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Professional Catering: The Modern Caterer's Complete Guide to Success
Author(s): Stephen Shiring, Elizabeth J. Shiring
Professional Catering structurally applies by design key essential and emerging management, marketing, strategic management, and supply chain concepts empowering the student, practitioner, event planner, chef, or aspiring entrepreneur with the appropriate knowledge, tools, and Tips from the Trade to...about product
A Constant Struggle: Documents and Readings in African American History to 1865, Volume 1
Author(s): Yohuru R Williams, Tamara Brown, Dr. Roger Davidson
A Constant Struggle: Documents and Readings in African American History volumes provide essential primary source documents and informative essays for the study of African American history from its African origins to contemporary times. The volumes assist in building critical thinking skills for the ...Integrated Marketing Communication: A Consumer-Centric Approach for the Digital Era
Author(s): THOMAS R. FLYNN, James R. Smith, Michael Walsh
Second Edition Coming Soon!The entire Integrated Marketing Communication ecosystem is alive 24/7 every day. Data skills and knowing metrics are more important than ever.Integrated Marketing Communication: A Consumer-Centric Approach for the Digital Era is a data-driven, consumer centric approach tha...about product
Service Management Principles for Hospitality and Tourism in the Age of Digital Technology
Author(s): Jay Kandampully, David Solnet, Anil Bilgihan
Service Management Principles for Hospitality & Tourism in the Age of Digital Technology was developed through many years of teaching service management mainly to hospitality and tourism management students. This edition ensures that the content of this book remains current and includes references a...Event Planning and Management: Communicating Theory and Practice
Author(s): Leeanne McManus, Stephanie Verni, Mary Elizabeth Rouse
Event Planning: Communicating Theory & Practice, 3rd edition, offers a unique approach that connects concepts in communication to practical event planning ideas. Understanding the "why" behind successful events is fundamental to creating unique and successful experiences for companies, organizations...Tourism: Concepts and Practices
Author(s): John Walker, Christopher John M. Walker
Tourism: Concepts and Practices was written to empower students and help them become future leaders in this great industry. It provides an overview of the world's largest and fastest growing industry groupings. Each chapter contains information about the numerous tourism segments, the many different...Policing for the 21st Century: Realizing the Vision of Police in a Free Society
Author(s): Christine Gardiner, Matthew J Hickman
Policing for the 21st Century: Realizing the Vision of Police in a Free Society provides a thematic overview of policing and its role in American society. This text is unique in that it provides extensive information about how police identify community problems, the methods police use to respond to ...about product
A Criminological Guide and Theoretical Analysis of Serial Killers and Infamous Murders
Author(s): Michael Birzer, Robert Holland
Much of the general public's knowledge of serial killers is a product of sensationalized and stereotypical presentations in the media. It's time to break free of what we think we know and draw our information from factual analysis.Serial Killers provides an interdisciplinary approach to the study of...Learning About Dance: Dance as an Art Form and Entertainment
Author(s): Nora Ambrosio
New Ninth Edition Now Available!Learning about Dance: Dance as an Art Form and Entertainment introduces students to the exciting, daring, ever-changing, and dynamic world of dance.Learning about Dance invites readers to experience the artistry and excitement of the dance world. The publication prese...Cruise Ship Management and Leadership: Hospitality on the High Seas
Author(s): Frederick DeMicco, Ryan Wootten
Cruise Ship Management & Leadership provides students with an integrated approach to learning the basics of Cruise Ship Management and cruise career opportunities. Students will receive an overview of the cruise ship management environment, the functional areas of cruise ship management, including m...


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Women's Rhodium Plated Dress Ring Circle Round Cut CZ 012
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R.S. Covenants fashion jewelry is unconditionally guaranteed for life. The jewelry is crafted in the same manner as 14/18k gold jewelry. The guarantee covers tarnishing and stone settings. Please note that as with any jewelry, exposure to harsh chemicals or excessive perspiration will cause the ring to discolor. The replacement guarantee is still valid if this happens, but to avoid this, we recommend that the ring is taken off when cleaning or engaging in athletic activities. We have sold these rings for years and our customers love them! We have people who come back several times a year to get more of them. You simply wont find better quality for less, thats a promise! The lifetime guarantee is offered by R.S. Covenant, not by us. All buyers will get a certificate with information on how to proceed in the event of a claim. There is a handling charge which you must pay imposed by R.S. Covenant to replace damaged rings.

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At Kitabay, we're more than just a book store - we also offer a range of merchandise for book lovers! Our collection includes bookmarks, tote bags, cozy blankets, elegant mugs, and other fun accessories. Our book-inspired merchandise is designed to make your reading experience even more enjoyable and comfortable, and also makes for great gifts for the bookworms in your life.
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1. Why stretch? Stretching lengthens muscles and improves flexibility. Also, stretching the big leg muscles - the hamstrings, calves, and quads - simultaneously loosens and lengthens the muscles of your lower back. So, when you stretch, you're helping your back!
2. When to stretch? Recent exercise physiology studies show that static stretching is best done after exercise. Pre-exercise "dynamic warm-ups", such as torso twists, arm circles, and light jogging, prepare the body for work. Importantly, for those of us with back issues, it's still a good idea to do the familiar static stretches even before the dynamic warm-up!
3. Don't rush! Stretching is as important as what you're going to do after you stretch. And, if you rush, you might pull a muscle or worse. Be sure to include 10 to 15 minutes of stretching as part of your exercise time.
4. Stretch gently and slowly. You're not trying to accomplish anything while stretching. In other words, you're not trying to stretch "this much" or "this far". Nice and easy does it. Stretching is a Zen activity. There should be nor "effort".
5. Pay attention! If your mind drifts, you're headed for a pulled muscle.
6. Visualize! See (in your mind) what you're doing. Hold a mental visual image of the muscle group, where it comes from, where it goes. Visualization helps establish a brain-muscle connection, making your muscles much smarter!
7. Stretch your hamstrings first. Lie on your back with one knee bent [start with the left leg bent; you'll be stretching the right hamstring]. The left foot is on the floor and the left knee is bent approximately 90 degrees. Holding behind the right knee, gently bring that knee to your chest. Alternate this chest movement with a movement that begins to straighten the right leg in the air. The eventual goal on straightening is to achieve a 90 degree angle (or close to this) between the leg and your torso.
8. CAUTION - Progress may be quite slow. Remember - you are where you are. Stretching is gentle and slow. Alternate the bending and straightening movements gently, achieving a slightly greater straightening each time. You should work each leg for between three and five minutes.
9. Calf stretches - face a wall and place both hands lightly on the wall. Keeping both feet facing front, bend the front knee and place the foot of the leg to be stretched directly behind you. Your weight is being supported by the front leg. The back knee is pretty straight and the back heel is on or close to the floor. Maintain the stretch for 10 seconds, feeling the stretch in the calf as the back heel reaches toward the floor.
10. Quad stretches - stand on your left leg, placing a hand lightly on a wall to support the upright posture. Grasp just above the right ankle with your right hand and bring that heel close to the right buttock. The quadriceps is stretched by bringing the right thigh in line with the left thigh, just as if you were standing on both legs. The knees should also be close, in a line. You should feel a stretching sensation down the right thigh. Imagine a straight line running from your right hip socket all the way to the floor.
1Ferreira GN, et al: Gains in flexibility related to measures of muscular performance. Clin J Sport Med 17(4):276-281, 2007.
2Peeler J, Anderson JE: Effectiveness of static quadriceps stretching in individuals with patellofemoral joint pain. Clin J Sport Med 17(4):234-241, 2007.
