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Psychopathology of Everyday Life by Sigmund Freud, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here. FORGETTING OF IMPRESSIONS AND RESOLUTIONS
If any one should be inclined to overrate the state of our present knowledge of mental life, all that would be needed to force him to assume a modest attitude would be to remind him of the function of memory. No psychologic theory has yet been able to account for the connection between the fundamental phenomena of remembering and forgetting; indeed, even the complete analysis of that which one can actually observe has as yet scarcely been grasped. To-day forgetting has perhaps grown more puzzling than remembering, especially since we have learned from the study of dreams and pathologic states that even what for a long time we believed forgotten may suddenly return to consciousness.
To be sure, we are in possession of some view-points which we hope will receive general recognition. Thus we assume that forgetting is a spontaneous process to which we may ascribe a certain temporal discharge. We emphasize[Pg 136] the fact that, just as among the units of every impression or experience, in forgetting, too, a certain selection takes place among the existing impressions. We are acquainted with some of the conditions that underlie the tenaciousness of memory and the awakening of that which would otherwise remain forgotten. Nevertheless, we can observe in innumerable cases of daily life how unreliable and unsatisfactory our knowledge of the mechanism is. Thus we may listen to two persons exchanging reminiscences concerning the same outward impressions, say of a journey that they have taken together some time before. What remains most firmly in the memory of the one is often forgotten by the other, as if it had never occurred, even when there is not the slightest reason to assume that this impression is of greater psychic importance for the one than for the other. A great many of those factors which determine the selective power of memory are obviously still beyond our ken.
With the purpose of adding some small contribution to the knowledge of the conditions of forgetting, I was wont to subject to a psychologic analysis those cases in which forgetting concerned me personally. As a rule I took up only a certain group of those cases, namely, those in which the forgetting astonished me, because, in my opinion, I should have remembered[Pg 137] the experience in question. I wish further to remark that I am generally not inclined to forgetfulness (of things experienced, not of things learned), and that for a short period of my youth I was able to perform extraordinary feats of memory. When I was a schoolboy it was quite natural for me to be able to repeat from memory the page of a book which I had read; and shortly before I entered the University I could write down practically verbatim the popular lectures on scientific subjects directly after hearing them. In the tension before the final medical examination I must have made use of the remnant of this ability, for in certain subjects I gave the examiners apparently automatic answers, which proved to be exact reproductions of the text-book, which I had skimmed through but once and then in greatest haste.
Since those days I have steadily lost control over my memory; of late, however, I became convinced that with the aid of a certain artifice I can recall far more than I would otherwise credit myself with remembering. For example, when, during my office hours, a patient states that I have seen him before and I cannot recall either the fact or the time, then I help myself by guessing—that is, I allow a number of years, beginning from the present time, to come to my mind quickly. Whenever this could be controlled by records of definite information from[Pg 138] the patient, it was always shown that in over ten years[30] I have seldom missed it by more than six months. The same thing happens when I meet a casual acquaintance and, from politeness, inquire about his small child. When he tells of its progress I try to fancy how old the child now is. I control my estimate by the information given by the father, and at most I make a mistake of a month, and in older children of three months. I cannot state, however, what basis I have for this estimate. Of late I have grown so bold that I always offer my estimate spontaneously, and still run no risk of grieving the father by displaying my ignorance in regard to his offspring. Thus I extend my conscious memory by invoking my larger unconscious memory.
I shall report some striking examples of forgetting which for the most part I have observed in myself. I distinguish forgetting of impressions and experiences, that is, the forgetting of knowledge, from forgetting of resolutions, that is, the forgetting of omissions. The uniform result of the entire series of observations I can formulate as follows: The forgetting in all cases is proved to be founded on a motive of displeasure.
A. Forgetting of Impressions and Knowledge.
(a) During the summer my wife once made me very angry, although the cause in itself was trifling. We sat in a restaurant opposite a gentleman from Vienna whom I knew, and who had cause to know me, and whose acquaintance I had reasons for not wishing to renew. My wife, who had heard nothing to the disrepute of the man opposite her, showed by her actions that she was listening to his conversation with his neighbours, for from time to time she asked me questions which took up the thread of their discussion. I became impatient and finally irritated. A few weeks later I complained to a relative about this behaviour on the part of my wife, but I was not able to recall even a single word of the conversation of the gentleman in the case. As I am usually rather resentful and cannot forget a single incident of an episode that has annoyed me, my amnesia in this case was undoubtedly determined by respect for my wife.
A short time ago I had a similar experience. I wished to make merry with an intimate friend over a statement made by my wife only a few hours earlier, but I found myself hindered by the noteworthy fact that I had entirely forgotten the statement. I had first to beg my wife to[Pg 140] recall it to me. It is easy to understand that my forgetting in this case may be analogous to the typical disturbance of judgment which dominates us when it concerns those nearest to us.
(b) To oblige a woman who was a stranger in Vienna I had undertaken to procure a small iron safe for the preservation of documents and money. When I offered my services, the image of an establishment in the heart of the city where I was sure I had seen such safes floated before me with extraordinary visual vividness. To be sure, I could not recall the name of the street, but I felt certain that I would discover the store in a walk through the city, for my memory told me that I had passed it countless times. To my chagrin I could not find this establishment with the safes, though I walked through the inner part of the city in every direction. I concluded that the only thing left to do was to search through a business directory, and if that failed, to try to identify the establishment in a second round of the city. It did not, however, require so much effort; among the addresses in the directory I found one which immediately presented itself as that which had been forgotten. It was true that I had passed the show window countless times, each time, however, when I had gone to visit the M. family, who have lived a great many years in this identical building. After[Pg 141] this intimate friendship had turned to an absolute estrangement, I had taken care to avoid the neighbourhood as well as the house, though without ever thinking of the reason for my action. In my walk through the city searching for the safe in the show window I had traversed every street in the neighbourhood but the right one, and I had avoided this as if it were forbidden ground.
The motive of displeasure which was at the bottom of my disorientation is thus comprehensible. But the mechanism of forgetting is no longer so simple as in the former example. Here my aversion naturally does not extend to the vendor of safes, but to another person, concerning whom I wish to know nothing, and later transfers itself from the latter to this incident where it brings about the forgetting. Similarly, in the case of Burckhard mentioned above, the grudge against the one brought about the error in writing the name of the other. The similarity of names which here established a connection between two essentially different streams of thought was accomplished in the showcase window instance by the contiguity of space and the inseparable environment. Moreover, this latter case was more closely knit together, for money played a great part in the causation of the estrangement from the family living in this house.
[Pg 142]
(c) The B. and R. Company requested me to pay a professional call on one of their officers. On my way to him I was engrossed in the thought that I must already have been in the building occupied by the firm. It seemed as if I used to see their signboard in a lower story while my professional visit was taking me to a higher story. I could not recall, however, which house it was nor when I had called there. Although the entire matter was indifferent and of no consequence, I nevertheless occupied myself with it, and at last learned in the usual roundabout way, by collecting the thoughts that occurred to me in this connection, that one story above the floor occupied by the firm B. and R. was the Pension Fischer, where I had frequently visited patients. Then I remembered the building which sheltered both the company and the pension.
I was still puzzled, however, as to the motive that entered into play in this forgetting. I found nothing disagreeable in my memory concerning the firm itself or the Pension Fischer, or the patients living there. I was also aware that it could not deal with anything very painful, otherwise I hardly would have been successful in tracing the thing forgotten in a roundabout way without resorting to external aid, as happened in the preceding example. Finally it occurred to me that a little before, while starting on my[Pg 143] way to a new patient, a gentleman whom I had difficulty in recalling greeted me in the street. Some months previously I had seen this man in an apparently serious condition and had made the diagnosis of general paresis, but later I had learned of his recovery, consequently my judgment had been incorrect. Was it not possible that we had in this case a remission, which one usually finds in dementia paralytica? In that contingency my diagnosis would still be justified. The influence emanating from this meeting caused me to forget the neighbourhood of the B. and R. Company, and my interest to discover the thing forgotten was transferred from this case of disputed diagnosis. But the associative connection in this loose inner relation was effected by means of a similarity of names: the man who recovered, contrary to expectation, was also an officer of a large company that recommends patients to me. And the physician with whom I had seen the supposed paretic bore the name of Fischer, the name of the pension in the house which I had forgotten.
