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Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade lasted from 1201-1204. Though the Crusades were for the most part an entirely Western phenomenon, this one affected Eastern Church history because the invading Crusaders took Constantinople on April 12, 1204. After defeating the Byzantine Emperor Alexius V (who had usurped the throne from his predecessor Alexius IV, put in power by the Crusaders), they conquered the city and famously looted and desecrated numerous churches, icons, and relics.[1] They then set up the Latin Empire, based in Constantinople, lasting over 57 years until Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured Constantinople in 1261. This Crusade is widely regarded as having finalized the Great Schism, as much bitterness towards the West remained even after the restoration of Byzantium.
After the failure of the Third Crusade (1189–1192), there was little interest in Europe for another crusade against the Muslims. Jerusalem was now controlled by the Ayyubid dynasty, which ruled all of Syria and Egypt, except for the few cities along the coast still controlled by the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre. The Third Crusade had also established a Kingdom on Cyprus.
Pope Innocent III succeeded to the papacy in 1198, and the preaching of a new crusade became the goal of his pontificate. His call was largely ignored by the European monarchs, as the Germans were struggling against Papal power, and England and France were still engaged in warfare against each other. However, due to the preaching of Fulk of Neuilly, a crusading army was finally organized at a tournament held at Écry by Count Thibaut of Champagne in 1199. Thibaut was elected leader, but he died in 1200 and was replaced by an Italian count, Boniface of Montferrat. Boniface and the other leaders sent envoys to Venice, Genoa, and other city-states to negotiate a contract for transport to Egypt, the object of their crusade; one of the envoys was the future historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin. Genoa was uninterested, but in March 1201 negotiations were opened with Venice, which agreed to transport 33,500 crusaders, a very ambitious number. This agreement required a full year of preparation on the part of the Venetians to build numerous ships and train the sailors who would man them, all the while curtailing the city's commercial activities. The crusading army was expected to comprise 4,500 knights (as well as 4,500 horses), 9,000 squires, and 20,000 foot-soldiers.
The majority of the crusading army that set out from Venice in October 1202 originated from areas within France. It included men from Blois, Champagne, Amiens, Saint-Pol, the Ile-de-France and Burgundy. Several other regions of Europe sent substantial contingents as well, such as Flanders and Montferrat. Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire, including the men under Bishops Martin of Pairisand and Conrad of Halberstadt, together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the Doge of Venice Enrico Dandolo. The crusade was to make directly for the centre of the Muslim world, Cairo, ready to sail on June 24, 1202. This agreement was ratified by Pope Innocent, with a solemn ban on attacks on Christian states.[2]
Papal primacy as developed during the Cluniac Reformation (10th-11th c.) and the Gregorian Reform of Pope Gregory VII.
The Monastery of Cluny in French Burgundy taught the high doctrine of the power of the Apostolic See. The Church was to be organized under strict discipline, and bishops, priests, and monks had no rights of their own that were not derived from the pope, the unique source of ecclesiastical authority. In 1039 Cluny's abbot Odilo turned his monastery into the head of a monastic feudal system whose influence spread all over Europe. In 1055 the Monastery of Cluny captured the papacy. Pope Innocent III (pope during the Fourth Crusade) carried these Cluniac ideas about the position of the pope as the sole and highest authority in the Church.
It naturally followed, therefore, that Pope Gregory VII (1073-85) conceived of his supremacy over the temporal powers as a domination over both the Eastern and Western Empires. This Gregorian Reform stressed, among other things, the primacy of the papacy over the Empire, the infallability of the Church, and the right of popes to depose emperors.
With this background, and with the experience of the Great Schism in 1054, the papacy's position was that Byzantium was regarded as a rebel, a schismatic or heretical nation which should be brought back to order or eliminated.
Resentment against Eastern Christendom
The average European, especially those who lived in the northern territories and had no communication or knowledge of the Byzantine Empire, were taught to believe that the Greeks were ungodly, a nation not worthy to bear the name of Christians. One example is found in the Chronicle of the Morea (a 14th Century text naarating the establishment of western-style feudalism in Frankish Greece), there is a speech recorded which clearly shows the division between the Latins and the Greeks; the papal legate at Zara (1202) stated: "It is better to brings Christians into agreement and like-mindedness, the Franks and the Greeks, than go to Syria with no hope of success."(Chronicle of Morea p.82).
Also, in the acccount of the Second Crusade (1147-49), De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem (On Louis VII's journey to the East), written by Odo of Deuil, a chaplain to the French King Louis VII and later abbott of Saint-Denis, Odo explains the failure of the Second Crusade in terms of human action rather than as the will of God. He blamed the Byzantine Empire under Manuel Comnenus for the downfall of the Crusade. Odo's prejudice against Byzantium led historian Steven Runciman to describe Odo as "hysterically anti-Greek."
Anti-Byzantine Sentiment in connection with Previous Crusades and Byzantine Relations with Muslim Empires
Emperor Alexius I Comnenus helped the First Crusade but was very cautious, signing an uneasy treaty and alliance with the Crusaders. Emperor Manuel I Comnenus promised to help the Second Crusade and signed the same treaty with the Crusaders, however he could not help because he was engaged in war against the Norman Prince Roger of Sicily, who had invaded Corfu. Manuel had also signed a treaty with the Turks of Iconium; the Crusaders, particularly the Franks, bitterly blamed him for their failure. Emperor Isaac II Angelus foolishly imprisoned the ambassadors of Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (Hohenstauffen), head of the Third Crusade, who were sent to negotiate passage through imperial territory. Issac also had concluded a treaty with the Sultan of Iconium, as he was fearful of Frederick's ambitions.
Constantinople was always suspicious of the "Western hordes", sometimes quite unruly, which were passing through its territory full of bigotry and fanaticism against the Islamic nations neighboring the Empire. Besides, the policy of the Byzantine Empire in handling the Moslems and keeping them away was quite opposite to the Crusaders' ideals and blind religious fanaticism. Historian Queller, quoting Runciman, says that "the concept of Christian War appears to be alien to the thought and personality of Jesus, and in fact, it was not looked upon favorably by the Greek Church."
Commercial Rivalries with Constantinople and Subsequent Avarice
Envy for the apparent wealth of the Greeks and perhaps the desire to share in some of the precious holy relics and treasure in the churches of the imperial capital was another motivation. The primary sources of the First Crusade speak of the awe the Crusaders felt when they first glanced at the Imperial City and the domes of Hagia Sophia; the feeling of inferiority is openly discerned as being at work in the Crusaders as a result. In both of the primary source accounts of Villehardouin and that of the Crusader knight Robert of Clari (4th Crusade), the impression of the Crusaders is recorded, that they were stunned by the unbelievable wealth and the treasure of the holy relics of Constantinople.
Chronology of Aggressive Actions Between the West and Byzantium
- There were bitter memories of recent Byzantine attacks on Westerners (in Sicily; in West Greece in 1098; and in Antioch during the First Crusade).
- 1149 The King of France Louis VII supported the suggestion that a European League should launch a new crusade against the emperor who was "Christian Only in Name." The capture of Constantinople should be the crusaders first objective. The Norman Roger of Sicily was in support of the idea, but his ally Pope Eugenius III was hesitant only because he feared the possible increase of Roger's power.
- 1171 Emperor Manuel, having concluded alliances with Pisa and Genoa, decided to strike at Venice by arresting all Venetians in the Empire and confiscating all their ships and goods, symbolizing the degeneration of the Empire's relationship with the West and between Latins and Greeks in Constantinople.
- 1183-85 During the reign of Emperor Andronicus I Comnenus, there was a great massacre of Italians in Constantinople, and all commerical concessions were withdrawn. Andronicus made many enemies and was eventually overthrown by riots in Constantinople.
- 1185 Normans took Thessaloniki and subjected inhabitants to merciless treatment, partly for revenge of the massacre of Latins in 1183.
- 1188 Emperor Isaac II agreed in 1188 to Sultan Saladin's request to build a new mosque (and not just use an existing one) in Constantinople. Its construction is mentioned by Pope Innocent III in a letter of 1210 to the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, Tommaso Morosini. (Patrologia Latina, CCXVI, col. 354.)
- 1189: The Third Crusade headed by German King Frederick Barbarossa, an enemy of Byzantium, was almost turned against Constantinople. The folly of Isaac I in imprisoning Frederick's ambassadors enraged the Crusaders. They occupied Philippopolis in Thrace, and Frederick wrote to his son Henry to send a fleet and attack the capital. He also wrote to the pope for his blessing, stating that it was necessary to eliminate the Empire if they were going to have any success in their enterprise against the Moslems. Negotiations by Isaac and a treaty averted the danger at that time.
- 1191 Cyprus taken from Byzantines by English King Richard I "Lion Heart," who sold it in 1198 to Frankish Crusaders from previous Crusades that had been ousted from Jerusalem in 1187 when the Arabs retook it after 88 years.
- 1197 Henry VI, son of Frederick Barbarossa, made no secret of his hatred of Byzantium and his ambitions to build a Mediterranean dominion. In 1197 a German expedition landed at Acre in Palestine; it was to be the forerunner of a greater army led by Henry himself. Pope Celestine III made no attempt to dissuade him, but he advised him not to attack Constantinople because he was negotiating with the emperor the Union of the Churches. Henry's sudden death at 32 put an end to this German expedition.
Diversion to Constantinople
Boniface of Montferrat had left the fleet before it sailed from Venice, to visit his cousin Philip of Swabia. The reasons for his visit are a matter of debate. He may have realized the Venetians' plans and left to avoid excommunication, or he may have wanted to meet with the Byzantine prince Alexius IV Angelus, Philip's brother-in-law and the son of the recently deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelus. Young Alexius had fled to Philip when his father was overthrown in 1195, but it is unknown whether or not Boniface knew he was at Philip's court.
There, Alexius IV offered 200,000 silver marks, 10,000 men to help the Crusaders, the maintenance of 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy to transport the Crusader Army to Egypt and the placement of the Greek Orthodox Church under the Roman Catholic Church if they would sail to Byzantium and topple the reigning emperor Alexius III Angelus. It was a tempting offer for an enterprise that was short on funds. Greco-Latin relationships had been complicated ever since the Great Schism of 1054.
The Latins of the First, Second, and Third Crusades had been hostile to Constantinople on their way to the Holy Land, whereas the Greeks had been accused of betraying the Crusaders to the Turks. A large number of Venetian merchants were also attacked and deported during anti-Latin riots in Constantinople in 1182. However, the Byzantine prince's proposal involved his restoration to the throne, not the sack of his capital city, which Count Boniface agreed to. Alexius IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. The rest of the Crusade's leaders eventually accepted the plan as well. There were many leaders, however, of the rank and file who wanted nothing to do with the proposal, and many deserted. The fleet of 60 war galleys, 100 horse transports, and 50 large transports (the entire fleet was manned by 10,000 Venetian oarsmen and marines) arrived at Constantinople in late June 1203.[3] In addition, 300 siege engines were brought along on board the fleet.[4]
When the Fourth Crusade arrived at Constantinople, the city had a population of 150,000 people, a garrison of 30,000 men, including 5,000 Varangians, and a fleet of 20 galleys.[5] The Crusaders' initial motive was to restore Isaac II to the Byzantine throne so that they could receive the support that they were promised. Conon of Bethune delivered this message to the Lombard envoy who was sent by the reigning emperor Alexius III Angelus, who had deposed his brother Isaac. The citizens of Constantinople were not concerned with the deposed emperor and his exiled son. Usurpations were frequent in Byzantine affairs, and this time the throne had even remained in the same family.
The Crusaders sailed alongside Constantinople with 10 galleys to display Alexius IV, but from the walls of the city the Byzantines taunted the puzzled crusaders, who had been promised that Prince Alexius would be welcomed.[6] First the crusaders captured and sacked the cities of Chalcedon and Chrysopolis, then they defeated 500 Byzantine cavalrymen in battle with just 80 Frankish knights.[7]
Siege of July 1203
To take the city by force, the crusaders first needed to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse transports and galleys would undertake to deliver the crusading army across the narrow strait, where Alexius III had lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusader's knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and the Byzantine army fled south.
The Crusaders followed south, and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held one end of the chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. As they laid siege to the Tower, the Greeks counterattacked with some initial success. However, when the Crusaders rallied and the Greeks retreated to the Tower, the Crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the Gate, and the Tower surrendered. The Golden Horn now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian fleet entered.