3Behm DG, et al: Effect of acute static stretching on force, balance, reaction time, and movement time. Med Sci Sports Exercise (36(8):1397-1402, 2004.


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Endodontic Surgery Milwaukee, WI
While some people may believe that most dental procedures require the same level of experience, there are actually many separate areas of dentistry that require a specialist. There are multiple conditions and illnesses that require the expertise of an endodontic surgeon instead of a general dentist. When a nonsurgical root canal or other procedure is not enough for treatment, endodontic surgery may be the better solution.
The type of issues an endodontist treats
An endodontist will mainly use endodontic surgery when non-surgical procedure are not enough or when the fracture is small enough that they are not visible on X-rays. In other cases, endodontic surgery may also be necessary to remove calcium deposits in root canals. While the tooth can seem fairly normal on the surface, there can be an infection or other health issue underneath that is causing more problems.
Various reasons for endodontic surgery
A few possible scenarios in which endodontic surgery is a necessary treatment option:
- Treating persistent symptoms that do not go away with regular dental procedures
- Treating a canal that calcium deposits make too narrow for traditional root canal tools
- Treating a tooth that already underwent a root canal but is now infected
- Treating serious damage to the root surfaces or surrounding bone
There are cases in which an individual has a small fracture or canal that a dentist cannot notice on the X-ray. With endodontic surgery, the endodontist will be able to examine the entire root of the tooth and treat the problem.
There is also a process known as calcification, in which calcium deposits form around the root and make the canal too narrow for a non-surgical root canal. In these cases, an endodontist will need to use surgery to clean the tooth and then re-seal it. Since each part of the tooth affects each other and the other components of the mouth, it is crucial to seek professional care.
In some patients who receive a non-surgical root canal from a general dentist, there is a chance that the root will not heal properly and cause an infection to form. When this happens, it is crucial to seek endodontic surgery from a professional endodontist. If you do not treat the tooth soon, you will feel intense pain that makes daily tasks nearly impossible. People may go months or years after a root canal without any problems and suddenly have the pain strike.
Check out what others are saying about our dental services on Yelp: Endodontic Surgery Milwaukee
The process
What you need to know
A common procedure that endodontists perform on a regular basis is known as the apicoectomy. During this procedure, the endodontist opens the gum tissue by the tooth and examines the underlying bone. If necessary, the endodontist will remove any inflamed or infected tissue along with the end of the root. The endodontist may need to then place a small filling at the end of the root canal along with a few stitches or sutures to help the tissue heal properly.
After completing this procedure, the bone will naturally heal around the end of the root over the next few months following the procedure. Since this is only one type of endodontic surgery, it is important to ask all questions during the consultation in order to fully understand your specific situation. The other procedures are all designed to help save the tooth and prevent having to extract it entirely.
If you have any concerns about feeling pain during the surgery, do not worry. While you may feel some swelling and soreness following the procedure, there will not be much of any pain. In fact, the anesthesia will wear off and you will most likely be able to drive yourself home from the appointment.
However, be sure to clarify with the endodontist if it is alright for you to drive yourself or if you need to have someone else drive you. In most cases, it is best to take the remainder of the day to relax. While many people return to normal routines the next day, your endodontist will be able to go over the best course of action during the appointment.
If you are in pain following general dental procedures and are unsure of why, see an endodontist as soon as possible. An endodontist can ensure the pain goes away and the teeth remain in good health.
If you live in the Milwaukee area, call (414) 888-4000 to schedule your dental exam so that you can remain in good health or receive treatment for a current condition.
Questions Answered on This Page
Q. What can an endodontist treat?
Q. What is the process for a typical endodontist?
Q. Will there be any pain during surgery?
People Also Ask
Q. Can the tooth hurt without noticeable damage?
Definition of Endodontic Terminology
- Cementum
- Cementum is that bone-like tissue that forms the outer surface on the root of the tooth.
- Dental Pulp
- Dental pulp is the inner-most layer of the tooth with connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerve tissue.
- Dentin
- Dentin is the inner layer of the tooth structure that is immediately under the enamel and surrounds the dental pulp.
- Direct Pulp Cap
- A direct pulp cap is a procedure in which a professional treats exposed pulp with a therapeutic material to help the tooth heal.
- Enamel
- The enamel is the hard calcified layer that covers the entire tooth and is subject to interaction with multiple substances.
- Endodontist
- An endodontist is a specialist who focuses on treating issues, diseases and conditions that affect the inner-most layer of the tooth, the dental pulp.
- Pulpectomy
- A pulpectomy is a procedure that involves the complete removal of pulp tissue from the root canal in a tooth.
- Pulpitis
- Pulpitis is another term to describe the inflammation of the dental pulp due to an injury or infection.
- Pulpotomy
- A pulpotomy is a procedure involving the removal of a portion of diseased or infected pulp in order to protect the healthy portions of the pulp and teeth still in the mouth.
- Root Canal Specialist
- A root canal specialist is a dentist who has the skills and goes through the specific training to offer root canals and other similar procedures.
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A gift to celebrate new beginnings, new babies, new families… and the loving relationships that develop between parent and child, grandparent and child… Willow Tree is a reminder of someone we want to keep close, or a memory we want to touch. Hand-carved figures reveal their expression through body gestures only… a tilt of the head, placement of the hands, a turn of the body. Each piece is designed to be open to interpretation from the viewer.
"Willow Tree isn't so much about the tangible piece. It represents an emotion, or it marks a memory." –Susan Lordi. A gift of Willow Tree® communicates beyond words.
- orders ship in 7-10 business days
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The following is the editorial workflow that every manuscript submitted to the journal undergoes during the course of the peer-review process. The entire editorial workflow is performed using the online DergiPark Editorial System. Once a manuscript is submitted for publication, the manuscript is checked by the journal's editorial office to ensure that it is suitable to go through the normal peer review process. Once this is done, the manuscript is sent to an appropriate Editor based on the subject of the manuscript and the availability of the Editors. All manuscripts shall be handled by an Editor who does not have any potential conflict of interest with any of the manuscript's authors.
If the Editor finds that the manuscript may not be of sufficient quality to go through the normal peer review process, or that the subject of the manuscript may not be appropriate for the journal's scope, the manuscript shall be rejected with no further processing.
If the Editor finds that the submitted manuscript is of sufficient quality and falls within the scope of the journal, they should assign the manuscript to a number of external reviewers, provided that no conflict of interests exists between these reviewers and the manuscript's authors. The reviewers will then submit their reports on the manuscripts along with their recommendation of one of the following actions to the Editor:
- Publish Unaltered
- Consider after Minor Changes
- Consider after Major Changes
- Reject: Manuscript is flawed or not sufficiently novel
When all reviewers have submitted their reports, the Editor can make one of the following editorial recommendations:
- Publish Unaltered
- Consider after Minor Changes
- Consider after Major Changes
- Reject
If the Editor recommends "Publish Unaltered," the manuscript will undergo a final check by the journal's editorial office in order to ensure that the manuscript and its review process adhere to the journal's guidelines and policies. Once this is done, the authors will be notified of the manuscript's acceptance, and the manuscript will appear in our Results in Nonlinear Analysis journal's website.
If the Editor recommends "Consider after Minor Changes," the authors are notified to prepare and submit a final copy of their manuscript with the required minor changes suggested by the reviewers. The Editor reviews the revised manuscript after the minor changes have been made by the authors. Once the Editor is satisfied with the final manuscript, the manuscript can be accepted.
