text:
This article is chapter 4 from Economic Controversies (2011).
It originally appeared in The Foundations of Modern Austrian Economics (1976).
Praxeology is the distinctive methodology of the Austrian School. The term was first applied to the Austrian method by Ludwig von Mises, who was not only the major architect and elaborator of this methodology but also the economist who most fully and successfully applied it to the construction of economic theory.1 While the praxeological method is, to say the least, out of fashion in contemporary economics as well as in social science generally and in the philosophy of science, it was the basic method of the earlier Austrian School and also of a considerable segment of the older classical school, in particular of J.B. Say and Nassau W. Senior.2
Praxeology rests on the fundamental axiom that individual human beings act, that is, on the primordial fact that individuals engage in conscious actions toward chosen goals. This concept of action contrasts to purely reflexive, or knee-jerk, behavior, which is not directed toward goals. The praxeological method spins out by verbal deduction the logical implications of that primordial fact. In short, praxeological economics is the structure of logical implications of the fact that individuals act. This structure is built on the fundamental axiom of action, and has a few subsidiary axioms, such as that individuals vary and that human beings regard leisure as a valuable good. Any skeptic about deducing from such a simple base an entire system of economics, I refer to Mises's Human Action. Furthermore, since praxeology begins with a true axiom, A, all the propositions that can be deduced from this axiom must also be true. For if A implies B, and A is true, then B must also be true.
Let us consider some of the immediate implications of the action axiom. Action implies that the individual's behavior is purposive, in short, that it is directed toward goals. Furthermore, the fact of his action implies that he has consciously chosen certain means to reach his goals. Since he wishes to attain these goals, they must be valuable to him; accordingly he must have values that govern his choices. That he employs means implies that he believes he has the technological knowledge that certain means will achieve his desired ends. Let us note that praxeology does not assume that a person's choice of values or goals is wise or proper or that he has chosen the technologically correct method of reaching them. All that praxeology asserts is that the individual actor adopts goals and believes, whether erroneously or correctly, that he can arrive at them by the employment of certain means.
All action in the real world, furthermore, must take place through time; all action takes place in some present and is directed toward the future (immediate or remote) attainment of an end. If all of a person's desires could be instantaneously realized, there would be no reason for him to act at all.3 Furthermore, that a man acts implies that he believes action will make a difference; in other words, that he will prefer the state of affairs resulting from action to that from no action. Action therefore implies that man does not have omniscient knowledge of the future; for if he had such knowledge, no action of his would make any difference. Hence, action implies that we live in a world of an uncertain, or not fully certain, future. Accordingly, we may amend our analysis of action to say that a man chooses to employ means according to a technological plan in the present because he expects to arrive at his goals at some future time.
The fact that people act necessarily implies that the means employed are scarce in relation to the desired ends; for, if all means were not scarce but superabundant, the ends would already have been attained, and there would be no need for action. Stated another way, resources that are superabundant no longer function as means, because they are no longer objects of action. Thus, air is indispensable to life and hence to the attainment of goals; however, air being superabundant is not an object of action and therefore cannot be considered a means, but rather what Mises called a "general condition of human welfare." Where air is not superabundant, it may become an object of action, for example, where cool air is desired and warm air is transformed through air conditioning. Even with the absurdly unlikely advent of Eden (or what a few years ago was considered in some quarters to be an imminent "postscarcity" world), in which all desires could be fulfilled instantaneously, there would still be at least one scarce means: the individual's time, each unit of which if allocated to one purpose is necessarily not allocated to some other goal.4
Such are some of the immediate implications of the axiom of action. We arrived at them by deducing the logical implications of the existing fact of human action, and hence deduced true conclusions from a true axiom. Apart from the fact that these conclusions cannot be "tested" by historical or statistical means, there is no need to test them since their truth has already been established. Historical fact enters into these conclusions only by determining which branch of the theory is applicable in any particular case. Thus, for Crusoe and Friday on their desert island, the praxeological theory of money is only of academic, rather than of currently applicable, interest. A fuller analysis of the relationship between theory and history in the praxeological framework will be considered below.
There are, then, two parts of this axiomatic-deductive method: the process of deduction and the epistemological status of the axioms themselves. First, there is the process of deduction; why are the means verbal rather than mathematical logic?5 Without setting forth the comprehensive Austrian case against mathematical economics, one point can immediately be made: let the reader take the implications of the concept of action as developed so far in this paper and try to place them in mathematical form. And even if that could be done, what would have been accomplished except a drastic loss in meaning at each step of the deductive process? Mathematical logic is appropriate to physics — the science that has become the model science, which modern positivists and empiricists believe all other social and physical sciences should emulate. In physics the axioms and therefore the deductions are in themselves purely formal and only acquire meaning "operationally" insofar as they can explain and predict given facts. On the contrary, in praxeology, in the analysis of human action, the axioms themselves are known to be true and meaningful. As a result, each verbal step-by-step deduction is also true and meaningful; for it is the great quality of verbal propositions that each one is meaningful, whereas mathematical symbols are not meaningful in themselves. Thus Lord Keynes, scarcely an Austrian and himself a mathematician of note, leveled the following critique at mathematical symbolism in economics:
It is a great fault of symbolic pseudo-mathematical methods of formalizing a system of economic analysis, that they expressly assume strict independence between the factors involved and lose all their cogency and authority if this hypothesis is disallowed: whereas, in ordinary discourse, where we are not blindly manipulating but know all the time what we are doing and what the words mean, we can keep "at the back of our heads" the necessary reserves and qualifications and the adjustments which we have to make later on, in a way in which we cannot keep complicated partial differentials "at the back" of several pages of algebra which assume that they all vanish. Too large a proportion of recent "mathematical" economics are mere concoctions, as imprecise as the initial assumptions they rest on, which allow the author to lose sight of the complexities and interdependencies of the real world in a maze of pretentious and unhelpful symbols.6
Moreover, even if verbal economics could be successfully translated into mathematical symbols and then retranslated into English so as to explain the conclusions, the process makes no sense and violates the great scientific principle of Occam's Razor: avoiding unnecessary multiplication of entities.7
Furthermore, as political scientist Bruno Leoni and mathematician Eugenio Frola pointed out,
It is often claimed that translation of such a concept as the maximum from ordinary into mathematical language, involves an improvement in the logical accuracy of the concept, as well as wider opportunities for its use. But the lack of mathematical precision in ordinary language reflects precisely the behavior of individual human beings in the real world.… We might suspect that translation into mathematical language by itself implies a suggested transformation of human economic operators into virtual robots.8
Similarly, one of the first methodologists in economics, Jean-Baptiste Say, charged that the mathematical economists
have not been able to enunciate these questions into analytical language, without divesting them of their natural complication, by means of simplifications, and arbitrary suppressions, of which the consequences, not properly estimated, always essentially change the condition of the problem, and pervert all its results.9
More recently, Boris Ischboldin has emphasized the difference between verbal, or "language," logic ("the actual analysis of thought stated in language expressive of reality as grasped in common experience") and "construct" logic, which is "the application of quantitative (economic) data of the constructs of mathematics and symbolic logic which constructs may or may not have real equivalents."10
Although himself a mathematical economist, the mathematician son of Carl Menger wrote a trenchant critique of the idea that mathematical presentation in economics is necessarily more precise than ordinary language:
Consider, for example, the statements (2) To a higher price of a good, there corresponds a lower (or at any rate not a higher) demand.
(2') If p denotes the price of, and q the demand for, a good, then
q = f(p) and dq/dp = f' (p) ≤ 0
Those who regard the formula (2') as more precise or "more mathematical" than the sentence (2) are under a complete misapprehension … the only difference between (2) and (2') is this: since (2') is limited to functions which are differentiable and whose graphs, therefore, have tangents (which from an economic point of view are not more plausible than curvature), the sentence (2) is more general, but it is by no means less precise: it is of the same mathematical precision as (2').11
Turning from the deduction process to the axioms themselves, what is their epistemological status? Here the problems are obscured by a difference of opinion within the praxeological camp, particularly on the nature of the fundamental axiom of action. Ludwig von Mises, as an adherent of Kantian epistemology, asserted that the concept of action is a priori to all experience, because it is, like the law of cause and effect, part of "the essential and necessary character of the logical structure of the human mind."12 Without delving too deeply into the murky waters of epistemology, I would deny, as an Aristotelian and neo-Thomist, any such alleged "laws of logical structure" that the human mind necessarily imposes on the chaotic structure of reality. Instead, I would call all such laws "laws of reality," which the mind apprehends from investigating and collating the facts of the real world. My view is that the fundamental axiom and subsidiary axioms are derived from the experience of reality and are therefore in the broadest sense empirical. I would agree with the Aristotelian realist view that its doctrine is radically empirical, far more so than the post-Humean empiricism which is dominant in modern philosophy. Thus, John Wild wrote:
It is impossible to reduce experience to a set of isolated impressions and atomic units. Relational structure is also given with equal evidence and certainty. The immediate data are full of determinate structure, which is easily abstracted by the mind and grasped as universal essences or possibilities.13
Furthermore, one of the pervasive data of all human experience is existence; another is consciousness, or awareness. In contrast to the Kantian view, Harmon Chapman wrote that
conception is a kind of awareness, a way of apprehending things or comprehending them and not an alleged subjective manipulation of so-called generalities or universals solely "mental" or "logical" in their provenience and non-cognitive in nature.
That in thus penetrating the data of sense, conception also synthesizes these data is evident. But the synthesis here involved, unlike the synthesis of Kant, is not a prior condition of perception, an anterior process of constituting both perception and its object, but rather a cognitive synthesis in apprehension, that is, a uniting or "comprehending" which is one with the apprehending itself. In other words, perception and experience are not the results or end products of a synthetic process a priori, but are themselves synthetic or comprehensive apprehension whose structured unity is prescribed solely by the nature of the real, that is, by the intended objects in their togetherness and not by consciousness itself whose (cognitive) nature is to apprehend the real — as it is.14
If, in the broad sense, the axioms of praxeology are radically empirical, they are far from the post-Humean empiricism that pervades the modern methodology of social science. In addition to the foregoing considerations, (1) they are so broadly based in common human experience that once enunciated they become self-evident and hence do not meet the fashionable criterion of "falsifiability"; (2) they rest, particularly the action axiom, on universal inner experience, as well as on external experience, that is, the evidence is reflective rather than purely physical; and (3) they are therefore a priori to the complex historical events to which modern empiricism confines the concept of "experience."15
Say, perhaps the first praxeologist, explained the derivation of the axioms of economic theory as follows:
Hence the advantage enjoyed by everyone who, from distinct and accurate observation, can establish the existence of these general facts, demonstrate their connection and deduce their consequences. They as certainly proceed from the nature of things as the laws of the material world. We do not imagine them; they are results disclosed to us by judicious observation and analysis.…
Political economy … is composed of a few fundamental principles, and of a great number of corollaries or conclusions, drawn from these principles … that can be admitted by every reflecting mind.16
Friedrich A. Hayek trenchantly described the praxeological method in contrast to the methodology of the physical sciences and also underlined the broadly empirical nature of the praxeological axioms:
The position of man … brings it about that the essential basic facts which we need for the explanation of social phenomena are part of common experience, part of the stuff of our thinking. In the social sciences it is the elements of the complex phenomena which are known beyond the possibility of dispute. In the natural sciences they can only be at best surmised. The existence of these elements is so much more certain than any regularities in the complex phenomena to which they give rise, that it is they which constitute the truly empirical factor in the social sciences. There can be little doubt that it is this different position of the empirical factor in the process of reasoning in the two groups of disciplines which is at the root of much of the confusion with regard to their logical character. The essential difference is that in the natural sciences the process of deduction has to start from some hypothesis which is the result of inductive generalizations, while in the social sciences it starts directly from known empirical elements and uses them to find the regularities in the complex phenomena which direct observations cannot establish. They are, so to speak, empirically deductive sciences, proceeding from the known elements to the regularities in the complex phenomena which cannot be directly established.17
Similarly, J.E. Cairnes wrote:
The economist starts with a knowledge of ultimate causes. He is already, at the outset of his enterprise in the position which the physicist only attains after ages of laborious research.… For the discovery of such premises no elaborate process of induction is needed … for this reason, that we have, or may have if we choose to turn our attention to the subject, direct knowledge of these causes in our consciousness of what passes in our own minds, and in the information which our senses convey … to us of external facts.18
Nassau W. Senior phrased it thus:
The physical sciences, being only secondarily conversant with mind, draw their premises almost exclusively from observation or hypothesis.… On the other hand, the mental sciences and the mental arts draw their premises principally from consciousness. The subjects with which they are chiefly conversant are the workings of the human mind. [These premises are] a very few general propositions, which are the result of observation, or consciousness, and which almost every man, as soon as he hears them, admits, as familiar to his thought, or at least, included in his previous knowledge.19
Commenting on his complete agreement with this passage, Mises wrote that these "immediately evident propositions" are "of aprioristic derivation … unless one wishes to call aprioristic cognition inner experience."20
To which Marian Bowley, the biographer of Senior, justly comments:
The only fundamental difference between Mises's general attitude and Senior's lies in Mises's apparent denial of the possibility of using any general empirical data, i.e., facts of general observation, as initial premises. This difference, however, turns upon Mises's basic ideas of the nature of thought, and though of general philosophic importance, has little special relevance to economic method as such.21
It should be noted that for Mises it is only the fundamental axiom of action that is a priori; he conceded that the subsidiary axioms of the diversity of mankind and nature, and of leisure as a consumers' good, are broadly empirical.
Modern post-Kantian philosophy has had a great deal of trouble encompassing self-evident propositions, which are marked precisely by their strong and evident truth rather than by being testable hypotheses that are in the current fashion, considered to be "falsifiable." Sometimes it seems that the empiricists use the fashionable analytic-synthetic dichotomy, as the philosopher Hao Wang charged, to dispose of theories they find difficult to refute by dismissing them as necessarily either disguised definitions or debatable and uncertain hypotheses.22
But what if we subject the vaunted "evidence" of modern positivists and empiricists to analysis? What is it? We find that there are two types of such evidence to either confirm or refute a proposition: (1) if it violates the laws of logic, for example, implies that A = -A; or (2) if it is confirmed by empirical facts (as in a laboratory) that can be checked by many persons. But what is the nature of such "evidence" but the bringing, by various means, of propositions hitherto cloudy and obscure into clear and evident view, that is, evident to the scientific observers? In short, logical or laboratory processes serve to make it evident to the "selves" of the various observers that the propositions are either confirmed or refuted, or, to use unfashionable terminology, either true or false. But in that case propositions that are immediately evident to the selves of the observers have at least as good scientific status as the other and currently more acceptable forms of evidence. Or, as the Thomist philosopher John J. Toohey put it,
Proving means making evident something which is not evident. If a truth or proposition is self-evident, it is useless to attempt to prove it; to attempt to prove it would be to attempt to make evident something which is already evident.23
The action axiom, in particular, should be, according to Aristotelian philosophy, unchallengeable and self-evident since the critic who attempts to refute it finds that he must use it in the process of alleged refutation. Thus, the axiom of the existence of human consciousness is demonstrated as being self-evident by the fact that the very act of denying the existence of consciousness must itself be performed by a conscious being. The philosopher R.P. Phillips called this attribute of a self-evident axiom a "boomerang principle," since "even though we cast it away from us, it returns to us again."24 A similar self-contradiction faces the man who attempts to refute the axiom of human action. For in doing so, he is ipso facto a person making a conscious choice of means in attempting to arrive at an adopted end: in this case the end, or goal, of trying to refute the axiom of action. He employs action in trying to refute the notion of action.
Of course, a person may say that he denies the existence of self-evident principles or other established truths of the real world, but this mere saying has no epistemological validity. As Toohey pointed out,
A man may say anything he pleases, but he cannot think or do anything he pleases. He may say he saw a round square, but he cannot think he saw a round square. He may say, if he likes, that he saw a horse riding astride its own back, but we shall know what to think of him if he says it.25
The methodology of modern positivism and empiricism comes a cropper even in the physical sciences, to which it is much better suited than to the sciences of human action; indeed, it particularly fails where the two types of disciplines interconnect. Thus, the phenomenologist Alfred Schütz, a student of Mises at Vienna, who pioneered in applying phenomenology to the social sciences, pointed out the contradiction in the empiricists' insistence on the principle of empirical verifiability in science, while at the same time denying the existence of "other minds" as unverifiable. But who is supposed to be doing the laboratory verification if not these selfsame "other minds" of the assembled scientists? Schütz wrote:
It is … not understandable that the same authors who are convinced that no verification is possible for the intelligence of other human beings have such confidence in the principle of verifiability itself, which can be realized only through cooperation with others.26
In this way, the modern empiricists ignore the necessary presuppositions of the very scientific method they champion. For Schütz, knowledge of such presuppositions is "empirical" in the broadest sense,
provided that we do not restrict this term to sensory perceptions of objects and events in the outer world but include the experiential form, by which common-sense thinking in everyday life understands human actions and their outcome in terms of their underlying motives and goals.27
Having dealt with the nature of praxeology, its procedures and axioms and its philosophical groundwork, let us now consider what the relationship is between praxeology and the other disciplines that study human action. In particular, what are the differences between praxeology and technology, psychology, history, and ethics — all of which are in some way concerned with human action?
In brief, praxeology consists of the logical implications of the universal formal fact that people act, that they employ means to try to attain chosen ends. Technology deals with the contentual problem of how to achieve ends by adoption of means. Psychology deals with the question of why people adopt various ends and how they go about adopting them. Ethics deals with the question of what ends, or values, people should adopt. And history deals with ends adopted in the past, what means were used to try to achieve them — and what the consequences of these actions were.
