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I'm Michel Martin and this is TELL ME MORE from NPR News. They say it takes a village to raise a child, but maybe you just need a few moms and dads in your corner. Every week, we check in with a diverse group of parents for their common sense and savvy parenting advice. We're going to do that today, but we need to let you know that today's topic is sensitive, might not be appropriate for all listeners because we are going to talk about the case of an alleged sexual assault in Steubenville, Ohio.
Authorities there have charged two high school football players with raping a 16-year-old girl at a party last August. This case has gotten tremendous attention around the country and, in fact, the world, not just for the underlying allegations, which are ugly enough, but what has brought this case to the attention of the nation and the world is how word of the alleged crime spread through social media. Tweets, a photo and video were posted online from the night in question. And all of this made us wonder how social media may or may not factor into the way teens behave.
And we wonder whether it's encouraging bad and sometimes violent behavior that might not occur otherwise. So to talk about this, we've called two of our regular contributors, Dani Tucker. She's the mother of two, a young lady and a young man. She's an office administrator and fitness instructor. Leslie Morgan Steiner is a mom of three, two boys and a girl, and the author most recently of "Crazy Love" about how she survived domestic violence in her first marriage. She also recently did a TED talk about surviving domestic violence. And with us for additional perspective, Aaron White. He is a father of two. He's co-author of the forthcoming book - it's coming out in April - it's called "What Are They Thinking?! The Straight Facts About the Risk-Taking Social Networking, Still Developing Teen Brain" and we also want to mention that he's a scientist at the National Institutes of Health, but he's not here on NIH business. He's here because of his book.
Thank you all so much for joining us.
DANI TUCKER: Thank you.
LESLIE MORGAN STEINER: Thank you.
MARTIN: So, Dani, I'm going to start with you because I think, you know, since time immemorial, you know, sadly, young people have been doing bad things and bragging about it. But I do have to ask you, since your kids grew up in the age of social media, whether you think social media plays a role in what they do.
TUCKER: No.
MARTIN: Not your kids, but kids, in general.
TUCKER: Not in what they do. They're going to do what they're going to do, anyway. I just think that social media has allowed them to put it out more to the world. You know, I mean, they've been doing it and they've been doing it amongst their friends. They've been commenting amongst their friends, but now social media gives them the opportunity to comment to everybody. And they think it's OK when it's not for a lot of the things that they do and say.
MARTIN: Leslie Morgan Steiner, what about you? I know that you are the mother of a 15-year-old son and daughters who are 10 and 14, and I know that you've been thinking about the way you think that social media affects the victims.
STEINER: Yes. I don't see it necessarily as encouraging the abusers to do new and different things. Maybe they're doing stupider things because of social media, but I actually think the silver lining here is that social media can give victims a voice and a way to fight back, especially crimes where it's a real he said, she said sort of thing. Sometimes, it can give them evidence, and I see it as sometimes being very empowering to victims.
MARTIN: And so, Aaron, what about - your work on the teen brain is fascinating to me because one of the things that I - you know, I learned from your book is that, you know, the brain is developing far longer than most people thought. I mean, you know, a generation ago, we thought that the development of the brain stopped at around 10. You're saying that it's actually around the age of 24 and we often thought of adolescence as, you know, being all about the hormones. You're saying it's also about brain development, too.
What does your research suggest? I mean, I think the question is, are kids doing this because of social media or is social media just documenting what they would have done, anyway?
DR. AARON WHITE: I think that the use of social media just allows kids to document what they're doing in real time and to communicate with one another in real time in ways that we just never were able to do before as humans.
The purpose of adolescence is, more or less, to socialize and to get out of the home and to find your own path in life and the research suggests that, as scary as some of these new tools can seem to adults, by themselves, they don't seem to have any negative effect on teens, in general.
MARTIN: Because I think the question that some people have is - you know, again, it bears repeating. These are allegations. The legal process needs to go forward. We certainly sort of understand that, but I think there is some - and this is not the only incident like this where, you know, a young woman was victimized and then people felt a need, for whatever reason, to take pictures of it. I think it makes some people wonder whether - are these boys doing it in order to take the pictures? Is it about, really, the showing off, as opposed to the act itself? And I wonder what your research suggests.
WHITE: Oh. Well, there isn't any direct research on that. What we do know is that, if you look at teens who use social media, they tend to find it relaxing. It gives them a sense of connection with other people, particularly, if a team is anxious, it provides a way to communicate with other teens and not have to deal with the anxiety of interacting in a social situation. My guess is that like any other relatively new tool for communicating there are going to be people who are going to abuse it for whatever purpose they want to abuse it. But by and large, it again, it seems to be relatively benign. You know, kids aren't more likely to commit crimes because we have social media now. It doesn't seem like they're more likely to commit sexual assaults - like in this case, because of social media. But for those who would normally tell their friends about it in the hallways, this provides a way to do it in real time while the crime is still unfolding.
MARTIN: You did find though that teen boys - I'm not drawing a causal connection here because clearly, 'cause what you're telling us is that there is no evidence to suggest it. But you said that teen boys take more risks when they think another teen boy is watching. And why is that? And is that different for girls?
WHITE: Well, the reason for it seems to be this very, you know, age-old stage of development that we have called adolescence that we, you know, we need to eventually leave our homes and go find our own path and it's not going to help us much if all we want to do is stay home with our parents. And so, you know, we have these inherent biological wedges, we call them, that help, you know, separate us from our parents and get out there and explore. Teen boys do have a tendency to take risks in general more than females, but particularly when the there are other boys around.
So just as one example, a recent study showed that if you take a teenager and a child and an adult and you put them in a neuroimaging device so you can watch brain function, and you have the person perform a driving task where they have to make decisions about whether to stop at a yellow light or go, and they get more points if they go, but it's riskier and they're more likely to not finish the task.
Teenagers drive just like kids and adults until you put other teenagers in the room. And if you add a male friend, suddenly that teenager lying there in this imaging device will blow through the yellow lights to try to get to the end faster and get more points and put themselves at greater risk of failing to finish the task. And activity in the brain's reward system goes up when that other teenager is in the room. Meaning that it's not just a teen is more likely to take a chance, they get some pleasure out of it. It feels good to be risky in front of our male friends when we're teens.
