra-light magnesium, weighs only 210 kilograms (463 lb), and the quality of its lightweight design – the relation of weight to torsional rigidity – is the best in the sports car segment. The body is composed of profile extrusions, sheet aluminum and very complex gusset castings, all held together by 99 meters (325 ft) of welding seams, 782 rivets, and 308 special screws.
The interior of the R8 V10 provides a unique racing ambience at the luxury level. Its dominant element is the so-called monoposto – a wide arc that contains the steering wheel and the cockpit. As always in an Audi, the workmanship is of the highest quality. The surfaces of the dashboard and doors are lined with fine materials and adorned with precisely stitched decorative seams. Many customizing solutions are available: Audi supplies leather in a wide range of colors, packages with a carbon and piano-lacquer finish, or a made-to-measure luggage set. quattro GmbH, which has developed and is producing the R8 V10, also provides solutions for unconventional requirements.
The great everyday utility of the Audi R8 V10 is based in part on its spacious interior made possible by the long wheelbase of 2.65 meters (8.69 ft). Drivers and passengers of any size will always find a perfect sitting position. Visibility too is surprisingly good. Slender hinge pillars optimize the obliquely forward field of view. Another advantage for convenient everyday use is the luggage space: 100 liters (3.53 cu ft) fit under the front hood, another 90 liters (3.18 cu ft) can be stowed behind the seats. There is also room for two golf bags.
The Audi R8 5.2 FSI quattro combines its colossal performance with a generous complement of standard equipment. Highlights include heatable seat covers made of Fine Nappa leather, a driver information system, the navigation system plus and the Bang & Olufsen sound system along with deluxe automatic air conditioning and an alarm system. The instruments and the gearshift knob are decorated with red rings; the footrests and the rocker switches of the R tronic have an aluminum finish.
The list of options includes other highly attractive features – such as the Audi parking system advanced with its integrated rearview camera or numerous Audi exclusive customization options. Various leather packages provide a luxurious touch, while the bucket seats from the Audi exclusive program bring a highly concentrated racing atmosphere into the R8 V10.
The Audi R8 5.2 FSI quattro will be rolled out in Germany in the second quarter of 2009 at a basic price of EUR 142,400.


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Harley Davidson unveils electric motorcycle
By Canadian Press
General Harley Davidson slideshowLegendary U.S. motorcycle maker offering test drives of Project Livewire motorcycle but no sales planned yet.
MILWAUKEE — Harley-Davidson will unveil its first electric motorcycle next week, and President Matt Levatich said he expects the company known for its big touring bikes and iconic brand to become a leader in developing technology and standards for electric vehicles.
Harley will show handmade demonstration models Monday at an invitation-only event in New York. The company will then take several dozen riders on a 30-city tour to test drive the bikes and provide feedback. Harley will use the information it gathers to refine the bike, which might not hit the market for several more years.
The venture is a risk for Harley because there's currently almost no market for full-size electric motorcycles. The millions of two-wheeled electric vehicles sold each year are almost exclusively scooters and low-powered bikes that appeal to Chinese commuters. But one analyst said investment by a major manufacturer could help create demand, and Levatich emphasized in an interview with The Associated Press that Harley is interested in the long-term potential, regardless of immediate demand.
"We think that the trends in both EV technology and customer openness to EV products, both automotive and motorcycles, is only going to increase, and when you think about sustainability and environmental trends, we just see that being an increasing part of the lifestyle and the requirements of riders," Levatich said. "So, nobody can predict right now how big that industry will be or how significant it will be."
At the same time, Levatich and others involved in creating the sleek, futuristic LiveWire predicted it would sell based on performance, not environmental awareness. With no need to shift gears, the slim, sporty bike can go from 0 to 60 mph in about 4 seconds. The engine is silent, but the meshing of gears emits a hum like a jet airplane taking off.
"Some people may get on it thinking, 'golf cart,"' lead engineer Jeff Richlen said. "And they get off thinking, 'rocket ship."'
One hurdle the company has yet to address is the limited range offered by electric motorcycles. The batteries must be recharged after about 130 miles, and that can take 30 minutes to an hour.
San Jose State University police Capt. Alan Cavallo helped his department buy two bikes from Zero Motorcycles, the current top-selling brand, and said officers have been "super happy" with the quiet, environmentally friendly bikes made nearby in Scotts Valley, California. But he said American riders who like to hit the highway would likely lose patience with the technology.
"That's the deal with the cars; you can't jump in a Tesla and drive to LA, it won't make it," Cavallo said, adding later, "People want the convenience of 'I pull into a gas station, I pour some gas in my tank and I go."'