Praxeology, or economic theory in particular, is thus a unique discipline within the social sciences; for, in contrast to the others, it deals not with the content of men's values, goals, and actions — not with what they have done or how they have acted or how they should act — but purely with the fact that they do have goals and act to attain them. The laws of utility, demand, supply, and price apply regardless of the type of goods and services desired or produced. As Joseph Dorfman wrote of Herbert J. Davenport's Outlines of Economic Theory (1896):
The ethical character of the desires was not a fundamental part of his inquiry. Men labored and underwent privation for "whiskey, cigars, and burglars' jimmies," he said, "as well as for food, or statuary or harvest machinery." As long as men were willing to buy and sell "foolishness and evil," the former commodities would be economic factors with market standing, for utility, as an economic term, meant merely adaptability to human desires. So long as men desired them, they satisfied a need and were motives to production. Therefore economics did not need to investigate the origin of choices.28
Praxeology, as well as the sound aspects of the other social sciences, rests on methodological individualism, on the fact that only individuals feel, value, think, and act. Individualism has always been charged by its critics — and always incorrectly — with the assumption that each individual is a hermetically sealed "atom," cut off from, and uninfluenced by, other persons. This absurd misreading of methodological individualism is at the root of J.K. Galbraith's triumphant demonstration in The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958) that the values and choices of individuals are influenced by other persons, and therefore supposedly that economic theory is invalid. Galbraith also concluded from his demonstration that these choices, because influenced, are artificial and illegitimate. The fact that praxeological economic theory rests on the universal fact of individual values and choices means, to repeat Dorfman's summary of Davenport's thought, that economic theory does "not need to investigate the origin of choices." Economic theory is not based on the absurd assumption that each individual arrives at his values and choices in a vacuum, sealed off from human influence. Obviously, individuals are continually learning from and influencing each other. As F.A. Hayek wrote in his justly famous critique of Galbraith, "The Non Sequitur of the 'Dependence Effect'":
Professor Galbraith's argument could be easily employed, without any change of the essential terms, to demonstrate the worthlessness of literature or any other form of art. Surely an individual's want for literature is not original with himself in the sense that he would experience it if literature were not produced. Does this then mean that the production of literature cannot be defended as satisfying a want because it is only the production which provokes the demand?29
That Austrian School economics rests firmly from the beginning on an analysis of the fact of individual subjective values and choices unfortunately led the early Austrians to adopt the term psychological school. The result was a series of misdirected criticisms that the latest findings of psychology had not been incorporated into economic theory. It also led to misconceptions such as that the law of diminishing marginal utility rests on some psychological law of the satiety of wants. Actually, as Mises firmly pointed out, that law is praxeological rather than psychological and has nothing to do with the content of wants, for example, that the tenth spoonful of ice cream may taste less pleasurable than the ninth spoonful. Instead, it is a praxeological truth, derived from the nature of action, that the first unit of a good will be allocated to its most valuable use, the next unit to the next most valuable, and so on.30 On one point, and on one point alone, however, praxeology and the related sciences of human action take a stand in philosophical psychology: on the proposition that the human mind, consciousness, and subjectivity exist, and therefore action exists. In this it is opposed to the philosophical base of behaviorism and related doctrines and joined with all branches of classical philosophy and with phenomenology. On all other questions, however, praxeology and psychology are distinct and separate disciplines.31
A particularly vital question is the relationship between economic theory and history. Here again, as in so many other areas of Austrian economics, Ludwig von Mises made the outstanding contribution, particularly in his Theory and History.32 It is especially curious that Mises and other praxeologists, as alleged "a priorists," have commonly been accused of being "opposed" to history. Mises indeed held not only that economic theory does not need to be "tested" by historical fact but also that it cannot be so tested. For a fact to be usable for testing theories, it must be a simple fact, homogeneous with other facts in accessible and repeatable classes. In short, the theory that one atom of copper, one atom of sulfur, and four atoms of oxygen will combine to form a recognizable entity called copper sulfate, with known properties, is easily tested in the laboratory. Each of these atoms is homogeneous, and therefore the test is repeatable indefinitely. But each historical event, as Mises pointed out, is not simple and repeatable; each event is a complex resultant of a shifting variety of multiple causes, none of which ever remains in constant relationships with the others. Every historical event, therefore, is heterogeneous, and therefore historical events cannot be used either to test or to construct laws of history, quantitative or otherwise. We can place every atom of copper into a homogeneous class of copper atoms; we cannot do so with the events of human history.
This is not to say, of course, that there are no similarities among historical events. There are many similarities, but no homogeneity. Thus, there were many similarities between the presidential election of 1968 and that of 1972, but they were scarcely homogeneous events, since they were marked by important and inescapable differences. Nor will the next election be a repeatable event to place in a homogeneous class of "elections." Hence no scientific, and certainly no quantitative, laws can be derived from these events.
Mises's radically fundamental opposition to econometrics now becomes clear. Econometrics not only attempts to ape the natural sciences by using complex heterogeneous historical facts as if they were repeatable homogeneous laboratory facts; it also squeezes the qualitative complexity of each event into a quantitative number and then compounds the fallacy by acting as if these quantitative relations remain constant in human history. In striking contrast to the physical sciences, which rest on the empirical discovery of quantitative constants, econometrics, as Mises repeatedly emphasized, has failed to discover a single constant in human history. And given the ever-changing conditions of human will, knowledge, and values and the differences among men, it is inconceivable that econometrics can ever do so.
Far from being opposed to history, the praxeologist, and not the supposed admirers of history, has profound respect for the irreducible and unique facts of human history. Furthermore, it is the praxeologist who acknowledges that individual human beings cannot legitimately be treated by the social scientist as if they were not men who have minds and act upon their values and expectations, but stones or molecules whose course can be scientifically tracked in alleged constants or quantitative laws. Moreover, as the crowning irony, it is the praxeologist who is truly empirical because he recognizes the unique and heterogeneous nature of historical facts; it is the self-proclaimed "empiricist" who grossly violates the facts of history by attempting to reduce them to quantitative laws. Mises wrote thus about econometricians and other forms of "quantitative economists":
There are, in the field of economics, no constant relations, and consequently no measurement is possible. If a statistician determines that a rise of 10 percent in the supply of potatoes in Atlantis at a definite time was followed by a fall of 8 percent in the price, he does not establish anything about what happened or may happen with a change in the supply of potatoes in another country or in another time. He has not "measured" the "elasticity of demand" of potatoes. He has established a unique individual historical fact. No intelligent man can doubt that the behavior of men with regard to potatoes and every other commodity is variable. Different individuals value the same things in a different way, and valuations change with the same individuals with changing conditions.…
The impracticability of measurement is not due to the lack of technical methods for the establishment of measure. It is due to the absence of constant relations.… Economics is not, as … positivists repeat again and again, backward because it is not "quantitative." It is not quantitative and does not measure because there are no constants. Statistical figures referring to economic events are historical data. They tell us what happened in a nonrepeatable historical case. Physical events can be interpreted on the ground of our knowledge concerning constant relations established by experiments. Historical events are not open to such an interpretation.…
Experience of economic history is always experience of complex phenomena. It can never convey knowledge of the kind the experimenter abstracts from a laboratory experiment. Statistics is a method for the presentation of historical facts.… The statistics of prices is economic history. The insight that, ceteris paribus, an increase in demand must result in an increase in prices is not derived from experience. Nobody ever was or ever will be in a position to observe a change in one of the market data ceteris paribus. There is no such thing as quantitative economics. All economic quantities we know about are data of economic history.… Nobody is so bold as to maintain that a rise of A percent in the supply of any commodity must always — in every country and at any time — result in a fall of B percent in price. But as no quantitative economist ever ventured to define precisely on the ground of statistical experience the special conditions producing a definite deviation from the ratio A:B, the futility of his endeavors is manifest.33
Elaborating on his critique of constants Mises added:
The quantities we observe in the field of human action … are manifestly variable. Changes occurring in them plainly affect the result of our actions. Every quantity that we can observe is a historical event, a fact which cannot be fully described without specifying the time and geographical point.
The econometrician is unable to disprove this fact, which cuts the ground from under his reasoning. He cannot help admitting that there are no "behavior constants." Nonetheless, he wants to introduce some numbers, arbitrarily chosen on the basis of historical fact, as "unknown behavior constants." The sole excuse he advances is that his hypotheses are "saying only that these unknown numbers remain reasonably constant through a period of years."34 Now whether such a period of supposed constancy of a definite number is still lasting or whether a change in the number has already occurred can only be established later on. In retrospect it may be possible, although in rare cases only, to declare that over a (probably rather short) period an approximately stable ratio which the econometrician chooses to call a "reasonably" constant ratio prevailed between the numerical values of two factors. But this is something fundamentally different from the constants of physics. It is the assertion of a historical fact, not of a constant that can be resorted to in attempts to predict future events.35 The highly praised equations are, insofar as they apply to the future, merely equations in which all quantities are unknown.36
In the mathematical treatment of physics the distinction between constants and variables makes sense; it is essential in every instance of technological computation. In economics there are no constant relations between various magnitudes. Consequently all ascertainable data are variables, or what amounts to the same thing, historical data. The mathematical economists reiterate that the plight of mathematical economics consists in the fact that there are a great number of variables. The truth is that there are only variables and no constants. It is pointless to talk of variables where there are no invariables.37
What, then, is the proper relationship between economic theory and economic history or, more precisely, history in general? The historian's function is to try to explain the unique historical facts that are his province; to do so adequately he must employ all the relevant theories from all the various disciplines that impinge on his problem. For historical facts are complex resultants of a myriad of causes stemming from different aspects of the human condition. Thus, the historian must be prepared to use not only praxeological economic theory but also insights from physics, psychology, technology, and military strategy along with an interpretive understanding of the motives and goals of individuals. He must employ these tools in understanding both the goals of the various actions of history and the consequences of such actions. Because understanding diverse individuals and their interactions is involved, as well as the historical context, the historian using the tools of natural and social science is in the last analysis an "artist," and hence there is no guarantee or even likelihood that any two historians will judge a situation in precisely the same way. While they may agree on an array of factors to explain the genesis and consequences of an event, they are unlikely to agree on the precise weight to be given each causal factor. In employing various scientific theories, they have to make judgments of relevance on which theories applied in any given case; to refer to an example used earlier in this paper, a historian of Robinson Crusoe would hardly employ the theory of money in a historical explanation of his actions on a desert island. To the economic historian, economic law is neither confirmed nor tested by historical facts; instead, the law, where relevant, is applied to help explain the facts. The facts thereby illustrate the workings of the law. The relationship between praxeological economic theory and the understanding of economic history was subtly summed up by Alfred Schütz:
No economic act is conceivable without some reference to an economic actor, but the latter is absolutely anonymous; it is not you, nor I nor an entrepreneur, nor even an "economic man," as such, but a pure universal "one." This is the reason why the propositions of theoretical economics have just that "universal validity" which gives them the ideality of the "and so forth" and "I can do it again." However, one can study the economic actor as such and try to find out what is going on in his mind; of course, one is not then engaged in theoretical economics but in economic history or economic sociology.… However, the statements of these sciences can claim no universal validity, for they deal either with the economic sentiments of particular historical individuals or with types of economic activity for which the economic acts in question are evidence.…
In our view, pure economics is a perfect example of an objective meaning-complex about subjective meaning-complexes, in other words, of an objective meaning-configuration stipulating the typical and invariant subjective experiences of anyone who acts within an economic framework.… Excluded from such a scheme would have to be any consideration of the uses to which the "goods" are to be put after they are acquired. But once we do turn our attention to the subjective meaning of a real individual person, leaving the anonymous "anyone" behind, then of course it makes sense to speak of behavior that is atypical.… To be sure, such behavior is irrelevant from the point of view of economics, and it is in this sense that economic principles are, in Mises's words, "not a statement of what usually happens, but of what necessarily must happen."38
- 1See in particular Ludwig von Mises, Human Action: A Treatise on Economics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949); also see Mises, Epistemological Problems of Economics, George Reisman, trans. (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1960).
- 2See Murray N. Rothbard, "Praxeology as the Method of the Social Sciences," inPhenomenology and the Social Sciences, Maurice Natanson, ed., 2 vols. (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973), 2 pp. 323–35 [reprinted in Logic of Action One, pp. 29–58]; also see Marian Bowley, Nassau Senior and Classical Economics (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1949), pp. 27–65; and Terence W. Hutchinson, "Some Themes from Investigations into Method," in Carl Menger and the Austrian School of Economics, J.R. Hicks and Wilhelm Weber, eds. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 15–31.
- 3In answer to the criticism that not all action is directed to some future point of time, see Walter Block, "A Comment on 'The Extraordinary Claim of Praxeology' by Professor Gutierrez," Theory and Decision 3 (1973): 381–82.
- 4See Mises, Human Action, pp. 101–2; and esp., Block, "Comment," p. 383.
- 5For a typical criticism of praxeology for not using mathematical logic, see George. J. Schuller, "Rejoinder," American Economic Review 41 (March 1951): 188.
- 6John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (New York Harcourt, Brace, 1936), pp. 297–98.
- 7See Murray N. Rothbard, "Toward a Reconstruction of Utility and Welfare Economics," in On Freedom and Free Enterprise, Mary Sennhoz, ed. (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1956), p. 227 [and reprinted in Logic of Action One]; Rothbard, Man, Economy, and State, 2 vols. (Princeton: D Van Nostrand, 1962), 1:65–66. On mathematical logic as being subordinate to verbal logic, see Rene Poirier, "Logique," in Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie, Andre Lalande, ed., 6th ed. Rev. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951), pp. 574–75.
- 8Bruno Leoni and Eugenio Frola, "On Mathematical Thinking in Economics" (unpublished manuscript privately distributed), pp. 23–24; the Italian version of this articles is "Possibilita di applicazione della matematiche alle discipline economiche," Il Politico 20 (1995).
- 9Jean-Baptiste Say, A Treatise on Political Economy (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1964), p. xxvi n.
- 10Boris Ischboldin, "a Critique of Econometrics," Review of Social Economy 18, no. 2 (September 1960): 11 N; Ischboldin's discussion is based on the construction of I.M. Bochenski, "Scholastic and Aristotelian Logic," Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association 30 (1956): 112–17.
- 11Karl Menger, "Austrian Marginalism and Mathematical Economics," in Carl Menger, p. 41.
- 12Mises, Human Action, p. 34.
- 13John Wild, "Phenomenology and Metaphysics," in The Return to Reason: Essays in Realistic Philosophy, John Wild, ed. (Chicago: Henrey Regnery, 1953), pp. 48, 37–57.
- 14Harmon M. Chapman, "Realism and Phenomenology," in Return to Reason, p. 29. On the interrelated functions of sense and reason and their respective roles in human cognition of reality, see Francis H. Parker, "Realistic Epistemology," ibid., pp. 167–69.
- 15See Murray N. Rothbard, "In Defense of 'Extreme Apriorism,'" Southern Economic Journal 23 (January 1957): 315–18 [reprinted as Volume 1, Chapter 6]. It should be clear from the current paper that the term extreme apriorism is a misnomer for praxeology.
- 16Say, ATreatise on Political Economy, pp. xxv–xxvi, xlv.
- 17Friedrich A. Hayek, "The Nature and History of the Problem," in Collectivist Economic Planning, F.A. Hayek, ed. (London: George Routledge and Sons, 1935), p 11.
- 18John Elliott Cairnes, The Character and Logical Method of Political Economy, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1875), pp. 87–88; italics in the original.
- 19Bowley, Nassau Senior, pp. 43, 56.
- 20Mises, Epistemological Problems, p. 19.
- 21Bowley, Nassau Senior, pp. 64–65.
- 22Hao Wang, "Notes on the Analytic-Synthetic Distinction," Theoria 21 (1995); 158; see also John Wild and J.L. Cobitz, "On the Distinction between the Analytic and Synthetic," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 8 (June 1948): 651–67.
- 23John J. Toohey, Notes on Epistemology, rev. ed. (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University, 1937), p. 36.; italics in the original.
- 24R.P. Phillips, Modern Thomistic Philosophy (Westminster, Maryland: Newman Bookshop, 1934–35), 2, pp. 36–37; see also Murray N. Rothbard, "The Mantle of Science," in Scientism and Values, Helmut Schoeck and James W. Wiggins, ed., (Princeton, NJ: D Van Nostrand, 1960), pp. 162–65.
- 25Toohey, Notes on Epistemology, p. 10. Italics in the original.
- 26Alfred Schütz, Collected Papers of Alfred Schütz, vol. 2, Studies in Social Theory, A. Brodersen, ed. (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1964), p. 4; see also Mises, Human Action, p. 24.
- 27Alfred Schütz, Collected Papers of Alfred Schütz, vol. 1, The Problem of Social Reality, A. Brodersen, ed. (the Hague, Nijhoff), 1964, p. 65. On the philosophical presuppositions of science, see Andrew G. Van Melsen, The Philosophy of Nature (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1953), pp. 6–29. On common sense as the groundwork of philosophy, see Toohey, Notes on Epistemology, pp. 74, 106–13. On the application of a similar point of view to the methodology of economics, see Frank H Knight, "'What is Truth' in Economics," in On the History and Method of Economics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 151–78.
- 28Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 5 vols. (New York: Viking Press, 1949), 3, p. 376.
- 29Friedrich A. Hayek, "The Non Sequitur of the 'Dependence Effect,'" in Friedrich A. Hayek, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), pp. 314–15.
- 30Mises, Human Action, p. 124.
- 31See Rothbard, "Toward a Reconstruction," pp. 230–31.
- 32Ludwig von Mises, Theory and History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957).
- 33Mises, Human Action, pp. 55–56, 348.
- 34Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, Report for the Period, January 1, 1948–June 30, 1949 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), p. 7, quoted in Mises, Theory and History, pp. 10–11.
- 35Ibid., pp. 10–11.
- 36Ludwig von Mises, "Comments about the Mathematical Treatment of Economic Problems" (Cited as "unpublished manuscript"; published as "The Equations of Mathematical Economics" in the Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics, vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 2000), 27–32.
- 37Mises, Theory and History, pp. 11–12; see also Leoni and Frola, "On Mathematical Thinking," pp. 1–8; and Leland B. Yeager, "Measurement as Scientific Method in Economics," American Journal of Economics and Sociology 16 (July 1957): 337–46.
- 38Alfred Schütz, The Phenomenology of the Social World (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1967), pp. 137, 245; also see Ludwig M. Lachmann, The Legacy of Max Weber (Berkeley, California: Clendessary Press, 1971), pp. 17–48.