If the Editor recommends "Consider after Major Changes," the authors are expected to revise their manuscript in accordance with that recommendation and to submit their revised manuscript in a timely manner. Once the revised manuscript is submitted, the original reviewers are asked to review it. Along with their review reports on the revised manuscript, the reviewers make a recommendation which can be "Publish Unaltered," "Consider after Minor Changes," "Consider after Major Changes," or "Reject." Then, the Editor can make an editorial recommendation which can be "Publish Unaltered," "Consider after Minor Changes," or "Reject."
If the Editor recommends rejecting the manuscript, the rejection is immediate. Also, if the majority of the reviewers recommend rejecting the manuscript, the rejection is immediate.
The editorial workflow gives the Editors the authority to reject any manuscript because of the inappropriateness of its subject, lack of quality, or incorrectness of its results. The Editor cannot assign himself/herself as an external manuscript reviewer. This is to ensure a high-quality, fair, and unbiased peer-review process of every manuscript submitted to the journal since any manuscript must be recommended by one or more (usually two or more) external reviewers along with the Editor in charge of the manuscript for it to be accepted for publication in the journal.
The name of the Editor recommending the manuscript for publication is published with the manuscript to indicate and acknowledge their invaluable contribution to the peer-review process and the indispensability of their contributions to the Results in Nonlinear Analysis.
Results in Nonlinear Analysis(RNA) is a single-blind refereed journal. It means that the names of the reviewers are unknown to the author(s), but the identity of the authors are known to the reviewer(s).


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FREE DHL Tracked Delivery on orders over £120
FREE Click & Collect
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White and navy mini sponge football.
Size 33-34cm.
Product code: 2300190
Click and Collect orders are available for collection Monday to Saturday (9am-5.30pm) from the Club Shop at the Toughsheet Community Stadium. Orders are usually ready for collection after 24 hours but please wait for your confirmation email before visiting the store.
If, for any reason, you are unhappy with your purchase you can return it to us within 28 days of purchase in an unworn/unused condition for a full refund or exchange along with your proof of purchase.
We cannot accept personalised shirts for refund or exchange. BWFC does not accept responsibility should a player leave the Club or change squad number. Personalised shirts may only be returned if deemed faulty by BWFC.
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FSFE Newsletter - August 2012
Helping the European Parliament to release its own Free Software
For the first time, the European Parliament (EP) is about to release one of its own programs as a Free Software. The program in question is called AT4AM, short for "Automatic Tool for Amendments". The Parliament is making laws, and AT4AM automates a lot of the formalities associated with the legislative process.
Karsten Gerloff and Carlo Piana were invited to give talks at the event to discuss the right license under which to publish AT4AM, and to explain the political dimension of Free Software.
Do you want to know why the FSFE suggested the EP to license their software under GNU AGPL version 3, and what else our president has on his wishlist for the EP? Then read his report!
Protect Free Software licenses from bankruptcy
When the companies or authors that license Free Software enter bankruptcy, there is a risk that granted Free Software licenses will face legal challenges in some jurisdictions. The FSFE is trying to prevent this situation in Germany. We started talking about this during a meeting with the German Minister of Justice, who we could have meet thanks to receiving the Theodor Heuss Medal. Now the ifrOSS supported by the FSFE suggests the German Ministry of Justice to include a specific Free Software clause in the German Insolvency Code. The clause ensures that Free Software licenses would not be negatively affected by a bankruptcy of a licensing rights holder. It makes it clear that any offer to grant a Free Software license made before the licensor's bankruptcy can be accepted by anyone even after the bankruptcy proceedings started.
If Free Software face similar problems in your jurisdiction, please contact us or take similar steps.
The Fellowship: One to rule them all
In the Lord of the Rings, Gollum does not want to share the ring. He is such an egoist. But Barbara "swimmi" Roth and Martin "gollo" Gollowitzer, both Fellows of the FSFE are used to share (as well as use, study, and improve).
After signing their public keys with the highest trust level, they now finally decided to swim into the harbour of marriage. It is the first marriage your editor knows about, where both were Fellows before their marriage. The FSFE wishes them all the best for their future and is looking forward to see a lot of "forks", so we have more Free Software activists. May many fellow this example!
Something completely different
- From August 21st to 26th Free Software will be one major theme at Campus Party in Berlin. Your editor helped to find some interesting speakers for the event. Well, see yourself.
- La Quadrature Du Net published a video tutorial how to call a Member of the European Parliament (MEP). You can apply their instructions to our Ask You Candidates campaign and talk with politicians about general Free Software topics, our campaigns, or other issues.
- How, exactly, can you have a successful project with collaborators? Can we quantitatively analyse past projects to figure out what works, instead of just using our best guesses? David A. Wheeler reviewed a book which analyses how to be successful with Free Software.
- You want to have a small low cost Free Software PC? Take a look at this overview and decide what is best for you.
- Digital Restriction Managmenet: Our sister, the FSF finished an update of the "Guide to DRM-free Living" with dozens of new places to get ebooks, movies, and music without DRM.
- A selection from the Fellowship blog aggregation:
- Berlin Fellowship group coordinator Alexander Kahl wrote about why git kicks ass and how to use GNU Emacs as a terminal emulator.
- What is going on in Norway, and what is the role of Free Software competence centres? Paul Boddie takes a look at the Norwegian government's recent withdrawal of all financial support for the Norwegian Free Software Competence Center.
- Hugo Roy explains how to microblog links quickly with duckduckgo.
- Timo Jyrinki tells a story how sometimes computing brings you to the closet.
- Our interns were attending Richard Stallman's talk in Dresden. Anatolii Doludenko published some pictures in his blog.
- From the Nokia 770 to the N800 to the N810 to the N900 to the N9. What is next? Read Henri Bergius' dreams of the MeeGo diaspora.
- Our former president Georg Greve gives an update and overview about the Free Software groupware Kolab 3.0,
- and finally our vice president is looking for someone who can write a GUI front-end to Searduino. Can you? If not, but you want to help Free Software, continue reading our this month's get active item.
Get Active: Help us with Android installation parties!
Torsten Grote, who started our Free Your Android campaign, wrote down what he is missing in CyanogenMod 9. In good Free Software fashion he created feature requests for a configurable power control widget, an ssh daemon, direct in-app shortcuts, or native OpenVPN support in CyanogenMod's issue tracker.
We want to help as many people as possible to regain control of their Android devices and their data in general. One important step in this process is helping people to install Free Software on their phones and tablets. So on Software Freedom Day (15th September) the FSFE wants to have public Free Your Android installation parties.
If you can organise such a workshop, please let us know! If you still need help on how to do so, we will try to help you having a successful event. E.g. on August 26th we will have a workshop in Berlin for people who plan to give such workshops in the future, be it at Software Freedom Day, at a conference or another occaison.
Thanks to all the Fellows and
donors who enable our work,
Matthias Kirschner - FSFE
Free Software Foundation Europe
FSFE News
Upcoming FSFE Events
Fellowship Blog Aggregation
Free Software Discussions


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Moving Company USA - Cincinnati, OH
"I live in a 5 bedroom ranch style home and I had to coordinate this move with me not being there and having my son and daughters help me move. I relayed to the moving dispatcher to keep me in the loop about the move while coordinating with my kids and they did every step of the way. Lucky for me I have a great family and this fantastic moving company did a grand job."


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This guide is designed to answer one question for you: How are you going to afford Brooklyn College (City University of New York)?
You probably know that planning for expenses is an important part of the college application process. What you may not know is how many different things you need to keep track of to pay tuition and apply for financial aid.
Here's what we'll cover:
- How much does Brooklyn College tuition cost?