On July 11, the Crusaders took positions opposite the Blachernae palace on the northwest corner of the city, and began the siege in earnest on July 17, with four divisions attacking the land walls, while the Venetian fleet attacked the sea walls from the Golden Horn. The Venetians took a section of the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard held off the Crusaders on the land wall. The Varangians shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated under the screen of fire. The fire destroyed about 120 acres of the City.
Alexius III finally took offensive action, and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. Alexius III's army of about 8,500 men faced the Crusader's 7 divisions (about 3,500 men), but his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight.[8] The retreat and the effects of the fire greatly damaged morale, causing the citizens of Constantinople to turn against Alexius III, who then fled. The destructive fire left 20,000 people homeless.[9] Prince Alexius was elevated to the throne as Alexius IV along with his blind father Isaac.
Further attacks on Constantinople
Alexius IV realised that his promises were hard to keep. Alexius III had managed to flee with 1,000 pounds of gold and some priceless jewels, leaving the imperial treasury short on funds. At that point the young emperor ordered the destruction and melting of valuable Byzantine and Roman icons in order to extract their gold and silver, but even then he could only raise 100,000 silver marks. In the eyes of all Greeks who knew of this decision, it was a shocking sign of desperation and weak leadership, which deserved to be punished by God. The Byzantine historian Nicetas Choniates characterized it as "the turning point towards the decline of the Roman state".
Thus Alexius IV had to deal with the growing hatred by the citizens of Constantinople for the "Latins" and vice versa. In fear of his life, the co-emperor asked the Crusaders to renew their contract for another six months, to end by April 1204. There was, nevertheless, still fighting in the city. In August 1203 the crusaders attacked a mosque, which was defended by a combined Muslim and Greek opposition. Meanwhile, Alexius IV had led 6,000 men from the Crusader army against his rival Alexius V in Adrianople.[10]
On the second attempt of the Venetians to set up a wall of fire to aid their escape, they instigated the "Great Fire", in which a large part of Constantinople was burned down. Opposition to Alexius IV grew, and one of his courtiers, Alexius Ducas (nicknamed 'Murtzuphlos' because of his thick eyebrows), soon overthrew him and had him strangled to death. Alexius Ducas took the throne himself as Alexius V; Isaac died soon afterward, probably of natural causes.
The crusaders and Venetians, incensed at the murder of their supposed patron, demanded that Murtzuphlos honor the contract which Alexius IV had promised. When the Byzantine emperor refused the Crusaders assaulted the city once again. On April 8, Alexius V's army put up a strong resistance which did much to discourage the crusaders.
The Greeks pushed enormous projectiles onto the enemy siege engines, shattering many of them. A serious hindrance to the crusaders was bad weather conditions. Wind blew from the shore and prevented most of the ships from drawing close enough to the walls to launch an assault. Only five of the Greek towers were actually engaged and none of these could be secured; by mid-afternoon it was evident that the attack had failed.
The clergy discussed the situation amongst themselves and settled upon the message they wished to spread through the demoralized army. They had to convince the men that the events of April 9 were not God's judgment on a sinful enterprise: the campaign, they argued, was righteous and with proper belief it would succeed. The concept of God testing the determination of the crusaders through temporary setbacks was a familiar means for the clergy to explain failure in the course of a campaign.
The clergy's message was designed to reassure and encourage the crusaders. Their argument that the attack on Constantinople was spiritual revolved around two themes. First, the Greeks were traitors and murderers since they had killed their rightful lord, Alexius IV. The churchmen used inflammatory language and claimed that "the Greeks were worse than the Jews", and they invoked the authority of God and the pope to take action.
Although Innocent III had again demanded that they not attack, the papal letter was suppressed by the clergy, and the crusaders prepared for their own attack, while the Venetians attacked from the sea. Alexius V's army stayed in the city to fight, along with the imperial bodyguard, the Varangians, but Alexius V himself fled during the night.
Final capture of Constantinople
On April 12 1204 the weather conditions finally favoured the Crusaders. A strong northern wind aided the Venetian ships to come close to the wall. After a short battle, approximately seventy crusaders managed to enter the city. Some Crusaders were eventually able to knock holes in the walls, small enough for a few knights at a time to crawl through; the Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from the sea, though there was extremely bloody fighting with the Varangians. The crusaders captured the Blachernae section of the city in the northwest and used it as a base to attack the rest of the city, but while attempting to defend themselves with a wall of fire, they ended up burning down even more of the city. This second fire left 15,000 people homeless.[10]
The Crusaders took the city on April 12. The crusaders inflicted a horrible and savage sacking on Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen or destroyed. The magnificent Library of Constantinople was destroyed. Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication, the Crusaders ruthlessly and systematically violated the city's holy sanctuaries, destroying, defiling, or stealing all they could lay hands on; nothing was spared. It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that was their due, while the Crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly up between the Crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many Crusader knights.
Speros Vryonis in Byzantium and Europe gives a vivid account of the sack of Constantinople by the Frankish and Venetian Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade:
The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though the Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Byzantium, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became an easy prey to the Turks. The Crusading movement thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention.[11][12].
According to Choniates, a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne.[13] When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his pilgrims, he was filled with shame and strongly rebuked them.
According to a prearranged treaty, the empire was apportioned between Venice and the crusade's leaders, and the Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boniface was not elected as the new emperor, although the citizens seemed to consider him as such. The Venetians thought he had too many connections with the former empire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat, who had been married to Maria Comnena (Porphyrogenita), empress in the 1170s and 80s. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders on the throne. Boniface went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica, a vassal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea.
Meanwhile, Byzantine refugees founded their own successor states, the most notable of these being the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Lascaris (a relative of Alexius III), the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus.
Sir Edward Gibbon stated that the spoils taken during one week in Constantinople equalled seven times the whole revenue of England at that time[14]. The four magnificent bronze horses over the portals of San Marco's Basilica in Venice were snatched from the Byzantine hippodrome, standing monuments of one of the greatest acts of brigandage in history.
The treasures of the city, the books and works of art preserved from distant centuries, were all dispersed and most destroyed. The Empire, the great Eastern bulwark of Christendom, was broken as a power. The conquests of the Ottomans were made possible by the Crusaders' crime[15].
A Roman Catholic patriarch was established and attempted to introduce Roman Catholicism by force. The new Venetian Patriarch in Constantinople, Tommaso Morosini, was appointed by the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo (the main person who engineered the diversion of the Fourth Crusade); and according to Gibbon, the Venetians employed every art to perpetuate in their own nation the honors and benefices of the Greek church. Morosini appealed to the Pope for aid, and being unable to serve so many derisive masters, he died a madman. The new papal legate, Pelagius, rode into Constantinople dressed in scarlet from head to foot, like a Greek Emperor himself, and soon asserted that the easy days were over: Thenceforth the Greek clergy must adapt themselves in all religious rites and beliefs to those of the Church of Rome. He was prepared to wade through blood, he quickly showed, should the Orthodox Greeks deny any part of his assertion[16].
After the Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros, which took place in the spring of 1205, in Messinia, Peloponnese, between the Franks and the Greeks, all the castles and cities of the Peloponnese fell to the Franks. Meanwhile, the Venetians took possession of Crete in 1211, and retained it until ousted by the Ottoman Turks in 1669, a full 458 years later.
In 1261 Emperor Michael Palaeologus reconquered Constantinople for the Byzantines, and control of the city at last passed from the Venetians to the Paleologus Dynasty. Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus made the city of Mystras in the Peloponnese the seat of the new Despotate of Morea, where a Byzantine Renaissance occured, which was to last until 1460.
In September of 1259, the Byzantines defeated the Latin Principality of Achaea at the Battle of Pelagonia, marking the beginning of the Byzantine recovery of Greece.
Papal Apology to Orthodox Church
In May of 2001, Pope John Paul II visited Athens, Greece, the first visit of a pope in nearly 1300 years. Pope John Paul II and Archbishop Christodoulos met at the Aereopagus, where the Apostle Paul preached to Athenians 2000 years ago.
Pope John Paul II stated: "For occasions past and present when the sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by actions and omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us the forgiveness we beg of Him." Many Orthodox regard this as a "political" apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, as well as for other issues, but it was clearly not in any way or form a religious or doctrinal apology on the part of the Roman Catholic Church.
In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the city's capture, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800 years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of Pascha. "The spirit of reconciliation of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches."[17]
Further reading
- Wikipedia:Fourth Crusade
- The Sack of Constantinople - by Nicholas A. Cooke
- The Cambridge Medieval History: Vol. IV-The Byzantine Empire: Part 1-Byzantium and Its Neighbours.
- ↑ Nicetas Choniates: The Sack of Constantinople (1204) - from the Medieval Sourcebook.
- ↑ Philips Hughes. "History of the Church", Innocent III & the Latin East. Sheed & Ward, 1948. pp.370.
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 269
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 113
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 159
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 164
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 162
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 177
- ↑ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 176
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 209
- ↑ Vryonis, Speros. Byzantium and Europe. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York, 1967. pp.152
- ↑ Philip Hughes. "History of the Church Vol II", Innocent III & the Latin East. Sheed & Ward, 1948. pp.372.
- ↑ "The Sack of Constantinople", Nicetas Choniates, 1204.
- ↑ Treece, Henry. The Crusades. London, 1962
- ↑ Runciman, Steven. Byzantine Civilization. Cleveland World Publ. Co. 1965. pp.46
- ↑ Treece, Henry. The Crusades. London, 1962. pp.230-231
- ↑ Patriarch accepts Pope's Apology. In Communion: Website of Orthodox Peace Fellowship , News - Issue 33.
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A Short History. Great Britian, 1987.
- Vryonis, Speros. Byzantium and Europe. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York, c1967.
- Runciman, Steven. Byzantine Civilization. Cleveland World Publ. Co. 1965.
- Treece, Henry. The Crusades. London, 1962.
- Miller, William. The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece 1204-1566. Cambridge, Speculum Historiale, 1908.
- Atiya, Aziz A. Crusade, Commerce and Culture. Indiana University Press, 1962.
- Hussey, J.M. The Impact of East and West 1204-1453: Latin Treachery and Byzantine Diplomacy 1204-1261, In The Byzantine World, 1961.
- Ostrogorsky, George. The Byzantine State. Transl. Joan Hussey. Rutgers, 1969.
- Schmandt, Raymond. The Fourth Crusade and the Just War Theory. (article).
- Gregoire, Henri. The Question of the Diversion of the Fourth Crusade. (article).
- Morris, Colin. Geoffrey De Villehardouin and the Conquest of Constantinople. (article).
- Folda, J. "The Fourth Crusade 1201-1203: Some Reconsiderations." in Byzantino-Slavica 26(1965),pp.227-290.
- Hughes, Philip. "A History of the Church Vol II". Sheed & Ward, 1948.
- Patriarch accepts Pope's Apology. In Communion: Website of Orthodox Peace Fellowship , News - Issue 33.
Primary Sources
- Joinville and Villehardouin. Chronicles of the Crusades. Transl, M.R.B. Shaw. Penguin Books, 1963.
- Odo of Deuill. De Profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem (The Journey of Louis VII to the East). Transl Virginia Gingerick Berry. New York, 1948.
- Niketas Choniates. O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates. Detroit 1984.
- Robert de Clari. The Conquest of Constantinople. Transl. Edgar Holmes McNeal, University of Toronto Press, 1996.
- The Chronicle of Morea : a history in political verse, relating to the establishment of feudalism in Greece by the Franks in the thirteenth century. Ed. John Schmitt (1856-1906). Groningen : Bouma's Bockhuis, 1967


