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Personality: Self concept · Personality testing · Theories · Mind-body problem
Impulsivity (or impulsiveness) is a multifactorial construct[1] that involves a tendency to act on a whim, displaying behavior characterized by little or no forethought, reflection, or consideration of the consequences.[2] Impulsive actions typically are "poorly conceived, prematurely expressed, unduly risky, or inappropriate to the situation that often result in undesirable consequences,"[3] which imperil long term goals and strategies for success.[4] A functional variety of impulsivity has also been suggested, which involves action without much forethought in appropriate situations that can and does result in desirable consequences. "When such actions have positive outcomes, they tend not to be seen as signs of impulsivity, but as indicators of boldness, quickness, spontaneity, courageousness, or unconventionality"[3][5] Thus, the construct of impulsivity includes at least two independent components: (1) acting without an appropriate amount of deliberation,[3] which may or may not be functional, and (2) choosing short-term over long-term gains.[6]
Impulsivity is both a facet of normal personality as well as being a major component of various disorders including: ADHD,[7] substance use disorders,[8] bipolar disorder,[9] antisocial personality disorder,[10] and borderline personality disorder.[9] Abnormal patterns of impulsivity have also been noted instances of acquired brain injury[11] and neurodegenerative diseases.[12] Neurobiological findings suggest that there are specific brain regions involved in impulsive behavior [13][14][15] although different brain networks may contribute to different manifestations of impulsivity,[16] and that genetics may play a role.[17]
Many actions contain both impulsive and compulsive features, but impulsivity and compulsivity are functionally distinct. Impulsivity and compulsivity are interrelated in that each exhibits a tendency to act prematurely or without considered thought and often include negative outcomes.[18][19] However, compulsivity may be on a continuum with compulsivity on one end and impulsivity on the other, but research has been contradictory on this point.[20] Compulsivity occurs in response to a perceived risk or threat, impulsivity occurs in response to a perceived immediate gain or benefit,[18] and whereas compulsivity involves repetitive actions, impulsivity involves unplanned reactions.
Behavioral and societal problems associated with impulsivity[]
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder[]
Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a multiple component disorder involving inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)[21] breaks ADHD into three subtypes according to the behavioral symptoms:
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Predominantly Inattentive Type
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Combined Type
Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type symptoms may include:
- Fidgeting and squirming in seats
- Talking nonstop
- Dashing around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight
- Having trouble sitting still during dinner, school, and story time
- Being constantly in motion
- Having difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities
and also these manifestations primarily of impulsivity:
- Being very impatient
- Blurting out inappropriate comments, showing emotions without restraint, and acting without regard for consequences
- Having difficulty waiting for desired things or waiting one's turn in games
Prevalence of the disorder worldwide is estimated to be between 4% and 10%, with reports as low as 2.2% and as high as 17.8%. Variation in rate of diagnoses may be attributed to differences between populations (i.e., culture), and differences in diagnostic methodologies.[22] Prevalence of ADHD among females is less than half that of males, and females more commonly fall into the inattentive subtype.[23]
Despite an upward trend in diagnoses of the inattentive subtype of ADHD, impulsivity is commonly considered to be the central feature of ADHD, and the impulsive and combined subtypes are the major contributors to the societal costs associated with ADHD.[23][24] The estimated cost of illness (COI) for a child with ADHD is $14,576 (in 2005 dollars) annually.[25] Prevalence of ADHD among prison populations is significantly higher than that of the normal population.[26]
In both adults[27] and children,[28][29] ADHD has a high rate of comorbidity with other mental health disorders such as learning disability, conduct disorder, anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and substance use disorders.
The precise genetic and environmental factors contributing to ADHD are relatively unknown, but endophenotypes offer a potential middle ground between genes and symptoms.[30] ADHD is commonly linked to "core" deficits involving "executive function," "delay aversion," or "activation/arousal" theories that attempt to explain ADHD through its symptomology.[30] Endophenotypes, on the other hand, purport to identify potential behavioral markers that correlate with specific genetic etiology. There is some evidence to support deficits in response inhibition as one such marker. Problems inhibiting prepotent responses are linked with deficits in pre-frontal cortex (PFC) functioning, which is a common dysfunction associated with ADHD and other impulse-control disorders.[31][32]
Evidence based psychopharmacological and behavioral interventions exist for ADHD.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Substance abuse[]
Impulsivity appears to be linked to all stages of substance abuse.[33][34]
The acquisition phase of substance abuse involves the escalation from single use to regular use.[33] Impulsivity may be related to the acquisition of substance abuse because of the potential role that instant gratification provided by the substance may offset the larger future benefits of abstaining from the substance, and because people with impaired inhibitory control may not able to overcome motivating environmental cues, such as peer pressure.[35] "Similarly, individuals that discount the value of delayed reinforcers begin to abuse alcohol, marijuana, and cigarettes early in life, while also abusing a wider array of illicit drugs compared to those who discounted delayed reinforcers less."[36]
Escalation or dysregulation is the next and more severe phase of substance abuse. In this phase individuals "lose control" of their addiction with large levels of drug consumption and binge drug use. Animal studies suggest that individuals with higher levels of impulsivity may be more prone to the escalation stage of substance abuse.[33]
Impulsivity is also related to the abstinence, relapse, and treatment stages of substance abuse. People who scored high on the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS) were more likely to stop treatment for cocaine abuse.[37] Additionally, they adhered to treatment for a shorter duration than people that scored low on impulsivity.[37] Also, impulsive people had greater cravings for drugs during withdrawal periods and were more likely to relapse. This effect was shown in a study where smokers that test high on the BIS had increased craving in response to smoking cues, and gave into the cravings more quickly than less impulsive smokers.[38] Taken as a whole the current research suggests that impulsive individuals are less likely to abstain from drugs and more likely to relapse earlier than less impulsive individuals.[33]
While it is important to note the effect of impulsivity on substance abuse, the reciprocating effect whereby substance abuse can increase impulsivity has also been researched and documented.[33] The promoting effect of impulsivity on substance abuse and the effect of substance abuse on increased impulsivity creates a positive feedback loop that maintains substance seeking behaviors. It also makes conclusions about the direction of causality difficult. This phenomenon has been shown to be related to several substances, but not all. For example, alcohol has been shown to increase impulsivity while amphetamines have had mixed results.[33]
Substance use disorder treatments include prescription of medications such as acamprosate, buprenorphine, disulfiram, LAAM, methadone, and naltrexone.,[39] as well as effective psychotherapeutic treatment like behavioral couples therapy, CBT, contingency management, motivational enhancement therapy, and relapse prevention.[39]
Impulsive overeating spans from an episode of indulgence by an otherwise healthy person to chronic binges by a person with an eating disorder.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Consumption of a tempting food by non-clinical individuals increases when self-regulatory resources are previously depleted by another task, suggesting that it is caused by a breakdown in self control.[40] Impulsive eating of unhealthy snack foods appears to be regulated by individual differences in impulsivity when self-control is weak and by attitudes towards the snack and towards healthy eating when self-control is strong.[41] There is also evidence that greater food consumption occurs when people are in a sad mood, although it is possible that this is due more to emotional regulation than to a lack of self-control.[42] In these cases, overeating will only take place if the food is palatable to the person, and if so individual differences in impulsivity can predict the amount of consumption.[43]
Chronic overeating is a behavioral component of binge eating disorder, compulsive overeating, and bulimia nervosa. These diseases are more common for women and may involve eating thousands of calories at a time. Depending on which of these disorders is the underlying cause, an episode of overeating can have a variety of different motivations. Characteristics common among these three disorders include low self-esteem, depression, eating when not physically hungry, preoccupation with food, eating alone due to embarrassment, and feelings of regret or disgust after an episode. In these cases, overeating is not limited to palatable foods.[44]
Impulsivity differentially affects disorders involving the over control of food intake (such as anorexia nervosa) and disorders involving the lack of control of food intake (such as bulimia nervosa). Cognitive impulsivity, such as risk-taking, is a component of many eating disorders, including those that are restrictive.[45] However, only people with disorders involving episodes of overeating have elevated levels of motoric impulsivity, such as reduced response inhibition capacity.[45]
One theory suggests that binging provides a short-term escape from feelings of sadness, anger, or boredom, although it may contribute to these negative emotions in the long-term.[46] Another theory suggests that binge eating involves reward seeking, as evidenced by decreased serotonin binding receptors of binge-eating women compared to matched-weight controls[47] and predictive value of heightened reward sensitivity/drive in dysfunctional eating.[48]
Treatments for clinical-grade overeating include cognitive behavioral therapy to teach people how to track and change their eating habits and actions, interpersonal psychotherapy to help people analyze the contribution of their friends and family in their disorder, and pharmacological therapies including antidepressants and SSRIs.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Impulse buying[]
Impulse buying consists of purchasing a product or service without any previous intent to make that purchase[49] and has been speculated to account for as much as eighty percent of all purchases[50] in the United States.Template:Relevance inline
There are several theories pertaining to impulsive buying. One theory suggests that it is exposure combining with the speed that a reward can be obtained that influences an individual to choose lesser immediate rewards over greater rewards that can be obtained later.[51] For example a person might choose to buy a candy bar because they are in the candy isle even though they had decided earlier that they would not buy candy while in the store.