- How much financial aid do students at Brooklyn College usually get?
- How much debt is typical for students at Brooklyn College?
- How much will Brooklyn College cost YOU, and can you actually afford it?
- Is Brooklyn College a good value for you?
- What are other schools that might be a better value than Brooklyn College?
By learning more about expenses and aid, you're already on the right path to managing college costs. Let's get started!
School location: Brooklyn, NY
This school is also known as: Brooklyn College (City University of New York), CUNY Brooklyn
How Much Does Brooklyn College Cost?
Knowing what a school costs is Step #1 in managing college costs. There's more to think about than just the tuition—you also have to factor in where you'll live, what you'll eat, and more while attending Brooklyn College (City University of New York).
The "Cost of Attendance" is the total amount of money the average student has to pay, WITHOUT any financial aid, to attend a particular school. Think of it as a school's sticker price. It includes not just Brooklyn College tuition and fees, but also room, board, textbooks, and personal expenses.
The Cost of Attendance breakdown for Brooklyn College differs depending on whether you're in-state or out-of-state student - in-state students can expect lower costs for tuition and fees.
Choose your state of residence here for the most accurate info:
Here's the Cost of Attendance breakdown for Brooklyn College:
- Tuition and Fees $6184$12694
- Room$9250
- Textbooks$1248
- Other Expenses$5056
- Typical Total Cost for In-State, On-Campus StudentsTypical Total Cost for Out-Of-State, On-Campus Students $24906 $31416
- Typical Total Cost for In-State, Off-Campus StudentsTypical Total Cost for Out-Of-State, Off-Campus Students $26042 $32552
Because Brooklyn College is an out-of-state public institution, you'd be paying $6510 more than if you were an in-state student. To lower costs, you might consider looking at public schools in your state of residence.
Exclusive: Want to get into Brooklyn College with higher chances? Learn how to improve your SAT score by 160 points.
How Much Financial Aid Do Students at Brooklyn College Get?
The Cost of Attendance listed above might be intimidating. The good news is that most students don't end up paying that full price to attend Brooklyn College.Financial aid helps make up the difference between the Cost of Attendance and what families can actually afford.
Here we'll cover how many students get Brooklyn College financial aid, what types of aid they get, and how much.
A Brief Intro to Financial Aid
Aid comes in many forms, including:
- Need-based grants
- Merit-based scholarships
- Student loans
This financial aid comes from a few different places:
- Federal aid comes from the federal government, or is subsidized by the federal government.
- Institutional aid comes from your school itself.
Generally, it's better for MORE students to receive HIGH amounts of financial aid—this means students pay less for college.
Let's take a look at how Brooklyn College compares to other schools.
Overall Aid
Let's start with the overall numbers. At Brooklyn College, we know that:
70% of Students Get ANY Aid
This is 16% LOWER than the average for Public schools, which is 86%.
This could be bad news - fewer students getting aid could mean students are paying more at Brooklyn College than they would at other similar schools. It could also mean students attending Brooklyn College are wealthier and need less aid.
To break this apart, we'll next look at each type of aid and how much students get from each.
Grants and Scholarships
We're focusing on grants and scholarships first because they're the most important forms of financial aid. Grants and scholarships are better than loans because students don't ever have to pay them back. The more grant/scholarship aid students receive at a particular school, the better off those students are in the long run.
At Brooklyn College (City University of New York), we know that:
67% Get ANY Grant Money
This is 6% LOWER than the average for Public schools, which is 73%.
Although it's useful to know how many students get grant aid, it's also important to know how much grant aid people tend to receive. The bigger the average grant award, the better.
So how much grant money do students at Brooklyn College tend to receive?
Average Grant Award: $7468
This is $199 HIGHER than the average for Public schools, which is $7269.
Altogether, this is mixed news - at Brooklyn College, FEWER students get aid, but the ones who do get MORE than average. If you qualify for aid, this can work out well, since you'll get a sizable award. But it might be harder for you to qualify for Brooklyn College financial aid.
How Generous is Brooklyn College's Financial Aid?
The grant dollar amounts we've seen so far have included aid from all sources - both federal and institutional. Schools don't have much control over how much federal aid students can qualify for (like Pell Grants), but they do their own financial aid dollars and how they're used.
To figure out how strong Brooklyn College's own financial aid program is, we'll look at how they award their own (non-federal) financial aid dollars. The more students receive aid directly from the school (otherwise known as institutional aid), and the bigger the award amounts, the better the financial aid program.
Let's see how generous Brooklyn College (City University of New York) is with its students:
6% Get ANY School Grants
This is 40% LOWER than the average for Public schools, which is 46%.
Because Brooklyn College gives a smaller percentage of its students institutional grants than similar schools, it may offer less competitive financial aid.
Some schools may claim to offer large amounts of aid to prospective students without advertising that much of this money may come in the form of student loans - money that you have to pay back. To figure out if this is the case, check out our following section on student loan debt at Brooklyn College.
The amount of money that students actually get is just as important (if not more important) than the percent of students who get grants. If you receive a grant, you'll want it to be big enough to do you some good.
Average School Grant: $5764
This is $1397 HIGHER than the average for Public schools, which is $4367.
Right away, it seems like Brooklyn College (City University of New York) offers more institutional aid than other schools. On the surface, this can mean that students who do receive institutional grants get a competitive amount, compared to other schools.
On the other hand, this can also mean that the school just costs more than the typical school of its type. If Brooklyn College costs more, it makes sense for the average grant award to be higher.
Up to this point, we've looked entirely at grants for Brooklyn College. Next, we'll do the same analysis for student loans, which is where student debt comes from.
How Much Debt is Typical for Students at Brooklyn College?
Aside from grants, the other major way to pay for college is with student loans. Student loans aren't free sums of money - you borrow a certain amount to attend Brooklyn College, and then pay it back with smaller monthly payments after you graduate.
The more student loan money you borrow, the more debt you'll end up with after graduation. Ideally, you want to minimize your student debt as much as possible. Less debt means less of a financial burden once you leave school.
It's generally a bad sign if a school has many students taking out a lot of loans. This indicates that graduates have to worry about paying back big sums of money once they leave school.
To address the amount and type of debt that students take on, this section will cover:
- Loan Overview
- Federal Loans
- Other Loans
Let's see what students at Brooklyn College have to deal with:
Loan Overview
First, let's talk about how many students at Brooklyn College actually have to take out any student loans at all. The ideal goal is to graduate with little to no debt.
It's very common for college grads in the US to graduate with some debt, but high percentages of students taking on loans at a particular school is a big red flag. In contrast, low percentages of students with loans is a sign that Brooklyn College tuition is affordable.
So how many students actually end up taking out loans at Brooklyn College?
8% Have ANY Loans
This is 50% lower than the average for Public schools, which is 58%.
It's a great sign that the loan percentage is so low at Brooklyn College - in fact, Brooklyn College is in the top 10% of schools in terms of how many students have to take out loans. This usually means the school has a strong financial aid program, and grants are enough to pay for the cost of college.
Chances are, if you attend Brooklyn College, you won't have to take out loans yourself, which means you won't graduate with student debt.
Next, we'll look at exactly HOW much debt the average person takes out while in school.
Federal Loans
Now that you have a handle on the basic loan information for Brooklyn College, we'll get into some more nitty-gritty information on the types and amounts of loans that students typically have.
We'll start with federal loans because, in general, federal loans are preferable to private loans. Federal loans tend to have low interest rates, which means they cost less in the long run. They may come with other perks (like subsidization or even options for loan forgiveness).