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Offer from H&R Block. Requires 1) opening of new Spruce Accounts between 1/1/23 and 6/30/23; and 2) $200 in qualifying direct deposits within 45 days of opening. Qualifying direct deposits are ACH credits, including direct deposits (but not tax refunds). Deposits that do not qualify are mobile check deposits, internal transfers, transfers within Spruce from external accounts, or cash transfers. $50 will be deposited within 14 business days after completing all requirements. Spruce Accounts may not be closed or restricted at payout. You are responsible for tax treatment of funds. Limit one per customer. May be modified or discontinued at any time.
$30 in subsequent years for clients who maintain their accounts year-round. If, at the time you establish your Emerald Advance℠, you are a covered borrower as that term is defined in the Military Lending Act and its implementing regulations, including 32 CFR § 232.3 (a "Covered Borrower"), and so long as you remain a Covered Borrower, your annual fee will be waived.
35.9% APR applies during promotional period and for unsecured lines of credit. For full savings-secured lines of credit the APR is 9%. For more details, see the Terms & Conditions.
You'll receive up to a $20 reward for each new client you refer that purchases a 12-month bookkeeping service, for a maximum of $300. A new client is someone who did not utilize H&R Block or Block Advisors' bookkeeping services within the past year. The reward will be delivered for each new client after they purchase a 12-month bookkeeping service with H&R Block or Block Advisors. Rewards will be provided on virtual cards and are only available to individuals who provide a valid email address.
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Enrollment in, or completion of, the H&R Block Income Tax Course or Tax Knowledge Assessment is neither an offer nor a guarantee of employment. Additional qualifications may be required. Enrollment restrictions apply. There is no tuition fee for the H&R Block Income Tax Course; however, you may be required to purchase course materials, which may be non-refundable. State restrictions may apply. The Income Tax Course consists of 63 hours of instruction at the federal level, 70 hours of instruction in Maryland, 81 hours of instruction in California, and 81 hours of instruction in Oregon. Additional time commitments outside of class, including homework, will vary by student. Additional training or testing may be required in CA, OR, and other states. Valid at participating locations only. Void where prohibited. This course is not open to any persons who are currently employed by or seeking employment with any professional tax preparation company or organization other than H&R Block. During the Income Tax Course, should H&R Block learn of any student's employment or intended employment with a competing professional tax preparation company, H&R Block reserves the right to immediately cancel the student's enrollment. The student will be required to return all course materials. CTEC# 1040-QE-2773 ©2023 HRB Tax Group, Inc.
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Potential savings based on estimated self-employment tax savings of sole proprietor (Schedule C) users with over $40,000 in profit in 2023 by taking an S Corp election and filing in 2024, net of salary payments and payroll taxes. Election must generally be made by the due date of the return for the year prior to the year the S Corp election is to take place. Savings requires payment of a reasonable salary. Other requirements apply, and additional fees like tax preparation and payroll services are not included. Overall tax savings will vary based on your circumstances. All tax situations are different. Taxes are only one consideration in determining whether to form a business. You may want to seek the advice of an attorney to evaluate all of the relevant considerations. Block Advisors Business Formation Products and Services provide automated online tools that you can use to help meet your business formation needs and are not tailored to your particular situation.
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Total number of new customers using assisted or DIY tax solutions regardless of other prior tax preparer or method.
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The decision to form a business entity is an important one that includes many considerations. You may want to seek the advice of an attorney to evaluate all of the relevant considerations. Block Advisors Business Formation Products and Services provide automated online tools that you can use to help meet your business formation needs but are not specifically tailored to you or any particular situation.
Example savings based on average estimated tax savings of sole proprietor (Schedule C) with $50,000 in profit in 2022 compared to a similar S Corp election paying a reasonable salary of $25,000. Savings are net of salary payments and payroll taxes. Additional fees like tax preparation and payroll services are not included. Individual tax savings will vary based on your circumstances. All tax situations are different.