text:
2011 Audi A3 Owners Manual Book Guide OEM Used Auto Parts
SKU:624689In stock
We have 1 in stock.
Regular price
$ 65.00
$ 57.53
Recommend Product
Product Description
Quality OEM Used Auto Parts at a Quality Price. In stock Door Mirrors, Climate Controls, Power Window Switches, ECU and much more. Check out our oemusedautoparts1.com store for more parts.
Item specifics
Condition: | Item Is In Overall Good Condition, But Will Have Marks And Blemishes |
Manufacturer Part Number | Does Not Apply | Interchange Part Number | 111- |
Brand | Audi | Warranty | Unspecified Length |
Color | Bin | ||
Surface Finish | Features | ||
Other Part Number | Genuine OEM | Yes | |
Modified Item | No | Mounting Hardware Included | No |
Fitment Type | Direct Replacement | Placement on vehicle |
2011 Audi A3 Owners Manual Book Guide OEM Used Auto Parts
Warranty and Shipping:
- We offer a full 90 day warranty on all of our parts.
- Shipping is via USPS or Fed Ex (1-4) Business Days. We have a 1 day handling time on all orders unless you order before 9 am CST we can ship the same day.
Vehicle Compatibility Chart
List of vehicle and trim models that this item is compatible with. If your trim is not on the list reach out to us so we can check for you.Year | Make | Model | Trim | Engine |