(d) Mislaying a thing really has the same significance as forgetting where we have placed it. Like most people delving in pamphlets and books, I am well oriented about my desk, and can produce what I want with one lunge. What appears to others as disorder has become for me perfect order. Why, then, did I mislay a[Pg 144] catalogue which was sent to me not long ago so that it could not be found? What is more, it had been my intention to order a book which I found announced therein, entitled Ueber die Sprache, because it was written by an author whose spirited, vivacious style I like, whose insight into psychology and whose knowledge of the cultural world I have learned to appreciate. I believe that was just why I mislaid the catalogue. It was my habit to lend the books of this author among my friends for their enlightenment, and a few days before, on returning one, somebody had said: "His style reminds me altogether of yours, and his way of thinking is identical." The speaker did not know what he was stirring up with this remark. Years ago, when I was younger and in greater need of forming alliances, I was told practically the same thing by an older colleague, to whom I had recommended the writings of a familiar medical author. To put it in his words, "It is absolutely your style and manner." I was so influenced by these remarks that I wrote a letter to this author with the object of bringing about a closer relation, but a rather cool answer put me back "in my place." Perhaps still earlier discouraging experiences conceal themselves behind this last one, for I did not find the mislaid catalogue. Through this premonition I was actually prevented from ordering the advertised[Pg 145] book, although the disappearance of the catalogue formed no real hindrance, as I remembered well both the name of the book and the author.
(e) Another case of mislaying merits our interest on account of the conditions under which the mislaid object was rediscovered. A younger man narrates as follows: "Several years ago there were some misunderstandings between me and my wife. I found her too cold, and though I fully appreciated her excellent qualities, we lived together without evincing any tenderness for each other. One day on her return from a walk she gave me a book which she had bought because she thought it would interest me. I thanked her for this mark of 'attention,' promised to read the book, put it away, and did not find it again. So months passed, during which I occasionally remembered the lost book, and also tried in vain to find it.
"About six months later my beloved mother, who was not living with us, became ill. My wife left home to nurse her mother-in-law. The patient's condition became serious and gave my wife the opportunity to show the best side of herself. One evening I returned home full of enthusiasm over what my wife had accomplished, and felt very grateful to her. I stepped to my desk and, without definite intention but with the certainty of a somnambulist, I opened a certain[Pg 146] drawer, and in the very top of it I found the long-missing, mislaid book."
The following example of "misplacing" belongs to a type well known to every psychoanalyst. I must add that the patient who experienced this misplacing has himself found the solution of it.
This patient, whose psychoanalytic treatment had to be interrupted through the summer vacation when he was in a state of resistance and ill-health, put away his keys in the evening in their usual place, or so he thought. He then remembered that he wished to take some things from his desk, where he also had put the money which he needed on the journey. He was to depart the next day, which was the last day of treatment and the date when the doctor's fee was due. But the keys had disappeared.
He began a thorough and systematic search through his small apartment. He became more and more excited over it, but his search was unsuccessful. As he recognized this "misplacement" as a symptomatic act—that is, as being intentional—he aroused his servant in order to continue his search with the help of an "unprejudiced" person. After another hour he gave up the search and feared that he had lost the keys. The next morning he ordered new keys from the desk factory, which were hurriedly made for him. Two acquaintances who had[Pg 147] been with him in a cab even recalled hearing something fall to the ground as he stepped out of the cab, and he was therefore convinced that the keys had slipped from his pocket. They were found lying between a thick book and a thin pamphlet, the latter a work of one of my pupils, which he wished to take along as reading matter for his vacation; and they were so skilfully placed that no one would have supposed that they were there. He himself was unable to replace the keys in such a position as to render them invisible. The unconscious skill with which an object is misplaced on account of secret but strong motives reminds one of "somnambulistic sureness." The motive was naturally ill-humour over the interruption of the treatment and the secret rage over the fact that he had to pay such a high fee when he felt so ill.
(f) Brill relates:[31] "A man was urged by his wife to attend a social function in which he really took no interest. Yielding to his wife's entreaties, he began to take his dress-suit from the trunk when he suddenly thought of shaving. After accomplishing this he returned to the trunk and found it locked. Despite a long, earnest search the key could not be found. A locksmith could not be found on Sunday evening, so that the couple had to send their regrets. On having[Pg 148] the trunk opened the next morning the lost key was found within. The husband had absent-mindedly dropped the key into the trunk and sprung the lock. He assured me that this was wholly unintentional and unconscious, but we know that he did not wish to go to this social affair. The mislaying of the key therefore lacked no motive."
Ernest Jones noticed in himself that he was in the habit of mislaying his pipe whenever he suffered from the effects of over-smoking. The pipe was then found in some unusual place where it did not belong and which it normally did not occupy.
If one looks over the cases of mislaying it will be difficult to assume that mislaying is anything other than the result of an unconscious intention.
(g) In the summer of 1901 I once remarked to a friend with whom I was then actively engaged in exchanging ideas on scientific questions: "These neurotic problems can be solved only if we take the position of absolutely accepting an original bi-sexuality in every individual." To which he replied: "I told you that two and a half years ago while we were taking an evening walk in Br. At that time you wouldn't listen to it."
It is truly painful to be thus requested to renounce one's originality. I could neither recall[Pg 149] such a conversation nor my friend's revelation. One of us must be mistaken; and according to the principle of the question cui prodest? I must be the one. Indeed, in the course of the following weeks everything came back to me just as my friend had recalled it. I myself remembered that at that time I gave the answer: "I have not yet got so far, and I do not care to discuss it." But since this incident I have grown more tolerant when I miss any mention of my name in medical literature in connection with ideas for which I deserve credit.
It is scarcely accidental that the numerous examples of forgetting which have been collected without any selection should require for their solution the introduction of such painful themes as exposing of one's wife; a friendship that has turned into the opposite; a mistake in medical diagnosis; enmity on account of similar pursuits, or the borrowing of somebody's ideas. I am rather inclined to believe that every person who will undertake an inquiry into the motives underlying his forgetting will be able to fill up a similar sample card of vexatious circumstances. The tendency to forget the disagreeable seems to me to be quite general; the capacity for it is naturally differently developed in different persons. Certain denials which we encounter in medical practice can probably be ascribed[Pg 150] to forgetting.[32] Our conception of such forgetting confines the distinction between this and that behaviour to purely psychologic relations, and permits us to see in both forms of reaction the expression of the same motive. Of the numerous examples of denials of unpleasant recollection which I have observed in kinsmen of patients, one remains in my memory as especially singular.
A mother telling me of the childhood of her nervous son, now in his puberty, made the statement that, like his brothers and sisters, he was subject to bed-wetting throughout his childhood,[Pg 151] a symptom which certainly has some significance in a history of a neurotic patient. Some weeks later, while seeking information regarding the treatment, I had occasion to call her attention to signs of a constitutional morbid predisposition in the young man, and at the same time referred to the bed-wetting recounted in the anamnesis. To my surprise she contested this fact concerning him, denying it as well for the other children, and asked me how I could possibly know this. Finally I let her know that she herself had told me a short time before what she had thus forgotten.[33]
[Pg 152]
One also finds abundant indications which show that even in healthy, not neurotic, persons resistances are found against the memory of disagreeable impressions and the idea of painful thoughts.[34] But the full significance of this fact can be estimated only when we enter into the psychology of neurotic persons. One is forced to make such elementary defensive striving[Pg 153] against ideas which can awaken painful feelings, a striving which can be put side by side only with the flight-reflex in painful stimuli, as the main pillar of the mechanism which carries the hysterical symptoms. One need not offer any objection to the acceptance of such defensive tendency on the ground that we frequently find it impossible to rid ourselves of painful memories which cling to us, or to banish such painful emotions as remorse and reproaches of conscience. No one maintains that this defensive tendency invariably gains the upper hand, that in the play of psychic forces it may not strike against factors which stir up the contrary feeling for other purposes and bring it about in spite of it.
As the architectural principle of the psychic apparatus we may conjecture a certain stratification or structure of instances deposited in strata. And it is quite possible that this defensive tendency belongs to a lower psychic instance, and[Pg 154] is inhibited by higher instances. At all events, it speaks for the existence and force of this defensive tendency, when we can trace it to processes such as those found in our examples of forgetting. We see then that something is forgotten for its own sake, and where this is not possible the defensive tendency misses the target and causes something else to be forgotten—something less significant, but which has fallen into associative connection with the disagreeable material.