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Porta Toilet Rental Bristol offers some of the cleanest and most modern portable toilets throughout Bristol and the entire Bay Area. Are you in search of portable toilets for your next major construction project or to provide a range of services in Bristol? In the case of renting of toilets on wheels in Bristol, CA and adjacent areas in the Bay Area – we can assist with any occasion. For more details regarding our offerings, please contact us now.
We offer the nation's largest range of portable toilets and portable toilet rental facilities within Bristol. In addition we are proud of our efficient hand-washing stations throughout the whole Bristol. As the most reputable provider of portable toilets and portable restroom rentals We are renowned by our wide selection of top-quality products. We are also proud of our excellent customer service services and the experience of renting toilets regardless of where your location, event or construction site. We also have portable toilets available for construction or any other units required within Bristol and anywhere in the Bay Area.
Hire our portable toilets in just one phone contact.
Pricing upfront for our portable toilet rental.
The Bristol portable toilet rentals are available in a variety of locations.
Do you require portable toilets for events construction site, temporary fencing, or for other reasons? For all your toilet rental needs you need, we're a single click away. Our staff has the appropriate tools to offer you the most efficient Bristol portable toilet rentals. Wherever you're located within Bristol, CA or East Bay – we give toilets that are portable for you to rent. No matter the toilet's style and use, you'll find the one that is needed – whether to be used for construction, restrooms events, or any other services.
From temporary fences to long-term construction projects We have you covered. No matter if you need an elegant and temporary restroom or a standard toilet for construction sites we will provide them to you. If you are looking to rent toilets that can be moved and other portable sanitation items for restrooms , you can count on our experienced team located in Bristol, CA to ensure that you enjoy satisfaction at each step of the way through our rental process.
If you're planning your next project, such as an event site for construction or event that is temporary, provide an exclusive service in CA You'll require an efficient and portable sanitation solution for Bristol and any area within the Bay Area. If you're the one in charge of the construction or an important event, you require to make sure you have the right team to provide the portable toilets within the Bristol Area that is able to meet your requirements.
For those who live in Bristol or the Bay Area We offer a range of portable toilet options. For construction site, a special event, or for other reasons We provide portable toilet rentals throughout Bristol, Oakland, and throughout the Bay Area. We have a list of services:
HQ Porta Potty Rentals offers portable restrooms as well as dumpster rentals throughout in the San Francisco Bay Area. Contact us today to find out more about our portable toilets.
By submitting your contact information, you understand and agree that you may be contacted by up to four independent service providers and/or our partners regarding your home service request, using email, telephone or text messaging – including through autodialed and/or prerecorded calls or messages – to the telephone number provided above, which may include your mobile telephone number, if provided. You understand that consent is not a condition of purchase. Please note that this website connects consumers looking for home improvement services with a network of independent service providers. It does not provide direct home repair or maintenance services.