Another theory is one of self-regulation[46] which suggests that the capacity to refrain from impulsive buying is a finite resource. As this capacity is depleted with repeated acts of restraint susceptibility to purchasing other items on impulse increases.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Finally, a third theory suggests an emotional and behavioral tie between the purchaser and the product which drives both the likelihood of an impulsive purchase as well as the degree that a person will retroactively be satisfied with that purchase result.[52][53] Some studies have shown a large number of individuals are happy with purchases made on impulse (41% in one study[54]) which is explained as a preexisting emotional attachment which has a positive relationship both with the likelihood of initiating the purchase as well as mitigating post purchase satisfaction.[53] As an example, when purchasing team-related college paraphernalia a large percentage of those purchases are made on impulse and are tied to the degree with which a person has positive ties to that team.[53]
Impulsive buying is seen both as an individual trait in which each person has a preconditioned or hereditary allotment, as well as a situational construct which is mitigated by such things as emotion in the moment of the purchase and the preconditioned ties an individual has with the product.[46][53]
Psychotherapy and pharmacological treatments have been shown to be helpful interventions for patients with impulsive-compulsive buying disorder.[55]
- Psychotherapy interventions include the use of desensitization techniques,[56] self-help books [57] or attending a support group.[57]
- Pharmacological interventions include the use of SSRIs, such as fluvoxamine,[58][59] citalopram,[60][61] escitalopram,[62] and naltrexone[63][64]
Impulse control disorders not elsewhere classified[]
Impulse control disorder (ICDs) are a class of DSM diagnoses that do not fall into the other diagnostic categories of the manual (e.g. substance use disorders), and that are characterized by extreme difficulty controlling impulses or urges despite negative consequences.[21] Individuals suffering from an impulse control disorder frequently experience five stages of symptoms: compelling urge or desire, failure to resist the urge, a heightened sense of arousal, succumbing to the urge (which usually yields relief from tension), and potential remorse or feelings of guilt after the behavior is completed.[65] Specific disorders included within this category include intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania, pathological gambling, pyromania, trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder), and impulse control disorders not otherwise specified (ICD NOS). ICD NOS includes other significant difficulties that seem to be related to impulsivity but do not meet the criteria for a specific DSM diagnosis.[21]
There has been much debate over whether or not the ICDs deserve a diagnostic category of their own, or whether they are in fact phenomenologically and epidemiologically related to other major psychiatric conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), affective disorders, and addictive disorders.[66] In fact, the ICD classification is likely to change with the release of the DSM-V in May 2013.[67] In this new revision the ICD NOS will likely be reduced or removed; proposed revisions include reclassifying trichotillomania (to be renamed hair-pulling disorder) and skin picking disorder as obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, moving Intermittent Explosive Disorder under the diagnostic heading of disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders, and gambling disorder may be included in addiction and related disorders.[67]
The role of impulsivity in the ICDs varies. Research on kleptomania and pyromania are lacking, though there is some evidence that greater kleptomania severity is tied to poor executive functioning.[68]
Trichotillomania and skin picking disorder seem to be disorders that primarily involve motor impulsivity,[69][70] and will likely be classified in the DSM-V within the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders category.[67]
Pathological gambling, in contrast, seems to involve many diverse aspects of impulsivity and abnormal reward circuitry (similar to substance use disorders) that has led to it being increasingly conceptualized as a non-substance or behavioral addiction.[71] Evidence elucidating the role of impulsivity in pathological gambling is accumulating, with pathological gambling samples demonstrating greater response impulsivity, choice impulsivity, and reflection impulsivity than comparison control samples.[71] Additionally, pathological gamblers tend to demonstrate greater response perseveration (compulsivity) and risky decision making in laboratory gambling tasks compared to controls, though there is no strong evidence suggesting that attention and working memory are impaired in pathological gamblers.[71] These relations between impulsivity and pathological gambling are confirmed by brain function research: pathological gamblers demonstrate less activation in the frontal cortical regions (implicated in impulsivity) compared to controls during behavioral tasks tapping response impulsivity, compulsivity, and risk/reward.[71] Preliminary, though variable, findings also suggest that striatal activation is different between gamblers and controls, and that neurotransmitter differences (e.g. dopamine, serotonin, opioids, glutamate, norepinephrine) may exist as well.[71]
Individuals with Intermittent Explosive Disorder, also known as impulsive aggression, have exhibited serotonergic abnormalities and show differential activation in response to emotional stimuli and situations.[72] Notably, Intermittent Explosive Disorder is not associated with a higher likelihood of diagnosis with any of the other ICDs but is highly comorbid with disruptive behavior disorders in childhood.[72] Intermittent Explosive Disorder is likely be re-classified in the DSM-V as under the heading of disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders.[67]
These sorts of impulse control disorders are most often treated using certain types of psychopharamcological interventions (e.g. antidepressants) and behavioral treatments like cognitive behavior therapy.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Theories of impulsivity[]
Ego (cognitive) depletion[]
According to the ego (or cognitive) depletion theory of impulsivity, self-control refers to the capacity for altering one's own responses, especially to bring them into line with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit of long-term goals.[73] Self-control enables a person to restrain or override one response, thereby making a different response possible.[73] A major tenet of the theory is that engaging in acts of self-control draws from a limited "reservoir" of self-control that, when depleted, results in reduced capacity for further self-regulation.[74][75] Self-control is viewed as analogous to a muscle: Just as a muscle requires strength and energy to exert force over a period of time, acts that have high self-control demands also require strength and energy to perform.[76] Similarly, as muscles become fatigued after a period of sustained exertion and have reduced capacity to exert further force, self-control can also become depleted when demands are made of self-control resources over a period of time. Baumeister and colleagues termed the state of diminished self-control strength ego depletion (or cognitive depletion).[75]
The strength model of self-control asserts that:
- Just as exercise can make muscles stronger, there are signs that regular exertions of self-control can improve willpower strength.[77] These improvements typically take the form of resistance to depletion, in the sense that performance at self-control tasks deteriorates at a slower rate.[73] Targeted efforts to control behavior in one area, such as spending money or exercise, lead to improvements in unrelated areas, such as studying or household chores. And daily exercises in self-control, such as improving posture, altering verbal behavior, and using one's nondominant hand for simple tasks, gradually produce improvements in self-control as measured by laboratory tasks.[73] The finding that these improvements carry over into tasks vastly different from the daily exercises shows that the improvements are not due to simply increasing skill or acquiring self-efficacy from practice.[73]
- Just as athletes begin to conserve their remaining strength when their muscles begin to tire, so do self-controllers when some of their self-regulatory resources have been expended. The severity of behavioral impairment during depletion depends in part on whether the person expects further challenges and demands.[73] When people expect to have to exert self-control later, they will curtail current performance more severely than if no such demands are anticipated.[78]
- Consistent with the conservation hypothesis, people can exert self-control despite ego depletion if the stakes are high enough. Offering cash incentives or other motives for good performance counteracts the effects of ego depletion.[79] This may seem surprising but in fact it may be highly adaptive. Given the value and importance of the capacity for self-control, it would be dangerous for a person to lose that capacity completely, and so ego depletion effects may occur because people start conserving their remaining strength.[73] When people do exert themselves on the second task, they deplete the resource even more, as reflected in severe impairments on a third task that they have not anticipated.[78]
Empirical tests of the ego-depletion effect typically adopt dual-task paradigm.[74][80][81] Participants assigned to an experimental ego-depletion group are required to engage in two consecutive tasks requiring self-control.[76] Control participants are also required to engage in two consecutive tasks, but only the second task requires self-control. The strength model predicts that the performance of the experimental-group on the second self-control task will be impaired relative to that of the control group. This is because the finite self-control resources of the experimental participants will be diminished after the initial self-control task, leaving little to draw on for the second task.[73]
The effects of ego depletion do not appear to be a product of mood or arousal. In most studies, mood and arousal has not been found to differ between participants who exerted self-control and those who did not.[74][82] Likewise, mood and arousal was not related to final self-control performance.[82] The same is true for more specific mood items, such as frustration, irritation, annoyance, boredom, or interest as well. Feedback about success and failure of the self-control efforts does not appear to affect performance.[83] In short, the decline in self-control performance after exerting self-control appears to be directly related to the amount of self-control exerted and cannot be easily explained by other, well-established psychological processes.[82]
Automatic vs. controlled processes/cognitive control[]
Dual process theory states that mental processes operate in two separate classes: automatic and controlled. In general, automatic processes are those that are experiential in nature, occur without involving higher levels of cognition,[84] and are based on prior experiences or informal heuristics. Controlled decisions are effortful and largely conscious processes in which an individual weighs alternatives and makes a more deliberate decision.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
- Automatic Process: Automatic processes have four main features.[85] They occur unintentionally or without a conscious decision, the cost of the decision is very low in mental resources, they cannot be easily stopped, and they occur without conscious thought on the part of the individual making them.
- Controlled Process: Controlled processes also have four main features[85] that are very close to the opposite in spectrum from their automatic counterparts. Controlled processes occur intentionally, they require the expenditure of cognitive resources, the individual making the decision can stop the process voluntarily, and the mental process is a conscious one.