MARTIN: And does the same apply to girls in the research?
WHITE: The research hasn't been done with girls yet. But there are very large differences between how males and females socialize. For instance, even looking, you know, back to social media, female will text message - about 60 percent of females say they text message their friends throughout the day just to say hi. It's about 40 percent for males. This is very different creatures in terms of how they socialize. So I think the risk-taking that females tend to engage in is a little different. It's more social risk. It's, you know, closer to the vest that the things that men do. Young males will just do things in the world that are very obvious. Whereas, females I think take - tend to take more subtle risks.
MARTIN: Dani, is that something that you noticed with your kids? I mean, I don't want to obviously violate their privacy any more than we already do.
MARTIN: But in terms of the kinds of conversation, I'm just interested in what kinds of conversations did you have with them about risk-taking, and particularly given that they did grow up in the age of social media, when they came up with these tools were just becoming widely available.
TUCKER: Oh, yeah. We have a lot of conversations about it, and then we also had a lot of me putting my foot down about it, you know, as simple as that, as a parent; you can't do it.
MARTIN: But what does that mean? You can't do what?
TUCKER: Say certain things on Facebook. You know, first of all, they're my friends. On Facebook and Twitter, you don't have an account because, you know, they're - I agree with, you know, our doctor friend said, you know, and I also added hormones. I mean they both have hormones and they're raging and they think, you know I, you know, everything and I know what I'm doing. And that's why you're the parents because you can tell them that you don't know everything, and therefore, you can't put everything on Facebook. I mean, Davon(ph) has posted things on Facebook that I have hit back and said, no, take it off. You know, and it's been embarrassing to him but I really don't care, because, you know, you've got to draw the line somewhere and if you don't they won't know.
MARTIN: So you don't give them a zone of privacy around their social media use.
TUCKER: No.
MARTIN: You check it. It's an extension of yours.
TUCKER: Yes. It's an extension of mine and they must befriend, you know, my sister and, you know, their aunts and uncles and stuff. So and, because they need guidance and that's the way I want it. You know, we talked about it with mom. You know, sure it's a good place for you to express your feelings but there's certain things you should and should not say. This can affect you for the rest of your life. This could keep you from getting a job. So as a parent, you have to.
MARTIN: Leslie, what about you? What kinds of conversations have you been having about how to use social media with your kids?
STEINER: I'm really blunt with all three of my kids, particularly when it comes to harassing people online, bullying people online or sexting, you know, sending or receiving sexually explicit text messages. And there have been a lot of these cases in the news lately and so it's given me lots of opportunity to talk to them. But I have to say, I have not talked to my children very much at all about rape. And I'm hesitant to talk to them about the Steubenville case because - and I'm so open with my kids - but it's just so distasteful and horrible. And I, it's really made me think a lot about that we parents should be talking to our daughters and our sons more about rape because it is so common, especially among teenage girls. They're very vulnerable and I think we're doing everybody a disservice by not talking more explicitly - definitely about the social media part, but about rape in general.
MARTIN: You know, there's been a number of commentary about this, just asking the question of why would you first of all - obviously the question is, why would you engage in this conduct to begin with? But then why would you go around posting it? This is not the only incidence like this. I think it's important, to point out, as painful as it is. So the question, you know, Dr. Aaron, that some people have is, are people posting this stuff because they really don't think is wrong? Is it possible that they could really not think that it's wrong?
WHITE: Well, from what I've read about the Steubenville case, it does seem that there is this general attitude that those who weren't directly involved weren't doing anything wrong. So that, you know, if you sent out a tweet or, you know, you make a video, if you weren't directly involved in the rape itself, then you're not doing anything wrong. These are the discussions, like Leslie pointed out, that we have to have with our kids starting at a very early age. It's not something you wait until their mid teens or until after something goes wrong.
And when I look at that situation that happened there, I mean everybody's an armchair, you know, we all think we understand what happened there. But when I look at that situation, it's what I - the first thing that I see is on how many levels adults failed the kids. Everything from, you know, a party being hosted in the coach's house where there's lots of alcohol. That's where the girl drank herself unconscious. There were other houses that certainly were owned by adults and at the end of the night the girl was taken back to a boy's house, they slept in the basement, there must've been parents around there at some point. You know, and this issue with social media and what were they sending out? Wasn't anybody monitoring that?
And I think that most parents would agree that it's our job as parents to serve as a training wheels for our adolescence. You just don't let them run wild and we ought to be monitoring what they do. I don't know when it stops, but we ought to be monitoring what they do. And 16 is certainly not too old for parents to be paying close attention to where their kids are and what they're doing.
MARTIN: And Dani, that's a point that I think you made is that, you know, social media may be a new tool to do something old that people might be doing anyway, which is spreading heinous gossip and being mean, but that the end of the day it's still about supervision. I mean that's the kind of the point you made, is why is any teenagers having a party without adults being present? And so...
TUCKER: Right. And one big thing too, I just want to add to what he said because I totally agree; teenagers, adolescents, they have a tendency to be selfish, you understand? And they don't, when they hit these medias they, they're not - that's why it's important for us parents to watch. They're not thinking about who they're going to affect or how that person is going to feel. You know, it's just this is, you know, I'm in my world, this is my zone and I want to say this and I want to do this. And wow, here's Facebook, I can do it. Here's Instagram, I can show it. Here's Twitter, I can say it. And there's no consequences to them, you know, about what they're saying or what they're doing. And with no parental - parents watching, you know, then you don't have anybody to correct that.
I've had to say to my son that's very selfish what you did. That's selfish because you didn't think about the person that you did that to. All you cared about was this is your point and you wanted to make it. And that's the way they think, you know, well, hear me, I've got something to say. But that doesn't necessarily mean it needs to be said. And if the parents are watching and paying attention, then they can say that to them. And I think that's being missed here as well.