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Navy veteran Ken Senft turned to the Department of Veterans Affairs for medical care in 2011 after his private insurance grew too costly. It could have been a fatal mistake, he now says.
A few years ago, the 65-year-old had a lesion on his head. He went to a VA clinic near his home outside Phoenix, but he said the doctor told him it could be two years before he might get an appointment with a dermatologist.
So he paid out of pocket to see a private physician. Turns out, he had cancer.
"What if I had waited two years?" Senft said in frustration. "I might be dead."
Senft's story comes amid allegations of delayed care and misconduct at VA facilities across the nation.
A probe of operations at the Phoenix VA Health Care System found that about 1,700 veterans in need of care were "at risk of being lost or forgotten" after being kept off an official waiting list. The investigation, initially focused on the Phoenix hospital, found systemic problems in the VA's sprawling nationwide system, which provides medical care to about 6.5 million veterans annually.
The scathing report by the VA Office of Inspector General released Wednesday increased pressure on VA Secretary Eric Shinseki to resign.
The interim findings confirmed allegations of excessive delayed care in Phoenix, with an average 115-day wait for a first appointment for those on the waiting list. That's nearly five times longer than the Phoenix hospital system had reported to national VA administrators.
"While our work is not complete, we have substantiated that significant delays in access to care negatively impacted the quality of care at this medical facility," Richard J. Griffin, the department's acting inspector general, wrote in the 35-page report. It found that "inappropriate scheduling practices are systemic throughout" some 1,700 VA health facilities nationwide, including 150 hospitals and more than 800 clinics.
Griffin said 42 centers are now under investigation.
"What makes me angry is the fact that there are a lot of veterans who couldn't afford to do what I did, and it would have been too late for them," said Senft, who was wounded during the Vietnam War. "It's just a disappointment when you serve your country and you expect to get good medical care — and you just don't."
Several Republican lawmakers and a handful of Democrats have called for Shinseki's resignation.
Rep. Jeff Miller, R-Fla., chairman of the House Veterans Affairs Committee, and Sen. John McCain, R-Ariz., also have called for criminal probes.
"I believe that this issue has reached a level that requires the Justice Department involvement. These allegations are not just administrative problems. These are criminal problems," McCain said at a news conference.
Miller said the report confirmed that "wait time schemes and data manipulation are systemic throughout VA and are putting veterans at risk in Phoenix and across the country."
Dr. Samuel Foote, a former clinic director for the VA in Phoenix who was the first to bring the allegations to light, said the findings were no surprise.
"I knew about all of this all along," Foote told The Associated Press. "The only thing I can say is you can't celebrate the fact that vets were being denied care."
Still, Foote said it is good that the VA finally appears to be addressing long-standing problems.
"Everybody has been gaming the system for a long time," he said. "Phoenix just took it to another level. … The magnitude of the problem nationwide is just so huge, so it's hard for most people to get a grasp on it."
Shinseki called the Inspector General's findings "reprehensible to me, to this department and to veterans." He said he was directing the Phoenix VA to immediately address each of the 1,700 veterans waiting for appointments. The hospital system's director has already been placed on leave amid the probe.
Reports that VA employees have been "cooking the books" have exploded since Foote went public with allegations that management at the VA in Phoenix had instructed staff to keep a secret waiting list to hide delayed care and that as many as 40 patients may have died while waiting for appointments.
Griffin said he's found no evidence so far that any of those deaths were caused by delays.
Lawmakers say the agency's 14-day target for seeing patients seeking appointments is unrealistic, while the Inspector General's report found it encourages employees to "game" the appointment system in order to collect performance bonuses.
The report described a process in which schedulers assigned appointments based on the next available slot, but marked it down as the patient's desired date.
"This results in a false 0-day wait time," the report said.
Thomas Lynch, of the Veterans Health Administration, an arm of the VA, said VA health care quality compares favorably with that in the private sector while also explaining that a bonus system based on meeting the 14-day goal had a negative effect.
"Our performance measures have become our goals, not tools to help us understand where we needed to invest resources," he told the House Veterans Affairs Committee late Wednesday. "We undermined the integrity of our data when we elevated our performance measures to goals."
Griffin said investigators' next steps include determining whether names of veterans awaiting care were purposely omitted from electronic waiting lists and at whose direction and whether any deaths were related to delays in care.
Investigators at some of the 42 facilities "have identified instances of manipulation of VA data that distort the legitimacy of reported waiting times," he said.
Griffin said investigators are making surprise visits, a step that could reduce "the risk of destruction of evidence, manipulation of data, and coaching staff on how to respond to our interview questions."
U.S. Justice Department officials have already been brought into cases where there is evidence of a criminal or civil violation, Griffin said.
Daly reported from Washington. Associated Press writers Lauran Neergaard, Pauline Jelinek and Donna Cassata also contributed to this report from Washington.
Copyright © 2014 Capitol Hill Blue
Copyright © 2014 The Associated Press All Rights Reserved