Zero Motorcycles introduced its first full-size motorcycle in 2010 and expects to sell about 2,400 bikes this year, said Scott Harden, the company's vice-president of global marketing. That would give it about half of the global market for full-size, high-powered electric motorcycles.
In comparison, Harley-Davidson alone sold more than 260,000 conventional motorcycles last year.
But John Gartner, a research director for the consulting firm Navigant Research, said having large, well-funded companies get into the electric motorcycle market could give it a significant boost. The major automakers helped drive sales for hybrid and electric cars, he noted.
"Their marketing budgets are much larger and they have dealerships set up everywhere, and so it's much easier for companies like Ford, BMW and Honda to advertise about their electric vehicles," he said.
Levatich said true growth will require common standards for rapid charging and other features, as well as places for people to plug in. Harley expects to play a key role in developing electric vehicle standards, and its dealership network could provide charging stations to serve all drivers, he said.
"We've been very silent up to this point about our investment in EV technology," Levatich said. "… but now that we're public, and we're in this space, we expect to be involved and a part of leading the development of the standards, and the technology and the infrastructure necessary to further the acceptance and the utility of electric vehicles."
© 2014 The Canadian Press


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• 63% Polyester for durability, 32% Cotton for comfort, and 5% Elastane for stretch
• 220gsm pique knit fabric
• Flat knit collar and sleeve cuffs
• Contrast colourways: stripe lower placket and herringbone trim at neck and side splits
• Solid colourways: solid lower placket and herringbone trim at neck and side splits
• Complies with standard AS/NZS 4399:2017 for UPF Protection
You love UNIFORMS. We do too! We want to make sure your team is dressed top to toe in the best at the best value, which is why we are committed to bringing you our brands at competitive prices. We want to offer prices on par with (if not better than) what you are currently paying. Uniforms can be complicated, and costs can be confusing – let us unravel the complexity and review your price.
Total Image Group acknowledges the Gadigal people of the Eora Nation who are the Traditional Custodians of this land on which we work. We acknowledge the Traditional Custodians of Country throughout Australia. We recognise their continuous relationship to the land and pay our respects to Elders past and present.
Total Image Group is an Australian owned family business that designs and supplies fit for purpose and fashion forward uniforms. From custom uniforms and bespoke designs, to ready to wear work uniform solutions – we deliver the highest standard of quality from manufacture through to customer service. We are trusted by many of Australia's most loved brands to create a uniform range that uplifts staff, increases morale and drives home a consistent brand message.


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Related tags
Via ars technica
Developers of phpMyAdmin warned users they may be running a malicious version of the open-source software package after discovering backdoor code was snuck into a package being distributed over the widely used SourceForge repository.
The backdoor contains code that allows remote attackers to take control of the underlying server running the modified phpMyAdmin, which is a Web-based tool for managing MySQL databases. The PHP script is found in a file named server_sync.php, and it reads PHP code embedded in standard POST Web requests and then executes it. That allows anyone who knows the backdoor is present to execute code of his choice. HD Moore, CSO of Rapid7 and chief architect of the Metasploit exploit package for penetration testers and hackers, told Ars a module has already been added that tests for the vulnerability.
The backdoor is concerning because it was distributed on one of the official mirrors for SourceForge, which hosts more than 324,000 open-source projects, serves more than 46 million consumers, and handles more than four million downloads each day. SourceForge officials are still investigating the breach, so crucial questions remain unanswered. It's still unclear, for instance, if the compromised server hosted other maliciously modified software packages, if other official SourceForge mirror sites were also affected, and if the central repository that feeds these mirror sites might also have been attacked.
"If that one mirror was compromised, nearly every SourceForge package on that mirror could have been backdoored, too," Moore said. "So you're looking at not just phpMyAdmin, but 12,000 other projects. If that one mirror was compromised and other projects were modified this isn't just 1,000 people. This is up to a couple hundred thousand."
An advisory posted Tuesday on phpMyAdmin said: "One of the SourceForge.net mirrors, namely cdnetworks-kr-1, was being used to distribute a modified archive of phpMyAdmin, which includes a backdoor. This backdoor is located in file server_sync.php and allows an attacker to remotely execute PHP code. Another file, js/cross_framing_protection.js, has also been modified." phpMyAdmin officials didn't respond to e-mails seeking to learn how long the backdoored version had been available and how many people have downloaded it.