The views here developed, namely, that painful memories merge into motivated forgetting with special ease, merits application in many spheres where as yet it has found no, or scarcely any, recognition. Thus it seems to me that it has not yet been strongly enough emphasized in the estimation of testimony taken in court,[35] where the putting of a witness under oath obviously leads us to place too great a trust on the purifying influence of his psychic play of forces. It is universally admitted that in the origin of the traditions and folklore of a people care must be taken to eliminate from memory such a motive as would be painful to the national feeling. Perhaps on closer investigation it may be possible to form a perfect analogy between the manner of development of national traditions and infantile reminiscences of the individual. The great Darwin has formulated a "golden rule" for[Pg 155] the scientific worker from his insight into this pain-motive of forgetting.[36]
Almost exactly as in the forgetting of names, faulty recollections can also appear in the forgetting of impressions, and when finding credence they may be designated as delusions of memory. The memory disturbance in pathologic cases (in paranoia it actually plays the rôle of a constituting factor in the formation of delusions) has brought to light an extensive literature in which there is no reference whatever to its being motivated. As this theme also belongs to the psychology of the neuroses it goes beyond our present treatment. Instead, I will give from my own experience a curious example of memory disturbance showing clearly enough its determination through unconscious repressed material and its connection with this material.
While writing the latter chapters of my volume on the interpretation of dreams, I happened to be in a summer resort without access to libraries[Pg 156] and reference books, so that I was compelled to introduce into the manuscript all kinds of references and citations from memory. These I naturally reserved for future correction. In the chapter on day-dreams I thought of the distinguished figure of the poor book-keeper in Alphonse Daudet's Nabab, through whom the author probably described his own day-dreams. I imagined that I distinctly remembered one fantasy of this man, whom I called Mr. Jocelyn, which he hatched while walking the streets of Paris, and I began to reproduce it from memory. This fantasy described how Mr. Jocelyn boldly hurled himself at a runaway horse and brought it to a standstill; how the carriage door opened and a great personage stepped from the coupé, pressed Mr. Jocelyn's hand and said: "You are my saviour—I owe my life to you! What can I do for you?"
I assured myself that casual inaccuracies in the rendition of this fantasy could readily be corrected at home on consulting the book. But when I perused Nabab in order to compare it with my manuscript, I found to my very great shame and consternation that there was nothing to suggest such a dream by Mr. Jocelyn; indeed, the poor book-keeper did not even bear this name—he was called Mr. Joyeuse.
This second error then furnished the key for the solution of the first mistake, the faulty[Pg 157] reminiscence. Joyeux, of which Joyeuse is the feminine form, was the only possible word which would translate my own name Freud into French. Whence, therefore, came this falsely remembered fantasy which I had attributed to Daudet? It could only be a product of my own, a day-dream which I myself had spun, and which did not become conscious, or which was once conscious and had since been absolutely forgotten. Perhaps I invented it myself in Paris, where frequently enough I walked the streets alone, and full of longing for a helper and protector, until Charcot took me into his circle. I had often met the author of Nabab in Charcot's house. But the provoking part of it all is the fact that there is scarcely anything to which I am so hostile as the thought of being some one's protégé. What we see of this sort of thing in our country spoils all desire for it, and my character is little suited to the rôle of a protected child. I have always entertained an immense desire to "be the strong man myself." And it had to happen that I should be reminded of such a, to be sure, never fulfilled, day-dream! Besides, this incident is a good example of how the restraint relation to one's ego, which breaks forth triumphantly in paranoia, disturbs and entangles us in the objective grasp of things.
Another case of faulty recollection which can be satisfactorily explained resembles the fausse[Pg 158] reconnaissance to be discussed later. I related to one of my patients, an ambitious and very capable man, that a young student had recently gained admittance into the circle of my pupils by means of an interesting work, Der Künstler, Versuch einer Sexualpsychologie. When, a year and a quarter later, this work lay before me in print, my patient maintained that he remembered with certainty having read somewhere, perhaps in a bookseller's advertisement, the announcement of the same book even before I first mentioned it to him. He remembered that this announcement came to his mind at that time, and he ascertained besides that the author had changed the title, that it no longer read "Versuch" but "Ansätze zu einer Sexualpsychologie."
Careful inquiry of the author and comparison of all dates showed conclusively that my patient was trying to recall the impossible. No notice of this work had appeared anywhere before its publication, certainly not a year and a quarter before it went to print. However, I neglected to seek a solution for this false recollection until the same man brought about an equally valuable renewal of it. He thought that he had recently noticed a work on "agoraphobia" in the show window of a bookshop, and as he was now looking for it in all available catalogues I was able to explain to him why his effort must remain[Pg 159] fruitless. The work on agoraphobia existed only in his fantasy as an unconscious resolution to write such a book himself. His ambition to emulate that young man, and through such a scientific work to become one of my pupils, had led him to the first as well as to the second false recollection. He also recalled later that the bookseller's announcement which had occasioned his false reminiscence dealt with a work entitled Genesis, Das Gesetz der Zeugung ("Genesis, The Law of Generation"). But the change in the title as mentioned by him was really instigated by me; I recalled that I myself have perpetrated the same inaccuracy in the repetition of the title by saying "Ansätze" in place of "Versuch."
B. Forgetting of Intentions.
No other group of phenomena is better qualified to demonstrate the thesis that lack of attention does not in itself suffice to explain faulty acts as the forgetting of intentions. An intention is an impulse for an action which has already found approbation, but whose execution is postponed for a suitable occasion. Now, in the interval thus created sufficient change may take place in the motive to prevent the intention from coming to execution. It is not, however, forgotten, it is simply revised and omitted.
We are naturally not in the habit of explaining[Pg 160] the forgetting of intentions which we daily experience in every possible situation as being due to a recent change in the adjustment of motives. We generally leave it unexplained, or we seek a psychologic explanation in the assumption that at the time of execution the required attention for the action, which was an indispensable condition for the occurrence of the intention, and was then at the disposal of the same action, no longer exists. Observation of our normal behaviour towards intentions urges us to reject this tentative explanation as arbitrary. If I resolve in the morning to carry out a certain intention in the evening, I may be reminded of it several times in the course of the day, but it is not at all necessary that it should become conscious throughout the day. As the time for its execution approaches it suddenly occurs to me and induces me to make the necessary preparation for the intended action. If I go walking and take a letter with me to be posted, it is not at all necessary that I, as a normal not nervous individual, should carry it in my hand and continually look for a letter-box. As a matter of fact I am accustomed to put it in my pocket and give my thoughts free rein on my way, feeling confident that the first letter-box will attract my attention and cause me to put my hand in my pocket and draw out the letter.
This normal behaviour in a formed intention[Pg 161] corresponds perfectly with the experimentally produced conduct of persons who are under a so-called "post-hypnotic suggestion" to perform something after a certain time.[37] We are accustomed to describe the phenomenon in the following manner: the suggested intention slumbers in the person concerned until the time for its execution approaches. Then it awakes and excites the action.
In two positions of life even the layman is cognizant of the fact that forgetting referring to intended purposes can in no wise claim consideration as an elementary phenomenon no further reducible, but realizes that it ultimately depends on unadmitted motives. I refer to affairs of love and military service. A lover who is late at the appointed place will vainly tell his sweetheart that unfortunately he has entirely forgotten their rendezvous. She will not hesitate to answer him: "A year ago you would not have forgotten. Evidently you no longer care for me." Even if he should grasp the above cited psychologic explanation, and should wish to excuse his forgetting on the plea of important business, he would only elicit the answer from the woman, who has become as keen-sighted as the physician in the psychoanalytic treatment, "How remarkable that such business disturbances[Pg 162] did not occur before!" Of course the woman does not wish to deny the possibility of forgetting; but she believes, and not without reason, that practically the same inference of a certain unwillingness may be drawn from the unintentional forgetting as from a conscious subterfuge.
Similarly, in military service no distinction is recognized between an omission resulting from forgetting and one in consequence of intentional neglect. And rightly so. The soldier dares forget nothing that military service demands of him. If he forgets in spite of this, even when he is acquainted with the demands, then it is due to the fact that the motives which urge the fulfilment of the military exactions are opposed by contrary motives. Thus the one year's volunteer[38] who at inspection pleads forgetting as an excuse for not having polished his buttons is sure to be punished. But this punishment is small in comparison to the one he courts if he admits to his superiors that the motive for his negligence is because "this miserable menial service is altogether disgusting to me." Owing to this saving of punishment for economic reasons, as it were, he makes use of forgetting as an excuse, or it comes about as a compromise.