Dual process theories at one time considered any single action/thought as either being effortful or controlled.[85] However, currently they are seen as operating more along a continuum as most impulsive actions will have both controlled and automatic attributes.[85] Automatic processes are classified according to whether they are meant to inhibit or to facilitate a thought process.[86] For example in one study[87] researchers offered individuals a choice between a 1:10 chance of winning a prize and a 10 in 100 chance. Many participants chose one of the choices over the other without identifying that the chances inherent in each were the same as they saw either only 10 chances total as more beneficial, or of having 10 chances to win as more beneficial. In effect impulsive decisions can be made as prior information and experiences dictate one of the courses of action is more beneficial when in actuality careful consideration would better enable the individual to make a more informed and improved decision.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Intertemporal choice[]
Intertemporal choice is defined as "decisions with consequences that play out over time".[88] This is often assessed using the relative value people assign to rewards at different points in time, either by asking experimental subjects to choose between alternatives or examining behavioral choices in a naturalistic setting.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Intertemporal choice is commonly measured in the laboratory using a "delayed discounting" paradigm, which measures the process of devaluing rewards and punishments that happen in the future.[88] In this paradigm, subjects must choose between a smaller reward delivered soon and a larger reward delivered at a delay in the future. Choosing the smaller-sooner reward is considered impulsive. By repeatedly making these choices, indifference points can be estimated. For example, if someone chose $70 now over $100 in a week, but chose the $100 in a week over $60 now, it can be inferred that they are indifferent between $100 in a week and an intermediate value between $60 and $70. A delay discounting curve can be obtained for each participant by plotting their indifference points with different reward amounts and time delays. Individual differences in discounting curves are affected by personality characteristics such as self-reports of impulsivity and locus of control; personal characteristics such as age, gender, IQ, race, and culture; socioeconomic characteristics such as income and education; and many other variables.[89] Lesions of the nucleus accumbens core subregion[90] or basolateral amygdala[91] produce shifts towards choosing the smaller-sooner reward, suggesting the involvement of these brain regions in the preference for delayed reinforcers. There is also evidence that the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in delay discounting, although there is currently debate on whether lesions in this region result in more or less impulsivity.[92]
Economic theory suggests that optimal discounting involves the exponential discounting of value over time. This model assumes that people and institutions should discount the value of rewards and punishments at a constant rate according to how delayed they are in time.[88] While economically rational, recent evidence suggests that this people and animals do not discount exponentially. Many studies suggest that humans and animals discount future values according to a hyperbolic discounting curve where the discount factor decreases with the length of the delay (for example, waiting from today to tomorrow involves more loss of value than waiting from twenty days to twenty-one days). Further evidence for non-constant delay discounting is suggested by the differential involvement of various brain regions in evaluating immediate versus delayed consequences. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex is activated when choosing between rewards at a short delay or a long delay, but regions associated with the dopamine system are additionally activated when the option of an immediate reinforcer is added.[93] Additionally, intertemporal choices differ from economic models because they involve anticipation (which may involve a neurological "reward" even if the reinforcer is delayed), self-control (and the breakdown of it when faced with temptations), and representation (how the choice is framed may influence desirability of the reinforcer),[88] none of which are accounted for by a model that assumes economic rationality.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
One facet of intertemporal choice is the possibility for preference reversal, when a tempting reward becomes more highly valued than abstaining only when immediately available.[4] For example, when sitting home alone, a person may report that they value the health benefit of not smoking a cigarette over the effect of smoking one. However, later at night when the cigarette is immediately available, their subjective value of the cigarette may rise and they may choose to smoke it.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
A theory called the "primrose path" is intended to explain how preference reversal can lead to addiction in the long run.[94] As an example, a lifetime of sobriety may be more highly valued than a lifetime of alcoholism, but, at the same time, one drink now may be more highly valued than not drinking now. Because it is always "now," the drink is always chosen, and a paradoxical effect occurs whereby the more-valued long-term alternative is not achieved because the more-valued short-term alternative is always chosen. This is an example of complex ambivalence,[95] when a choice is made not between two concrete alternatives but between one immediate and tangible alternative (i.e., having a drink) and one delayed and abstract alternative (i.e., sobriety).[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Similarities between humans and non-human animals in intertemporal choice have been studied. Pigeons[96] and rats[97] also discount hyperbolically; tamarin monkeys do not wait more than eight seconds to triple the amount of a food reward.[98] The question arises as to whether this is a difference of homology or analogy—that is, whether the same underlying process underlies human-animal similarities or whether different processes are manifesting in similar patterns of results.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Inhibitory control[]
Inhibitory control, often conceptualized as an executive function, is the ability to inhibit or hold back a prepotent response.[99] It is theorized that impulsive behavior reflects a deficit in this ability to inhibit a response; impulsive people may find it more difficult to inhibit action whereas non-impulsive people may find it easier to do so.[99] There is evidence that, in normal adults, commonly used behavioral measures of inhibitory control correlate with standard self-report measures of impulsivity.[100]
Inhibitory control may itself be multifaceted, evidenced by numerous distinct inhibition constructs that can be measured in different ways, and relate to specific types of psychopathology.[101] Nigg developed a useful working taxonomy of these different types of inhibition, drawing heavily from the fields of cognitive and personality psychology[101] Nigg's eight proposed types of inhibition include the following:
Executive Inhibition[]
Interference Control[]
Suppression of a stimulus that elicits an interfering response, enabling a person to complete the primary response. Interference control can also refer to suppressing distractors.[101]
Interference control has been measured using cognitive tasks like the stroop test, flanker tasks, dual task interference, and priming tasks.[102] Personality researchers have used the Rothbart effortful control measures and the conscientiousness scale of the Big Five as inventory measures of interference control. Based on imaging and neural research is theorized that the anterior cingulate, the dorsolateral prefrontal/premotor cortex, and the basal ganglia are related to interference control.[103][104]
Cognitive inhibition[]
Cognitive inhibition is the suppression of unwanted or irrelevant thoughts to protect working memory and attention resources.[101]
Cognitive inhibition is most often measured through tests of directed ignoring, self-report on one's intrusive thoughts, and negative priming tasks. As with interference control, personality psychologists have measures cognitive inhibition using the Rothbart Effortful Control scale and the Big Five Conscientiousness scale. The anterior cingulate, the prefrontal regions, and the association cortex seem to be involved in cognitive inhibition.[101]
Behavioral Inhibition[]
Behavioral Inhibition is the suppression of prepotent response.[101]
Behavioral inhibition is usually measures using the Go/No Go task, Stop signal task, and reports of suppression of attentional orienting. Surveys that are theoretically relevant to behavioral inhibition include the Rothbart effortful control scale, and the Big Five Conscientiousness dimension.[101] The rationale behind the use of behavioral measures like the Stop signal task is that "go" processes and "stop processes" are independent, and that, upon "go" and "stop" cues, they "race" against each other; if the go process wins the race, the prepotent response is executed, whereas if the stop processes wins the race, the response is withheld. In this context, impulsivity is conceptualized as a relatively slow stop process.[105] The brain regions involved in behavioral inhibition appear to be the lateral and orbital prefrontal regions along with premotor processes.
Oculomotor Inhibition[]
Oculomotor Inhibition is the effortful suppression of reflexive saccade.[101]
Oculomotor inhibition is tested using antisaccade and oculomotor tasks. Also, the Rothbart effortful control measure and the Big Five Conscientiousness dimension are thought to tap some of the effortful processes underlying the ability to suppress saccade. The Frontal eye fields/orbitofrontal cortex are involved in oculomotor inhibition.[101]
Motivational inhibition[]
In response to punishment[]
Motivational inhibition and response in the face of punishment can be measured using tasks tapping inhibition of primary response, modified go/no go tasks, inhibition of competing response, and emotional Stroop tasks.[101] Personality psychologists also use the Gray behavioral inhibition system measure, the Eysenck scale for neurotic introversion, and the Zuckerman Neuroticism-Anxiety scale.[101] The Septal-hippocampal formation, cingulate, and motor systems seem to be the brain areas most involved in response to punishment.[101]
In response to novelty[]
Response to novelty has been measured using the Kagan behavioral inhibition system measure and scales of neurotic introversion.[101] The amygdaloid system is implicated in novelty response.[101]
Automatic inhibition of attention[]
Recently inspected stimuli[]
Suppression of recently inspected stimuli for both attention and oculomotor saccade is usually measured using attentional and oculomotor inhibition of return tests. The superior colliculus and the midbrain, oculomotor pathway are involved in suppression of stimuli.[101]
Neglected stimuli[]
Information at locations that are not presently being attended to is suppressed, while attending elsewhere.[101]
This involves measures of covert attentional orienting and neglect, along with personality scales on neuroticism.[101] The posterior association cortex and subcortical pathways are implicated in this sort of inhibition.[101]
Assessment of impulsivity[]
- Main article: Measures of impulsiveness
The tendency to impulsivesnes ahs been assed by a number of instruments including
- Padua Inventory (PI)
Behavioral paradigms[]
In addition a wide variety of behavioral tests have been devised for the assessment of impulsivity in both clinical and experimental settings. While no single test is a perfect predictor or a sufficient replacement for an actual clinical diagnosis, when used in conjunction with parent/teacher reports, behavioral surveys, and other diagnostic criteria, the utility of behavioral paradigms lies in their ability to narrow in on specific, discrete aspects of the impulsivity umbrella. Quantifying specific deficits is of use to the clinician and the experimenter, both of whom are generally concerned with obtaining objectively measurable treatment effects.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Such tests include
- Go/no-go and Stop-signal reaction time tasks
- Balloon Analogue Risk Task
- Iowa Gambling Test
- Differential Reinforcement of Low Response Rate Task
Other common impulsivity tasks include the Continuous performance task (CPT), 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), Stroop task, and Matching Familiar Figures Task.