Update: In a blog post, SourceForge officials said they believe only the affected phpMyAdmin-188.8.131.52-all-languages.zip package was the only modified file on the cdnetworks mirror site, but they are continuing to investigate to make sure. Logs indicate that about 400 people downloaded the malicious package. The provider of the Korea-based mirror has confirmed the breach, which is believe to have happened around September 22, and indicated it was limited to that single mirror site. The machine has been taken out of rotation.
"Downloaders are at risk only if a corrupt copy of this software was obtained, installed on a server, and serving was enabled," the SourceForge post said. "Examination of web logs and other server data should help confirm whether this backdoor was accessed."
It's not the first time a widely used open-source project has been hit by a breach affecting the security of its many downstream users. In June of last year, WordPress required all account holders on WordPress.org to change their passwords following the discovery that hackers contaminated it with malicious software. Three months earlier, maintainers of the PHP programming language spent several days scouring their source code for malicious modifications after discovering the security of one of their servers had been breached.
A three-day security breach in 2010 on ProFTP caused users who downloaded the package during that time to be infected with a malicious backdoor. The main source-code repository for the Free Software Foundation was briefly shuttered that same year following the discovery of an attack that compromised some of the website's account passwords and may have allowed unfettered administrative access. And last August, multiple servers used to maintain and distribute the Linux operating system were infected with malware that gained root system access, although maintainers said the repository was unaffected.


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Sunday brings a sad memory for the family of Aaron Collins. It marks one year since the 30-year-old Kentucky man died.
But the heart warming story of "Aaron's last wish" continues.
As we wrote last July, the family discovered after Aaron's death that his will asked them to "leave an awesome tip (and I don't mean 25%. I mean $500 on a f***ing pizza) for a waiter or waitress."
Aaron's brother Seth took on that challenge. Videos of the surprise and delight on servers' faces when he gave them $500 in cash went viral. Donations started to pour in to the Aaron's Last Wish website. As of this week, more than $60,000 was in the account — money donated by people from around the nation and world who want Seth to continue fulfilling his brother's wish.
Weekend Edition Sunday checked in with Seth to ask about what's happened over the past year. It's all been much more than expected.
"The plan was to do it once and I was going to be happy to do [it] once for Aaron," he says. But then people "wanted to see it happen again and again."
At first, Seth and his family focused on restaurants around Lexington, Ky. But, "at some point I realized I needed to get out of this area," he says, "and spread this to others. ... Especially because the donations came in from all over the world. ... It only seemed fair to try to give back to as many places as I could."
The latest "Aaron's last wish" tip — No. 54 — was last Wednesday in Indianapolis. Seth has visited 17 states so far. Starting Monday, he's setting off on a mission to visit the other 33 states. He's hoping to have left tips in all 50 before Christmas.
Along with honoring his brother's last wish, Seth says he's also glad to be able to do something else that's rewarding: Let others know that sometimes, good things do happen.
Almost every waiter or waitress, he says, thinks at first that it's a joke when he gives them the money. "The instinct seems to be 'no one would just randomly give me $500 ... nice things don't happen,' " he says.
"People have been programmed to think that good things can't happen ... and it makes me happy to be at, at least for a few of them, show that [they] can."
Much more from the conversation with Seth is due on Weekend Edition Sunday. Click here to find an NPR station that broadcasts or streams the show.
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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Sunday, December 28, 2008
Winter Wonderland Sweets Continued
Sunday, December 28, 2008
Emily S. made this for her work's Christmas party:
Although those snowflakes are lovely and delicate, my favorite bits are the marshmallows and "steam" rising from the cup of cocoa. Why can't every workplace have someone like you, Emily?
Sarah W. was the first to submit this one from Highland Bakery, where the decorators prove that not all airbrushing is evil:
I don't think I've ever seen shading done so skillfully. Love it.
Miki W. found this electric addition:
You wouldn't think a string of lights on a cake would look elegant, but Dianne Rockwell (aka "The Cake Lady") really managed it for this wedding cake. Don't those snowflakes look like porcelain?
Here's the one you guys submitted the most, from Pink Cake Box:
Super cute. Thanks to Heather, who I think was the very first to send it in.
Here's one from the creator of the very first Sweet I ever posted: Mike of Mike's Amazing Cakes:
I almost feel chilly just looking at this; those snow-dusted pine needles are simply perfect.
And lastly, here's a gorgeously detailed bridal shower cake from She Takes the Cake:
Click on the photo to see the larger version: the lace work and ribbon are truly incredible.
Thanks again to all of you who submitted nominees for the Winter Wonderland assignment; I'm just sorry I couldn't include them all! Stay tuned for your next theme assignment!