MARTIN: Leslie, is there anything that you think might change about the conversations you have about these issues as a result of these stories? Which, I mean I kind of credit your point here, which is on the one hand it's been pretty easy as adults for us to shield ourselves from some of the things that kids are experiencing because we don't have to see it, and then now that you kind of have to see it you can be in denial about the fact that however frequent or infrequent this occurs it is occurring to somebody and we need to figure out how we're going to face it. But is there anything you think might change in the way you think or talk about this with your family, both boys and girls, as a result of what we've learned here?
STEINER: Well, there's one thing that has really hit me hard, and in terms of any violence against women, whether it's rape or domestic violence or other kinds of abuse, I think we as a society tend to think of it as a women's issue. And the vast majority of rapists are male. And I think that makes it a men's issue. And one thing I would really like to see change is fathers talking to their sons more about it - and I'm talking about my own family. I pretty much guarantee you that my husband has never once talked to my son about rape, about anything about it, about witnessing it or tweeting about it or anything like that. And I think that's got to be a part of fatherhood, that conversation.
MARTIN: Aaron White, is there any final thought you'd like to leave us with?
WHITE: Well, I just want to mention that there was a considerable amount of alcohol involved in this situation, and as there often is in these cases. But there hasn't been much discussion about it from what I've seen. And I just want to point out to you that the way that the adolescent brain - male and female - is wired as they make their way toward independence, is a lot of gas and very little brakes. We're built to go. Let's find things, experience things, consume things, live. Not think about it. We'll think about it later. You know, and that helps kids get out of house and to form their own lives, independent lives.
Now, when you add alcohol to that equation, what you get is less brakes and more gas. And I have no doubt that when the decision was made to hit send on these tweets and Facebook postings that it was a lot easier to make that decision with the alcohol in the brain. It's much harder to rationally think through our decisions.
MARTIN: Well, thank you for that. And do come back and tell us more about your book. As I mentioned, Aaron White is a father of two. He's co-author of the forthcoming book "What Are They Thinking?!" That's a question I know a lot of us have asked - "The Straight Facts about the Risk-Taking, Social-Networking, Still-Developing Teen Brain." He co-authored this with Scott Swartzwelder. And as we said, he works for NIH. He's not here under NIH business. He's here in Washington, D.C. , along with Dani Tucker, one of our regular contributors to our parenting roundtable, mom of two, office administrator, a fitness instructor. And Leslie Morgan Steiner, mom of three and the author of most recently "Crazy Love." She also recently did a TED talk called "From the Ivy League to a Gun at My Head," all here in Washington, D.C.
Thank you all so much for joining us.
TUCKER: Thank you.
STEINER: An honor.
MARTIN: And that's our program for today. I'm Michel Martin and you've been listening to TELL ME MORE from NPR News. Let's talk more tomorrow.
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Native American Tribes & the Indian History in Mountain View, Oklahoma
The history of Native Americans is often distilled into neat chapters: the arrival of Europeans, the expansion of the frontier, the resistance and removal of tribes.
But the real story does not begin with colonial ships cresting the horizon, nor does it end with the closing frontier. It's an ongoing epic that stands intertwined with the very identity of America.
I want you to know of a vibrant mosaic of pre-colonial societies, invaded, suppressed, and the struggles that still echo in native communities today. More than just a relic of the past, it's a living chronicle that deserves attention.
The Diverse Mosaic of Pre-Colonial Indigenous Cultures
In the vast expanse of North America, before the sails of Europeans billowed on the horizon, there thrived an intricate tapestry of indigenous peoples. Each thread in this fabric-a society, a tribe-was unique, woven with its own patterns of culture and tradition.
From Mountain View, Oklahoma to either coast there was indigenous culture. They were as varied as the landscapes they inhabited, from the dense forests of the northeast to the expansive prairies in the heartland, and the arid deserts of the southwest to the rugged coastlines of the northwest.
These societies were far from simplistic; they bore complex social structures that intricately organized their members from birth to death. There were leaders and council members, warriors and healers, craftspeople and storytellers, each with roles as important as the next in maintaining the equilibrium of their communities.
And fundamental to their existence was their relationship with the land. It was not merely a backdrop for their lives but a central character in their unfolding stories. They knew the songs of the rivers and the whispers of the wind through the grasses.
They understood the subtle language of the earth and responded with reverence. Their respect for nature was not borne out of idleness but out of a profound awareness that their lives were deeply interconnected with the world around them.
In this way, they lived-not as mere occupants of a geographical space but as participants in a grand ecological dialogue that had been ongoing long before their time and would continue long after.
Each day was another verse in a song as old as the mountains, a song that sang of belonging to a world far richer and more beautiful than any one individual could claim or own.
Powerful Confederations that Shaped the Land
In the Northeast, a great alliance known as the Iroquois Confederacy rose. It was not just any alliance, but a sophisticated gathering of tribes bound by political and military aims.
Their governance was a mirror of the Native diplomacy, an intricate system that respected the voices of its people and sought unity in decision-making. It was a testament to their deep understanding of leadership and cooperation among diverse groups.
Far to the Southwest, the land tells another tale where the Puebloan Peoples etched their existence into the earth's rock. They raised majestic cliff dwellings and grand adobe structures that stood against the test of time.
These people were not just builders; they were skilled farmers who coaxed crops from the arid land, engineers who crafted their homes in harmony with the unforgiving landscape, and astronomers who read the stars as one reads a book, learning the secrets of the skies.
In the Southeastern woodlands, the Cherokee thrived as one of the most populous groups. Their society was rich and complex, with an intricate clan system at its core.
Kinship followed the maternal line, painting a picture of a society where relationships and familial ties were traced through mothers and grandmothers.
This matrilineal pattern was a thread that ran strong through the fabric of Cherokee life, influencing their social structure, inheritance, and even leadership.
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Beliefs and Traditions Forged Over Millennia
In the oral histories of pre-colonial societies, creation stories are woven into the very essence of Native American existence. These origin stories are not mere tales but are the sinews connecting the people to their lands and sacred sites, each narrative a map of spiritual geography.