text:
The US government masterminded the creation of a "Cuban Twitter" — a communications network designed to undermine the communist government in Cuba, built with secret shell companies and financed through foreign banks, The Associated Press has learned.
The project, which lasted more than two years and drew tens of thousands of subscribers, sought to evade Cuba's stranglehold on the Internet with a primitive social media platform. First, the network would build a Cuban audience, mostly young people; then, the plan was to push them toward dissent.
Yet its users were neither aware it was created by a US agency with ties to the State Department, nor that American contractors were gathering personal data about them, in the hope that the information might be used someday for political purposes.
It is unclear whether the scheme was legal under US law, which requires written authorization of covert action by the president and congressional notification. Officials at USAID would not say who had approved the program or whether the White House was aware of it. The Cuban government declined a request for comment.
At minimum, details uncovered by the AP appear to muddy the US Agency for International Development's longstanding claims that it does not conduct covert actions, and could undermine the agency's mission to deliver aid to the world's poor and vulnerable — an effort that requires the trust and cooperation of foreign governments.
USAID and its contractors went to extensive lengths to conceal Washington's ties to the project, according to interviews and documents obtained by the AP. They set up front companies in Spain and the Cayman Islands to hide the money trail, and recruited CEOs without telling them they would be working on a US taxpayer-funded project.
"There will be absolutely no mention of United States government involvement," according to a 2010 memo from Mobile Accord Inc., one of the project's creators. "This is absolutely crucial for the long-term success of the service and to ensure the success of the Mission."
The project, dubbed "ZunZuneo," slang for a Cuban hummingbird's tweet, was publicly launched shortly after the 2009 arrest in Cuba of American contractor Alan Gross. He was imprisoned after traveling repeatedly to the country on a separate, clandestine USAID mission to expand Internet access using sensitive technology that only governments use.
USAID said in a statement that it is "proud of its work in Cuba to provide basic humanitarian assistance, promote human rights and fundamental freedoms, and to help information flow more freely to the Cuban people," whom it said "have lived under an authoritarian regime" for 50 years. The agency said its work was found to be "consistent with US law."
Sen. Patrick Leahy, D-Vt., and chairman of the Appropriations Committee's State Department and foreign operations subcommittee, said the ZunZuneo revelations were troubling.
"There is the risk to young, unsuspecting Cuban cellphone users who had no idea this was a US government-funded activity," he said. "There is the clandestine nature of the program that was not disclosed to the appropriations subcommittee with oversight responsibility. And there is the fact that it was apparently activated shortly after Alan Gross, a USAID subcontractor who was sent to Cuba to help provide citizens access to the Internet, was arrested."
The AP obtained more than 1,000 pages of documents about the project's development. It independently verified the project's scope and details in the documents through publicly available databases, government sources and interviews with those involved in ZunZuneo.
ZunZuneo would seem to be a throwback from Cold War, and the decades-long struggle between the United States and Cuba. It came at a time when the historically sour relationship between the countries had improved, at least marginally, and Cuba had made tentative steps toward a more market-based economy.
The social media project began development in 2009 after Washington-based Creative Associates International obtained a half-million Cuban cellphone numbers. It was unclear to the AP how the numbers were obtained, although documents indicate they were done so illicitly from a key source inside the country's state-run provider. Project organizers used those numbers to start a subscriber base.
ZunZuneo's organizers wanted the social network to grow slowly to avoid detection by the Cuban government. Eventually, documents and interviews reveal, they hoped the network would reach critical mass so that dissidents could organize "smart mobs" — mass gatherings called at a moment's notice — that could trigger political demonstrations, or "renegotiate the balance of power between the state and society."
The Cuban government has a tight grip on information, and the country's leaders view the Internet as a "wild colt" that "should be tamed." ZunZuneo's leaders planned to push Cuba "out of a stalemate through tactical and temporary initiatives, and get the transition process going again toward democratic change."
At a 2011 speech at George Washington University, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton said the US helps people in "oppressive Internet environments get around filters." Noting Tunisia's role in the Arab Spring, she said people used technology to help "fuel a movement that led to revolutionary change."
Suzanne Hall, then a State Department official working on Clinton's social media efforts, helped spearhead an attempt to get Twitter founder Jack Dorsey to take over the ZunZuneo project. Dorsey declined to comment.
The estimated $1.6 million spent on ZunZuneo was publicly earmarked for an unspecified project in Pakistan, public government data show, but those documents don't reveal where the funds were actually spent.
ZunZuneo's organizers worked hard to create a network that looked like a legitimate business, including the creation of a companion website — and marketing campaign — so users could subscribe and send their own text messages to groups of their choice.
"Mock ad banners will give it the appearance of a commercial enterprise," one written proposal obtained by the AP said. Behind the scenes, ZunZuneo's computers were also storing and analyzing subscribers' messages and other demographic information, including gender, age, "receptiveness" and "political tendencies." USAID believed the demographics on dissent could help it target its other Cuba programs and "maximize our possibilities to extend our reach.".
"It was such a marvelous thing," said Ernesto Guerra, a Cuban user who never suspected his beloved network had ties to Washington.
"How was I supposed to realize that?" Guerra asked in an interview in Havana. "It's not like there was a sign saying, 'Welcome to ZunZuneo, brought to you by USAID.'"
Executives set up a corporation in Spain and an operating company in the Cayman Islands — a well-known British offshore tax haven — to pay the company's bills so the "money trail will not trace back to America," a strategy memo said. That would have been a catastrophic blow, they concluded, because it would undermine the service's credibility with subscribers and get shut down by the Cuban government.
Similarly, subscribers' messages were funneled through two other countries — but never through American-based computer servers.
Denver-based Mobile Accord considered at least a dozen candidates to head the European front company. One candidate, Francoise de Valera, told the AP she was told nothing about Cuba or US involvement.
James Eberhard, Mobile Accord's CEO and a key player in the project's development, declined to comment. Creative Associates referred questions to USAID.
For more than two years, ZunZuneo grew and reached at least 40,000 subscribers. But documents reveal the team found evidence Cuban officials tried to trace the text messages and break into the ZunZuneo system. USAID told the AP that ZunZuneo stopped in September 2012 when a government grant ended.
ZunZuneo vanished abruptly in 2012, and the Communist Party remains in power — with no Cuban Spring on the horizon.
"The moment when ZunZuneo disappeared, (it) was like a vacuum," said Guerra, the ZunZuneo user. "In the end, we never learned what happened. We never learned where it came from."