[Pg 163]
The service of women (as well as the military service of the State) demands that nothing relating to that service be subject to forgetting. Thus it but suggests that forgetting is permissible in unimportant matters, but in weighty matters its occurrence is an indication that one wishes to treat weighty matters as unimportant: that is, that their importance is disputed.[39] The view-point of psychic validity is in fact not to be contested here. No person forgets to carry out actions that seem important to himself without exposing himself to the suspicion of being a sufferer from mental weakness. Our investigations therefore can extend only to the forgetting of more or less secondary intentions, for no intention do we deem absolutely indifferent, otherwise it would certainly never have been formed.
As in the preceding functional disturbances, I have collected the cases of neglect through forgetting which I have observed in myself, and endeavoured to explain them. I have found that they could invariably be traced to some interference of unknown and unadmitted motives—or, as may be said, they were due to a counter-will.[Pg 164] In a number of these cases I found myself in a position similar to that of being in some distasteful service: I was under a constraint to which I had not entirely resigned myself, so that I showed my protest in the form of forgetting. This accounts for the fact that I am particularly prone to forget to send congratulations on such occasions as birthdays, jubilees, wedding celebrations, and promotions to higher rank. I continually make new resolutions, but I am more than ever convinced that I shall not succeed. I am now on the point of giving it up altogether, and to admit consciously the striving motives. In a period of transition, I told a friend who asked me to send a congratulatory telegram for him, at a certain time when I was to send one myself, that I would probably forget both. It was not surprising that the prophecy came true. It is undoubtedly due to painful experiences in life that I am unable to manifest sympathy where this manifestation must necessarily appear exaggerated, for the small amount of my feeling does not admit the corresponding expression. Since I have learned that I often mistook the pretended sympathy of others for real, I am in rebellion against the conventions of expressing sympathy, the social expediency of which I naturally acknowledge. Condolences in cases of death are excepted from this double treatment; once I determine to send[Pg 165] them I do not neglect them. Where my emotional participation has nothing more to do with social duty, its expression is never inhibited by forgetting.
Cases in which we forget to carry out actions which we have promised to do as a favour for others can similarly be explained as antagonism to conventional duty and as an unfavourable inward opinion. Here it regularly proves correct, inasmuch as the only person appealed to believes in the excusing power of forgetfulness, while the one requesting the favour has no doubt about the right answer: he has no interest in this matter, otherwise he would not have forgotten it.
There are some who are noted as generally forgetful, and we excuse their lapses in the same manner as we excuse those who are short-sighted when they do not greet us in the street.[40] Such persons forget all small promises which they have made; they leave unexecuted all orders which they have received; they prove themselves unreliable in little things; and at the same time[Pg 166] demand that we shall not take these slight offences amiss—that is, they do not want us to attribute these failings to personal characteristics but to refer them to an organic peculiarity.[41] I am not one of these people myself, and have had no opportunity to analyse the actions of such a person in order to discover from the selection of forgetting the motive underlying the same. I cannot forego, however, the conjecture per analogiam, that here the motive is an unusual large amount of unavowed disregard for others which exploits the constitutional factor for its purpose.[42]
[Pg 167]
In other cases the motives for forgetting are less easy to discover, and when found excite greater astonishment. Thus, in former years I observed that of a great number of professional calls I only forgot those that I was to make on patients whom I treated gratis or on colleagues. The mortification caused by this discovery led me to the habit of noting every morning the calls of the day in a form of resolution. I do not know if other physicians have come to the same practice by a similar road. Thus we get an idea of what causes the so-called neurasthenic to make a memorandum of the communications he wishes to make to the doctor. He apparently lacks confidence in the reproductive capacity of his memory. This is true, but the scene usually proceeds in this manner. The patient has recounted his various complaints and inquiries at considerable length. After he has finished he pauses for a moment, then he pulls out the memorandum and says apologetically, "I have made some notes because I cannot remember anything." As a rule he finds nothing new on the memorandum. He repeats each point and answers it himself: "Yes, I have already asked about that." By means of the memorandum he probably only demonstrates one of his symptoms, the frequency with which his resolutions are disturbed through the interference of obscure motives.
[Pg 168]
I am touching, moreover, on an affliction to which even most of my healthy acquaintances are subject, when I admit that especially in former years I had the habit of easily forgetting for a long time to return borrowed books, also that it very often happened that I deferred payments through forgetfulness. One morning not long ago I left the tobacco-shop where I make my daily purchase of cigars without paying. It was a most harmless omission, as I am known there and could therefore expect to be reminded of my debt the next morning. But this slight neglect, the attempt to contract a debt, was surely not unconnected with reflections concerning the budget with which I had occupied myself throughout the preceding day. Even among the so-called respectable people one can readily demonstrate a double behaviour when it concerns the theme of money and possession. The primitive greed of the suckling which wishes to seize every object (in order to put it in its mouth) has generally been only imperfectly subdued through culture and training.[43]
[Pg 169]
I fear that in all the examples thus far given I have grown quite commonplace. But it can be only a pleasure to me if I happen upon familiar matters which every one understands, for my main object is to collect everyday material and utilize it scientifically. I cannot conceive why wisdom, which is, so to speak, the sediment of everyday experiences, should be denied admission among the acquisitions of knowledge. For it is not the diversity of objects but the stricter method of verification and the striving for far-reaching connections which make up the essential character of scientific work.
We have invariably found that intentions of some importance are forgotten when obscure motives arise to disturb them. In still less important intentions we find a second mechanism[Pg 170] of forgetting. Here a counter-will becomes transferred to the resolution from something else after an external association has been formed between the latter and the content of the resolution. The following example reported by Brill illustrates this: "A patient found that she had suddenly become very negligent in her correspondence. She was naturally punctual and took pleasure in letter-writing, but for the last few weeks she simply could not bring herself to write a letter without exerting the greatest amount of effort. The explanation was quite simple. Some weeks before she had received an important letter calling for a categorical answer. She was undecided what to say, and therefore did not answer it at all. This indecision in the form of inhibition was unconsciously transferred to other letters and caused the inhibition against letter-writing in general."
Direct counter-will and more remote motivation are found together in the following example of delaying: I had written a short treatise on the dream for the series Grenzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens, in which I gave an abstract of my book, The Interpretation of Dreams.[44] Bergmann, the publisher, had sent me the proof sheets and asked for a speedy return of the same as he wished to issue the pamphlet before Christmas. I corrected the sheets the[Pg 171] same night, and placed them on my desk in order to take them to the post office the next morning. In the morning I forgot all about it, and only thought of it in the afternoon at the sight of the paper cover on my desk. In the same way I forgot the proofs that evening and the following morning, and until the afternoon of the second day, when I quickly took them to a letter-box, wondering what might be the basis of this procrastination. Obviously I did not want to send them off, although I could find no explanation for such an attitude.
After posting the letter I entered the shop of my Vienna publisher, who put out my Interpretation of Dreams. I left a few orders; then, as if impelled by a sudden thought, said, "You undoubtedly know that I have written the 'Dream' book a second time?" "Ah!" he exclaimed, "then I must ask you to——" "Calm yourself," I interposed; "it is only a short treatise for the Löwenfeld-Kurella collection." But still he was not satisfied; he feared that the abstract would hurt the sale of the book. I disagreed with him, and finally asked: "If I had come to you before, would you have objected to the publication?" "No; under no circumstances," he answered.
Personally I believe I acted within my full rights and did nothing contrary to the general practice; still it seems certain to me that a[Pg 172] thought similar to that entertained by the publisher was the motive for my procrastination in dispatching the proof sheets.
This reflection leads back to a former occasion when another publisher raised some difficulties because I was obliged to take out several pages of the text from an earlier work on cerebral infantile paralysis, and put them unchanged into a work on the same theme in Nothnagel's handbook. There again the reproach received no recognition; that time also I had loyally informed my first publisher (the same who published The Interpretation of Dreams) of my intention.
However, if this series of recollections is followed back still farther it brings to light a still earlier occasion relating to a translation from the French, in which I really violated the property rights that should be considered in a publication. I had added notes to the text without asking the author's permission, and some years later I had cause to think that the author was dissatisfied with this arbitrary action.
There is a proverb which indicates the popular knowledge that the forgetting of intentions is not accidental. It says: "What one forgets once he will often forget again."