Like the roots of an ancient oak, these bonds run deep, anchoring tribes to places where the earth speaks of their genesis and their gods walked. Ancestors step through time with us.
The land is alive with spirits in these animistic belief systems, where every rock, tree, and stream is imbued with a life force. As Chief Seattle pointed out in an 1854 address, the rocks themselves hold memories and the dirt beneath our feet is sympathetic in its touch.
The shaman stands as a bridge between the human world and the spirit world. They are the keepers of mystic knowledge, traveling on soul journeys to negotiate with spirits, heal the sick, and guide the community.
Reverence for nature is not just a practice but a way of being. Nature's cycles dictate the rhythm of daily life, and in this reverence, there is a profound harmony with the environment.
To live is to honor the spirits in all living things, a respect that is both deep and abiding. Among the first nations, the cry to preserve Unci Maka (Grandmother Earth) is the call to protect family.
Ceremonies are the heartbeat of the community, marking the passage of time and celebrating the continuum of life. These sacred rituals are not just events but are living histories told through the vibrant threads of oral traditions.
The beat of the drum and the rise of song are not merely music but are stories and prayers given wings. The visual arts are not just decoration but are stories etched into stone, woven into baskets, painted on hide. We powwow to honor each other, and to bring life to the ancestral ways that set us apart from non-natives.
Each dance, ritual or ceremony is a chapter of a larger story, telling of victories, losses, dreams, and fears. The artistry is a language often beyond words, a communication of the soul's journey through this world and beyond.
In this simple yet profound existence, pre-colonial Native American societies crafted a world rich with meaning, where every element of life was intertwined with cultural and spiritual significance.
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Agricultural Innovations that Transformed the Wilderness
In the era before the colonizers came, the native peoples of what we now call America were not idle. Their hands, wise from the pulse of the earth, coaxed the soil into life-giving abundance.
Among their most elegant horticultural ballets was that of the "Three Sisters" – corn, beans, and squash, growing together in harmony. The corn stood tall, its stalks like the masts of green ships.
Beans twined around those stalks, reaching for the sun, while the squash spread its leaves across the earth, a living mulch to cradle moisture. This trio not only provided a balanced diet but also spoke of a deep understanding of agricultural interdependence.
Water, as ever, was both friend and foe-the lifeblood of crops and the sudden destroyer of fields. Through ingenuity, channels and ditches were transformed into arteries of life, directing the precious liquid to thirsty plants.
And with careful stewardship, fertilization practices enriched the depleted earth without demanding more than it could give, ensuring that the soil could continue to sustain their children's children.
The hunt, too, was a testament to their intimate knowledge of the land. With tools shaped from bone and stone, they harvested the gifts of forest and stream. These tools were not just instruments of survival but reflections of the ecosystems they inhabited-each hook and arrow perfectly married to the fish it sought or the game it pursued.
Trade was not conducted in silence but through a vibrant network of routes that pulsed across the continent like veins. A web of exchange connected tribe to tribe, culture to culture, allowing for the movement not just of goods but of ideas-each exchange a conversation, each trade a tale.
And within their settlements, evidence of urban planning whispered of a sophisticated understanding of community and space. Networks of trails stitched the land together while canoes slipped through waterways as easily as needles through cloth.
Their cities were not haphazard but laid with intention, a reflection of their deep connection to both each other and the earth. Such was the landscape for those who walked these lands in the time before history turned its page.
The Arrival of Columbus and Age of Exploration
In the waning years of the fifteenth century, a man named Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator at sea under the flag of Spain, crossed the uncharted waters of the Atlantic. The year was 1492, a year that would become a hinge upon which the world's history would pivot.
Columbus set foot upon the shores of the Caribbean, his eyes open to new horizons but blind to the complex views of life and civilization that had thrived there long before his sails kissed the horizon.
In the years following Columbus's arrival, the Spanish, with their armor glinting under the foreign sun, began to exert their influence into these newfound lands. They planted their colonies with the determined hands of those who believed they were ordained to tame, teach and pillage.
Florida and the vast Southwest became dotted with missions, outposts of religious zeal where cross and crown worked hand in hand to fleece, convert and command.
This era was driven by an insatiable hunger for wealth and the fabled cities of gold that danced like mirages before the eyes of explorers. These adventurers, conquistadors, and settlers were pulled forward by dreams of ore-fueled opulence.
Driven by whispers of untapped resources waiting beneath the soil or through trade routes yet uncharted, they set forth. Their footsteps marked the beginning of a transformation that would echo through the ages, as two worlds collided with both wonder and woe.
Empires Stake Their Claim
In the sprawling tale of the New World, the paths of the French and British, though both hungry for prosperity, diverged in the wilderness of opportunity. The French, with a light touch, wove themselves into the fabric of the land through the fur trade.
They reached out to the native tribes with a trader's handshake, forming bonds and alliances that ran as deep as the rivers they navigated. Theirs was a commerce of pelts, and their settlements were often no more than outposts, specks on the vast canvas of forests and lakes.
The British harbored a different dream. They came not just to visit and trade but to stay, driven by a vision of permanent colonies.
In Virginia, 1607 marked the year their dream took root in the form of Jamestown. This was not a mere trading post but a foothold, a declaration of presence and intent.
Here, the British planted their flag and unfurled their ambitions, tilling the soil and laying the stones for what they hoped would be a new dominion under their crown.
Both nations, in their pursuit, would entwine with the lives of Native Americans – the French through a mutual need for goods and goodwill, the British through a steadfast resolve to carve civilization from the wilderness.
Each encounter, each alliance, and each settlement wove into the story of a land in the midst of great change. Agreements were tenuous, as native leaders soon learned that Eurpean promises were unlike they expected.
Uneasy Relations and Broken Promises
In the early encounters and colonization of what would become the United States, a network of trade and cooperation was woven between the colonists and Native Americans. These initial interactions were often driven by necessity and the mutual benefits of exchange.
The colonists, eager for survival and prosperity in a new world, sought the knowledge and resources that the Natives had cultivated over countless generations. Likewise, some tribes found advantage in the tools and trinkets the newcomers brought with them.