High percentages or amounts of federal loans still isn't a great sign - again, you don't want to see students burdened with too much debt. Generally, schools with strong financial aid programs will have students with more federal loans than private loans.
Let's see how Brooklyn College stacks up:
8% Have Federal Loans
At Brooklyn College (City University of New York), 8% of all students take out federal loans. This is 49% LOWER than the average percent of students for Public schools, which is 57%.
Average Federal Loan: $4559
At Brooklyn College, the average annual federal loan amount is $4559. This amount is $1032 LESS than the average for Public schools, which is $5591.
Studying for the ACT? Want to learn how to improve your ACT score by 4 points?
What Would It Cost YOU to Attend Brooklyn College?
Finally, we get to the bottom line: what will Brooklyn College actually cost YOU? Every family has a different situation, and depending on your income level, you'll have to pay more or less to go to college.
What is Net Price, and Why Does it Matter?
Above, we've covered Brooklyn College's Cost of Attendance (tuition, room and board, books, and more). We also covered its typical financial aid in grants, loans, and scholarships.
The Net Price is the total cost minus the total aid given. In other words, this is the price you have to pay to the school out of pocket. The lower the school's cost, and the more aid you get, the lower the Net Price.
We'll cover two ways to get your Net Price for Brooklyn College - the fast way, and the precise way.
Net Price: The Quick and Easy Way
If you want a quick, general idea of your annual Net Price at Brooklyn College, here's a handy chart showing the net price of real students. All you need is your family income.
If your family makes between... | Your Net Price will likely be around... |
$0 - $30,000 | $3923 |
$30,001 - $48,000 | $6381 |
$48,001 - $75,000 | $10032 |
$75,001 - $110,000 | $12872 |
$110,000 and up | $13281 |
Note that these values may be a few years old, and today's prices may be a bit higher.
As we'll discuss next, your exact Net Price will depend on other factors like the number of family members and total assets, but this represents the typical Net Price.
Net Price: The Most Accurate Method
Most schools have an updated Net Price calculator available. To find it, just google "Brooklyn College Net Price Calculator" - the official tool should be one of the top search results.
Often the school will ask for more information than just income:
- The number of people in your household
- The number of family members in college
- Parental wages, income, and assets
- Student wages, income, and assets
This will take 10-15 minutes to complete, and you'll get a specific net price that's more accurate than the table above.
Can You Afford to Attend Brooklyn College?
Once you have a Net Price estimate, you'll want to figure out whether your family can afford to pay Brooklyn College tuition and costs. Once again, the Net Price is the total cost of attending, minus the aid you can expect to get (grants and scholarships). It's the amount you'd have to cover yourself.
The US government has come up with a standardized way to calculate how much a typical family can afford to pay without help. They call this the Expected Family Contribution, or EFC.
As an example, a family that brings home $80,000 in income before taxes, with no assets and no other children in college, has an EFC of around $7,000. This is the amount the government thinks that family can reasonably pay, and the school will have to step in and cover the rest.
Colleges use this number as a guideline to decide how much aid to give you, but it's just a guideline. Some schools will be stingier with aid, and you'll have to pay more than the government's suggested EFC.
So we're going to calculate your EFC and compare it to Brooklyn College's Net Price. If the Net Price is higher than the EFC, the school will cost more than you can typically afford. It's a simple equation:
Net Price - Expected Family Contribution = Deficit (extra cost you would need to cover)
We've constructed a simple tool to figure out whether Brooklyn College is affordable for you:
Affordability Calculator
This tool will calculate your Expected Family Contribution, or EFC. In order to calculate this amount, we need just 4 pieces of information from you. We won't save this data.
Finally: Is This Price Really Worth It?
Chances are, college won't be cheap. Even if you have a few top choice schools in mind like Brooklyn College, it's still useful to explore broadly.
A few questions to ponder:
- How much better off will you be if you attend Brooklyn College as opposed to a similar, but cheaper, school?
- Have you considered a range of private and public schools? Big and small?
- What if you didn't attend college at all? (This is extreme, but just worth considering even for a second.
These are the big picture questions to consider when we talk about the value of a college education.
Here's our take: college will be a really important stage in your development. Going to a better, more reputable college will usually pay off in the long run. By going to a better college, you'll be surrounded by a more interesting community, find it easier to land a job, and open up opportunities.
To determine the value of Brooklyn College, we're going to rely on reputable ranking lists. These consider factors like reputation, student selectivity, income after graduating, and more to determine the value of a school.
Value Judgment
So how does Brooklyn College stack up?
Medium Value
Based primarily on its academic reputation, we consider Brooklyn College (City University of New York) a medium value school, placing it in the top 50% of schools in terms of value.
As a regional school, Brooklyn College may not be a household name nationwide, but it's known to people in the local area as a solid school. You're likely to have a pretty good education and graduate with a good start toward the rest of your career.
Compared to some other regional schools, Brooklyn College didn't appear on our best value lists. This might be because the net price is higher than for other schools of similar reputation. This isn't the end of the world - you can likely still afford Brooklyn College by taking out loans, earning scholarships, or working part-time. And you should still see what kind of offer they can make you.
Overall, Brooklyn College (City University of New York) is a decent value, and going to college here will likely pay off over time. However, if you can get into a better school, with a better reputation and lower price, this can really make a big difference in your life.
How Do You Get In?
To meet Brooklyn College's admission requirements, you'll need to have competitive SAT/ACT scores and a good GPA. Otherwise, you won't meet their bar of quality.
How do you compare to other students accepted to Brooklyn College? Check out our Admissions Guide to Brooklyn College.
What Other Schools Should You Consider?
Your next step should be to get a better idea of costs and aid availability at similar schools. If you're interested in Brooklyn College, you should check out some other high-value schools that could give you more bang for your buck. Get started here to check both in-state and out-of-state schools that might provide a better value.
Better Value Schools
Finally, we're going to look at schools that might offer a better value than Brooklyn College (City University of New York). To compile this list, we first find schools at similar academic levels, so you have a similar chance at getting in. Then we select schools that better value for you, by being more affordable or having a higher quality of education
It's hard to know exactly what schools will be a great value for you without information on your family income. Enter your family income here for the best recommendations for schools:
In-State Schools
There are a lot of potential financial benefits that come with attending a school close to home. For example, in-state public schools tend to have subsidized tuitions for state residents. Students may also have the chance to save money if they choose to stay at home.
If you're looking for good deals on schools in your state, you should start by checking out the following colleges and universities:
School Name | Location | SAT | ACT | GPA |
Queens College (City University of New York) | Flushing, NY | 1114 | 25 | 3.39 |
City College of New York (City University of New York) | New York, NY | 1070 | 24 | 3.37 |
United States Merchant Marine Academy | Kings Point, NY | 1310 | 27 | 3.6 |
Queens College (City University of New York) | Flushing, NY | 1114 | 25 | 3.39 |
City College of New York (City University of New York) | New York, NY | 1070 | 24 | 3.37 |
United States Merchant Marine Academy | Kings Point, NY | 1310 | 27 | 3.6 |
United States Merchant Marine Academy | Kings Point, NY | 1310 | 27 | 3.6 |
Queens College (City University of New York) | Flushing, NY | 1114 | 25 | 3.39 |
United States Merchant Marine Academy | Kings Point, NY | 1310 | 27 | 3.6 |
United States Merchant Marine Academy | Kings Point, NY | 1310 | 27 | 3.6 |
Out-of-State Schools
You can still get a good value on your education if you choose to attend an out-of-state school, especially if you qualify for generous financial aid.