35 comments | Post a Comment
- Boozy Tooth said...
My God, what stunning artistry. As I scrolled down I kept thinking no, that's my favorite. The bottom cake (truly? for a bridal shower? for who... Mariah Carey?) is probably the most gorgeous piece of bakery I've ever seen. I love Sunday Sweets. Thanks for the one day dedicated to the dedicated.
- December 28, 2008 at 9:39 AM
- Kim said...
SO beautiful! Thank you for sharing these! I could only dream of creating such masterpieces.
- December 28, 2008 at 10:09 AM
- Vashti said...
They are all so stunning that it would be a sin to cut into them!
- December 28, 2008 at 10:19 AM
- Hyena Overlord said...
I can't decide...but I think the cake with the penguins is a sure pick for a winner with me.
wvotd receng..."an abbreviation for recreational english, a form of communication used on lolcats." - December 28, 2008 at 10:21 AM
Very Beautiful!
- December 28, 2008 at 10:38 AM
These makes me think "I don't want to eat it" for reasons 180 degrees from the reasons I sometimes wouldn't want to eat a Wreck. So pretty, like presents you hesitate to unwrap.
- December 28, 2008 at 10:56 AM
- -botanycreek- said...
I love the snowflakes on the first cake, along with the marshmallows and steam. I will agree that all of these cakes are stunningly spectacular. Each cake artist has something special that sets them apart
- December 28, 2008 at 10:58 AM
The snowman family on the second cake is so incredibly adorable! Great cakes to brighten a dreary day!
- December 28, 2008 at 11:05 AM
- sendingtheclowns said...
Oh, my stars!
Now, that cake with the snow-dusted pinecones is my favorite, because it looks so ethereal; I can almost imagine the pinecones simply taking wing on the little sprigs of pine, and flying away like little, wispy birds.
Snowflakes!! I love everything about them. I can't get over them; they seem impossible to BE. Those on the cake DO look very bisque-y.
Finally, the little snowmen wearing the purple hats and scarves are WAY to cute to eat!
Lovely, lovely cakes!!!! - December 28, 2008 at 11:12 AM
- Angie McCullagh said...
Wowsa. Nice work. I still think the ugly cakes taste better though.
Angie (from over at www.HalfAssedKitchen.com) - December 28, 2008 at 11:15 AM
I'm not sure that I could cut any of them. They're wonderful, beautiful creations! Congrats to the artists, they should be very proud.
- December 28, 2008 at 11:52 AM
- Stephanie said...
I'm with Angie...I'm not in to CHEWING my frosting like gum. I'll take regular icing over fondant any day...although the Sunday Sweets are fantastic pieces of art!
- December 28, 2008 at 11:53 AM
What are the 2 penguins at the base of the cake doing? Looks like they're gathered around a campfire but don't see flames.
- December 28, 2008 at 12:26 PM
- *James* said...
The last one is my favorite. The snowflakes are gorgeous!
- December 28, 2008 at 12:42 PM
- Angie said...
WOW! Those are stunning cakes!
- December 28, 2008 at 1:16 PM
- Saving Money with DOT said...
I read ALOT of blogs and this one is smack dab in the middle of the ones I read. I always need a good laugh and you supply it. Thanks again for your blog. If you have time stop by mine www.savingmoneywithdot.blogspot.com
- December 28, 2008 at 1:24 PM
- bitsie said...
If that last one is for a bridal *shower*, I really want to see the one for the reception afterwards!
- December 28, 2008 at 1:47 PM
- Kateri said...
These are all breathtakingly beautiful! I read your blog everyday, and get lot of laughter out of the wrecks, but my favorite day is always sunday.
- December 28, 2008 at 2:22 PM
- Bedlam said...
those cakes are so pretty,
- December 28, 2008 at 3:24 PM
- Scritzy said...
Awesome selection! All of them are too beautiful to eat, but the penguin cake really made me chuckle. My late mother-in-law loved penguins.
Word verification: ingums. Where bad frosting sometimes gets stuck. - December 28, 2008 at 3:44 PM
I can't believe that first one wasn't made by a professional! It's pretty amazing!
- December 28, 2008 at 3:48 PM
I saw that "let it snow" cake in Taste of Home magazine. My sis-in-law really liked it so I made a smaller version for our family get together! Beautiful cakes!!!
- December 28, 2008 at 3:50 PM
- mints said...
wow, i thought the bow on the last cake
was a real bow until i enlarged the picture! - December 28, 2008 at 5:08 PM
- Lulubelle B said...