Pharmacology and neurobiology[]
Neurobiological findings[]
Although the precise neural mechanisms underlying disorders of impulse control are not fully known, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the brain region most ubiquitously implicated in impulsivity.[106] Damage to the prefrontal cortex has been associated with difficulties preparing to act, switching between response alternatives, and inhibiting inappropriate responses.[107] Recent research has uncovered additional regions of interest, as well as highlighted particular subregions of the PFC, that can be tied to performance in specific behavioral tasks.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Delay discounting[]
Excitotoxic lesions in the nucleus accumbens core have been shown to increase preference for the smaller, immediate reward, whereas lesions to the nucleus accumbens shell have had no observable effect. Additionally, lesions of the basolateral amygdala, a region tied closely to the PFC, negatively affect impulsive choice similarly to what is observed in the nucleus accumbens core lesions.[92]
Go/No-go and Stop-signal reaction time test[]
The orbital frontal cortex has been thought to play a role in behavioral disinhibition,[108] and damage to the right inferior frontal gyrus, a specific subregion of the PFC, has been associated with deficits in stop-signal inhibition.[30]
5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task (5-CSRTT) and Differential Reinforcement of Low rates (DRL)[]
As with delay discounting, lesion studies have implicated the core region of the nucleus accumbens in response inhibition for both DRL and 5-CSRTT. Premature responses in the 5-CSRTT may also be modulated by other systems within the ventral striatum.[How to reference and link to summary or text] In the 5-CSRTT, lesions of the anterior cingulate cortex have been shown to increase impulsive responding, and lesions to the prelimbic cortex impair attentional performance.[109]
Iowa Gambling Task[]
Patients with damage to the ventromedial frontal cortex exhibit poor decision-making and persist in making risky choices in the Iowa Gambling Task.[110][111]
Neurochemical and pharmacological findings[]
The primary pharmacological treatments for ADHD are methylphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine. Both methylphenidate and amphetamines block re-uptake of dopamine and norepinephrine into the pre-synaptic neuron, acting to increase post-synaptic levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. Of these two monoamines, increased availability of dopamine is considered the primary cause for the ameliorative effects of ADHD medications, whereas increased levels of norepinephrine may be efficacious only to the extent that it has downstream, indirect effects on dopamine.[28] The effectiveness of dopamine re-uptake inhibitors in treating the symptoms of ADHD has led to the hypothesis that ADHD may arise from low tonic levels of dopamine (particularly in the fronto-limbic circuitry), but evidence in support of this theory is mixed.[112][113]
There are several difficulties when it comes to trying to identify a gene for complex traits such as impulsivity, such as genetic heterogeneity. Another difficulty is that the genes in question might sometimes show incomplete penetrance, "where a given gene variant does not always cause the phenotype".[114] Much of the research on the genetics of impulsivity-related disorders, such as ADHD, is based on family or linkage studies.[115] There are several genes of interest that have been studied in an attempt to find the major genetic contributors to impulsivity. Some of these genes are:
- DAT1 is the dopamine transporter gene which is responsible for the active reuptake of dopamine from the neural synapse. DAT1 polymorphisms have been shown to be linked to hyperactivity and ADHD.[116]
- DRD4 is the dopamine D4 receptor gene and is associated with ADHD and novelty seeking behaviors.[114][117] It has been proposed that novelty seeking is associated with impulsivity. Mice deficient for DRD4 have shown less behavioral responses to novelty.[118]
- 5HT2A is the serotonin receptor gene. The serotonin 2A receptor gene has been associated with both hyper locomotion, ADHD, as well as impulsivity. Subjects with a particular polymorphism of the 5HT2A gene made more commission errors during a punishment-reward condition in a go/no-go task.[119]
- HTR2B a serotonin receptor gene.[120]
- CTNNA2 encodes for a brain-expressed α-catenin that has been associated with Excitement-Seeking in a genome-wide association study GWAS of 7860 individuals.[17]
Interventions to impact impulsivity generally[]
While impulsivity can take on pathological forms (e.g. substance use disorder, ADHD), there are less severe, non-clinical forms of problematic impulsivity in many people's daily lives. Research on the different facets of impulsivity can inform small interventions to change decision making and reduce impulsive behavior[121] For example, changing cognitive representations of rewards (e.g. making long term rewards seem more concrete) and/or creating situations of "pre-commitment" (eliminating the option of changing one's mind later) can reduce the preference for immediate reward seen in delay discounting.[121]
Brain training[]
Brain training interventions include laboratory-based interventions (e.g. training using tasks like go/no go) as well as community, family, and school based interventions that are ecologically valid (e.g. teaching techniques for regulating emotions or behaviors) and can be used with individuals with non-clinical levels of impulsivity.[122] Both sorts of interventions are aimed at improving executive functioning and self-control capacities, with different interventions specifically targeting different aspects of executive functioning like inhibitory control, working memory, or attention.[122] Emerging evidence suggests that brain training interventions may succeed in impacting executive function, including inhibitory control.[123] Inhibitory control training specifically is accumulating evidence that it can help individuals resist temptation to consume high calorie food[124] and drinking behavior.[125] Some have voiced concerns that the favorable results of studies testing working memory training should be interpreted with caution, claiming that conclusions regarding changes to abilities are measured using single tasks, inconsistent use of working memory tasks, no-contact control groups, and subjective measurements of change.[126]
Treatment of specific disorders of impulsivity[]
Behavioral, psychosocial, and psychopharmacological treatments for disorders involving impulsivity are common.
Psychopharmacological intervention[]
Psychopharmacological intervention in disorders of impulsivity has shown evidence of positive effects; common pharmacological interventions include the use of stimulant medication, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and other antidepressants.[66] ADHD has a well-established evidence base supporting the use of stimulant medication for the reduction of ADHD symptoms.[127] Pathological gambling has also been studied in drug trials, and there is evidence that gambling is responsive to SSRIs and other antidepressants.[66] Evidence based pharmacological treatment for trichotillomania is not yet available, with mixed results of studies investigating the use of SSRIs, though Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has shown positive effects.[66] Intermittent Explosive Disorder is most often treated with mood stabilizers, SSRIs, beta blockers, alpha agonists, and anti-psychotics (all of which have shown positive effects).[66] There is evidence that some pharmacological interventions are efficacious in treating substance use disorders, though their use can depend on the type substance that is abused.[39] Pharmacological treatments for SUD include the use of acamprosate, buprenorphine, disulfiram, LAAM, methadone, and naltrexone.[39]
Behavioral interventions[]
Behavioral interventions also have a fairly strong evidence base in impulse control disorders.[66] In ADHD, the behavioral interventions of behavioral parent training, behavioral classroom management, and intensive peer-focused behavioral interventions in recreational settings meet stringent guidelines qualifying them for evidence based treatment status.[128] Empirically validated behavioral treatments for substance use disorder are fairly similar across substance use disorders, and include behavioral couples therapy, CBT, contingency management, motivational enhancement therapy, and relapse prevention.[39] Pyromania and kleptomania are understudied (due in large part to the illegality of the behaviors), though there is some evidence that psychotherapeutic interventions (CBT, short term counseling, day treatment programs) are efficacious in treating pyromania, while kleptomania seems to be best impacted using SSRIs.[66] Additionally, therapies including CBT, family therapy, and social skill training have shown positive effects on explosive aggressive behaviors.[66]
Clinical implications[]
This cognitive style is linked with a number of clinical conditions including:
- Attention deficit disorder
- Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity
- Kleptomania
- Pathological gambling
- Pyromania
See also[]
- Alternative five model of personality
- Conceptual tempo
- Deferred gratification
- Impulse control disorder
- Reflectivity-impulsivity continuum
- Judgement disturbances
- Novelty seeking
- Reflectiveness
- Sensation seeking
- ↑ (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology 146 (4): 348–61.
- ↑ VandenBos, G. R. (2007). APA dictionary of psychology, Washington, DC: APA.Template:Pn
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 (1993) "A neurodevelopmental view of impulsivity" The Impulsive Client: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 23–37, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 (2010) "A Delay-Discounting Primer" Impulsivity: The Behavioral and Neurological Science of Discounting, 11–37, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- ↑ (1990). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: Personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1): 95–102.
- ↑ (2000) "Self-Control as an Abstraction of Environmental Feedback" The Science of Self-Control, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- ↑ (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder?. Psychological Bulletin 127 (5): 571–98.
- ↑ (2003). Relationships Among Laboratory and Psychometric Measures of Impulsivity: Implications in Substance Abuse and Dependence. Addictive Disorders & Their Treatment 2 (2): 33–40.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 (2001). Affective instability and impulsivity in borderline personality and bipolar II disorders: Similarities and differences. Journal of Psychiatric Research 35 (6): 307–12.
- ↑ (2003). Response inhibition and impulsivity: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia 41 (14): 1959–66.
- ↑ (2005). Impulsivity, self-control, and delay discounting in persons with acquired brain injury. Behavioral Interventions 20 (1): 101–20.
- ↑ (2010). Decision-making cognition in neurodegenerative diseases. Nature Reviews Neurology 6 (11): 611–23.
- ↑ (1999) The Dictionary of Psychology, Psychology Press.
- ↑ (2004). Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions. Brain 127 (5): 1108–26.
- ↑ (2005). Deficits in Decision-Making in Head Injury Survivors. Journal of Neurotrauma 22 (6): 613–22.
- ↑ (2012). Adolescent impulsivity phenotypes characterized by distinct brain networks. Nature Neuroscience 15 (6): 920–5.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 (2011). Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies identifies common variants in CTNNA2 associated with excitement-seeking. Translational Psychiatry 1 (10): e49–.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Understanding the Differences Between Impulsivity and Compulsivity. Psychiatric Times.
- ↑ (1996) Impulsivity and Compulsivity, Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.Template:Pn
- ↑ (2005). Impulsivity and compulsivity in bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders 38 (3): 244–51.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th, American Psychiatric Association.Template:Pn
- ↑ (2006). Variations in prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder worldwide. European Journal of Pediatrics 166 (2): 117–23.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 (2007). Prevalence, Recognition, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a National Sample of US Children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 161 (9): 857–64.
- ↑ (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: A supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 29 (3): 215–28.
- ↑ (2007). The Economic Impact of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 32 (6): 711–27.
- ↑ (2004). Prevalence of attention deficit–/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders in young male prison inmates. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 254 (6): 365–71.