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Hungry Bug
high scores
A question and three possible answers will be displayed in the area to the right.
Use the arrow keys to move to eat the food that corresponds to the correct answer. Game ends if you run off the table or into yourself. For best score, avoid the food that doesn't match the current answer.
Game Over
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
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Created by:
Popular Spanish sets


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Deborah Amos covers the Middle East for NPR News. Her reports can be heard on NPR's award-winning Morning Edition, All Things Considered and Weekend Edition.
Amos travels extensively across the Middle East covering a range of stories including the rise of well-educated Syria youth who are unqualified for jobs in a market-drive economy, a series focusing on the emerging power of Turkey and the plight of Iraqi refugees.
In 2009, Amos won the Edward Weintal Prize for Diplomatic Reporting from Georgetown University and in 2010 was awarded the Edward R. Murrow Life Time Achievement Award by Washington State University. Amos was part of a team of reporters who won a 2004 Alfred I. duPont-Columbia Award for coverage of Iraq. A Nieman Fellow at Harvard University in 1991-1992, Amos was returned to Harvard in 2010 as a Shorenstein Fellow at the Kennedy School.
In 2003, Amos returned to NPR after a decade in television news, including ABC's Nightline and World News Tonight and the PBS programs NOW with Bill Moyers and Frontline.
When Amos first came to NPR in 1977, she worked first as a director and then a producer for Weekend All Things Considered until 1979. For the next six years, she worked on radio documentaries, which won her several significant honors. In 1982, Amos received the Prix Italia, the Ohio State Award, and a DuPont-Columbia Award for "Father Cares: The Last of Jonestown" and in 1984 she received a Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award for "Refugees."
From 1985 until 1993, Amos spend most of her time at NPR reporting overseas, including as the London Bureau Chief and as an NPR foreign correspondent based in Amman, Jordan. During that time, Amos won several awards, including an Alfred I. duPont-Columbia Award and a Break thru Award, and widespread recognition for her coverage of the Gulf War in 1991.
A member of the Council on Foreign Relations, Amos is also the author of Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East (Public Affairs, 2010) and Lines in the Sand: Desert Storm and the Remaking of the Arab World (Simon and Schuster, 1992).
Amos began her career after receiving a degree in broadcasting from the University of Florida at Gainesville.


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Professional Remodeling Company You Can Rely On
Quality house remodeling contractors close to Oakdale MN supply more than merely a new appearance. At Total Home Remodeling, we supply our clients with remodeling and design setup services which include function, beauty and durable spaces for their residence.
Our pro design/build team works with you to redesign your space to efficiently satisfy your family's demands. Our final objective is to make certain that you're delighted with the final outcomes of this job we perform.
Making your Dream Kitchen
Your kitchen is often times the focus of your house. Our design team gives you functional layout choices which change your space to your particular needs. Whether you're incorporating a dining room or breakfast nook for your own loved ones or upgrading into a modern kitchen, then we make your fantasies a reality.
Upgrading Your Bathroom Into a Personal Retreat
Your bathroom could develop into a peaceful and personal space where you are able to escape. Offering you a soothing area where you are able to get prepared for the day or in which you can relax after a tough day is our specialization. Our skilled experts help you with a usable bathroom layout that you'll absolutely adore. With our extensive expertise, we supply you with advice throughout the whole procedure, which will help overcome the strain of any remodeling project. However big or small your job is, we allow you to attain the gorgeous results you deserve.
Designing Your Own Custom Basement
Most homes today are built with cookie cutter layouts which are far from exceptional. We specialize in changing out of date basements into energetic spaces, customized to your requirements. Whether incorporating a workplace, family room, entertainment room or even a guest suite, our expert craftsmen turn your average basement to something to be proud of
Making Your house Larger
Assisting you to alter your house as your family grows is our specialty. Whether you need an additional bedroom, bathroom or just extra space, our design team can allow you to make new space that's smooth and that appears as though it was always there.
Are You Ready To Start?
Our design experts will be pleased to show you a few good ideas, supply portfolios of previous work and offer many testimonials from previous clients. Our process begins with an extensive design consultation at your home, where we discuss your requirements, dreams and budget. Our expertise in the design/build company supplies you with the safety and confidence which you have hired the very best. We supply the highest quality design, construct and assistance in the business. Discover why we've come to be the Twin Cities' top house remodeling contractor near Oakdale MN.
Give Us a call now to setup your layout consultation. 612.800.0616


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Road Improvement Policy
posted by Secondary Roads
The Woodbury County Board of Supervisors approved a new policy for making road improvments to allow rural residential and commercial development in areas where topographic features make it difficult to safely site a driveway access. The policy allows landowners or developers to request a road survey by the Secondary Road Department to determine if road improvements can be made to allow access to land that otherwise cannot have a driveway due to a lack of sight distance at a preferred site. If the survey shows that improvements can be made, the county engineer prepares plans and a cost estimate. The requesting landowner can determine whether they want pay the cost of the project. If the landowner agrees, the county engineer will prepare a construction agreement that will be signed by the county engineer and landowner and presented for approval by the Board of Supervisors. The full cost of the project is paid by the requesting landowner.
If anyone has questions, they can contact Mark Nahra, Woodbury County Engineer


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"BOOK NOW, PAY LATER" is a feature that gives you the opportunity to reserve your room without pre-payment or even giving your credit card details.
How can I make a free reservation?
Only condition for free reservation is membership. Once you login with your membership account, "RESERVE" option will be activated.
Until when I can keep my reservation? How can I pay?
During your reservation process and in your mail notification, you can find the payment due date of your reservation.
Your outstanding payment must be paid by the due date given, after this payment has been received, your reservation will be finalised, then your booking confirmation along with other necessary documents are sent to your mail address.
Log in to your account, go to the "ORDERS" menu, then display and purchase your reservation with one of the payment options (credit card, bank transfer etc.)
I changed my mind, How can I cancel?
From the same order menu, you can go to the related reservation and click on the "CANCEL" button. If you do not complete your paymen by the due date, the system will send you a warning e-mail, and then your reservation will be automatically cancelled.
* This function is valid for "hotel only" reservations and not for the "dynamic package" offers.
* You can make one reservation at a time. A reservation could have more then one room in the same order.
* Hotel keeps the right of changing the due date and can ask for early payment if there is a high occupancy and very few rooms left for the period you have reserved.
* Non Refundable rooms are not available for this feature.