The ribbon is fake??
You've got to be kidding me!
Cake is truly art
These are lovely cakes
Worth wading through the wreckage
For the Sunday Sweets - December 28, 2008 at 8:27 PM
Cutest air brushing job ever on the snow family cake but the bakery that did the last cake needs to get a new photographer. The lighting is horrible! It's a beautiful cake and it needs to be shown off not downplayed like that. Just my opinion.
Victoria the Amateur Georgian Photographer - December 28, 2008 at 9:07 PM
- Miranda said...
Awesome! I love the penguins. My Linux geek partner would be delighted. Sadly, I haven't the talent to make that for him! Though at least the penguins are a start, lol...
- December 29, 2008 at 8:50 AM
- Tom said...
I'm tired of everyone always placing penguins with polar bears. There aren't any penguins in the arctic and there aren't any polar bears in the antarctic!
- December 29, 2008 at 11:11 AM
- The Creeper said...
Oh my. Those are awesome. The snowman and penguin ones are almost enough to make me wish I was having a winter wedding.
Ok. Maybe not.
But they are still awesome! - December 29, 2008 at 3:46 PM
- Leah said...
So Cute! I love the penguin spats!
I love sunday sweets. Maybe a good sweets mission would be baby shower/christening cakes that that prove you need to eat neither babies nor boobies to celebrate moms and kids? - December 29, 2008 at 11:00 PM
- Azure Accessories said...
Each cake in its own way is an amazing work of artistry...the detail, colors...wonderful cakes!!
Happy New Year to you and yours!
Cheers - December 30, 2008 at 8:18 AM
- Letitia said...
Wow, such gorgeous cakes! How in the world do you get icing to behave like that? My cakes do actually turn out looking like wrecks!
- December 30, 2008 at 5:16 PM
- Giusi. said...
I have to see.. these wintery delights were probably some of the best cakes i've ever seen! so beautiful!! <3
- January 7, 2009 at 10:15 PM
That third one is STUNNING. That's how I want my wedding cake to look. I could do without the lights (not that they don't look lovely, it would just make things easier and whatnot). Thanks for posting!
- January 17, 2009 at 2:48 AM
- Unknown said...
Not only the ribbon, but also the satin rope and tassel on the bridal shower cake are all created (I'm guessing) of well worked fondant. Truly incredible artistry.
- November 23, 2009 at 1:33 AM
- Cupcakes Lady said...
The festive cake by the Pink Cake Box is wonderful looking, I like the topsy turvy design is has.
- October 7, 2010 at 12:17 PM
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text:
Why You Should Think About Listing Prices Like an Auction's Reserve Price
Why You Should Think About Listing Prices Like an Auction's Reserve Price
For generations, the homebuying process never really changed. The seller would try to estimate the market value of the home and tack on a little extra to give themselves some negotiating room. That figure would become the listing price of the house. Buyers would then try to determine how much less than the full price they could offer and still get the home. The asking price was generally the ceiling of the negotiation. The actual sales price would almost always be somewhat lower than the list price. It was unthinkable to pay more than what the seller was asking.
Today is different.
The record-low supply of homes for sale coupled with very strong buyer demand is leading to a rise in bidding wars on many homes. Because of this, homes today often sell for more than the list price. In some cases, they sell for a lot more.
According to the Home Buyers and Sellers Generational Trends report just released by the National Association of Realtors (NAR), 45% of buyers paid full price or more.
You may need to change the way you look at the asking price of a home.
In this market, you likely can't shop for a home with the old-school mentality of refusing to pay full price or more for a house.
Because of the shortage of inventory of houses for sale, many homes are actually being offered in an auction-like atmosphere in which the highest bidder wins the home. In an actual auction, the seller of an item agrees to take the highest bid, and many sellers set a reserve price on the item they're selling. A reserve price is the minimum amount a seller will accept as the winning bid.
When navigating a competitive housing market, think of the list price of the house as the reserve price at an auction. It's the minimum the seller will accept in many cases. Today, the asking price is often becoming the floor of the negotiation rather than the ceiling. Therefore, if you really love a home, know that it may ultimately sell for more than the sellers are asking. So, as you're navigating the homebuying process, make sure you know your budget, know what you can afford, and work with a trusted advisor who can help you make all the right moves as you buy a home.
Bottom Line
Someone who's more familiar with the housing market of the past than that of today may think offering more for a home than the listing price is foolish. However, frequent and competitive bidding wars are creating an auction-like atmosphere in many real estate transactions. Let's connect so you have the best advice on how to make a competitive offer on a home in our local market.