- ↑ (2006). The Prevalence and Correlates of Adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (4): 716–23.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 (2002). Psychiatric Comorbidity and Functioning in Clinically Referred Preschool Children and School-Age Youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 41 (3): 262–8. Cite error: Invalid
tag; name "Wilens" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ (2000). Epidemiology of ADHD in school-age children. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America 9 (3): 541–55, vii.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 (2005). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Response Inhibition: Relevance for Genetic Research in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry 57 (11): 1285–92. Cite error: Invalid
tag; name "Aron" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ (2004). Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: The role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain and Cognition 56 (2): 129–40.
- ↑ (1997). Implication of Right Frontostriatal Circuitry in Response Inhibition and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (3): 374–83.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 (2008). The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology 200 (1): 1–26.
- ↑ (2009). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology 14 (1): 22–31.
- ↑ (2004). Dual determinants of drug use in humans: Reward and impulsivity. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 50: 19–55.
- ↑ (2003). Delay discounting is associated with substance use in college students. Addictive Behaviors 28 (6): 1167–73.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 (2001). The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 21 (4): 193–8.
- ↑ (2007). Effect of impulsivity on craving and behavioral reactivity to smoking cues. Psychopharmacology 194 (2): 279–88.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 (2003). Evidence-based practices for substance use disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 26 (4): 991–1010.
- ↑ (2000). Self-Regulatory Failure: A Resource-Depletion Approach. Psychological Science 11 (3): 249–54.
- ↑ (2012). Reflective and impulsive influences on unhealthy snacking. The moderating effects of food related self-control. Appetite 58 (2): 616–22.
- ↑ (2001). Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If you feel bad, do it!. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (1): 53–67.
- ↑ (2009). Three ways to resist temptation: The independent contributions of executive attention, inhibitory control, and affect regulation to the impulse control of eating behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (2): 431–5.
- ↑ (1991). Binge eating as escape from self-awareness. Psychological Bulletin 110 (1): 86–108.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 (2006). Impulsivity in women with eating disorders: Problem of response inhibition, planning, or attention?. International Journal of Eating Disorders 39 (7): 590–3.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 (2007). Spent Resources: Self‐Regulatory Resource Availability Affects Impulse Buying. Journal of Consumer Research 33 (4): 537–47.
- ↑ (2001). Reduced serotonin transporter binding in binge eating women. Psychopharmacology 155 (3): 310–4.
- ↑ Loxton, N.J., Dawe, S. (2004). Alcohol abuse and dysfunctional eating in women: The contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity and family of origin. In press.Template:Vs As cited in: (2004). The role of impulsivity in the development of substance use and eating disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 28 (3): 343–51.
- ↑ (1998). Impulse buying: Modeling its precursors. Journal of Retailing 74 (2): 169–91.
- ↑ Smith, D. (1996). The joy of candy. National Petroleum News Supplement, S2.
- ↑ (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21 (2): 204–18.
- ↑ (2006). Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Consumer Behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology 16 (3): 205–16.
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 (2006). Impulse Purchases of Sport Team Licensed Merchandise: What Matters?. Journal of Sport Management 20 (1): 101.
- ↑ (1987). The Buying Impulse. Journal of Consumer Research 14 (2): 189–99.
- ↑ (2006) Impulse-control disorders, Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.Template:Pn
- ↑ (1996). Cue exposure in compulsive buying. The Journal of clinical psychiatry 57 (2): 90.
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 (1993) Consuming passions: help for compulsive shoppers, Oakland: NewHarbinger Publications.Template:Pn
- ↑ (1997). Fluvoxamine in the treatment of compulsive buying. The Journal of clinical psychiatry 58 (4): 159–63.
- ↑ (2000). A Double-Blind Comparison of Fluvoxamine Versus Placebo in the Treatment of Compulsive Buying Disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 12 (4): 205–11.
- ↑ (2002). Citalopram Treatment of Compulsive Shopping. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 63 (8): 704–8.
- ↑ (1976) ECDEU assessment manual for psychopharmacology, Publication ADM 76 338, Washington, DC: Department of Health, Education and Welfare.Template:Pn
- ↑ (2007). Escitalopram for Compulsive Buying Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 27 (2): 225–7.
- ↑ (1998). Opioid Antagonists in the Treatment of Impulse-Control Disorders. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59 (4): 165–71.
- ↑ (2003). Three cases of compulsive buying treated with naltrexone. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 7 (3): 223–5.
- ↑ (2005) Clinical manual of impulse-control disorders, 4–8, Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Press.
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 66.4 66.5 66.6 66.7 (2006). Epidemiologic and clinical updates on impulse control disorders: A critical review. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256 (8): 464–75.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 Official DSM-5 Development Website
- ↑ (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in kleptomania☆. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (7): 1663–70.
- ↑ (2009). Probing Compulsive and Impulsive Behaviors, from Animal Models to Endophenotypes: A Narrative Review. Neuropsychopharmacology 35 (3): 591–604.
- ↑ (2010). Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in pathologic skin picking. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 34 (1): 208–11.
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 (2011). Similarities and differences between pathological gambling and substance use disorders: A focus on impulsivity and compulsivity. Psychopharmacology 219 (2): 469–90.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 (2012). Intermittent Explosive Disorder as a Disorder of Impulsive Aggression for DSM-5. American Journal of Psychiatry 169 (6): 577–88.
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4 73.5 73.6 73.7 (2007). The Strength Model of Self-Control. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (6): 351–5.
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (5): 1252–65.
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?. Psychological Bulletin 126 (2): 247–59.
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 136 (4): 495–525.
- ↑ (2006). Self-Regulation and Personality: How Interventions Increase Regulatory Success, and How Depletion Moderates the Effects of Traits on Behavior. Journal of Personality 74 (6): 1773–801.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 (2006). Conserving self-control strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (3): 524–37.
- ↑ (2003). Mechanisms of Self-Control Failure: Motivation and Limited Resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (7): 894–906.
- ↑ (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (3): 774–89.
- ↑ (2006). High-maintenance interaction: Inefficient social coordination impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (3): 456–75.
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Muraven, Mark (2012). "Ego Depletion: Theory and Evidence" The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation, 111–26, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ (2002). The Effects of Success versus Failure Feedback on Further Self-Control. Self and Identity 1: 35–41.
- ↑ (2009). College Students' Awareness of Irrational Judgments on Gambling Tasks: A Dual-Process Account. The Journal of Psychology 143 (3): 293–317.
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 (2013) "Dual-Process Theories" The Oxford Handbook of Social Cognition, 218–312.
- ↑ (2008). The self-regulation of automatic associations and behavioral impulses. Psychological Review 115 (2): 314–35.
- ↑ (1992). Cognitive-experiential self-theory and subjective probability: Further evidence for two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (4): 534–44.
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 88.3 (2007). Intertemporal choice – toward an integrative framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11 (11): 482–8.
- ↑ (2010). Impulsivity: The behavioral and neurological science of discounting: 39–65.
- ↑ (2001). Impulsive Choice Induced in Rats by Lesions of the Nucleus Accumbens Core. Science 292 (5526): 2499–501.
- ↑ (2004). Contrasting Roles of Basolateral Amygdala and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Impulsive Choice. Journal of Neuroscience 24 (20): 4718–22.
- ↑ 92.0 92.1 (2011). Impulsivity, Compulsivity, and Top-Down Cognitive Control. Neuron 69 (4): 680–94.
- ↑ (2004). Separate Neural Systems Value Immediate and Delayed Monetary Rewards. Science 306 (5695): 503–7.
- ↑ (1992) "A Theory of Addiction" Choice Over Time, 331–60, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
- ↑ Rachlin, Howard (2000). "Complex Ambivalence" The Science of Self-Control, 57–81, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
- ↑ (1981). Preference reversal and delayed reinforcement. Animal Learning & Behavior 9 (4): 476–82.
- ↑ (2003). Preference reversals with food and water reinforcers in rats. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 79 (2): 233–42.
- ↑ (2005). The ecology and evolution of patience in two New World monkeys. Biology Letters 1 (2): 223–6.
- ↑ 99.0 99.1 (1997). Impulsivity and Inhibitory Control. Psychological Science 8 (1): 60–4.
- ↑ (2006). Associations between laboratory measures of executive inhibitory control and self-reported impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2): 285–94.
- ↑ 101.00 101.01 101.02 101.03 101.04 101.05 101.06 101.07 101.08 101.09 101.10 101.11 101.12 101.13 101.14 101.15 101.16 101.17 (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin 126 (2): 220–46.
- ↑ (1992). Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 121 (4): 480–506.
- ↑ Diamond, A. (May 1997). "Executive functions: Developmental perspective" in Executive Function and Developmental Psychopathology. {{{booktitle}}}, Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Division of Child Psychiatry.
- ↑ (1997). Imaging Cognition: An Empirical Review of PET Studies with Normal Subjects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9 (1): 1–26.
- ↑ (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 10 (2): 276–91.
- ↑ (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (8): 617–28.
- ↑ (2006). Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: Translation between clinical and preclinical studies. Clinical Psychology Review 26 (4): 379–95.
- ↑ (2004). Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions. Brain 127 (5): 1108–26.
- ↑ (1996). The Cerebral Cortex of the Rat and Visual Attentional Function: Dissociable Effects of Mediofrontal, Cingulate, Anterior Dorsolateral, and Parietal Cortex Lesions on a Five-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task. Cerebral Cortex 6 (3): 470–81.
- ↑ (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 50 (1–3): 7–15.
- ↑ (1999). Different Contributions of the Human Amygdala and Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex to Decision-Making. The Journal of Neuroscience 19 (13): 5473–81.
- ↑ (1999). Dopamine transporter density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Lancet 354 (9196): 2132–3.
- ↑ (2009). Evaluating Dopamine Reward Pathway in ADHD: Clinical Implications. JAMA 302 (10): 1084–91.