If you're interested in getting an education out-of-state, start by checking out the following colleges and universities:
School Name | Location | SAT | ACT | GPA |
University of North Texas | Denton, TX | 1160 | 23 | 3.47 |
Augusta University | Augusta, GA | 1140 | 23 | 3.43 |
Berea College | Berea, KY | 1217 | 25 | 3.62 |
College Station, TX | 1275 | 29 | 3.68 | |
University of North Texas | Denton, TX | 1160 | 23 | 3.47 |
Augusta University | Augusta, GA | 1140 | 23 | 3.43 |
Christian Brothers University | Memphis, TN | 1180 | 23 | 3.8 |
Berea College | Berea, KY | 1217 | 25 | 3.62 |
University of Tennessee at Martin | Martin, TN | 1140 | 23 | 3.6 |
University of Louisiana at Monroe | Monroe, LA | 960 | 23 | 3.53 |
University of Washington Bothell | Bothell, WA | 1148 | 29 | 3.53 |
Augusta University | Augusta, GA | 1140 | 23 | 3.43 |
Christian Brothers University | Memphis, TN | 1180 | 23 | 3.8 |
Shepherd University | Shepherdstown, WV | 1044 | 23 | 3.6 |
University of Central Arkansas | Conway, AR | 1070 | 24 | 3.6 |
University of Michigan - Dearborn | Dearborn, MI | 1146 | 25 | 3.67 |
University of Tennessee at Martin | Martin, TN | 1140 | 23 | 3.6 |
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology | Socorro, NM | 1310 | 25 | 3.65 |
Shepherd University | Shepherdstown, WV | 1044 | 23 | 3.6 |
University of Central Arkansas | Conway, AR | 1070 | 24 | 3.6 |
Fontbonne University | St. Louis, MO | 1140 | 23 | 3.26 |
University of Michigan - Dearborn | Dearborn, MI | 1146 | 25 | 3.67 |
University of Tennessee at Martin | Martin, TN | 1140 | 23 | 3.6 |


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George Orwell wrote Politics and the English Language in the late 1940s. It is more relevant than ever now.
George Orwell
Politics and the English Language
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language — so the argument runs — must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes.
Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible. Modern English
, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step toward political regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the exclusive concern of professional writers. I will come back to this presently, and I hope that by that time the meaning of what I have said here will have become clearer. Meanwhile, here are five specimens of the English language as it is now habitually written.
These five passages have not been picked out because they are especially bad — I could have quoted far worse if I had chosen — but because they illustrate various of the mental vices from which we now suffer. They are a little below the average, but are fairly representative examples. I number them so that I can refer back to them when necessary:
1. I am not, indeed, sure whether it is not true to say that the Milton who once seemed not unlike a seventeenth-century Shelley had not become, out of an experience ever more bitter in each year, more alien [sic] to the founder of that Jesuit sect which nothing could induce him to tolerate. Professor Harold Laski (Essay in Freedom of Expression)
2. Above all, we cannot play ducks and drakes with a native battery of idioms which prescribes egregious collocations of vocables as the Basic put up with for tolerate, or put at a loss for bewilder. Professor Lancelot Hogben (Interglossia)
3. On the one side we have the free personality: by definition it is not neurotic, for it has neither conflict nor dream. Its desires, such as they are, are transparent, for they are just what institutional approval keeps in the forefront of consciousness; another institutional pattern would alter their number and intensity; there is little in them that is natural, irreducible, or culturally dangerous. But on the other side, the social bond itself is nothing but the mutual reflection of these self-secure integrities. Recall the definition of love. Is not this the very picture of a small academic? Where is there a place in this hall of mirrors for either personality or fraternity? Essay on psychology in Politics (New York)
4. All the 'best people' from the gentlemen's clubs, and all the frantic fascist captains, united in common hatred of Socialism and bestial horror at the rising tide of the mass revolutionary movement, have turned to acts of provocation, to foul incendiarism, to medieval legends of poisoned wells, to legalize their own destruction of proletarian organizations, and rouse the agitated petty-bourgeoise to chauvinistic fervor on behalf of the fight against the revolutionary way out of the crisis. Communist pamphlet
5. If a new spirit is to be infused into this old country, there is one thorny and contentious reform which must be tackled, and that is the humanization and galvanization of the B.B.C. Timidity here will bespeak canker and atrophy of the soul. The heart of Britain may be sound and of strong beat, for instance, but the British lion's roar at present is like that of Bottom in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream — as gentle as any sucking dove. A virile new Britain cannot continue indefinitely to be traduced in the eyes or rather ears, of the world by the effete languors of Langham Place, brazenly masquerading as 'standard English'. When the Voice of Britain is heard at nine o'clock, better far and infinitely less ludicrous to hear aitches honestly dropped than the present priggish, inflated, inhibited, school-ma'amish arch braying of blameless bashful mewing maidens! Letter in Tribune
Each of these passages has faults of its own, but, quite apart from avoidable ugliness, two qualities are common to all of them. The first is staleness of imagery; the other is lack of precision. The writer either has a meaning and cannot express it, or he inadvertently says something else, or he is almost indifferent as to whether his words mean anything or not. This mixture of vagueness and sheer incompetence is the most marked characteristic of modern English prose, and especially of any kind of political writing. As soon as certain topics are raised, the concrete melts into the abstract and no one seems able to think of turns of speech that are not hackneyed: prose consists less and less of words chosen for the sake of their meaning, and more and more of phrases tacked together like the sections of a prefabricated hen-house. I list below, with notes and examples, various of the tricks by means of which the work of prose-construction is habitually dodged.
DYING METAPHORS. A newly invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image, while on the other hand a metaphor which is technically 'dead' (e. g. iron resolution) has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word and can generally be used without loss of vividness. But in between these two classes there is a huge dump of worn-out metaphors which have lost all evocative power and are merely used because they save people the trouble of inventing phrases for themselves. Examples are: Ring the changes on, take up the cudgel for, toe the line, ride roughshod over, stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, no axe to grind, grist to the mill, fishing in troubled waters, on the order of the day, Achilles' heel, swan song, hotbed. Many of these are used without knowledge of their meaning (what is a 'rift', for instance?), and incompatible metaphors are frequently mixed, a sure sign that the writer is not interested in what he is saying. Some metaphors now current have been twisted out of their original meaning without those who use them even being aware of the fact. For example, toe the line is sometimes written as tow the line. Another example is the hammer and the anvil, now always used with the implication that the anvil gets the worst of it. In real life it is always the anvil that breaks the hammer, never the other way about: a writer who stopped to think what he was saying would avoid perverting the original phrase.
OPERATORS OR VERBAL FALSE LIMBS. These save the trouble of picking out appropriate verbs and nouns, and at the same time pad each sentence with extra syllables which give it an appearance of symmetry. Characteristic phrases are render inoperative, militate against, make contact with, be subjected to, give rise to, give grounds for, have the effect of, play a leading part (role) in, make itself felt, take effect, exhibit a tendency to, serve the purpose of, etc., etc. The keynote is the elimination of simple verbs. Instead of being a single word, such as break, stop, spoil, mend, kill, a verb becomes a phrase, made up of a noun or adjective tacked on to some general-purpose verb such as prove, serve, form, play, render. In addition, the passive voice is wherever possible used in preference to the active, and noun constructions are used instead of gerunds (by examination of instead of by examining). The range of verbs is further cut down by means of the -ize and de- formations, and the banal statements are given an appearance of profundity by means of the not un- formation. Simple conjunctions and prepositions are replaced by such phrases as with respect to, having regard to, the fact that, by dint of, in view of, in the interests of, on the hypothesis that; and the ends of sentences are saved by anticlimax by such resounding commonplaces as greatly to be desired, cannot be left out of account, a development to be expected in the near future, deserving of serious consideration, brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and so on and so forth.