However, beneath the surface of these dealings, a current of cultural misunderstandings ran deep. Simple gestures and words, clouded by the fog of vastly different worldviews, sparked frequent skirmishes. Such clashes sowed seeds of distrust on both sides, as each struggled to navigate the intentions of the other in this emerging world.
The colonists, armed with a mindset of expansion and often backed by distant crowns, turned to treaties as a means to formalize their ambitions. These documents, cloaked in the language of mutual agreement, were frequently tilted to serve the colonial interests.
They promised peace and partnership but were laced with terms that favored the expansion of European settlements at the cost of tribal sovereignty. This strategy would leave a lasting imprint on the landscape of American history, shaping the complex relationship between Native Americans and settlers for centuries to come.
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Defiance in the Face of Conquest
This was a time when individual native leaders, with limited diplomatic experience and information, stood at life's crossroads. Massive decisions, such as choosing paths of cooperation or resistance, would impact tribal history.
Some sought to weave bonds of cooperation, understanding that the strange new settlers brought with them both danger and opportunity. They reached out, hoping to blend the strengths of both peoples like streams joining into a mighty river.
Their vision was of a shared world, where the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures could flourish like a field nourished by diverse rains. Naive? Perhaps so.
But no Europeans arrived on these shores with such innocence. They'd left a continent in constant turmoil, where notions of conquest and land ownership were foundational.
As the new world grew crowded, native hopes dimmed like the last light of day. The French and Indian War erupted, a brutal reminder that coexistence is a delicate bloom that wilts in the shadow of greed.
The colonists, once seen as potential partners, became adversaries in a struggle for land and power. The Natives found themselves caught in the crushing gears of an unstoppable force, their way of life threatened by an insatiable hunger for expansion.
And European diseases began to sweep through Native America like wildfire. These afflictions were unkown to natives and thus there was little to no immunity.
Over the years that followed, many tribes were decimated by illness. Some were made extinct, while others merged bands into new nations.
Tribal confederacies were formed to strengthen resistance to the settler encroachment and to provide a stronger voice in negotiation. But it remained a dark period of cultural and physical battle.
From the ashes of conflict rose a leader named Tecumseh, a name that would come to symbolize resistance in the face of overwhelming odds. In the early 1800s, as American expansion pressed relentlessly westward, Tecumseh stood firm, a bold silhouette against the encroaching tide.
He understood that unity was the only bulwark against displacement and destruction. His voice rang out, urging disparate tribes to stand together as one to protect their homes, their families, and their future.
Tecumseh's vision was clear: only through unity could their way of life survive the relentless march of American settlers pushing ever westward. This period of early encounters and colonization was marked by the interplay of cooperation and conflict, visionaries and warriors, and the unstoppable currents of change.
It was here that the foundations were laid for the intricate relationship between Native Americans and the United States – a relationship as complex as the patterns on a woven blanket, each thread a story, each color a memory.
A Century of Betrayal and Heartbreak
In the 19th century, a sorrowful chapter was written in the history of Native Americans, headlined by events surrounding the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This legislation, signed into law by President Andrew Jackson, became a tool for enacting a policy of forced relocation.
It dictated that tribes living east of the Mississippi River were to be moved to lands in the west, to spaces that were foreign and distant from the ancestral homes they had known for countless generations. Its basis was to put ownership of fertile and resource-rich lands on the Eastern seaboard into the hands of colonists.
The Cherokee, along with other tribes, found themselves at the heart of this brutal policy. They were compelled to leave behind their homesteads, their fields, the graves of their ancestors, and embark on a journey that would be etched in history as the Trail of Tears.
This was no ordinary travel; it was a march laden with suffering and sorrow. Men, women, and children faced the unforgiving elements of Winter, disease, and scarcity of provisions.
As they traversed over a thousand miles, often in chains and under the watchful eyes of an indifferent military escort, thousands succumbed to the ordeal. They perished not only from the physical hardships but also from a profound sense of loss.
The reservation land allocated to the tribes, in what is now called Oklahoma, was undeveloped and harsh. There was much death and poverty still to come for those who survived foreced removal, as tribal leaders fought to secure resources for survival in exile.
The Trail of Tears stands as a testament to their endurance but also as a stark reminder of the cruelty they faced – a forced expulsion that reshaped the landscape of Native American life in the United States forever.
It was an early example of the (primarily) British notion of Manifest Destiny. The Christian majority within those waves of settlers was convinced that God had ordained their possesion of North America, and it was communicated far and wide.
Find Native American Indian Clothing in Mountain View, Oklahoma
Exile and Death on the Trail Where They Cried
In the late 19th century, the fabric of Native American life was being deliberately unraveled by the hands of those who saw their vibrant cultures as obstacles to progress. The Dawes Act, a policy cloaked in the guise of benevolence, sought to strip the tribes of their collective identity by parceling out their land to individuals.
It was an era where policymakers, reinforced by Christians hungry for converts, believed that the native way of life was something to be corrected rather than preserved. Boarding schools swept indigenous children away, refusing them cultural practices like language, dress and traditional hair style.
Despite these forceful tides of assimilation, the spirit of Native cultures displayed a resilience as enduring as the earth they cherished. They held fast to their traditions, their languages, and their identity amidst a sea of change.
For many tribal nations, these embers were concealed from the colonizers to minimize retribution. But each policy that aimed to erode their community, resulted in ways to adapt without surrendering their essence.
The struggle was not solely for the preservation of culture but also for the basic rights that were long denied. Native Americans fought tirelessly for recognition and citizenship within a land that was once solely theirs.
This battle was marked by both quiet acts of defiance and loud cries for justice, weaving a tale of perseverance in the face of overwhelming odds.
Cultural Resilience Despite Relentless Attacks
In the 19th century, as the United States expanded its territories westward, the people who lived on the land faced the encroachment of an ever-growing nation. The Apache, a fierce and proud group of loosely-connected bands, stood their ground against this invasion with celebrated leaders like Geronimo.