- ↑ 114.0 114.1 (2008). Review: Genetics of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 33 (10): 1085–99.
- ↑ (2009) "Molecular Genetics and Bioinformatics: An Outline for Neuropsychological Genetics" The Genetics of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3–26.
- ↑ (2006). The analysis of 51 genes in DSM-IV combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Molecular Psychiatry 11 (10): 934–53.
- ↑ (2011). Dopamine D4 receptor gene DRD4 and its association with psychiatric disorders. Medical Science Monitor 17 (9): RA215–20.
- ↑ (1999). Dopamine D4 Receptor-Knock-Out Mice Exhibit Reduced Exploration of Novel Stimuli. The Journal of Neuroscience 19 (21): 9550–6.
- ↑ (2006). Involvement of a polymorphism in the 5-HT2A receptor gene in impulsive behavior. Psychopharmacology 187 (1): 30–5.
- ↑ (2010). A population-specific HTR2B stop codon predisposes to severe impulsivity. Nature 468 (7327): 1061–6.
- ↑ 121.0 121.1 (2008). How behavioral decision research can enhance consumer welfare: From freedom of choice to paternalistic intervention. Marketing Letters 19 (3–4): 383.
- ↑ 122.0 122.1 (2012). Training Self-Control: A Domain-General Translational Neuroscience Approach. Child Development Perspectives: n/a.
- ↑ (2012). Executive functions and self-regulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (3): 174–80.
- ↑ (2011). Training inhibitory control. A recipe for resisting sweet temptations. Appetite 56 (2): 345–9.
- ↑ (2011). Resisting temptation: Decreasing alcohol-related affect and drinking behavior by training response inhibition. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 116 (1–3): 132–6.
- ↑ (2012). Is working memory training effective?. Psychological Bulletin 138 (4): 628–54.
- ↑ (2001). Clinical Relevance of the Primary Findings of the MTA: Success Rates Based on Severity of ADHD and ODD Symptoms at the End of Treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 40 (2): 168–79.
- ↑ (2008). Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 37 (1): 184–214.
Further reading[]
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text:
About the book, Star Trek Section 31: Control
- Series: Star Trek
- Mass Market Paperback: 368 pages
- Publisher: Pocket Books/Star Trek (March 28, 2017)
- Language: English
From the New York Times bestselling author David Mack comes an original, thrilling Section 31 novel set in the Star Trek: The Next Generation universe!
No law…no conscience…no mercy. Amoral, shrouded in secrecy, and answering to no one, Section 31 is the mysterious covert operations division of Starfleet, a rogue shadow group pledged to defend the Federation at any cost. The discovery of a two-hundred-year-old secret gives Doctor Julian Bashir his best chance yet to expose and destroy the illegal spy organization. But his foes won't go down without a fight, and his mission to protect the Federation he loves just end up triggering its destruction. Only one thing is for certain: this time, the price of victory will be paid with Bashir's dearest blood. (via Amazon)
Buy, read, and discuss this book:
Amazon | Barnes & Noble | Goodreads
About the author, David Mack
DAVID MACK is the award-winning and New York Times bestselling author of over three dozen novels and numerous short works of science fiction, fantasy, and adventure, including the STAR TREK DESTINY trilogy.
Beyond prose, Mack's writing credits span several media, including television (for episodes of STAR TREK: DEEP SPACE NINE) and comic books.
Mack's most recent novels are THE MIDNIGHT FRONT and THE IRON CODEX, the first two books of his DARK ARTS series from Tor Books.
His upcoming works include THE SHADOW COMMISSION, book three of Dark Arts, coming in 2020, and a new STAR TREK: THE NEXT GENERATION novel, COLLATERAL DAMAGE, on October 8, 2019. (via Amazon)
Connect with David:
My Thoughts
This novel is two years old, but I only read it last week, because somehow, I missed it. My timing was not the best – reading this story concurrently with the last episodes of Star Trek: Discovery's second season, which was also about Section 31's AI Control, though, not the same story (though some themes were naturally similar, as you might expect whenever you deal with a super-intelligent AI) had me wishing the Discovery writers were telling Mack's story.
Alas, they were not. And Discovery, which I love, is it's own thing.
So, what about Control. Well, this novel takes place in two time periods. One is at the dawn of the Federation, and involves a civilian scientist who has created a threat assessment logarithm that he sells to the Federation. If you've read any of the articles about how the back room folks at Amazon, Google, and Apple work with Alexa, and Siri and such, you can understand where some of the inspiration came from. The characters in that section of the novel, with the exception of passing mentions of Archer, are largely original creations, but they mesh well with the Star Trek universe. I felt the 'past' parts of the story made sense, especially given our current level of technology and the growing dependence on "smart" devices.
The "contemporary" part of the story is in the post-Nemesis timeline of current TrekLit canon, and features Julian Bashir and Sarina Douglas in their current guise as interstellar people of mystery… I mean special ops agents. I was never a particular fan of Bashir when DS9 was on, but he matured as a character as I've matured as a person, a viewer, and a reader, and now I really enjoy visits with him.
Data and Lal (resurrected in previous novels) also feature heavily in the contemporary part of the story, but I find myself never sure I "like" this new version of Data. Yes, this slightly jaded, slightly bitter, lonely, isolated version of him makes sense after all he's been through – in another novel he, himself, described himself as "Data 2.0" – but there's something hollow about him that makes him difficult for me to connect with. (I'm sure that's just a fangirl reaction.)
Overall, I found this novel to be well-paced, balancing the two time periods really well, with the sections in the early Federation really building well to the world we are so much more familiar with as fans.
As much as I found the story interesting and compelling, I also found it a bit prescient. As I was reading it, those aforementioned articles about Alexa and Siri kept coming back to haunt me, but so did the line from Harry Potter about never trusting anything that appears to think for itself unless you can see where it keeps its brain.
Goes well with peach cobbler… and piping hot raktajino, obviously.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Recruiting Study Subjects Guidance for Institutional Review Boards and Clinical Investigators January 1998
FDA requires that an Institutional Review Board (IRB) review and have authority to approve, require modifications in, or disapprove all research activities covered by the IRB regulations [21 CFR 56.109(a)]. An IRB is required to ensure that appropriate safeguards exist to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects [21 CFR 56.107(a) and 56.111]. In fulfilling these responsibilities, an IRB is expected to review all the research documents and activities that bear directly on the rights and welfare of the subjects of proposed research. The protocol, the consent document and, for studies conducted under the Investigational New Drug (IND) regulations, the investigator's brochure are examples of documents that the IRB should review. The IRB should also review the methods and material that investigators propose to use to recruit subjects.
Media Advertising:
Direct advertising for research subjects, i.e., advertising that is intended to be seen or heard by prospective subjects to solicit their participation in a study, is not in and of itself, an objectionable practice. Direct advertising includes, but is not necessarily limited to: newspaper, radio, TV, bulletin boards, posters, and flyers that are intended for prospective subjects. Not included are: (1) communications intended to be seen or heard by health professionals, such as "dear doctor" letters and doctor-to-doctor letters (even when soliciting for study subjects), (2) news stories and (3) publicity intended for other audiences, such as financial page advertisements directed toward prospective investors.
IRB review and approval of listings of clinical trials on the internet would provide no additional safeguard and is not required when the system format limits the information provided to basic trial information, such as: the title; purpose of the study; protocol summary; basic eligibility criteria; study site location(s); and how to contact the site for further information. Examples of clinical trial listing services that do not require prospective IRB approval include the National Cancer Institute's cancer clinical trial listing (PDQ) and the government-sponsored AIDS Clinical Trials Information Service (ACTIS). However, when the opportunity to add additional descriptive information is not precluded by the data base system, IRB review and approval may assure that the additional information does not promise or imply a certainty of cure or other benefit beyond what is contained in the protocol and the informed consent document.
FDA considers direct advertising for study subjects to be the start of the informed consent and subject selection process. Advertisements should be reviewed and approved by the IRB as part of the package for initial review. However, when the clinical investigator decides at a later date to advertise for subjects, the advertising may be considered an amendment to the ongoing study. When such advertisements are easily compared to the approved consent document, the IRB chair, or other designated IRB member, may review and approve by expedited means, as provided by 21 CFR 56.110(b)(2). When the IRB reviewer has doubts or other complicating issues are involved, the advertising should be reviewed at a convened meeting of the IRB.
FDA expects IRBs to review the advertising to assure that it is not unduly coercive and does not promise a certainty of cure beyond what is outlined in the consent and the protocol. This is especially critical when a study may involve subjects who are likely to be vulnerable to undue influence. [21 CFR 50.20, 50.25, 56.111(a)(3), 56.111(b) and 812.20(b)(11).]
When direct advertising is to be used, the IRB should review the information contained in the advertisement and the mode of its communication, to determine that the procedure for recruiting subjects is not coercive and does not state or imply a certainty of favorable outcome or other benefits beyond what is outlined in the consent document and the protocol. The IRB should review the final copy of printed advertisements to evaluate the relative size of type used and other visual effects. When advertisements are to be taped for broadcast, the IRB should review the final audio/video tape. The IRB may review and approve the wording of the advertisement prior to taping to preclude re-taping because of inappropriate wording. The review of the final taped message prepared from IRB-approved text may be accomplished through expedited procedures. The IRB may wish to caution the clinical investigators to obtain IRB approval of message text prior to taping, in order to avoid re-taping because of inappropriate wording.
No claims should be made, either explicitly or implicitly, that the drug, biologic or device is safe or effective for the purposes under investigation, or that the test article is known to be equivalent or superior to any other drug, biologic or device. Such representation would not only be misleading to subjects but would also be a violation of the Agency's regulations concerning the promotion of investigational drugs [21 CFR 312.7(a)] and of investigational devices [21 CFR 812.7(d)].