Indeed, we sometimes cannot help feeling that no matter what may be said about forgetting and faulty actions, the whole subject is already[Pg 173] known to everybody as something self-evident. It is strange enough that it is still necessary to push before consciousness such well-known facts. How often I have heard people remark: "Please do not ask me to do this, I shall surely forget it." The coming true of this prophecy later is surely nothing mysterious in itself. He who speaks thus perceives the inner resolution not to carry out the request, and only hesitates to acknowledge it to himself.
Much light is thrown, moreover, on the forgetting of resolutions through something which could be designated as "forming false resolutions." I had once promised a young author to write a review of his short work, but on account of inner resistances, not unknown to me, I promised him that it would be done the same evening. I really had serious intentions of doing so, but I had forgotten that I had set aside that evening for the preparation of an expert testimony that could not be deferred. After I thus recognized my resolution as false, I gave up the struggle against my resistances and refused [Pg 176]the author's request.
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Grazer Family Dinner
Grazer has become one of the legends of Brooks Falls over the years by being notoriously short tempered with almost every other bear when she's got cubs. Cubs are typically emancipated some time before their year 3, so I'm sure they're all tired of her antics since she decided to keep her girls around for this third full season.
For our Open edition pieces, we offer three substrate options:
Paper: Available in the smaller sizes, we will ship you a beautiful print on Kodak Endura Lustre 'E' photo paper that is ready to be matted and framed at your discretion. With a fine grain texture, these offerings still deliver excellent color, black levels and sharpness.
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Motherboard Charging Connection Flex Cable for Apple Watch Series 6
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Bản tiếng Việt đang được cập nhật...
"The Prior of Taizé was filled with a desire for reconciliation that touched the depths of his soul and impelled him to create breaches."
On 16 August 2005, when Brother Roger, at prayer with his brothers and with thousands of young adults, was struck by absurd violence, Taizé was struck at the heart of its vocation, in this church whose very name recalls that vocation: the Church of Reconciliation.
"In my youth," writes Brother Roger, "I was astonished to see how Christians - who nevertheless live from a God of love – use so much energy to justify their separations. So I said to myself that it was essential to create a community where people search to understand one another and to be reconciled with one another always, and through this, to render visible a little parable of communion." What followed is well known: attracted by the simplicity of the prayer and the life of the community, touched by the trust of the Brothers, tens of thousands of young adults come to Taizé every year, to ask their questions, to cry out their suffering, share their hopes, discover that Christ loves them, learn to live in the communion of the Church and to become makers of peace.
Thus the community and the young people seek to manifest the reconciliation to which Christ calls us, between Christians and with all our fellow human beings. The Brothers are not unaware of the laborious theological dialogues or of the meetings – official and often significant – between Church leaders, but they have first of all to propose the Good News to the young people and means for them to experience it.
Brother Roger was filled with a desire for reconciliation that touched the depths of his soul and impelled him to open up breaches. Setting out on a way that was both discreet and personal, he humbly shared this experience and this conviction. "I have found my identity as a Christian in reconciling within myself the faith of my origins with the mystery of the Catholic faith, without a breakdown of communion with anyone." Certain theologians knitted their brows at this; others said that Brother Roger was no theologian. Some Church leaders demanded an ecclesial identity that was official and, according to them, more precise.
Brother Roger loved all of the Body of Christ and he said so with all of his life. Without disowning his background, without confronting anyone, he wished to integrate and reconcile in himself all that the one Lord gives in Churches that are nevertheless still separated. Recognising the necessity of the ministry of universal communion of the Pope, he also adhered to the Eucharistic faith and practise of the Catholic Church and at the same time lived from the riches with which the Lord has gratified the Orthodox and Protestant Churches. Neither without tension nor without suffering, he lived the reconciliation of the Churches in all his being. Does it suffice for us to take note without judging and to say that what we have here is an exception, and to look for reasons to show that it can not be adapted?
Do we agree at least to let ourselves be questioned? Do we agree at least to wonder whether this "exception" is not called one day to become less exceptional, and to open up the way for many others? Listening to Brother Roger, we can remind ourselves that our separations are in conflict with the will of Christ, that ecumenism is an exchange of gifts, that we need one another, that reconciliation is not just peaceful coexistence, but trust, mutual enrichment and collaboration. Then perhaps we will know how to help our Churches to be less caught up than they are at present in drawing back into their own identities. I am speaking personally, because the Brothers of Taizé have never wished to give lessons to anyone and still less to be "spiritual masters", even of ecumenism. When John Paul II visited them in 1986, he said to them that the vocation of their community is "in a certain sense, provisional". In his fine book on Taizé, Professor Olivier Clément spoke of a "state of continual foundation".
The brutal death of Brother Roger one year ago, at the heart of Taizé's vocation, is part of this "dynamic of the provisional". Through the voice of their new prior, the Brothers of Taizé are saying to us that they do not consider themselves to be the only actors of that dynamic. "We are poor men who need the communion of the Church in order to go forward in faith." Brother Alois and his brothers continue to go forward on the way marked out by Brother Roger. They are already living something of the Church that is visibly one and they are leading young people to go to the sources of faith together.
Following an article published in Le Monde on 6 September 2006, Mgr Daucourt responds to the affirmation that Brother Roger had converted to Catholicism.
So Brother Roger became a convert to Catholicism? The popes and the bishops of Autun supposedly knew all about it and yet said nothing (Le Monde of September 6th, 2006). In its official documents, in the case of already baptized persons, the Catholic Church speaks not of conversion to Catholicism but rather to being admitted to full communion in the Catholic Church. This step can be undertaken in several ways, but all of them involve a written and signed document. No document of this kind exists in Brother Roger's case. He and all his brothers recognized the Pope's ministry of universal communion. He shared the Catholic faith concerning the ministry and in the Eucharist. He had a devotion to the Virgin Mary. But he wanted to live without breaking with anyone. That was the position he tried to maintain—not without inner tensions—in the hope of an imminent restoration of visible unity among all Christians. You may appreciate or dispute this position, but how can you imply that Brother Roger deceived people by concealing a conversion to Catholicism as this is generally understood?
So he received communion at the hands of John Paul II and of Cardinal Ratzinger? More than thirty years ago, he received it from Cardinal Wojtyla in Krakow and from the bishop of Autun. There is nothing unusual about this. The law of the Catholic Church confers upon every bishop the responsibility of admitting someone to the Eucharist, regularly or exceptionally, a newly baptized person or a baptized person from another Church. As a close friend of Taizé for the past forty years, someone who was in contact with Bishop Le Bourgeois regarding ecumenical questions from the beginning of his episcopacy and someone who, in the Pontifical Council for Unity, for seven years had the responsibility of following relations between the Vatican and Taizé, I was well placed to note that Bishop Le Bourgeois, Popes Paul VI and John Paul II, Cardinals Ratzinger and Kasper recognized an objective and public character in the communion of faith that Brother Roger lived with the Catholic Church. Respecting his spiritual journey, they did not ask anything more of him, while continuing contacts and a regular dialogue with him and his community.
How can one speak of an "enigma" (Le Monde of September 6th, 2006) and in addition claim to resolve it by relying on the evidence of Yves Chiron (cf. his letter of information Aletheia no. 95 of August 1, 2006), an historian who puts forward hypotheses? He is unable to interpret the information he received, being unfamiliar both with the personality of Brother Roger and with the history of Taizé and its relationship with the Churches. Bishop Séguy, for his part, speaks of "ambiguity", because Brother Roger's personal journey raises questions for him. During his time as bishop of Autun, he respected this journey, just as it was respected in Rome.
Brother Roger pointed out a way and opened doors for millions of people, young and old, so that ecumenism might be seen first and foremost as an exchange of gifts. Some may refuse to let themselves be questioned by his original position, so demanding and unsettling, or they may dispute it, but we are at least entitled to expect them to understand it correctly.
7 September 2006
+Gérard Daucourt
Bishop of Nanterre
Member of the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of Christian Unity


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Straight-A States: States With the Smartest Drivers
Strong grades can help lead to benefits such as college scholarships, summer internships, and even selective jobs.
Earning those coveted A's doesn't only help in the job market, though. If you're a student with an auto insurance policy, maintaining a high GPA can lead to financial savings. Many insurance companies offer significant discounts for good students, as good students are considered less risky drivers.
To learn more, data analysts at Insurify, a car insurance comparison website, decided to investigate which states around the country give out the most good student discounts. Without further ado, these are the 10 states that boast the highest average GPAs.
- National Averages. The average GPA across the country is 3.24. Furthermore, the average SAT score is 1059 (a perfect score on the test is 1600) and the average ACT score is 20.8 (the highest possible score is a 36). In total, 16 percent of K-12 students have been found to be chronically absent.