They knew the mountains and the deserts; they were part of the land, and the land was part of them. With their profound connection to their homeland and their adept skills in guerilla warfare, they resisted with arms, fighting to preserve their way of life against those who sought to claim it for their own.
Not far from these struggles, two notable leaders emerged among the Lakota Sioux: Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. They did not seek conflict but were propelled into it by the relentless push of settlers and gold-seekers into the Black Hills, a place sacred to their people.
Sitting Bull, a chief and holy man, possessed a quiet strength that resonated with his people, inspiring them to stand firm. Crazy Horse, with the fire of a warrior's spirit, led with a daring that became legend. Together, they united their people in an act of defiance that would echo through history.
There were moments when this resistance sparkled with victories that shone like flashes of light in a long, dark night. At battles like Little Bighorn, these leaders and their warriors demonstrated their might and determination, proving that their spirit would not be easily extinguished.
But these brief triumphs were like fleeting whispers in the wind, as the might of an expanding nation brought about clashes that were ultimately destructive.
These conflicts, marked by bloodshed and loss on both sides, were but one chapter in a longer saga of struggle and resistance. Though the outcome was shadowed by sorrow, the legacy of these fighters endures-a testament to their unyielding courage and love for their homelands.
The Ongoing Journey: Struggles and Revitalization
In the evolving story of America, the chapters concerning its native sons and daughters are tinged with a persistent struggle for rights once promised. As we cast our gaze upon the modern tableau, we see that the activism rooted in the hearts of native tribes is as fervent as ever.
They stand not merely as figures of the past, but as living participants in the nation's ongoing narrative, seeking acknowledgment of treaties forged in yesteryears – pacts that bound their ancestors and the fledgling government in a mutual embrace that has since frayed.
Fishing rights, a staple of life and culture for many tribes, have transformed into a contested arena where the lines drawn by treaties are defended with the tenacity of those whose very heritage hinges upon the rivers and streams of their lands.
These waters, teeming with life, are not just sustenance but are fundamental to tribal identity. The disputes over land use, too, are emblematic of a broader contention; it is a clash between the traditional guardians of the territories and those who see the land through a different lens-a resource to be tapped and transformed.
The tribes, in their advocacy, do not simply ask for favors; they demand that the agreements of old be respected, that promises made be honored. Their voices rise in council halls and courtrooms alike, echoing off walls that have too often been deaf to their pleas.
Yet still they speak, for silence would mean the surrender of ancestral rights-the very soul of their communities.
Battles to Uphold Promises of the Past
In the heart of America, where the spirit of native communities beats with a rhythm handed down through generations, there is a shadow that stretches long and weary across the land. It is a shadow cast by systemic inequality, a specter that haunts the health and wellbeing of these storied people.
These communities, rich in tradition and steeped in the lore of the earth, confront disparities in health that cut deep furrows into their collective soul. Access to healthcare-a fundamental right as vital as water to the parched-is woefully inadequate in native lands.
The clinics and hospitals, when they exist, are often miles upon miles away, across rugged terrains and through the whispers of winds that have seen better times. The doctors and nurses are too few, their hands tied by the red tape of bureaucracy and the scarcity of resources.
Life expectancy, that most basic measure of wellbeing, falls short among these original inhabitants. The men and women watch, with a quiet sort of dignity, as their time under the sun ticks away faster than it should-faster than it does for those in bustling cities with gleaming hospitals.
There is a resignation in their eyes; a knowledge born of centuries of promises made and broken.
The roots of this grim reality are traceable, like the lines on a withered leaf, to government policies etched into history. These policies are not mere words on paper but have been the architects of sorrow in native lives.
They speak of times when land was taken and treaties were disregarded, when children were pulled from the warmth of their families to be molded into images that were not their own.
The legacy of those times lingers, like the last notes of a drumbeat fading into the night. But even as the night is deep, there is a stir within these communities-a renaissance of culture that refuses to be silenced. In this modern age, native voices rise in a chorus that seeks to reclaim their health, their sovereignty, their very identity.
Revival of Traditions Once Suppressed
In the heartland of America, where the memory of the land and its original peoples run as deep and enduring as the rivers, there has been a stirring-a renaissance of the spirit, a cultural resurgence through the medium of arts.
The native tongues, once on the brink of silence, are finding their voice again, articulated in classrooms and ceremonies, cradling the wisdom of ancestors. This revival of indigenous languages is not just a recovery of words lost, but a reclamation of history and identity.
In the same breath, traditions that have waned under the weight of time are being rekindled. These practices are being woven back into the fabric of daily life, honored in dances, in the sacred rituals, and in the stories that are once again being shared among the young and old.
Artistic expressions, too, have found new soil in which to bloom. Music-rich with the pulse of the drum and the call of ancient flutes-now also merges with contemporary beats, giving voice to the past and present in a single melody.
Literature has become a vessel for the once untold narratives of an entire people, penned with truth and vibrant imagery. The visual arts have undergone a transformation as well; canvases are splashed with colors that speak of old legends and current struggles, sculptures carved with the resilience of generations.
This cultural pride that has been forged anew does more than just celebrate customs; it reinforces a sense of identity. A people once scattered and silenced now stand united and expressive.
This is a story of reclamation-an era where every song, every word written, every stroke of the brush is an assertion of existence, a declaration that they are still here, still strong, and forever enduring.
Seeking Wellness and Equal Standing
In the heart of colonized America, the indigenous spirit of self-determination beats with a rhythm as old as the land itself. Tribes have found a novel means to weave the fabric of autonomy – casinos and gaming.
Like the mighty rivers that carve their paths through the earth, these establishments have become channels promising prosperity flows for native communities. With each roll of the dice and spin of the wheel, there is more than a game of chance; there is a play for sovereignty.
It is not just the clatter of slot machines, but the sound of self-reliance that echoes through these halls. The revenues generated are the sinews that strengthen tribal governance, allowing for a renaissance of independence.
Schools, hospitals, and infrastructures bloom from this fertile financial ground, nurtured by the hands that once were tied by economic dependence on a hostile government. The casino lights, bright as the North Star, light the way to a future envisioned by generations past.