text:
Hot Pink Lustre Dust - 4g
Our metallic mica-based pearlescent pigment powders are 100% edible and are the perfect addition to your cakes, cookies and desserts.
Designed to dust straight onto chocolate for a gorgeous lush shimmer or add clear liquid and mix it to form your own paint to paint on fondant, royal icing, ganache and more. Thin it out just a little more and you can even pop it into your air brush machine for large surfaces.Feel confident buying from the Sweet Sticks lustre range knowing our lustres are Kosher certified by Kosher Australia and are also vegan friendly.Packaged in a premium glass jar with a silicon lid for ease and stability when using on your treats.
Hot Pink Lustre Dust - Sweet Sticks


text:
How Is Condo Insurance Different From Homeowners Insurance?
Whether the space you live in is a condo or a house, if you own your own home, you need insurance. Property owners are responsible not only for what happens to their property, but also for what happens to visitors on the premises. However, a condo is not the same type of structure as a house, and there are key differences between homeowners insurance and condo insurance.
What Does Condo Insurance Cover?
Condominium insurance is designed to address a condo owner's particular, non-communal property ownership needs. A condo unit is often part of an association that is responsible for the grounds shared by all the owners and, typically, the exterior of the building. The association will have its own insurance policy. It is important for owners of individual units to know what the association policy covers and what they are personally responsible for insuring.
The typical condo insurance policy covers repair or replacement for certain "walls-in" losses plus all of your personal property. The condo association's master insurance policy may cover everything from the walls and studs outward, while your personal condo insurance policy covers flooring, carpeting, fixtures, and everything from the bare walls in.
Bare Walls Coverage Vs. As Built Coverage For Condominiums
The declaration or master deed for a condo includes a section on insurance requirements and association bylaws. This section describes the type of insurance the association will purchase on behalf of the insured. The unit owner is responsible for insuring any property that is not covered by the association's policy. Real property is insured by condominium associations in two basic ways:
- Bare walls coverage: The unit owner is responsible for insuring all fixtures and real property from the exterior framing of the unit inward.
- As built coverage: The unit owner is responsible for insuring upgrades or additions to the condo.
Most condo association insurance policies have large deductibles for which the condo owner is responsible in case of a loss to his or her unit. Also, condo associations may change or reduce their insurance coverage for a unit owner's condo, which could increase the coverage the unit owner is required to carry. If you are purchasing a condo, our experienced agent can help ensure that you have the condo insurance you need.
What Does Homeowners Insurance Cover?
A traditional homeowners insurance policy for a single-family dwelling may be simple and basic or comprehensive, depending on the lender's requirements and the homeowner's needs. The typical homeowners policy covers the entire structure and all construction materials, including permanent elements, such as kitchen cabinets. Most of these policies provide coverage for the home, related structures, yard, and personal property, and protect the homeowner against liability.
Key Difference Between Homeowners Insurance & Condo Insurance
The critical difference between the two types of policies is how much coverage you need. Homeowners insurance should cover the cost of rebuilding the house and other structures on the property. With condo insurance, you generally only need enough dwelling protection to cover rebuilding the interior of your unit.


text:
Your Acceleration Years
So you've been on track with your commitments for life and you feel more in control now. Once you've passed certain milestones in your life and career, your dreams start to take shape. Checking in on your plan regularly to make sure it fits your plans for life and allows you to be able to fit in those extras as well as keep on track to the future of your dreams is key. At this stage, it's also a great idea to keep a more careful eye on your efforts to save for retirement and make sure you are firmly on track.
Let us help you assess and change your plan with the solutions that make sense, no matter how trouble-free or full of twists and turns your life might be. Whether your concerns are retirement or that lifelong dream of a renovated family home, we can help.
A winning financial game plan is not glamorous, it's just common sense. For more information or to set up an appointment to discuss your dreams, please feel free to contact our office.


text:
Written By:
Post Date – Update:
At Mondoro, we only use high-quality UL parts for all the lamps we assemble.
We value your input and would love to hear your comments and thoughts. Your feedback helps us continually improve and better serve your needs. Additionally, I oversee our YouTube channel and podcasts, where we delve deeper into industry insights and showcase our products and processes. Be sure to check out our podcasts, videos, and YouTube channel to stay informed and inspired.
Whether you're looking for tips on design, manufacturing, or sustainability practices, Mondoro is here to support you every step of the way. Our mission is to empower you with the knowledge and resources needed to make informed decisions and create spaces that reflect your values and preferences and to help you understand more about home decor, home furnishing and the global supply chain.
Thank you for being part of our community. We're excited to embark on this journey with you and look forward to connecting further. If you have any questions or ideas, please don't hesitate to reach out to me. Let's create something extraordinary together!
You must be logged in to post a comment.


text:
Wall Tapestry
Julia Di Sano From British Columbia
Art Image:
Special Price
*All Sizes in Inches
*Production Time is 4-7 days to ship.
With more than 3500 images to choose from, you are sure to find the perfect Tapestry from DiaNoche Designs. Add a wonderful conversation piece to your living room, a touch of elegance to the bedroom, or a whimsical piece to your child's playroom. They are also great for dorm rooms, basements, or your child's bedroom. Want something custom? Just ask! We can turn photos, company logos, children's artwork and more into an amazing artistic masterpiece on any of our products! Gift Certificates are also available for purchase.
- 100% lightweight polyester with hand-sewn finished edges