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Financial officer says Sterling needs money to pay debts
Published 1:42 am Tuesday, July 22, 2014
LOS ANGELES (AP) — The chief financial officer of Donald Sterling's properties said Monday that the billionaire may be forced to sell a large portion of his real estate empire to cover $500 million in loans if he persists in refusing to sell the Los Angeles Clippers for $2 billion.
Darren Schield, who oversees the finances of The Sterling Family Trust, testified Monday that three banks are ready to recall their loans to Sterling because of his decision to dissolve the trust. His move was designed to rescind his signed agreement for the sale of the Clippers, a team he bought for $12 million.
Schield said if Sterling has to dump $500 million worth of apartment buildings he could destabilize the Los Angeles real estate market.
Sterling attorney Maxwell Blecher suggested that Sterling could take the company public in order to raise funds.
But Shelly Sterling's lawyer, Pierce O'Donnell asked if it would be easy to go public "with Donald Sterling's reputation."
Schield responded: "There's huge reputation issues. I don't know if anyone would want to go into partnership with him."
The NBA banned Donald Sterling for life for making racist statements after the release of recorded conversations. Sterling has denied he is a racist from the witness stand.
Schield testified in the probate trial that if Sterling's loans go into default and he needs to refinance, banks would be reluctant to give him that much money at the low rate he has now.
Sterling, the volatile owner of the team, agreed to the sale but then dissolved the family trust in an effort to stop it.
Schield, testifying at the trial that will decide the future of a $2 billion deal to sell the Clippers to former Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer, said he warned Sterling not to revoke the trust last month.
"I told him a revocation of the trust would be a breach of the loan covenants and would result in defaults," Schield said.
He said he also discussed it with Sterling's lawyer, Bobby Samini.
"I told him this revocation would open up a Pandora's box and trigger defaults," Schield said.
"Does the company have $500 million to pay off the loans?" asked O'Donnell.
"We do not," Schield answered.
Asked what the recourse would be, he said, "We would have to start selling real estate. If we have to sell $500 million in apartment buildings, it would have an impact on the Los Angeles real estate market. "
Donald Sterling's lawyers who had said they planned to call six witnesses Monday produced none of them and court was recessed early.
Shelly Sterling, Donald Sterling's wife who had been listed as a witness, was in court but was not called to the stand. She was scheduled to return Tuesday.
Her lawyers said their witnesses on Tuesday will include Richard Parsons, CEO of the Clippers. Outside court, Ballmer's lawyer, Adam Streisand, said he believes the judge will rule in favor of Shelly Sterling.
"Do I think the trust will be reinstated after that?" he said. "You bet it will."
If the sale doesn't go through by Sept. 15, the NBA can seize the team and sell it at auction, Streisand said.
Donald Sterling has vowed he'll never sell the team. He claims he is the victim of illegally recorded conversations that invaded his privacy.


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We have experienced technicians who are
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Refrigerator Repair Glendale
Refrigerators keep cold foods cold. To do this, the refrigerator must maintain a temperature range between 37 degrees Fahrenheit and 41 degrees Fahrenheit. When refrigerator problems occur, they often affect this temperature, compromising the safety of your food. There is no time to wait when you notice the refrigerator working improperly. Day or night call our Appliance refrigerator repair Glendale professionals for quality service. We repair minor and major refrigerator problems, whether the unit spring a leak, the freezer stops working, it stops cooling, or other issues occur.
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Routine maintenance prevents many common appliance mishaps like those described above. Schedule routine maintenance regularly if you want to save money and experience fewer breakdowns during the year. Regular service may also extend the lifetime of your appliance, whether the refrigerator, range, or something else. Our technicians offer regular maintenance service on all your appliances. Most experts agree that yearly service keeps appliances in excellent condition! Do not trust the first appliance repair company in town and hope for good results. If you need the best appliance repair Glendale , request your quote today!
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If you're looking for excellent service and a people-friendly approach, then you've come to the right place. At Appliance Repair Glendale ,CA our ultimate goal is to serve you and make your experience a pleasant one, and our team will stop at nothing to ensure that you come away more than satisfied. No matter what kind of appliance repairs you need, we can take care of it.
We Fix The Following Faults
GE Fridge Service Glendale
Step 1
Failure To Turn On Or Lack Heat
Step 2
Noisy Operations
Step 3
Wrinkled Clothes
Step 4
Vibration And Frequent Stoppages Amidst Operations and More
Stove And Oven Repair Glendale
stove and oven repair Glendale prolongs the life expectancy of your appliance. We offer quality repair service for all Appliance model stoves, whether the stovetop stops heating up, the oven light goes out, or other trouble prevents cooking or baking. Stove and oven issues usually occur without prior notice. That is why we offer same-day service. We also offer regular appointments if you prefer. Rest assured our Appliance stove and oven repair resolves the trouble!
Dryer Repair Glendale
Has your dryer suddenly stopped getting hot? Will the unit not heat up at all? Does the drum fail to spin? These issues cause problems for many dryer owners although other mishaps can stop the dryer from operating correctly. At the first sign of trouble, give us a call and we will come to the rescue. Our talented dryer repair Glendale experts GE Fridge Service Glendale Most importantly, understand that there is no convenient time for your Appliance to break or malfunction. It can be easy to forget how much work your device does, but it becomes clear very quickly if it breaks down. Contact our representatives as soon as possible and you will forget all the information and tips you need regarding your Appliance Repair in Glendale. We Do Refrigerator Repair Glendale , Washer Repair Glendale , Dryer Repair Glendale ,Appliance Oven Repair Glendale , Stove Repair Glendale, Electric Dryer Repair Glendale, Gas Dryer Repair Glendale, Range Repair Glendale , Dishwasher Repair Services in Glendale ,CA
Washer Repair Glendale
We provide quality washer repair Glendale . We service older model washers just as easily as new models. And we can solve many issues that cause the machine to stop working, from leaks to tubs that will not fill with water. Tell us the problem and we will tell you the solution; it is just that simple. Our quality repair service resolves the problem the first time around, so laundry pileups are not a 'thing' in your home.
Choosing the right GE Fridge Service Company in Glendale
There are certain appliances such as Appliances and refrigerators that are frequently used in most homes. This means that they can either malfunction or break down when they are needed the most. After that, you need to buy a new one. Think that appliances are expensive! In this case, it is impossible to replace them. It doesn't matter how careful you are, therefore at some point your Appliance appliance can develop technical issues.
- Failure to turn on
- Stuck drums
- No spinning
- Failure to drain water
- Noisy operations
- Vigorous vibration
**For accurate repair of fault and restoration of your washer to a functional state, you are only a phone call away. Contact us today.
GE Fridge Service Glendale ,CA
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Feel free to contact us for a quote or consultation.