PRETENTIOUS DICTION. Words like phenomenon, element, individual (as noun), objective, categorical, effective, virtual, basic, primary, promote, constitute, exhibit, exploit, utilize, eliminate, liquidate, are used to dress up a simple statement and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgements. Adjectives like epoch-making, epic, historic, unforgettable, triumphant, age-old, inevitable, inexorable, veritable, are used to dignify the sordid process of international politics, while writing that aims at glorifying war usually takes on an archaic colour, its characteristic words being: realm, throne, chariot, mailed fist, trident, sword, shield, buckler, banner, jackboot, clarion. Foreign words and expressions such as cul de sac, ancien regime, deus ex machina, mutatis mutandis, status quo, gleichschaltung, weltanschauung, are used to give an air of culture and elegance. Except for the useful abbreviations i. e., e. g. and etc., there is no real need for any of the hundreds of foreign phrases now current in the English language. Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous, and hundreds of others constantly gain ground from their Anglo-Saxon numbers(1). The jargon peculiar to Marxist writing (hyena, hangman, cannibal, petty bourgeois, these gentry, lackey, flunkey, mad dog, White Guard, etc.) consists largely of words translated from Russian, German, or French; but the normal way of coining a new word is to use Latin or Greek root with the appropriate affix and, where necessary, the size formation. It is often easier to make up words of this kind (deregionalize, impermissible, extramarital, non-fragmentary and so forth) than to think up the English words that will cover one's meaning. The result, in general, is an increase in slovenliness and vagueness.
MEANINGLESS WORDS. In certain kinds of writing, particularly in art criticism and literary criticism, it is normal to come across long passages which are almost completely lacking in meaning(2). Words like romantic, plastic, values, human, dead, sentimental, natural, vitality, as used in art criticism, are strictly meaningless, in the sense that they not only do not point to any discoverable object, but are hardly ever expected to do so by the reader. When one critic writes, 'The outstanding feature of Mr. X's work is its living quality', while another writes, 'The immediately striking thing about Mr. X's work is its peculiar deadness', the reader accepts this as a simple difference opinion. If words like black and white were involved, instead of the jargon words dead and living, he would see at once that language was being used in an improper way. Many political words are similarly abused. The word Fascism has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies 'something not desirable'. The words democracy, socialism, freedom, patriotic, realistic, justice have each of them several different meanings which cannot be reconciled with one another. In the case of a word like democracy, not only is there no agreed definition, but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides. It is almost universally felt that when we call a country democratic we are praising it: consequently the defenders of every kind of regime claim that it is a democracy, and fear that they might have to stop using that word if it were tied down to any one meaning. Words of this kind are often used in a consciously dishonest way. That is, the person who uses them has his own private definition, but allows his hearer to think he means something quite different. Statements like Marshal Petain was a true patriot, The Soviet press is the freest in the world, The Catholic Church is opposed to persecution, are almost always made with intent to deceive. Other words used in variable meanings, in most cases more or less dishonestly, are: class, totalitarian, science, progressive, reactionary, bourgeois, equality.
Now that I have made this catalogue of swindles and perversions, let me give another example of the kind of writing that they lead to. This time it must of its nature be an imaginary one. I am going to translate a passage of good English into modern English of the worst sort. Here is a well-known verse from Ecclesiastes:
I returned and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all.
Here it is in modern English:
Objective considerations of contemporary phenomena compel the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into account.
This is a parody, but not a very gross one. Exhibit (3) above, for instance, contains several patches of the same kind of English. It will be seen that I have not made a full translation. The beginning and ending of the sentence follow the original meaning fairly closely, but in the middle the concrete illustrations — race, battle, bread — dissolve into the vague phrases 'success or failure in competitive activities'. This had to be so, because no modern writer of the kind I am discussing — no one capable of using phrases like 'objective considerations of contemporary phenomena' — would ever tabulate his thoughts in that precise and detailed way. The whole tendency of modern prose is away from concreteness. Now analyze these two sentences a little more closely. The first contains forty-nine words but only sixty syllables, and all its words are those of everyday life. The second contains thirty-eight words of ninety syllables: eighteen of those words are from Latin roots, and one from Greek. The first sentence contains six vivid images, and only one phrase ('time and chance') that could be called vague. The second contains not a single fresh, arresting phrase, and in spite of its ninety syllables it gives only a shortened version of the meaning contained in the first. Yet without a doubt it is the second kind of sentence that is gaining ground in modern English. I do not want to exaggerate. This kind of writing is not yet universal, and outcrops of simplicity will occur here and there in the worst-written page. Still, if you or I were told to write a few lines on the uncertainty of human fortunes, we should probably come much nearer to my imaginary sentence than to the one from Ecclesiastes.
As I have tried to show, modern writing at its worst does not consist in picking out words for the sake of their meaning and inventing images in order to make the meaning clearer. It consists in gumming together long strips of words which have already been set in order by someone else, and making the results presentable by sheer humbug. The attraction of this way of writing is that it is easy. It is easier — even quicker, once you have the habit — to say In my opinion it is not an unjustifiable assumption that than to say I think. If you use ready-made phrases, you not only don't have to hunt about for the words; you also don't have to bother with the rhythms of your sentences since these phrases are generally so arranged as to be more or less euphonious. When you are composing in a hurry — when you are dictating to a stenographer, for instance, or making a public speech — it is natural to fall into a pretentious, Latinized style. Tags like a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind or a conclusion to which all of us would readily assent will save many a sentence from coming down with a bump. By using stale metaphors, similes, and idioms, you save much mental effort, at the cost of leaving your meaning vague, not only for your reader but for yourself. This is the significance of mixed metaphors. The sole aim of a metaphor is to call up a visual image. When these images clash — as in The Fascist octopus has sung its swan song, the jackboot is thrown into the melting pot — it can be taken as certain that the writer is not seeing a mental image of the objects he is naming; in other words he is not really thinking. Look again at the examples I gave at the beginning of this essay. Professor Laski (1) uses five negatives in fifty three words. One of these is superfluous, making nonsense of the whole passage, and in addition there is the slip — alien for akin — making further nonsense, and several avoidable pieces of clumsiness which increase the general vagueness. Professor Hogben (2) plays ducks and drakes with a battery which is able to write prescriptions, and, while disapproving of the everyday phrase put up with, is unwilling to look egregious up in the dictionary and see what it means; (3), if one takes an uncharitable attitude towards it, is simply meaningless: probably one could work out its intended meaning by reading the whole of the article in which it occurs. In (4), the writer knows more or less what he wants to say, but an accumulation of stale phrases chokes him like tea leaves blocking a sink. In (5), words and meaning have almost parted company. People who write in this manner usually have a general emotional meaning — they dislike one thing and want to express solidarity with another — but they are not interested in the detail of what they are saying. A scrupulous writer, in every sentence that he writes, will ask himself at least four questions, thus: What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? And he will probably ask himself two more: Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly? But you are not obliged to go to all this trouble. You can shirk it by simply throwing your mind open and letting the ready-made phrases come crowding in. The will construct your sentences for you — even think your thoughts for you, to a certain extent — and at need they will perform the important service of partially concealing your meaning even from yourself. It is at this point that the special connection between politics and the debasement of language becomes clear.