- Graduation Rates and GPAs Aren't Necessarily Correlated. One might expect that the states with the highest grade point averages also boast some of the nation's highest graduation rates. Yet,data compiled by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) about public high school graduation rates paints a slightly different story. Four of the states on our list actually have an average graduation rate below the national average of 85 percent. In fact, one has the nation's lowest graduation rate, excluding Washington DC. Note that this data excludes private schools, but the relationship is interesting nonetheless.
- Standardized Testing. High school students have the option to choose between two different standardized tests—the SAT and ACT—that present unique formats and benefits. Which of the two tests a student takes is likely largely influenced by where in the country that student resides. According to data published on ACT.org, there were 19 states in which at least 98 percent of high school graduates had taken the ACT. In nine other states, at least 98 percent of high school graduates took the SAT, according to the CollegeBoard. There was no state in which the overwhelming majority of high school students took both. If you're looking for a consensus on which test is "better," national data doesn't provide a clear answer.
To determine which states have the highest cumulative GPAs, the data science team at Insurify referred to their database of over two million car insurance applications. To apply for auto insurance quotes, interested motorists input personal and vehicle information, including whether a driver on their policy is a student. If a student is on the policy, the applicant reports their cumulative GPA to potentially qualify for a good student discount. These GPAs were then combined and averaged by state to discover which states had the highest average GPA.
Additional data on the average SAT score in each state was gathered from the College Board's 2019 SAT state reports, while numbers regarding average ACT scores were taken from the ACT's state-by-state reports for 2018. Finally, the most recent statistics about the rate of chronic absenteeism in each state (defined in many states as missing 10 percent of the school year) come from the United States Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection for the 2015-16 school year.
States With the Highest GPAs
10. Florida
- Average GPA: 3.256
- Average SAT Score (2019): 999
- Average ACT Score (2018): 19.9
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 18%
Florida kicks off the countdown, ranking tenth in the nation with an average GPA of 3.256. This state has a comprehensive state university system with 12 separate schools including the University of Florida and Florida State. Interestingly enough, though the Sunshine State excels in the GPA department, their education system is lacking in other areas. Specifically, Florida's average SAT and ACT scores are seventh-lowest nationwide and a full point below the national average, respectively. Florida also has an above-average rate of chronic absenteeism.
9. Pennsylvania
- Average GPA: 3.264
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1082
- Average ACT Score (2018): 23.5
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 17%
Home to Penn and its famous business school, Wharton, Pennsylvania has a host of notable higher education programs and the 10th best Pre-K through highschool education system among all 50 states, according to USNews rankings. That ranking appears to be more than fair. Not only does Pennsylvania's aggregate SAT score exceed the national average by 25 points, it also ranks in the top 15 for average ACT scores and the top 10 for average GPAs.
8. Colorado
- Average GPA: 3.264
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1024
- Average ACT Score (2018): 23.9
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 19%
Colorado is perhaps most famous for its beautiful mountains and ski resorts, but it also has a notable education system. In addition to holding an average ACT score that is more than three points greater than the national average, the Centennial State ranks 11th best among all states on the US News Education Rankings, which take into account both K-12 schools and colleges and universities. That said, Colorado's average SAT score is well below the national mean, and its chronic absenteeism rate is 19 percent higher than average, so there is certainly still room for improvement.
7. New Mexico
- Average GPA: 3.269
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1073
- Average ACT Score (2018): 19.4
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 17%
New Mexico holds the seventh spot on the list, with an average GPA of 3.269. Despite this, the Land of Enchantment is significantly behind the curve in other education metrics. New Mexico has the worst public school graduation rate nationwide at just 74 percent, a rate of chronic absenteeism above the national average, and an average ACT score that is more than a full point below average.
6. New Jersey
- Average GPA: 3.274
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1090
- Average ACT Score (2018): 23.7
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 13%
Unlike New Mexico, New Jersey excels in most education metrics. The Garden State has above-average standardized testing scores and below-average rates of chronic absenteeism. Furthermore, New Jersey has the second-best K-12 schooling in the country, according to the USNews Pre-K-12 education rankings, and a public school graduation rate that is tied for the best in the country at 91 percent.
5. Idaho
- Average GPA: 3.276
- Average SAT Score (2019): 993
- Average ACT Score (2018): 22.3
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 13%
Idaho is one of nine states in which at least 99 percent of high school graduates are reported to have taken the SAT. Despite this, Idaho's average SAT score of 993 is actually lower than all but four other states. The Gem State still performs well according to other numbers though, with an average ACT score well above the national average, and the fifth-best average GPA in the country.
4. Rhode Island
- Average GPA: 3.287
- Average SAT Score (2019): 995
- Average ACT Score (2018): 24.2
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 21%
The smallest state in the country still packs a punch in the education department. Home to Brown, one of the nation's most prestigious universities, Rhode Island's average ACT score of 24.2 is better than all but five other states. It also boasts an average GPA of 3.287 — the fourth highest in the country. However, the state does have a chronic absenteeism rate among the five worst in the country, and an SAT score that is also below the national average.
3. New Hampshire
- Average GPA: 3.312
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1059
- Average ACT Score (2018): 25.1
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 14%
New Hampshire's southern New England neighbor, Massachusetts, might have the more recognizable schools, but the Granite State nonetheless has one of the United States' best education systems. Its average ACT score of 25.1 is third-best in the country, and its chronic absenteeism rate is 13 percent below the national average. According to USNews, New Hampshire also has the third-best PreK-12 schooling system in the country, thanks in part to the presence of famous boarding schools like Phillips Exeter.
2. Massachusetts
- Average GPA: 3.323
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1120
- Average ACT Score (2018): 25.5
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 14%
Massachusetts is home to what some consider the nation's largest college town: Boston. After all, the city boasts a handful of the nation's top schools, from Harvard and MIT to Boston College and Northeastern. The state has the best PreK-12 schooling system in the country, according to US News, and this ranking is supported by Massachusetts' significantly above-average ACT and SAT scores. Thus, it's no surprise that the Bay State has one of the highest average GPAs in the country.
1. Utah
- Average GPA: 3.327
- Average SAT Score (2019): 1230
- Average ACT Score (2018): 20.4
- Rate of Chronic Absenteeism: 17%
After placing second in Insurify's ranking of states with the highest GPAs last year, Utah ascends to the top spot in 2020, with a 3.327 average GPA. Though it might not have schools with the same name recognition as Massachusetts, Utah's higher education system still ranks as the country's sixth-best overall, according to US News. Add in standardized test scores and a graduation rate that are all higher than the national average, and it's easy to see why Utah is at the top of the list.
If you have questions or comments about this article, please contact firstname.lastname@example.com.


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30 January 2013
Germany's tax on nuclear fuel was designed 'to siphon off the profits of the nuclear power plant operators', judges in Hamburg have ruled. The tax exceeds government competence and contradicts the country's constitution.
The clear and final decision announced today by the Hamburg Tax Court (Finanzgericht Hamburg) sends the matter to the Constitutional Court - the only court in Germany that can declare the law invalid.
Since January 2011, each gram of fissile nuclear fuel loaded into a reactor has carried a levy of €145 ($196), and this means that nuclear power plants have so far paid around €1.5 billion ($2.0 billion) through the tax.
Notes from the court said there had always been 'considerable doubt' about the legal basis of the tax, which was challenged by utilities soon after the government abandoned their deal on longer operating lives. The tax was upheld by the Stuttgart Tax Court, but labelled doubtful in Hamburg. A government appeal to that decision has kept the tax in effect to date, but today's statement that the Hamburg Tax Court is 'convinced' that the tax is 'formally unconstitutional' will send it to the Constitutional Court.
Origin of the tax disputeHaving held anti-nuclear policies for ten years, the German government realised in 2008 that it needed reliable power supply from the nuclear sector for longer than existing phase-out rules allowed. Chancellor Angela Merkel began long negotiations to make changes to allow utilities to operate nuclear power plants for longer. In return, the power companies would have to sacrifice a significant part of the resulting profit by paying a fuel tax. This was agreed in late 2010 with the tax coming into force in January 2011. However, Germany's reaction to the accident at Fukushima Daiichi three months later saw the government unilaterally change the deal: Longer operation was cancelled and eight reactors were ordered shut - but the fuel tax remained.