Advertising for recruitment into investigational drug, biologic or device studies should not use terms such as "new treatment," "new medication" or "new drug" without explaining that the test article is investigational. A phrase such as "receive new treatments" leads study subjects to believe they will be receiving newly improved products of proven worth.
Advertisements should not promise "free medical treatment," when the intent is only to say subjects will not be charged for taking part in the investigation. Advertisements may state that subjects will be paid, but should not emphasize the payment or the amount to be paid, by such means as larger or bold type.
Generally, FDA believes that any advertisement to recruit subjects should be limited to the information the prospective subjects need to determine their eligibility and interest. When appropriately worded, the following items may be included in advertisements. It should be noted, however, that FDA does not require inclusion of all of the listed items.
- the name and address of the clinical investigator and/or research facility;
- the condition under study and/or the purpose of the research;
- in summary form, the criteria that will be used to determine eligibility for the study;
- a brief list of participation benefits, if any (e.g., a no-cost health examination);
- the time or other commitment required of the subjects; and
- the location of the research and the person or office to contact for further information.
Receptionist Scripts
The first contact prospective study subjects make is often with a receptionist who follows a script to determine basic eligibility for the specific study. The IRB should assure the procedures followed adequately protect the rights and welfare of the prospective subjects. In some cases personal and sensitive information is gathered about the individual. The IRB should have assurance that the information will be appropriately handled. A simple statement such as "confidentiality will be maintained" does not adequately inform the IRB of the procedures that will be used.
Examples of issues that are appropriate for IRB review: What happens to personal information if the caller ends the interview or simply hangs up? Are the data gathered by a marketing company? If so, are names, etc. sold to others? Are names of non-eligibles maintained in case they would qualify for another study? Are paper copies of records shredded or are readable copies put out as trash? The acceptability of the procedures would depend on the sensitivity of the data gathered, including; personal, medical and financial.
Submit Comments
Submit comments on this guidance document electronically via docket ID: FDA-2013-S-0610 - Specific Electronic Submissions Intended For FDA's Dockets Management Staff (i.e., Citizen Petitions, Draft Proposed Guidance Documents, Variances, and other administrative record submissions)
If unable to submit comments online, please mail written comments to:
Dockets Management
Food and Drug Administration
5630 Fishers Lane, Rm 1061
Rockville, MD 20852
All comments should be identified with the title of the guidance.


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Sat, Jul 25
|Liberty Road Volunteer Fire Company
Food Truck Extravaganza
Stop, drop and eat, the Liberty Road Volunteer Fire Company invites you to join us for an exciting event as we will be hosting some of Baltimore's favorite food trucks on Wednesdays! Bring the family for an evening of food and fun. Carry Out Only.
Registration is Closed
See other eventsTime & Location
Jul 25, 2020, 12:00 PM – 4:00 PM
Liberty Road Volunteer Fire Company, 10010 Liberty Rd, Randallstown, MD 21133, USA
About the Event
Food trucks this week will include 2 Bold Chefs, B More Greek, Diner on the Go, Just Jazz and Kim's desserts.
It is MANDATORY that guests and the food trucks comply with social distancing procedures in place at the event. Failure to do so will result in your removal from the event.
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In August many New Yorkers flee their hometown to escape the sticky heat and herds of tourists; this August make your friends in the Catskills green with envy when you tell them about all the shenanigans you got up to in The Big Apple while they were swatting mosquitoes! This week has lots of jealousy worthy events in store!
This evening, if it doesn't rain, The Asphalt Orchestra will be performing as part of the Lincoln Center Out of Doors Festival:
An iconoclastic 12-piece marching band conceived by Bang on a Can premieres ambitious processional music from every corner of the music world, works that coax funk from the funereal and would make a halftime show sparkle with sophistication. Choreographer Susan Marshall weds parade spectacle to new pieces by Tyondai Braxton (of Battles), Goran Bregovic, and Stew and Heidi Rodewald, and arrangements of songs by Björk, Meshuggah, Mingus, Nancarrow, and Zappa.
If it rains they'll be performing throughout August so you'll have more chances to experience this funky version of a marching band.
Also at the whim of the weather gods, Waltz with Bashir may be screening in Socrates Sculpture Park this evening; for an audience numbed to the violence shown on the news this animated film is somehow more real than a traditional documentary. Here's the trailer:
On Thursday check out a special shorts screening of work by Peter Buntaine and Lorenzo Gattorna of New York(er) Shorts on a rooftop in Bushwick (15 Lawton Street, Brooklyn; films screen at sunset).
If you're interested in seeing some better known short films outdoors spend your Thursday evening in Central Park where Ashbury Shorts will be screening at Summerstage:
New York City's longest running exhibition of award-winning independent short films presents "An Evening of the World's Best Short Films," featuring live music, celebrity guests, and noteworthy, festival award-winning short films compiled over the past ten years. Films to be featured include: Super Powers – Best Short Film, 2007 Tribeca Film Festival; Yours Truly – voted best animated short film at over five international festivals; Stalker Guilt Syndrome – Live Action Comedy – Jonah Kaplan, Brooklyn; Tanghi Argentini – Audience Prize, Clermont-Ferrand Short Film Festival; plus other classic shorts.
For the literary amongst you there's a great reading at Solas Thursday night, courtesy of the St. Mark's Bookshop– John Joseph will read from his autobiographical work The Evolution of a Cro-Magnon, which details his experiences in the punk scene and his struggles with homelessness, addiction and insanity. Be prepared to be horrified.
If you want more laughter and less horror in your Thursday check out The Raspberry Brothers at Comix; this time they're exercising their wit on Karate Kid.
On Friday, if you missed seeing The Muppet Movie at BAM last week you have another chance to see it, this time on Pier 46 in Hudson River Park.
You also have a chance to see two great up-and-coming bands Friday night at Spike Hill. Ellis Ashbrook is playing alongside Mem (who I wrote about recently). Here's a great shot from Mem's last show:
If recent screenings of Cary Grant films have left you hungry for much much more you're in luck- BAM is having a Cary Grant Retrospective all through the month of August; here's a clip from Saturday's offering The Talk of the Town:
Saturday is a big day for electronic music. First, Boys Noize is playing on Central Park's Sumerstage. For those of you who need a full day of electronic music I bring you… The Brooklyn Electronic Music Festival! This massive event at the Old American Can Factory features performances by Juan Maclean, Young Love and Designer Drugs.
For those of you who have a favorite anime character (admit it- you have more than one), Saturday is your chance to dress the part at Brooklyn Waterfront Artist Coalition's All Day Anime Event! Keep your costume legal (no naked nymphs, etc.) and mingle with other anime enthusiasts while checking out awesome new artworks!
If you think you have what it takes to complete the Pizza Tour of Brooklyn join fellow pizzaholics for a day of serious eating this Sunday.
Have you heard of silent kung fu films? No? Well, that may be because there is only one surviving from the golden age of Chinese cinema. Rooftop Films will be bringing it to you with a new original score by Devil Music Ensemble, performed live, at the Automotive High School in Brooklyn. This screening of Red Heroine also includes a martial arts demonstration and is followed by an open bar.
Finally, to add a little art to your weekend I recommend checking out the ongoing exhibit at the Yossi Milo Gallery– Sexy and the City New York Photographs:
Sexy and the City shows the alluring, romantic and sometimes scandalous side of New York's people and places. Capturing private, intimate moments and blatant displays of sexuality, these photographs span the decades from the 1940s to the present day, taken in landmark locations like the Brooklyn Bridge and in the quiet, out-of-the-way corners of the city.
This is one photograph being displayed:
Have an excellent week(end) and stay tuned for additions!


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Aquaforest Calcium Test Pro
Aquaforest TestPro Calcium is designed to quickly measure the concentration of Calcium in marine water.
Calcium plays an important role in many biological processes, e.g. takes part in the construction of hard coral's calcium carbonate skeleton.
Calcium levels should be analysed regularly, together with other critical water parameters like Alkalinity and Magnesium. Recommended Calcium level should be maintained in the range between 400-450 mg/l (ppm).
Test Kit contains sufficient reagents to perform approx. 55-60 separate tests within that range.


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I struggle to define what Postmodern music is. I associate the genre with longer tunes, mainly instrumental and more jazz like than, say, Prog or Psychedelic. In spite of my conceptual difficulties, here is a whole mix of tunes with a postmodern vibe.
A playable playlist follows, or try this link to Grooveshark…
Public Service Broadcast – 3 clips here… Post modern in all the senses. This band played at the recent Womad festival in New Plymouth. They would have been magnificent playing on the pond stage. Their latest album recycles space travel themed audio. Watch them play and be interviewed on KEXP if you want to find out more (it's the third clip)
Chasing Rainbows from Epic, a 2012 collaboration between Ulrich Schnauss and Jonas Munk, two German producers of note.
Listen to the whole album below…
Remurdered from Mogwai's 2014 album – Rave Tapes . I saw Mogwai recently. Very loud. Nothing else to add. Did I mention that they were very loud?
Eat the City Eat It Whole by …And so i Watch You From Afar, the last track from their self titled album of 2009. Instrumental rock with lots of sonic variety.
Anchoress by Polvo from their 2013 album, Siberia. I can't find any clips of this tune, but here's a clip to give you the vibe of this 1990's band which recently started playing live again.
Isis Unveiled from the 2009 album The Century of Self by …And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead
Save me from the Cyclops by Robert Savage from The Adventures of Robert Savage Vol.1. This is an obscure band from the 1970's and no, there wasn't a volume 2. I am probably tipping over into Prog, so what.