In our time it is broadly true that political writing is bad writing. Where it is not true, it will generally be found that the writer is some kind of rebel, expressing his private opinions and not a 'party line'. Orthodoxy, of whatever colour, seems to demand a lifeless, imitative style. The political dialects to be found in pamphlets, leading articles, manifestos, White papers and the speeches of undersecretaries do, of course, vary from party to party, but they are all alike in that one almost never finds in them a fresh, vivid, homemade turn of speech. When one watches some tired hack on the platform mechanically repeating the familiar phrases — bestial, atrocities, iron heel, bloodstained tyranny, free peoples of the world, stand shoulder to shoulder — one often has a curious feeling that one is not watching a live human being but some kind of dummy: a feeling which suddenly becomes stronger at moments when the light catches the speaker's spectacles and turns them into blank discs which seem to have no eyes behind them. And this is not altogether fanciful. A speaker who uses that kind of phraseology has gone some distance toward turning himself into a machine. The appropriate noises are coming out of his larynx, but his brain is not involved, as it would be if he were choosing his words for himself. If the speech he is making is one that he is accustomed to make over and over again, he may be almost unconscious of what he is saying, as one is when one utters the responses in church. And this reduced state of consciousness, if not indispensable, is at any rate favourable to political conformity.
In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of the political parties. Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism, question-begging and sheer cloudy vagueness. Defenceless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets: this is called pacification. Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called transfer of population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements. Such phraseology is needed if one wants to name things without calling up mental pictures of them. Consider for instance some comfortable English professor defending Russian totalitarianism. He cannot say outright, 'I believe in killing off your opponents when you can get good results by doing so'. Probably, therefore, he will say something like this:
'While freely conceding that the Soviet regime exhibits certain features which the humanitarian may be inclined to deplore, we must, I think, agree that a certain curtailment of the right to political opposition is an unavoidable concomitant of transitional periods, and that the rigors which the Russian people have been called upon to undergo have been amply justified in the sphere of concrete achievement.'
The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as 'keeping out of politics'. All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have not sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship.
But if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. A bad usage can spread by tradition and imitation even among people who should and do know better. The debased language that I have been discussing is in some ways very convenient. Phrases like a not unjustifiable assumption, leaves much to be desired, would serve no good purpose, a consideration which we should do well to bear in mind, are a continuous temptation, a packet of aspirins always at one's elbow. Look back through this essay, and for certain you will find that I have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against. By this morning's post I have received a pamphlet dealing with conditions in Germany. The author tells me that he 'felt impelled' to write it. I open it at random, and here is almost the first sentence I see: '[The Allies] have an opportunity not only of achieving a radical transformation of Germany's social and political structure in such a way as to avoid a nationalistic reaction in Germany itself, but at the same time of laying the foundations of a co-operative and unified Europe.' You see, he 'feels impelled' to write — feels, presumably, that he has something new to say — and yet his words, like cavalry horses answering the bugle, group themselves automatically into the familiar dreary pattern. This invasion of one's mind by ready-made phrases (lay the foundations, achieve a radical transformation) can only be prevented if one is constantly on guard against them, and every such phrase anaesthetizes a portion of one's brain.
I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny this would argue, if they produced an argument at all, that language merely reflects existing social conditions, and that we cannot influence its development by any direct tinkering with words and constructions. So far as the general tone or spirit of a language goes, this may be true, but it is not true in detail. Silly words and expressions have often disappeared, not through any evolutionary process but owing to the conscious action of a minority. Two recent examples were explore every avenue and leave no stone unturned, which were killed by the jeers of a few journalists. There is a long list of flyblown metaphors which could similarly be got rid of if enough people would interest themselves in the job; and it should also be possible to laugh the not un- formation out of existence(3), to reduce the amount of Latin and Greek in the average sentence, to drive out foreign phrases and strayed scientific words, and, in general, to make pretentiousness unfashionable. But all these are minor points. The defence of the English language implies more than this, and perhaps it is best to start by saying what it does not imply.
To begin with it has nothing to do with archaism, with the salvaging of obsolete words and turns of speech, or with the setting up of a 'standard English' which must never be departed from. On the contrary, it is especially concerned with the scrapping of every word or idiom which has outworn its usefulness. It has nothing to do with correct grammar and syntax, which are of no importance so long as one makes one's meaning clear, or with the avoidance of Americanisms, or with having what is called a 'good prose style'. On the other hand, it is not concerned with fake simplicity and the attempt to make written English colloquial. Nor does it even imply in every case preferring the Saxon word to the Latin one, though it does imply using the fewest and shortest words that will cover one's meaning. What is above all needed is to let the meaning choose the word, and not the other way around. In prose, the worst thing one can do with words is surrender to them. When you think of a concrete object, you think wordlessly, and then, if you want to describe the thing you have been visualising you probably hunt about until you find the exact words that seem to fit it. When you think of something abstract you are more inclined to use words from the start, and unless you make a conscious effort to prevent it, the existing dialect will come rushing in and do the job for you, at the expense of blurring or even changing your meaning. Probably it is better to put off using words as long as possible and get one's meaning as clear as one can through pictures and sensations. Afterward one can choose — not simply accept — the phrases that will best cover the meaning, and then switch round and decide what impressions one's words are likely to make on another person. This last effort of the mind cuts out all stale or mixed images, all prefabricated phrases, needless repetitions, and humbug and vagueness generally. But one can often be in doubt about the effect of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules that one can rely on when instinct fails. I think the following rules will cover most cases:
- Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.
- Never use a long word where a short one will do.
- If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
- Never use the passive where you can use the active.
- Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
- Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.
These rules sound elementary, and so they are, but they demand a deep change of attitude in anyone who has grown used to writing in the style now fashionable. One could keep all of them and still write bad English, but one could not write the kind of stuff that I quoted in those five specimens at the beginning of this article.
I have not here been considering the literary use of language, but merely language as an instrument for expressing and not for concealing or preventing thought. Stuart Chase and others have come near to claiming that all abstract words are meaningless, and have used this as a pretext for advocating a kind of political quietism. Since you don't know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism? One need not swallow such absurdities as this, but one ought to recognise that the present political chaos is connected with the decay of language, and that one can probably bring about some improvement by starting at the verbal end. If you simplify your English, you are freed from the worst follies of orthodoxy. You cannot speak any of the necessary dialects, and when you make a stupid remark its stupidity will be obvious, even to yourself. Political language — and with variations this is true of all political parties, from Conservatives to Anarchists — is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind. One cannot change this all in a moment, but one can at least change one's own habits, and from time to time one can even, if one jeers loudly enough, send some worn-out and useless phrase — some jackboot, Achilles' heel, hotbed, melting pot, acid test, veritable inferno, or other lump of verbal refuse — into the dustbin where it belongs.
1) An interesting illustration of this is the way in which the English flower names which were in use till very recently are being ousted by Greek ones, snapdragon becoming antirrhinum, forget-me-not becoming myosotis, etc. It is hard to see any practical reason for this change of fashion: it is probably due to an instinctive turning-awayfrom the more homely word and a vague feeling that the Greek word is scientific. [back]
2) Example: 'Comfort's catholicity of perception and image, strangely Whitmanesque in range, almost the exact opposite in aesthetic compulsion, continues to evoke that trembling atmospheric accumulative hinting at a cruel, an inexorably serene timelessness… Wrey Gardiner scores by aiming at simple bull's-eyes with precision. Only they are not so simple, and through this contented sadness runs more than the surface bitter-sweet of resignation'. (Poetry Quarterly.) [back]
3) One can cure oneself of the not un- formation by memorizing this sentence: A not unblack dog was chasing a not unsmall rabbit across a not ungreen field. [back]