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Returns & Refund
We at Diner`s aim at customer satisfaction, we want you to be delighted every time you shop with us. You can always return items if they are defective or sent incorrect. Please know that you must provide us a written record of the reason for return or exchange within 24 hours of receiving the item
To be eligible for a return, your item must be unused and in the same condition that you received it. It must also be in the original packaging.
To complete your return, we require a receipt or proof of purchase.
Sale items
Only regular priced items may be refunded, unfortunately sale items cannot be refunded.
Order Cancellation & Liability
Diners reserves the right to cancel any order at any given time due to any circumstances. DINERS shall not be held liable for any shipment delay or cancellation due to any circumstances beyond its control.
Exchanges (if applicable)
We only replace items if they are defective or damaged. If you need to exchange it for the same item, send us an email at firstname.lastname@example.com
You will be responsible for paying for your own shipping costs for returning your item. Shipping costs are non-refundable. If you receive a refund, the cost of return shipping will be deducted from your refund.
Depending on where you live, the time it may take for your exchanged product to reach you, may vary.
If you are shipping an item over AED 150, you should consider using a track able shipping service or purchasing shipping insurance. We don't guarantee that we will receive your returned item.


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Burlap Vintage Prairie Short Panel Set of 2 63x36x18
Brighten your home with light and airy farmhouse-style curtains crafted in semi-sheer light tan fabric. The Burlap Vintage Prairie Short Panel Set is unlined and features a loosely woven, soft cotton burlap that offers just the right balance of light and privacy. The gracefully angled drapes perfectly frame windows providing a bit of polish and charm. The panels come with built in drawstrings to adjust each panel to meet your style needs, along with a curtain rod pocket for easy hanging.
- Burlap Prairie Panels - Includes two 63 by 36 by 18 inch long prairie-style panels with adjustable drawstring ties to modify the look of your curtain set. Prairie curtains are a classic country style featuring long, angled drapes to frame your window while leaving a triangular space open for additional natural light.
- Light Filtering - Unlined with a loose weave appearance, these short beige prairie panels let in light without being sheer. Place in your home to provide a little privacy from neighbors or those passing by while allowing the sunshine to brighten your living space.
- Farmhouse Home Decor - The unique texture and versatile style gives your windows a refresh in a simple way that pairs well with farmhouse, traditional country, rustic, or shabby chic looks. Mix and match with the rest of our Burlap Vintage collections for a cohesive decor scheme throughout your home.
- Easy Installation - Slip the curtain rod of your choice through the rod pocket attached to our burlap window treatment to create a gathered look with clean lines.
- Easy Care - For lasting use, toss these country curtains in your washing machine on a delicate cycle. When washed, the weave tightens. Gently iron to relax the weave and return burlap to its original state.
- Coordinating Accessories - The Burlap Vintage collection features classic and well-made staples sure to grace your home for years to come.
- Authenticity - Sometimes copied, never duplicated. VHC products ALWAYS feature attached product tags.
- Material: 100% Cotton
- Color: Vintage Tan
- Hanging Method: 3.25 Rod Pocket
- Manufacturer Country: India
- Care: Machine Wash, Tumble Dry Low, Iron Safe
- Weight: 1.4 lb
- Dimensions: 2 x Prairie Panel - 63 x 36
* Due to the loose weave nature of the fabric, minor variances will occur. Sizes are approximate.
- Manufacturer - VHC Brands
- Brand Collection - April & Olive
- Season - 2019 Spring
FLAT RATE $9.95- Continental US Only, others require quote.
Ships 3-5 Business days (Mon-Fri excludes holidays)
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Independent Insurance Companies near Beaver, Pennsylvania
Find a Nationwide Insurance Agent in Beaver, Pennsylvania
Nationwide Auto Insurance
Whether it's a fender bender with the next-door neighbor or a dozen car pile-up on the highway, you'll want to know that submitting an auto insurance claim is going to help return your life to normal, not increase the size of the headache coming your way. And you shouldn't have to pay for this basic customer service like it is a luxury. Between the On Your Side® Claims Service and common policy rate discounts, Nationwide has earned our 95% member satisfaction rating. Don't hesitate to explore your options with our online tool, or talk to a Beaver auto insurance agent about specific policy choices or specialized vehicle coverage.
Nationwide Homeowners Insurance
The suburban homes that dominate Beaver's neighborhoods may avoid the tightly-packed row-houses and urban dwellings of the big city. But whether it's a swimming pool, older home construction, or interior renovations, every property has its own set of hazards and risk profile. Most people know that Beaver home insurance is necessary, but few immediately know which dwelling, belonging, and liability coverage makes sense for their property and household. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to reach out to a local agent.
Nationwide Life Insurance
There's a lot of life to live in a small city like Beaver. In the face of unexpected tragedy, things are not going to be like they were. The financial burden can be considerably lessened, however, if you have life insurance coverage. What kind depends on a number of household factors and personal preferences. If you don't already know what you need, our Beaver life insurance agents can walk you through the process with speed and confidence.
Nationwide Business Insurance
Were not going to pretend that Beaver, proud as it is, is a major economic force in Pennsylvania. On the other hand, it means that every small business firm and retail shop is that much more indispensable to the local economy. And many of the same types of insurance products (liability, property, and fleet insurance coverage) are needed by small and medium-sized businesses. Likewise, our Beaver business insurance agents don't skip any steps when managing the risks facing local companies. Don't wait to talk about how to protect what you've worked so hard to build.
Personalized Quotes and Local Insurance Coverage
Many customers like to explore their options with our online tool. It only takes a few moments to get estimates based on your zip and insurance choices. Just know that you can also talk to an agent at any point during the process.