text:
· Item: Vintage Baltic Amber stone.
· Condition: Used. Broken. It is from old broken jewelry. Please take a look at the pictures.
· Material: Natural Baltic Amber.
· Approximate total outside measurements: 35 x 26 x 20 mm / 1.38 x 1.02 x 0.79 in
· Total weight: 10 grams.
· Ruler in the pictures is in centimeters. Scales shows weight in grams.
· This item is made of 100% natural Baltic Amber.
Thank you for supporting our family business. Please contact us if you have any questions.
What is Baltic Amber?
Amber is solidified resin of conifers. According to the scientists, Baltic Amber formed 50 million years ago during Eocene epoch, when the massive subtropical forests were growing in The Baltic Sea Catchment Basin. Fallen resin with the lapse of time has naturally solidified and deteriorated into amber due to processes of oxidation and polymerization. Most of it have been collected by the running rivers and drifted to the Baltic Sea. Plants, insects and other wildlife tailings have been adhered to the drifting resin. Plants and organisms inside amber are called inclusions. It is believed that during Eocene epoch subtropical forests could produce approximately 100,000 tons of amber. Baltic Amber consist a great amount of succinate (amber acid), therefore it is called succinite.
1-3 business days
I'll do my best to meet these shipping estimates, but can't guarantee them. Actual delivery time will depend on the shipping method you choose.
Buyers are responsible for any customs and import taxes that may apply. I'm not responsible for delays due to customs.
Just contact me within: 60 days of delivery
Ship items back to me within: 90 days of delivery
But please contact me if you have any problems with your order.
Because of the nature of these items, unless they arrive damaged or defective, I can't accept returns for:
Buyers are responsible for return shipping costs. If the item is not returned in its original condition, the buyer is responsible for any loss in value.
This Privacy Policy describes how and when I collect, use, and share information when you purchase an item from me, contact me, or otherwise use my services through Etsy.com or its related sites and services.
This Privacy Policy does not apply to the practices of third parties that I do not own or control, including Etsy or any third party services you access through Etsy. You can reference the Etsy Privacy Policy to learn more about its privacy practices.
Information I Collect.
To fulfil your order, you must provide me with certain information (which you authorized Etsy to provide to me), such as your name, email address, postal address, payment information, and the details of the product that you're ordering. You may also choose to provide me with additional personal information (for a custom order of jewelry, for example), if you contact me directly.
Why I Need Your Information and How I Use It.
I rely on a number of legal bases to collect, use, and share your information, including:
-as needed to provide my services, such as when I use your information to fulfil your order, to settle disputes, or to provide customer support;
-when you have provided your affirmative consent, which you may revoke at any time, such as by signing up for my mailing list;
-if necessary to comply with a legal obligation or court order or in connection with a legal claim, such as retaining information about your purchases if required by tax law; and
-as necessary for the purpose of my legitimate interests, if those legitimate interests are not overridden by your rights or interests, such as 1) providing and improving my services. I use your information to provide the services you requested and in my legitimate interest toimprove my services; and 2) Compliance with the Etsy Seller Policy and Terms of Use. I use your information as necessary to comply with my obligations under the Etsy Seller Policy and Terms of Use.
Information Sharing and Disclosure.
Information about my customers is important to my business. I share your personal information for very limited reasons and in limited circumstances, as follows:
-Etsy. I share information with Etsy as necessary to provide you my services and comply with my obligations under both the Etsy Seller Policy and Etsy Terms of Use.
-Service providers. I engage certain trusted third parties to perform functions and provide services to my shop, such as delivery companies. I will share your personal information with these third parties, but only to the extent necessary to perform these services.
-Business transfers. If I sell or merge my business, I may disclose your information as part of that transaction, only to the extent permitted by law.
-Compliance with laws. I may collect, use, retain, and share your information if I have a good faith belief that it is reasonably necessary to: (a) respond to legal process or to government requests; (b) enforce my agreements, terms and policies; (c) prevent, investigate, and address fraud and other illegal activity, security, or technical issues; or (d) protect the rights, property, and safety of my customers, or others.
Data Retention.
I retain your personal information only for as long as necessary to provide you with my services and as described in my Privacy Policy. However, I may also be required to retain this information to comply with my legal and regulatory obligations, to resolve disputes, and to enforce my agreements. I generally keep your data for the following time period: 10 years. This period is required by Lithuania tax law.
Transfers of Personal Information Outside the EU.
I may store and process your information through third-party hosting services in the US and other jurisdictions. As a result, I may transfer your personal information to a jurisdiction with different data protection and government surveillance laws than your jurisdiction. If I am deemed to transfer information about you outside of the EU, I rely on Privacy Shield as the legal basis for the transfer, as Google Cloud is Privacy Shield certified.
Your Rights.
If you reside in certain territories, including the EU, you have a number of rights in relation to your personal information. While some of these rights apply generally, certain rights apply only in certain limited cases. I describe these rights below:
-Access. You may have the right to access and receive a copy of the personal information I hold about you by contacting me using the contact information below.
-Change, restrict, delete. You may also have rights to change, restrict my use of, or delete your personal information. Absent exceptional circumstances (like where I am required to store data for legal reasons) I will generally delete your personal information upon request.
-Object. You can object to (i) my processing of some of your information based on my legitimate interests and (ii) receiving marketing messages from me after providing your express consent to receive them. In such cases, I will delete your personal information unless I have compelling and legitimate grounds to continue using that information or if it is needed for legal reasons.
-Complain. If you reside in the EU and wish to raise a concern about my use of your information (and without prejudice to any other rights you may have), you have the right to do so with your local data protection authority.
How to Contact Me.
For purposes of EU data protection law, I, Linas Radžiūnas, am the data controller of your personal information. If you have any questions or concerns, you may contact me at firstname.lastname@example.com. Alternately, you may mail me at:
Linas Radžiūnas, Gelvonu street 30, apt.6, Vilnius LT-07147, Lithuania
Amber is solidified resin of conifers. Baltic Amber formed 50 million years ago during Eocene epoch, when the massive subtropical forests were growing in The Baltic Sea Catchment Basin. Fallen resin with the lapse of time has naturally solidified and deteriorated into amber due to processes of oxidation and polymerization. Most of it have been collected by the running rivers and drifted to the Baltic Sea. Plants, insects and other wildlife tailings have been adhered to the drifting resin. Plants and organisms inside amber are called inclusions. It is believed that during Eocene epoch subtropical forests could produce 100,000 tons of amber. Baltic Amber consist a great amount of succinate (amber acid), therefore it is called succinite.
It is heavier, harder, colder and incombustible.
Generally it is young resin (1000 to 1 million years). Melting temperature is low comparing to amber. It may also have natural inclusions, but usually they are falsified.
Phenolic resin
It is a synthetic resin. Generally these beads are identical to each other in shape, color and looks 'too perfect'.
it is regarded to be the first thermoplastic. Usually it is yellow and cloudy and looks similar to the amber.
it is a plastic made from cows milk. A little heavier than amber and have cloudy, turbid yellow color.
Modern plastics
Optically this substitute can hardly be distinguished because with it authentic amber colors and limpidity can be obtained.
There are many various ways to identify true amber. Flotation test "Hot needle" test are two ways which are the most suitable for domestic conditions. Please read following answers where I will explain how to use these methods.
Mix 15ml of table salt with 100ml of water. Dissolve salt in water by stirring. As salt is completely dissolved, drop the piece of amber into the mixture. Note that some additional components of jewellery such as string, fastener etc. can drown the amber due to big weight. Amber, copal and some sorts of plastic should float in such mixture whereas glass and other plastics sink.
Take a needle and heat it over the flame (use pincers to avoid skin burns). Stick a heated needle into an imperceptible place in amber. Copal and amber diffuses definite pine-tree resin smell whereas other sorts of fake amber (plastic etc.) will smell like burning plastic. However, amber is fragile and it does not melt. Sticking with a hot needle you will notice some cracks, while a needle will pierce plastic and copal without cracking it. The "hot needle" test is the most effective way to identify true amber and it does not require any sophisticated equipment. The only negative of this test is the slight mark of burning remains which is irreparable.


text:
Rawescapes Privacy Policy
This is the privacy policy of https://onthewalloutdoors.com/ and will be referred to as "We", "our" and "us" in this Internet Privacy Policy. By using this site, you agree to the Internet Privacy Policy of this web site ("the web site"), which is set out on this web site page.
We reserve the right, at our discretion, to modify or remove portions of this Internet Privacy Policy at any time. This Internet Privacy Policy is in addition to any other terms and conditions applicable to the web site. We do not make any representations about third-party web sites that may be linked to the web site.
We recognize the importance of protecting the privacy of information collected about visitors to our web site, in particular, information that is capable of identifying an individual ("personal information"). This Internet Privacy Policy governs the manner in which your personal information, obtained through the web site, will be dealt with.
This Internet Privacy Policy should be reviewed periodically so that you are updated on any changes. We welcome your
comments and feedback.
Affiliate Disclosure
This blog uses various affiliate programs and advertising for monetization, which means when you click on links to some sites that I recommend in my posts and make a purchase, this can result in a commission that is credited to this site.
Personal Information
Personal information about visitors to our site is collected or stored only when knowingly and voluntarily submitted. For example, we may need to collect such information to provide you with further services or to answer or forward any requests or inquiries. It is our intention that this policy will protect your personal information from being dealt with in any way that is inconsistent with applicable privacy laws.
Use of Information
Personal information that visitors submit to our site is used only for the purpose for which it is submitted or for such other secondary purposes that are related to the primary purpose unless we disclose other uses in this Internet Privacy Policy or at the time of collection. Copies of correspondence sent from the web site, that may contain personal information, are stored as archives for record-keeping and back-up purposes only. Information such as email addresses or any other personal information is never sold, traded or given away.
We use third-party advertising companies to serve ads when you visit our website. These companies may use information (not including your name, address, email address, or telephone number) about your visits to this and other websites in order to provide advertisements about goods and services of interest to you. Google's use of the DART cookie enables it to serve ads based on users' visits to our sites and other sites on the Internet. Users may opt-out of the use of the DART cookie by visiting the Google ad and content network privacy policy at http://www.google.com/privacy_ads.html
Links to other sites
We provide links to Web sites outside of our web sites, as well as to third party Web sites. The content of these linked sites are not under our control, and we cannot accept responsibility for the conduct of companies linked from our website.
Problems or questions
If we become aware of any ongoing concerns or problems with our web sites, we will take these issues seriously and work to address these concerns. If you have any further queries relating to our Privacy Policy, or you have a problem or complaint, please contact us.


text:
Builder's risk insurance is a policy that is designed to provide coverage for buildings while under construction. It covers the contractor's interest in materials at the job site before they are installed, materials in transit intended for the job, and the value of the property being constructed until it is completed and accepted by the owner. The policy may be written to cover the whole structure for new construction or the cost of remodeling and renovation projects. It can also be used to cover specific projects, such as a new room addition, a deck, or a remodeled bathroom.
Builder's risk insurance usually is in the name of the contractor or the property developer, but it could also be in the name of the property owner if he is responsible for insuring it while the property is under construction. Both commercial and residential construction sites might be covered under a builder's risk insurance policy.
There are also additional built-in schemes for the specialized needs of a particular construction project, whether it's commercial or residential. Often, insurance companies request a certain level of experience of the builder before they provide insurance coverage for their commercial sites. Usually, an experience level of 2-3 years in commercial construction is desired.
An additional option that can be attached with builder's risk insurance coverage is the movement of earth. If the construction is extremely large, then the cost of moving earth from the digging site could amount to a great deal.
A builder's risk insurance policy is essential for people who have a financial interest in property construction, either commercial or residential. It doesn't mean only new construction, but also any remodeling or renovation project.
If any damage to construction material occurs in transit or during storage, then this cost could also be covered under a builder's risk insurance policy.
Trent Insurance Agency offers free, comparative quotes on Builders' Risk Insurance from multiple insurance carriers so you can get the best possible rate.
Want to see how much we can save you? Just request a quote to find out.


text:
Assistant Community Editors (ACEs)
This is where you can find Edited Entries on the above Category
A to Z
Search the alphabetical index of Edited Entries:
0-9 = Edited Entries that do not begin with a letter
Douglas Adams
"A collaborative guide, one that was written and kept up to date by the people who used it, in real time, might be a neat idea. I just didn't really realise that such a thing might be possible in my lifetime or how powerful such a thing might be."
A place to share knowledge and celebrate the things you love by writing about them
We have the first snowflake. Now let's build a blizzard
h2g2 founder Douglas Adams
Write an Entry
"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is a wholly remarkable book. It has been compiled and recompiled many times and under many different editorships. It contains contributions from countless numbers of travellers and researchers."
The Foundation
Co-founded by the h2g2 community, the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Foundation is an independent charity honouring Douglas Adams' memory by supporting people around the world trying to improve their communication skills, especially basic literacy skills.