These business ventures are more than mere commerce; they are the drums of progress, beating a message of hope and renewal. Each successful enterprise is a testament to a tribe's ability to adapt and thrive in the modern world while honoring the sacred traditions that define their past.
This symbiosis of culture and commerce is a symbol of greater economic independence – a sign that the long winter of economic disenfranchisement may be giving way to a springtime of possibility.
Regrettably, many nations are divided about gaming. It's not so much centered around the morality of gambling, though. Many members feel that casino profits aren't trickling down fairly, and there's been calls for tribal leadership to be more transparent about financial dealings.
That's not across the board, of course. But poverty on reservations is still commonplace, even in the shadows of neon-lit gaming halls with 24-hour traffic.
As these indigenous nations chart their course through the waters of self-governance, they steer by stars unseen by others-stars of resilience, stars of community, stars of an enduring identity that can never be gambled away.
A Few Final Thoughts
The story of Native Americans in the U.S. is one of vibrant, complex societies evolving over thousands of years, deeply connected to the land. Initial periods of trade and cooperation with European settlers gave way to encroachment and conflict as colonial ambition clashed with tribal autonomy.
Despite forced relocations, efforts to undermine their culture, and the profound loss of life and land, Native peoples persevered through ingenious adaptation and determined resistance. Leaders like Red Cloud, King Philip and the great Lakota warriors Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse stand as symbols of this defiant spirit.
Yet the legacy of systemic injustices persists today in underfunded services, healthcare disparities, and ongoing struggles to uphold treaty rights. However, as seen in the revival of native languages and arts, along with economic drivers like tribal gaming, Indian Country is undergoing a bit of a renaissance.
Rooted, I feel, in enduring values of community and reverence for their homelands, Native Americans are reclaiming their heritage. On their own terms, writing new chapters in an epic, living narrative.
Though steeped in hardship, their story continues writing chapters. The resilience, solidarity, and an indomitable sense of identity preserved heritage in the face of savage assimilation efforts of the early 20th century.


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(? - 1862)
Home State: Pennsylvania
Branch of Service: Infantry
Before Antietam
He mustered into service in Company C on 9 September 1861.
On the Campaign
He was killed in action at Antietam on 17 September 1862.
References & notes
Basic information from Bates1. Thanks to Steve Maczuga for publishing Bates' information in his excellent database.
09/17/1862; Sharpsburg, MD
1 Bates, Samuel Penniman, History of the Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1861-65, Harrisburg: State of Pennsylvania, 1868-1871 [AotW citation 11100]


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KDE System Administration/Startup
Startkde Script
The KDE startup sequence starts with the startkde script. In most cases this script gets called from the display manager (KDM) once the user has been authenticated. There are two very important lines in the startkde script:
LD_BIND_NOW=true kdeinit +kcminit +knotify
kwrapper ksmserver $KDEWM
The first line starts the kdeinit master process. This process is used to start all other KDE processes. The arguments behind kdeinit are the names of additional services to be started. The + indicates that kdeinit needs to wait till the service has finished.
The second line asks kdeinit to start the ksmserver session manager process. The session manager determines the lifetime of the session. When this process exits, the user is logged out.
Background Services
All KDE background services are user specific; unlike system daemons they are not shared between users. They are also unique per X-server display.
kdeinit: Kicking Everything Off
kdeinit is used to start all other KDE programs. kdeinit can start normal binary program files as well as kdeinit loadable modules (KLMs). KLMs work just like binary program files but can be started more efficiently. The drawback is that programs started this way appear as kdeinit in the output of top and ps. Use top -c or ps aux to see the actual program name. For example:
> ps aux waba 23184 0.2 2.1 23428 11124 ? S 21:41 0:00 kdeinit: Running... waba 23187 0.1 2.1 23200 11124 ? S 21:41 0:00 kdeinit: dcopserver --nosid waba 23189 0.2 2.4 25136 12496 ? S 21:41 0:00 kdeinit: klauncher waba 23192 0.7 2.8 25596 14772 ? S 21:41 0:00 kdeinit: kded waba 23203 0.8 3.4 31516 17892 ? S 21:41 0:00 kdeinit: knotify
kdeinit: Running... indicates the master kdeinit process. The other processes listed are programs started as KLMs.
When kdeinit starts for the first time it will launch klauncher and kded, as well as any additional programs specified on its command line in the startkde script. Normally that is kcminit and knotify.
dbus-daemon: Inter-process Communication
dbus-daemon provides inter-process communication (IPC) facilities to all KDE applications as well as several other system components, such as HAL, network manager, power manager and various non-KDE desktop applications. It is a cross-desktop, portable IPC project which is hosted at freedesktop.org.
D-Bus facilities are accessible from the command shell via the qdcop command-line tool and can be explored using the graphical dcop-viewer application. D-Bus is essential for all KDE applications and should autostart when requested.
klauncher: Service Activation
klauncher is a daemon which is responsible for service activation within KDE. It operates in close connection with the kdeinit master process to start new processes. KDE applications communicate with klauncher over the D-Bus in order to start new applications or services.
kded: Background Services
kded is a generic KDE daemon. It has the ability to load various service modules and run these in the background. Each kded service module is described by a .desktop file installed under $KDEDIR/share/services/kded/ The Service Manager in the Control Center can be used to monitor the status of the service modules and to disable certain services.
kcminit: Initialization Services
kcminit executes initialization services during startup. Initialization services are specified in the .desktop files of applications or services via the X-KDE-Init line. Initialization services are typically used for initializing hardware based on user-specified settings.
kcminit --list can be used to show all initialization services and kcminit <service> can be used to execute a single service explicitly. This can be useful when investigating start-up problems.
knotify: Notification Services
The primary task of knotify is to relay notifications to appropriate sub-systems. For instance, sound alerts are sent to the sound system, visual alerts are showed on-screen using passive popups or dialogs, logged messages are written out to disk, etc. The actions are user configurable and support user interaction.
ksmserver: Session Management and Autostart
ksmserver is KDE's session manager. On startup the session manager starts auto-start applications and it restores applications from the previous session.