Germany's constitution specifies the kinds of taxes that federal government can legislate, including excise duties meant to reduce private consumption. The nuclear fuel tax had been put through in that category, but this was ruled wrong because its application did not take any effect on the consumption of the consumer good, electricity. Instead, as supported by official statements made during the legal process, 'the purpose is to siphon off the profits of the nuclear power plant operators.'
Separately Germany is encouraging the same companies to invest in a huge renewable boom subsidised by levies on power bills. Large power users in industry pay comparatively much less than households, as Germany seeks to maintain competitiveness. The political goal is to establish renewable generation at 20% by 2020, stop using nuclear power two years later and meet 80% of demand with fossil fuels.
Researched and writtenby World Nuclear News
WNN is a public information service of World Nuclear Association


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If your child has special health needs, the school should have a written document outlining a health care and emergency plan.
Once the school is informed a student has a chronic health condition, a meeting is often scheduled to discuss what services may be needed. The meeting should include parents, the student (if old enough), school health staff, the coordinator of special needs services, student aids, and the child's primary teacher. Health care providers, such as the child's pediatrician, also should be invited or asked to provide information in writing.
One goal of this meeting is to develop a written plan that clearly describes the services the student needs. Depending on the child's needs, this plan may be described as a 504 Plan or an Individualized Education Program (IEP). This legal document outlines exactly what services the child will receive and sets short- and long-term goals for the child. The plan should be reviewed regularly to ensure it continues to meet the child's needs.
By law, your child is entitled to an education that will help her develop to her full potential. Schools may be required to provide additional services that will assist in both in-school programs and after-school events. Federal laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) state that every child should be allowed to attend school in the "least restrictive" setting possible.


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Incidents of mass violence can have an enormous impact on people, including survivors, first responders, eyewitnesses, and even those who watch related media reports on television. The Disaster Distress Helpline, at 1-800-985-5990, can provide immediate counseling to anyone who is seeking help in coping with the mental or emotional effects of Tuesday's mass shooting at a Uvalde, Texas, elementary school.
The Disaster Distress Helpline is sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Counselors are available 24/7 to respond to people who need crisis counseling after experiencing a traumatic event or a disaster. Counselors are trained to offer support to people who may be experiencing a range of symptoms.
"People who have been through a traumatic event can experience anxiety, worry or insomnia," said Miriam E. Delphin-Rittmon, Ph.D., the Assistant Secretary for Mental Health and Substance Use and the leader of SAMHSA. "People seeking emotional help in the wake of disaster or tragedy can call or text 1-800-985-5990 and begin the healing process."
The Helpline immediately connects callers to trained and caring professionals from the nearest crisis counseling center in the nationwide network of centers. The Helpline staff provide confidential counseling, referrals and other needed support services. Spanish-speakers can press "2" for bilingual support. Callers can also connect with counselors in more than 100 other languages via third-party interpretation services by indicating their preferred language to the responding counselor. A videophone option with direct crisis counseling and support for deaf or hard-of-hearing American Sign Language users is also available. Disaster survivors and responders can connect with trained DDH crisis workers fluent in ASL by dialing 1-800-985-5990 from a videophone-enabled device or via an "ASL Now" link accessible at DisasterDistress.samhsa.gov. More on the Helpline can be found at https://www.disasterdistress.samhsa.gov/.


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Aristotle's Contribution to Science, Education, and Physics
Tue ,28/12/2010Aristotle thought that Nature could best be understood by observation and reason – and that all knowledge should be open to examination and subject to reason.
Science Education has shown a renewed interest in Aristotle's works. (1) Today, theories in science are often based on abstract and mathematical models of the world. Students sometimes use the theories and equations without understanding how they were developed, their limitations, or even what problems they address. The development of an idea from Aristotle to the present would make physics more interesting and understandable. (2) Aristotle's works are reconstructions from fragmentary notes. He had the most rudimentary of scientific equipment, his measurements were not quantitative; and he considered only things that were observable with the eye. Ignoring these limitations has caused some to distort the significance of his work, sometimes to the point of considering Aristotle an impediment to the advancement of science. However, we should not project the framework of contemporary science on Aristotle's work – but we should read his works and examine his Natural Philosophy in the context of his times. (3)
Scientific Method: In ancient times, events in Nature had been explained as the actions of the gods. The early Greek philosophers questioned the role of the gods as the cause of events and by the fifth century B.C. the Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, had separated philosophy from theology. But, if the gods were not the cause of events, what was? Philosophers advanced explanations based on philosophical principles and mathematical forms. Aristotle found that unsatisfactory. He decided the principles of nature could be found within nature and could be discovered using careful observation and inductive reasoning. Observations must be capable of being observed by the senses and should include the four causes: the composition, the shape (or form), the motion (or change), and the end result (or purpose). Identifying the four causes insured a thorough understanding of the event. Chance or spontaneity were not considered causes. He thought all things in Nature should be open to examination and subject to reason – and he set about applying his methods to all knowledge.
Aristotle founded a school in Athens at the Lyceum which provided the world's first comprehensive study of human knowledge from the perspective of natural philosophy. His lectures followed a pattern that formed the basis of the scientific method. They included a statement of the idea or problem, the precise definition of terms, a statement of what he and other scholars thought about the matter, the observations, arguments based on how well the ideas agreed with observation, and finally what could be concluded. His lectures notes are important as they not only show clearly his reasoning but they preserve many of the ideas of his contemporaries. (4, 5)
Physics: In his work, Physics, (6) Aristotle examined the nature of matter, space, time, and motion. He had few tools for experimentation and could not measure time or speeds. He would not allow invisible forces so his reasoning did not include gravity. Things fell to Earth and the moon circled the Earth because that was their nature. He proved that infinite linear motion and voids could not exist on Earth. Without those, he could not escape the complexities of the real world or fully understand inertia. In spite of his limitations, Aristotle made some remarkable contributions to physics and laid the groundwork for Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. He reasoned that infinite velocities could not exist, that time and movement are continuous and inseparable, and that time was even flowing, infinite, and the same everywhere at once. These are all true and a part of Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Some consider that Aristotle's greatest contribution to physics was his description of time.
Reading Aristotle reminds one of reading Einstein. He takes the simplest of observations and in it discovers fundamental truths. Force is a push or a pull. A horse can pull a cart and the cart pulls back on the horse and when the horse stops, the cart stops. Rest, then is the natural state of matter and the mover is acted on by that which it moves. These ideas became part of Newton's Laws. He observed that there was both static and kinetic friction that opposed motion by studying shiphaulers. A hundred men could pull a ship but one man could not. Furthermore, he observed that the power needed to keep the ship moving depended on the force required and the speed. That is like the definition of power used today and, incidentally, something that Newton got wrong. Aristotle examined objects falling in fluids and realized friction existed there also. He found that the speed of objects increased as the weight of the object and decreased with the thickness of the fluid. This is now a part of Stoke's Law for an object falling at its terminal velocity. He also considered what would happen if the fluid became thinner and thinner but rejected the conclusion as that would lead to a vacuum and an infinite speed, both which he considered impossibilities. Galileo allowed those impossibilities and is credited with discovering kinematics.
Cosmology: We sometimes forget that Aristotle proved the Earth was a sphere. He observed that the shadow of the Earth on the moon during an eclipse was an arc. That was not conclusive as a disk might give the same shadow. The phases of the Moon and its appearance during eclipses show it to be a sphere and the Earth might be also. As one walks toward the horizon, the horizon falls away; and, as one walks North or South, different stars appear. These are as if one is looking out from a sphere. All things made of Earth fall to Earth in such a way as to be as near the Earth as possible. A sphere is the shape that allows this as it is the shape with the smallest surface for a given volume. All things considered, the Earth must be a sphere. Interestingly, an extension of that last argument is used today to explain the erosion of mountains, surface tension, the shape of droplets, and why the moons, planets, and stars are spheres.
Aristotle concluded that since all things fall toward the center of the Earth or move round the Earth, that the Earth must be the center of the Universe. The Moon and planets move around the Earth in circular orbits but must move in circles within circles to explain the variance observed in their orbits. The stars are fixed spheres that rotate around the Earth and the Universe must be finite else the stars at the outer edge would have to move at infinite speed. Aristotle was aware that if the heavenly bodies were made of matter, that they would fly off like a rock from a sling. He therefore added to the elements a fifth element, aether, to compose the heavenly bodies. Aether could not be observed on Earth but objects composed of it could move forever in circles without friction or flying away. (7) Perhaps Aristotle should have stopped with the moon, but the planets and stars were there and needed explaining. In spite of his model's imperfections, Aristotle gave us a universe whose laws are invariant and capable of being discovered by observation and understood by reason. Aristotle's model of the Universe lasted almost 20 centuries without significant modification and was so compelling that Renaissance philosophers and theologians built it into church doctrine.