text:
1) At its core, humor is about being honest.
2) You guys probably expect me to be both funny and honest in person.
3) Losing weight would make me someone I'm not (ie a person who loses weight), and therefore is intrinsically DIShonest.
4) Oooh, cupcakes!
Anyhoo, so while I'm not on a diet myself, I still want to support John any way I can. Some people might try cooking him a healthy meal, or inviting him for walks. Me? I find gross cakes to help kill his appetite.
And speaking of low-carb diets, I hear you also see a lot of these when you're on them:
Or is that only if you cheat and eat a bunch of raisins? Hm...
[swinging pocket watch] "You are feeling sleepy. Veerrry sleepy. Now, you will never crave skinned leopard - or cake - ever agaiiin."
- Related Wreckage: Better Dieting Through Cake


text:
Outboard Parts Oil Tank Assy For Mercury OMC 8M0064075/12008M0064075/1200-8M0064075 2000,2003-2010,2013 200 225 250HP – On our website, you can find the best electronic products at advantageous prices.
✅ Choose free delivery to save even more
Outboard Parts Oil Tank Assy For Mercury OMC 8M0064075/12008M0064075/1200-8M0064075 2000,2003-2010,2013 200 225 250HP
Before purchasing our products, we recommend that you read the product description. If you have any doubts, do not hesitate to contact us. We will be happy to help you choose the most suitable product for your needs.
Contact us on Whatsapp: HERE
QUALITY GUARANTEE choose safety, savings, and professionalism, choose us. We offer top-notch assistance that will never leave you alone during the entire pre- and post-purchase phase. We offer high-quality products, smart and safe savings, do not rely on improvised sellers.
- Placement on Vehicle: Rear
- Country/Region of Manufacture: Factory
- Interchange Part Number: 8M0064075 12008M0064075 1200-8M0064075
- Other Part Number: 8M0064075 12008M0064075 1200-8M0064075
- Manufacturer Part Number: JE-140001
- Brand Name: JETUNIT
- Origin: Mainland Factory
- condition: new
- Replaces part number/OEM: 8M0064075 12008M0064075 1200-8M0064075
- performance: high quality
- size: standard size
- packaging: paper box
Outboard Parts Oil Tank Assy For Mercury OMC 8M0064075/12008M0064075/1200-8M0064075 2000,2003-2010,2013 200 225 250HP
Accessory:Oil Tank Assy
Size:Standard size
Packaging:Paper box
Replaces the following part numbers:
Applications: Mercury
Please contact us if you have any questions.
Shipping and Delivery Information
We understand the excitement and anticipation that comes with every purchase. That's why we've established a clear and detailed shipping and delivery process to ensure that you are fully informed every step of the way, from the moment you finalize your order to when it arrives at your doorstep. This information is designed to meet and exceed merchant rules, offering you peace of mind and clarity on what to expect regarding the shipping and receiving of your goods.
Order Processing:
- Initial Confirmation: Once your order is placed, you will receive an immediate email confirmation. This email serves as an acknowledgment of your order and provides you with a unique order number for future reference.
- Packing Period: Our dedicated warehouse team takes great care in preparing your order. Please allow us 2 working days to carefully package your items. This time frame ensures that your products are securely packed, properly labeled, and prepared for shipment, minimizing the risk of damage during transit. Each product is inspected to ensure it meets our high-quality standards before being packaged.
- Carrier Handoff: After the packing period, your parcel is handed over to our trusted shipping carrier. This transition marks the beginning of the shipping phase.
- Shipping Time Frame: Our standard shipping timeframe is 5 to 7 working days. This period begins once the carrier has received your package from our warehouse. The delivery times are estimates based on the carrier's guidelines and the destination of the package. It's important to note that these are working days, excluding weekends and public holidays.
- Tracking and Updates: Upon dispatch, you will receive a tracking number via email. This number allows you to monitor the journey of your package in real-time. We also partner with our carriers to provide regular updates via email or SMS, ensuring you are informed of any progress or changes in the delivery schedule.
- Final Mile: The final leg of your package's journey is known as the "final mile." During this stage, local postal services or last-mile delivery partners take over to ensure your package reaches its final destination safely and efficiently.
- Receiving Your Package: Upon arrival, you might be required to sign for the delivery, depending on the carrier's policy and the nature of the goods. If you are not available to receive the package in person, the carrier will leave a notice with further instructions on how to arrange for a redelivery or pickup from a local post office or depot.
- Customer Support: Should you have any questions or concerns about your delivery, our customer support team is here to assist. From tracking assistance to addressing delivery queries, we're committed to ensuring your shopping experience is seamless and satisfactory.
We pride ourselves on transparency and communication throughout the shipping and delivery process. Our goal is to provide you with a smooth, hassle-free experience, keeping you informed and satisfied from the moment you shop with us to the excitement of unboxing your purchase.
Important: Before proceeding with the purchase or use of our sport exhausts, please read the following notice carefully.
The products sold through this website are intended exclusively for sporting and competitive use. This means they have been designed and manufactured to be used in controlled environments, such as closed circuits or areas designated for sporting competitions, where emission and noise regulations may differ from those applied on public roads.
Public Road Use Not Allowed: It is emphasized that the installation and use of these devices on vehicles intended for circulation on public roads may not be permitted under the laws of your reference country regarding emission and noise regulation, as they are not designed for road use but for sporting use.
Buyer's Responsibility: It is the buyer's responsibility to ensure that the use of the purchased products complies with all applicable laws and regulations. The buyer assumes all legal liabilities for any non-compliant use of the products, including the installation and operation of such devices on unauthorized vehicles or in ways that violate applicable laws.
By continuing with the purchase, the buyer acknowledges and agrees that the use of the products is limited to sporting and competitive contexts as defined above and assumes full responsibility for any legal consequences arising from improper use of the products.
Outboard Parts Oil Tank Assy For Mercury OMC 8M0064075/12008M0064075/1200-8M0064075 2000,2003-2010,2013 200 225 250HP
It is the responsibility of the customer to ensure that the product is compatible with their vehicle. We recommend consulting with a professional mechanic before purchasing to confirm compatibility. BOATxt is not responsible for any issues that may arise from the use of our products, including but not limited to damage to the vehicle or personal injury.
All of our products come with a 2-year warranty in accordance with international standards. If you experience any issues with your product within the warranty period, please contact us for assistance. The warranty does not cover damages caused by improper installation, misuse, or external factors such as accidents or natural disasters.
Return Policy
We are committed to ensuring our customers' complete satisfaction. If you are not completely satisfied with your purchase made on our website, you have the right to return the goods or all products purchased directly from our site within 14 days of receiving them. To be eligible for a return, items must be returned in their original packaging, with labels and protective seals intact, and in the same condition as when they were received. Products purchased directly from our website must be returned to our warehouse to obtain a full refund; please note that shipping costs for returning the goods may be the responsibility of the user. BOATxt is not responsible for any items lost during the return shipping.
Return Procedure:
- Send a request via email to firstname.lastname@example.com within the return period.
- In the email, specify "Return" as the subject and provide a reason for the return.
- You will receive a response with instructions on how to proceed with the return.
- Follow the instructions to create your return label.
- Ship the order via courier to : .
- ⚫Address: Creative Tower – Hamad Bin Abdulla Road – Office 4201 – Fujairah – U.A.E. –
- ⚫E-MAIL ➡ firstname.lastname@example.com
payment refund times
Once we receive the returned goods, we will take 2 working days to issue a refund on the card used for the purchase. The customer will receive a 100% refund of the amount spent, excluding shipping costs for returning the goods.
We thank you for your patience and understanding.
Terms and Conditions
This website provides only the product with well-indicated codes and specifications. Please rely on an experienced workshop for the installation and choice of the product. We do not assume any responsibility for errors in choice, installation, or programming of the devices.
*The price is intended for a single product
*Days are always working days
All guides on this website are for illustrative purposes only. For many products, the use of special tools may be necessary. We always recommend seeking the advice of a specialized repair center for the selection and installation or programming of products purchased anywhere. We do not assume any responsibility for damage to property or persons, or user errors in the application of a guide on this website or for any other occurrence.
Product is not original but fully interchangeable with it
All rights reserved. All trade names and logos are registered trademarks of the respective manufacturers indicated
The trademarks mentioned on this site are the exclusive property of the automotive companies and are used here exclusively to facilitate the search for vehicles by our customers. We do not assume any responsibility for damages to property or persons, or user errors in the application of a guide on this website or for any other occurrence.
Secure Payments
When making purchases on our website, you can be confident that your transaction is secure. All financial transactions are processed on the secure and certified servers of PayPal or Stripe. These platforms allow us to accept payments from all VISA, VISA ELECTRON, MAESTRO, POSTEPAY, AMERICAN EXPRESS, AURA, and DISCOVER credit cards.
Quality Guarantee
Choose safety, savings, and professionalism by choosing us. We offer top-level customer support that will never leave you alone during the pre- and post-purchase phases. We offer top-quality products and intelligent, secure savings. Don't trust inexperienced sellers.
NOTE: In the event that the product is not available in stock, we reserve the right to issue a full and immediate refund.


text:
By supplying your details you are opting to receive product and marketing communications from Remitly and your details will be processed in accordance with our Privacy Policy. You will be able to unsubscribe from our marketing messages at any time by contacting us or using the link at the bottom of any message we send.
**4.9 * * 1,295,117の評価
**4.8 * * 582,613の評価