Darker My Love – Blue Day from the album 2 (2008)
Cousin – Tension at the Lido from And Other Relations EP (2011) from Brighton (UK, not Dunedin)
The Electronic Hole – Love Will Find A Way (part 3) from The Electronic Hole – The Electronic Hole (1970). Another obscure band.
Early Morning by The Collectors from Grass and Wild Strawberries (1969). Ditto
Envy – All That's Left Has Gone To Sleep from Abyssal (2008). Japanese noise merchants. Move over Mono. Different song follows, but you get the idea.
Scouter – Broken Scouter from Scouter (2011) (Boston, Massachusetts)
Hella – Netgear from Tripper (2011) (Sacramento, USA)
No video of this song, but check out the most excellent drumming
And this what they look like live.


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Candy Crush Friends Level 343 Tips and Walkthrough Video
Candy Crush Saga Friends Level 343 Goals
- Objectives: Dunk the chocolates.
- Moves: 28
- Difficulty: Medium
Candy Crush Friends Level 343 Tips or Cheats:
Biscuit will shuffle around the board. To dip in chocolate you will need to play more from bottom to break the candies. Or make special candy by combining more same color candies to make special candy. Use them to drop the biscuits in chocolates.


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Caldav calendar & icalserver
For quite a while now I've been using Apple's ICal server on FreeBSD and Sunbird/Lightning as a front end to the calendar. However, one thing that has always annoyed me was the lack of a web frontend to my calendars. Well today after searching on a completely different topic I found a javascript front end [..more..]


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Filed under: Buildings & Projects,Event,VWER | Tags: aj kelton, anthony fontana, bgsu, bonnie mitchell, jon richter, slurl, VWER
Today marks an inaugural event on the BGSU Virtual Campus in Second Life. The Virtual World Educators Roundtable (VWER) will host it's first meeting on BGSU Community Island (SLURL: http://slurl.com/secondlife/BGSU%20Community/53/86/25). Today's 5:30pm ET (2:30pm SLT) meeting will feature a special interview Jon Richter about CLiVE (the Center for Learning in Virtual Environments), the ARVEL SIG, and much more. This interview will be conducted by VWER founder AJ Kelton. For more info visit VWER.org.
Next week's meeting will feature BGSU's own Bonnie Mitchell and Anthony Fontana, Virtual Campus Co-Administrators. They will be discussing the new features and virtual world initiatives on the BGSU Virtual Campus.


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Online casino gambling is handier than gaming at the land-based casino. However it is also more bad. Rather than the usual risks which found while gaming, there's some risk of scams and fraud at web-based casino sites. These scams are really pure. The web is the simple target for all sorts of dishonest peoples and scammers, and few of them target only those who play on the online market place.
People will likely have different reasons why they gamble, but phrase gambling may not be a negative word a lot of people thinking. People gamble for entertainment or to make some cash. You can earn money from poker. There are a lot of opportunities during the web providing online gambling advantages to players.
There are many different aspects to this hobby and is primarily what makes it such an unique hobby for so enough time. Some synthetic to simply collect racing slot large cars and trucks. Some people collect only vintage racing used cars. Others love nothing more than meeting a regarding friends to a track the evening of friendly competitive racing.
The fourth point to be able to make regarding the bonuses the casinos tender each opportunity you receive and continuously make sure you investigate the casino's rules so you sure you be knowledgable about the details in it.
The savings section of this particular toy machine is apart from the part used for playing. Financial institution will accept 98% for this coins used worldwide. Increasing your spinning reels that are wider than many other replicated Slot machines. Their bank is sixteen.5 inches tall and will turn into wonderful addition to any home or bar area for the conversation and also the play it will make available.
Social networks could also tap into this booming market. Networks like Facebook, MySpace, Google+, etc could create an app for quick access to online Gambling. Their software will arrange them in the prime spot develop users for online Gambling. These social network already is related with many business for straightforward access. 1bandar is bound to blow up if this is the case.
While this Antique Video slot has many methods from a lifetime warranty, a plug-in capability, a reset button to alter difficulties to token play, you never know what organization get. They make reason we tell you this is really because we've purchased four every single one pros are alternative. Sure, each one is a Jackpot Skill Stop Slot Machine, however the reels vary on 1. We like variety so ended up being nice to build different a.
You need to consider warding off annoying people when playing slots so that you can have your full attention at basketball. It is normal for slot players to get distracted when they see annoying people when playing video slot games.


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Early days but a few teaching fails online talking to a blank wall of distracted teens is slowly emerging into something that will engage them - even if they want to be off camera and mostly silent. My eclectic mix is a challenge. I don't get to know a group of students, even a particular cohort or subject specialism.
Four simple lessons learnt:
> it matters to be a 'subject matter expert' as you can talk, discuss and provide an inventive and relevant response to meet the needs or interests of the students or group at the time.
> channelled enthusiasm goes a long way, not gushing, nor over-confident, but the person at the helm with a sense of the direction to take.
> a video conference (as only the BBC will call it) i.e. Zoom (even if you're on Google Meet) can be as EdTech as it needs to be. The camera, microphone and Chat are enough to take a class and enough for most people if it is there first time. There is no need to throw in extras like slow 'death by PowerPoint', or faster 'death by PowerPoint' by making it interactive with the likes of PearDeck or Nearpod. A Google Form Quiz will do.
> where analogue meets digital. Hold something up to the camera. Prof Sir Hew Strachan couldn't be doing with 'present now' screens so during his gripping talk on the First World War he simply held up the covers of two or three books. I've taken to using a mini whiteboard while I am asking students to draw a Venn Diagram or Mind Map on whatever comes to hand. When they are done they hold it up to the screen - it works! Some go digital and use their phone or tablet, others get artistic with coloured pencils while others just doodle a thing on the back of an envelope. I can screenshot what they show me (I should have a recording of the class anyway) and for better resolution they can upload, share or email me their efforts.


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HAVE you got team spirit?
I'm referring to liking one team more than another. I'm talking about being so identified with one team or one school or one community that you call them "ours" or "we" when they win, even though you are not literally on the baseball team.
The fiercest rivalry in college sports in Los Angeles is between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the University of Southern California (USC). Fans come down on one side or the other, with no divided loyalties.
At my Bible study group, some of the guys enjoy some friendly ribbing regarding USC and UCLA, mostly over the outcome of the respective football and basketball teams.
Being from New York, I was brought up by my father to be a New York Yankees fan. He took me in his Chevy Impala to see Mickey Mantle, Bobby Richardson and Joe Pepitone play. Later, I would drive to the South Bronx to cheer on Willie Randolph, Ron Guidry and Graig Nettles.
I still like the Yanks, but really, I like baseball.
That means, I will cheer on other teams and even cheer another player from a "rival" team if he made a good play. Not being a Dodger fan, I admire Nomar Garciaparra as a very good player and a great guy. I enjoyed watching the Jackie Robinson tribute.
In college, can school spirit create a cliquish atmosphere? Can it segregate or be dangerous, especially if one doesn't live and breathe school spirit? Or if one rejects it?
A psychologist was asked last week why school massacres occur mostly in small towns. He said often, places like University of Texas or Virginia Tech or Columbine have strong, sometimes smothering school identities. You're either a Longhorn or a Hokie – no room for anything else. If you're not doing the body painting and the identity disappearing act, then you're an outcast. Criticize that school and you are labeled a traitor.
The psychologist on the TV talk show said the misfits of VT, UT, Columbine, etc., are so outcast that they lose all hope. The mentally unstable can blow. In physics talk, the force has no positive way to flow, so it finds an outlet.
I had an uncle in NYC who spoke of this in Italian family metaphors. "You're either in or out," he'd say. You're either family or not. He'd jokingly come up to my sister-in-law – a Jew – who married my brother and say: "You can never be in. You'll always be out." He said the same thing to my wife, who hails from a white, Protestant, Scots-Irish background.
I always dismissed his antics as harmless joking. Likewise, I never saw anything sinister about "being true to your school now" as the Beach Boys sang 44 years ago.
Then it happened. I attended a "Jeopardy!" college championship taping Sunday on the USC campus. My wife, Karen, and my two boys, Matt, 17, and Andy, 15, are huge "Jeopardy!" buffs. Matt even tried out for the high school tournament and got a call back, but he fell a few answers shy of an appearance.
Of the three contestants was Cliff from UCLA. The USC people in the audience were rooting against the kid from UCLA from the get-go. The USC marching band was gesturing in appreciation when he missed a question. I know, I sat directly behind them. They didn't applaud when he answered a "Daily Double" correctly. Even the adults, many dressed in USC cardinal and gold, did not cheer on the UCLA scholar. And these were adults – alums.
I was flabbergasted.
There was not a contestant competing from USC, and yet these USC alums and students still could not cheer a student from UCLA answering questions on a game show. That's taking this school loyalty thing way too far.
Perhaps there's something to that psychologists' assessment of school spirit.
One final note: I attended University of California, Irvine in the late '70s. The school did not have a "serious" mascot because they didn't want the school to focus on athletics, so the students mockingly chose an anteater. Well, guess what? It stuck. They are the UCI Anteaters today, but the school does not have a football team.
I remember UCI founding Chancellor Dan Aldrich, who passed away in 1990, would tell the story about how the school did not have fraternities or sororities either. Again, the idea was not to divide the school society. Not to set up cliques where students not rich enough or not good-looking enough can feel ostracized or outcast. When I left UCI, the "Greek" movement had begun, to Aldrich's displeasure.
Guess it is hard to stop human nature.
I can't help but wonder if the joke is on them. That students who have to identify so heavily with a team or a school or a fraternity miss out on developing their own identity. It's like that old Groucho Marx joke: I wouldn't want to join a club that would have me as a member.