Scientific Revolution: However, Aristotle's model did not fit well with new observations made by 15th century scientists. Copernicus realized that the planetary motions would be simpler and better explained if the Sun were the center of the universe. Tycho Brahe's careful observations of planetary motions supported the Copernican model. Galileo used the first telescope to observe that Jupiter had moons that revolved around Jupiter and not the Earth. This was convincing evidence and Galileo championed a revision of Aristotle's model. There was much resistance to the acceptance of the heliocentric model and Galileo was threatened with a charge of heresy for promoting the idea. Some people now consider Aristotle's ideas as an impediment to the advancement of science. However, the impediment was not Aristotle's ideas – but that Aristotle's model of the universe had become woven into the doctrine of the Church.
Galileo's kinematics was also in conflict with Aristotle's work. Galileo's experiment with falling bodies is considered as one of the ten greatest experiments of all time. He showed that a small weight fell from the Tower of Pisa at the same rate as one ten times as heavy. This was considered by some to be a triumph of Galileo's kinematics over the simple empiricism of Aristotle. That was not, however, the whole story. Aristotle had not only examined objects falling in air but also in liquids. He found that the rate of fall in liquids increased as the weight of the object and decreased with the thickness of the fluid. This idea is consistent with Stoke's Law for an object falling at its terminal velocity in fluids. Aristotle even had considered the case of a fluid with no thickness (a vacuum), but rejected the possibility since the speed would become infinite. However, Galileo's experiment was performed in air and, while correct in a vacuum, Galileo's mechanics were not exactly correct in air. Had Galileo dropped his objects from a much greater height, he would have found that the heavy object would reach the ground half again as fast as the small object. This is observable in hailstones where a large stone will strike the ground at almost twice the speed of a small stone. Galileo's mechanics are only valid in a vacuum and even then would allow the velocity to eventually become infinite, which conflicts with Einstein's relativity. No one has thought to criticize Galileo for that.
Scientific Progress: Many thought, and still think, that Galileo's work was the final overthrow of Aristotelian physics and the start of a revolution allowing science to advance. That is not the case. It is just the normal progress of science that models and theories are revised as better observations and understanding occur. The Revolution was not so much an overthrow of Aristotelian Physics as it was in moving from the observable to the imaginable – and in again separating science from theology and philosophy. It is ironic that Galileo was accused of heresy for questioning the theories of a man who thought everything should be open to question and reason.
(1) ERIC. http://www.eric.ed.gov A search of the database shows 78 papers in the last three decades are about the use of Aristotle's ideas in teaching.
(2) Stinner, A. (1994). The Story of Force: from Aristotle to Einstein. Phys. Educ., 29, 77-85.
(3) Lombardi, O. (1999). Aristotelian Physics in the Contest of Teaching Science: A Historical-Philosophical Approach. Science and Education, 8, 217-239.
(4) Durant, Will. The Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the Great Philosophers of the Western World. 5th ed. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1949
(5) Ross, W. D. Aristotle. 5th ed. London: Methuen & Co. LTD. 1949
(6) Aristotle, Physics. Translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye.
Provided by The Internet Classics Archive. Available at
(7) Aristotle, On the Heavens. Translated by J. L. Stocks. Provided by The Internet Classics Archive. Available at http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/heavens.html Note: This article was originally written as the physical science contribution to Aristotle's Enduring Contribution to Biology, Physics,and Poetics by Surendra Singh, J.C. Moore, and Andrew Tadie. It was published as Aristotle on Teaching Science at the Seventh International Conference on Teacher Education, New Delhi, India (2008)
The full article is available here.
(c) 2010 J.C. Moore


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Possible DoS with html comments in questions and answers
You can try copy pasting above in question and answer boxes.
Tested on Chrome and Opera, It freeze or browser ask me to kill the page.
99% CPU usage on browser and server request like this
As you see post request took 1.3 min on server side too.
Edit: Firefox seems to be okay on client side.


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If you see the word "onion" you have normal color vision. If you the word "color" you are red-green color blind.Being color blind is like living in flatland. You miss a dimension and never notice until someone points it out to you. I grew up making the occasional color mistake but just believing everybody saw green and brown as different shades of the same color.
I have had more official tests that show me fully red-green color blind. I don't see the world in black and white; I don't even have trouble distinguishing red and green. I do see certain color pairs as different shades of the same color: green-brown, blue-purple, red-pink and yellow-orange.
As an undergrad I took a course in computer graphics and they did a demonstration where they showed a colorful picture and then showed three variations where they would turn off one color in each. The instructor said that the original and one of the variations would look the same to a red-green color blind person. Everyone laughed but I went up closely and couldn't tell the two apart.
One day shopping with my wife, she held up two shirts and asked me which one I liked better. They looked identical to me. I claimed she was playing games with me. Now with my knowledge of interactive proofs, I could have tested her: Mix up the shirts behind my back and make her tell me which was which.
My father-in-law is also red-green color blind which means my daughters had a 50% chance of being color blind, a rarity for females. We've tested them and neither is color blind, at least not to the extent that I am.
While color blindness has no cure or fix, it is one of the easiest disabilities to live with. My wife and daughters make sure my clothes match. I have trouble when people give color-coded talks but that doesn't happen often in theoretical computer science. I try to keep colors simple on my own talks and webpages. The Red-Green 3-D glasses don't work for me at all, though the newer polarized 3-D glasses work just fine. I don't usually have trouble at traffic lights but I do have trouble telling blinking red from blinking yellow. If I can't tell from context I just stop, sometimes to the chagrin of the car behind me.
But when I look at art or nature I see one less dimension of colors than most everyone else. I will never know what I am missing.


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Age -- The legal age to marry is 18 years for all applicants. However, with the written consent of both parents, legal guardian or family court, the applicant may be married at 16 or 17. Applicants age 15 may marry with the written consent of both parents or legal guardian and the written approval of the judge of the family court. The parents or guardian do not have to reside in the state. Consent forms may be obtained by emailing email@example.com or by requesting from the Marriage & Civil Union License Office at 808-586-4544
Proof of Age -- A certified copy of a birth certificate must be presented for anyone age 18 and under. For anyone age 19 and over, proof of age may be requested in the form of a valid government issued photo ID
Blood Relationship -- Cousins may marry, but a blood relationship between the prospective applicants cannot be closer than first cousins (for example: uncle-niece, half-brother-sister may not marry).
Blood tests are not required.
Q: Can a divorced woman who did not resume using her maiden or family surname declare it as a middle name in her next marriage?
Q: Can one of the combination middle names or one of the combination surnames of a person be dropped when declaring a middle or last name?
Q: Can a person drop an unwanted middle name by not declaring a middle or last name?
Q: Can a middle name be used as a last name?
Q: Can the bride drop her previous husband's last name which formed a combination with her surname when she remarries?
A: YES. She can drop his last name and form a new combination made of her surname and new husband's last name.
Q: Can the bride and groom interchange their middle names as their declared middle name?
Q: Can diacritical marks (example ' or ^ or ") be added to middle
or last names?
Q: Can a person use a shortened version of a middle name, an initial, a nickname, or a name not on his/her birth certificate as his/her declared
middle name?
Performer Renewal Instructions
Q: I currently have a marriage performer's license will the new fee change affect when my license expires?
A: NO. All currently active and valid licenses will retain their expiration date.
Q: I currently have a marriage performer's license will I have to reapply or pay again?
A: NO. Only upon renewal of your license will you pay the new fees.


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Ohio Man Who Killed 3-Year-Old Girl Seeks Mercy
< < Back toA death row inmate who raped and killed his girlfriend's 3-year-old daughter is citing a childhood of physical and sexual abuse as he asks the Ohio Parole Board for mercy.
Attorneys for condemned killer Ronald Phillips were to make their case at a clemency hearing that began Wednesday morning. They say no judge or jury ever heard the full story of the abuse Phillips suffered growing up.
A document filed with the parole board before the hearing says Phillips was repeatedly raped and beaten by his late father.
The 40-year-old Phillips is scheduled to die Nov. 14 for killing Sheila Marie Evans in 1993 in Akron.
The state says Phillips long denied he suffered such abuse and has only raised it with his execution imminent.