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The European Vertical Reference Frame 2007 (EVRF2007), the new realization of the EVRS, is based on a combination strategy of three elements: the network, the vertical datum and the observation of the time evolution of the reference frame. The data is reduced, where possible, to the epoch 2000. The determination of the relationship of EVRF2007, to a Global Vertical Reference System (GVRS) is a future step. The detailed strategy is described in the paper "Conventions for the Definition and Realization of a European Vertical Reference System (EVRS)" – EVRS Conventions 2007 (Ihde et al 2008).
Since the publication of the UELN95/98 adjustment results in January 1999 as EVRF2000 a lot of new data have been delivered to the UELN data center (Sacher et al. 2006). 14 countries made their current first order leveling networks available (see Figure 1)
Therefore a new realization of EVRS under the name EVRF2007 was computed. All participating countries were asked to contribute up-to-date data.
The measurements in the UELN data base originate from very different epochs (see Figure 2). This weak point of the project can be remedied only partly by the development of a kinematic network using information on the velocity of the points.
The data in the main area of the Fennoscandian Postglacial Rebound (PGR) is reduced to the epoch 2000 by differences of vertical velocities relative to the geoid from the land uplift model NKG2005LU (Ågren, J., Svenssonn, R., 2007). This applies to the measurements of Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany (northern part), Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. Figure 3 shows a map of the model in relation to the UELN configuration.
Datum specification
In the UELN95/98 solution that forms the backbone of the EVRF2000, the NAP level was fixed by the reference point 000A2530 in the Netherlands (not to be confused with the datum point of the national leveling network 000A2350). The Fifth precision leveling of the Netherlands does not include this reference point. So it was not possible to relate the new adjustment of UELN to this reference, which had been used since UELN-55 (Simonsen 1960).
Therefore the UELN adjustment for the EVRF2007 is fitted to the EVRF2000 solution by choosing a number of datum points and introducing their UELN95/98 heights into the free adjustment of the current network. For the n datum points Pi it is set
For this transformation purpose it was important to choose stable marked datum points located in a stable part of the European plate. These datum points are part of both adjustments 2007 and 1998. The participating countries located in the stable part of the European plate were asked to propose datum points for the EVRF2007. Finally 13 datum points were used (see Figure 4).
Tidal corrections and permanent tide
The earth tides, caused by the gravitational forces of Moon and Sun, induce a permanent deformation of the earth crust. Different concepts to handle this deformation are described in Ekman 1989, Mäkinen and Ihde 2007, Ihde et al. 2008, Mäkinen 2008. The IAG resolution no. 16 recommends for the treatment of tidal corrections for gravity and station positioning the concept of zero tide. That means to retain the effect of the deformation and eliminate the effect of the tidal attraction.
Consequently the EVRS definition contains the clause: "The EVRS is a zero tidal system, in agreement with the IAG resolutions." (Ihde and Augath 2001). In the EVRF2000 this part of the definition was not realized, no reductions because of the permanent tides have been applied to the data by the UELN computing center.
The countries delivered their data in different tidal systems, and the actual systems were not known to the UELN computing center. As a result, the tidal system of the EVRF2000 is mixed. At present, we know that it is mostly mean-tide.
In EVRF2007 the geopotential differences are reduced from the mean-tidal system to zero-tide by
There was the question how to deal with the reduction of the datum points. In a first step the geopotential numbers of all datum points were corrected by
to bring them from the mean-tide system to the zero-tide system (Mäkinen, 2008).
The resulting reductions ranged between –0.030 (Italy) and –0.108 (Denmark) kgal·m. In order to minimize the differences to the EVRF2000 solution we added the constant of +0.08432 kgal·m, the value of the tidal correction of point 13600 (000A2530) with opposite sign, to the correction described in formula (2). This is equivalent to the assumption that the NAP datum of EVRF2000 is in the zero tidal system in accordance with the EVRF2000 definition (Ihde et al. 2008).
In December 2008 the IAG Sub-Commission EUREF handed over data and information of the final solution of EVRF2007 to the participating countries. EUREF recommended to the European Commission to adopt EVRF2007 as the vertical reference for pan-European geo-information.
Table 1 compares the adjustment parameters of EVRF2000 and EVRF2007.
Parameter | EVRF2000 | EVRF2007 |
Number of datum points | 1 | 13 |
Number of unknowns | 3063 | 8133 |
Number of measurements | 4263 | 10568 |
Number of condition equations | 0 | 1 |
Degrees of freedom | 1200 | 2436 |
A-posteriori standard deviation referred to 1 km leveling distance in kgal·mm | 1.10 | 1.12 |
Mean value of the standard deviation of the adjusted geopotential numbers (heights) in kgal·mm | 19.6 | 16.2 |
Average redundancy | 0.281 | 0.231 |
Figure 5 shows the resulting differences of the adjusted geopotential numbers to the adjustment EVRF2000.
The pictured differences have three main reasons:
- New of measurering data
Between 1999 and 2008 the data of 13 countries have been changed or first added.
- Postglacial Rebound
In EVRF2007 a new land uplift model (NKG2005LU) was used for the reduction to a common epoch. In the EVRF2007 the common reference epoch is 2000 (compared to 1960 in EVRF2000). All data located in the area of the model have been reduced – in EVRF2000 only the data of Finland, Norway and Sweden.
- Different tidal systems
The EVRF2000 is in the mean tidal system, EVRF2007 in the zero tidal system. The tidal reduction depends on the latitude. Therefore the differences between EVRF2000 and EVRF2007 are in the South of Europe positive, around the latitude of the former datum point the differences are nearly zero and in the North the differences are negative. This effect is superimposed by the influence of new data and in Scandinavia by the influence of the postglacial rebound.
In December 2008 the IAG Sub-commission EUREF handed over data and information of the final solution of EVRF2007 to the participating countries. EUREF recommended to the European Commission to adopt EVRF2007 as the vertical reference for pan-European geo-information.


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Here at West Princeton Dental Clinic, we believe that a smile tells a thousand words, and we are dedicated to giving our patients high-quality dental care. We offer a full range of dental services, so all of your family's needs are met under one roof.
Our goal is for you to leave our office with a memorable and enjoyable dental experience, which is why our welcoming and compassionate staff will do everything they can to make you feel right at home.
If you are looking to brighten and enhance your smile, please don't hesitate to contact us today at (205) 788-2124!


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When Srivalli announced the dishes for this month's challenge,I was a bit skeptical.She said lets plan someting big for Vinayaka Chathurthi and hence make dishes around the theme.I was going through the dishes mentioned and there I saw it...Modaks..I know Lord Ganesha and Modaks are synonymous with each other but..you know,I can never get the consistency right for the modaks and every year I end up saying sorry to Him for not making Modaks.So I was in a tiff whether to attempt the challenge.
Kudumulu (Modak)
Wishing all of you a very Happy Vinayaka Chathurthi!!


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GoShare connects you with local delivery professionals on demand to help you deliver or move goods in the Bethel Park area. Help is just minutes away with GoShare's same day last mile delivery service. With GoShare, you can deliver or move almost anything the same day in Bethel Park and nationwide with our unique mobile apps, website, or our Delivery API for high volume shippers. Our team of delivery service experts can handle most of your delivery service needs in the greater Bethel Park region.
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Timing Belt
While it's never a good idea, there are certain maintenance items that won't wreak havoc if you miss the manufacturer recommended maintenance interval specified in your owner's manual. However, timing belts are not one of those items. At Ewing Auto Service in Mount Vernon, serving the southern Illinois Area we understand first-hand the importance of replacing your timing belt before it's too late.
The timing belt essentially connects the bottom half of your engine to the top half, driving the camshafts which open the valves at precisely the right moment. Any amount of slack causes a decrease in performance, and in most cases a broken timing belt will cost you an engine, or at least an expensive repair.
Like other belts on your vehicle, timing belts wear out due to mechanical wear and age. Dry rot and constant movement are both factors in timing belt failure. The difference is, a timing belt can't be readily seen just by popping the hood, and it isn't as simple as installing a new one if yours snaps or falls off. For this reason, it is essential to have yours replaced at the recommended age or mileage, or sooner, typically in less than 100,000 miles. This preemptive measure is one you won't regret, as it'll save you a lot of money and anxiety in the long run.
If it's time to replace your timing belt, or you aren't sure when or if your timing belt has been replaced before, have one of our expert ASE certified technicians at Ewing Auto Service take a look. Bring your car, truck, or SUV by anytime and let one of our professional technicians take care of you. Whether it's something as important as a timing belt, or as routine as an oil change, we have you covered.


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Sold for $185,000 on July 11, 2024
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