The applications to auto-start are indicated by .desktop files in the $KDEDIR/share/autostart directory. Auto-start of an application can be made conditional upon the X-KDE-autostart-condition entry in the .desktop file. The ktip.desktop file, for instance, might contain
This means that the ktiprc configuration file is checked for a RunOnStart entry in the [TipOfDay] section. If no such entry is found, true is assumed, which means that ktip is one of the applications that is auto-started by default.
There is an additional auto-start directory, $KDEHOME/Autostart that is sourced later. Note that this autostart path differs from the $KDEDIR/share/autostart directory used by the session manager. While $KDEDIR/share/autostart must contain .desktop files, $KDEHOME/Autostart may contain all kinds of files. The files will be opened as if they were clicked upon by the user.
The KDE session manager also restores one of the previous sessions. A session contains of a collection of applications as well as application-specific information that reflects the state of the applications at the time the session was saved. Sessions are stored in the ksmserverrc configuration file and contains references to application-specific state information. The application specific state infomation is saved in $KDEHOME/share/config/session.
For example, if ksmserverrc contains:
Then the application specific state information for kwin and konsole can be found in
The state information of kwin contains the location of the application windows of all the other applications in the session.
Desktop Components
The three major components of the desktop are the window manager, command executer and workspace (desktop and panels).
kwin: Window Manager
The window manager is always started by the session manager as part of the session restoration. The window manager is responsible for managing all the windows across the virtual desktops, including initial placement, minimizing, maximizing, raising, lowering of the windows and focus-switching between windows.
By default, KWin is started as the window manager in a KDE session. This can be overriden by defining the KDEWM environment variable to be name of an alternate window manager.
krunner: Run Dialog, Task List, Screensaver
krunner is auto-started by the session manager by means of $KDEDIR/share/autostart/krunner.desktop. It is responsible for activating the screensaver, application start feedback, the Run Command (Alt-F2) dialog, and the task list window and is meant to run for the lifetime of the session.
KDesktop is auto-started by the session manager by means of $KDEDIR/share/autostart/plasma.desktop


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Weekly market in Morano Calabro (province of Cosenza), in Calabria
Apart from fruit and vegetables from local farmers, you will also find local crafts, clothes, shoes and much more at the weekly market in Morano Calabro.
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The Archer collection is a unique range that marries modern Scandinavian design with classic contemporary style. The striking legs and frames, painted in a gunmetal grey, are softened by the warmth of the white washed oak table tops and cabinet facias, which feature a beautiful chevron pattern.
The Archer Entertainment Unit is as elegant as it is functional. Classic in design, it features a gorgeous chevron pattern on the cabinet door, bringing out the beauty of the luxurious white washed oak. The roomy cupboard is perfect for keeping DVDs and other bits and pieces stored away, and there are 2 open shelves for your media players, gaming consoles etc... Finished with tapered, angled legs, bevelled front moulding and a bevelled edge door handle, this stylish piece will make a beautiful addition to any living room.
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Made from sustainable and ethically logged wood certified by the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the European Union Timber Regulation (EUTR).
Please note that colours may vary slightly to what is pictured here. Variations in colour and grain are due to the natural characteristics of wood, and contribute to the uniqueness of each piece.
- Modern Scandinavian design, in classic contemporary style
- Robust, sturdy construction that is built to last, featuring American White Oak veneer, solid American White Oak front moulding and solid European Beech legs and base
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- Blum hinges
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Dimensions | 120cm (W) x 42cm (D) x 50cm (H) |
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If the address is unattended at the time of delivery the courier will simply leave a note card which you can use to either arrange a pick-up from their closest depot, or organise a redelivery of the item (charges may apply and are paid directly to the courier company).
We aim to dispatch all items within 4 business days of an order being placed, and delivery itself should take anywhere between 1 – 6 business days depending on where you are having it sent. Once dispatched, you'll receive an email with a tracking number so that you can track the whereabouts of your parcel online via our courier company's website.
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QR Codes
A Popular Addition to Your Marketing Arsenal
Did you know...
We can print QR codes on all of your marketing pieces and can even help you create the codes, too.
QR codes are quickly becoming a popular addition to many companies' marketing arsenal.
Short for "quick response," QR codes enable consumers and companies to connect in new ways. The "code" is embedded with data that, when scanned by a QR-reading device, links back to a website, landing page, contact record, or other predefined digital content.
Accessible by smartphones and other handheld devices, QR codes link consumers to web-based content and resources quickly and painlessly. As a result, companies can now share richer, more in-depth content, without requiring a lot of added real estate on printed pieces, ads, and other media.
QR codes marry print with digital. Many smartphones come preloaded with free software for scanning QR codes. For models that don't, there are many free QR code readers available via the app stores of the various smartphone manufacturers.
Endless Possibilities
Since QR codes can point back to any website address, the possibilities for using them are as endless as the web itself. Here are a few ideas to get you started....
- Put a QR code on the back (or front) of your business card. It can be encoded so the person scanning it can automatically receive all of your contact information digitally, so they don't have to enter it manually into their phone's directory.
- Print a QR code on postcard or brochure mailers, and have it point to a landing page with a special discount offer.
- Add a QR code to printed invitations, and point it to a Google map page that provides directions to your location.
- Place a QR code on posters promoting a show, play, or movie, and have it point to a YouTube trailer promotion.
- Print QR codes on product instructional sheets, labels, or decals, and link the code to a website providing more details or a YouTube video showing how the product is assembled.
- Add QR codes to vehicle signs, billboards, TV ads, t-shirts, coffee cups... the list goes on.
- Put QR codes on restaurant menus to provide dietary information for each dish.
- Make the pages of a book come to life with QR codes that provide links to websites that offer more details about the subject in the book.
- QR codes work great for tradeshow booth signs and events.
- Want to bring more traffic to your Facebook page? Create a QR code that points to it, and add it to all of your marketing materials.
The possibilities are truly exciting, and the opportunities abound. So spice up your next marketing piece with a QR code. You'll be glad you did.