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In Appalachia, explosions have leveled the mountaintops into perfect race tracks for Ryan Hensley's all-terrain vehicle (ATV). At least, that's how the 14-year-old sees the barren expanses of dirt that stretch for miles atop the hills surrounding his home in the former coal town of Whitesville, W.Va.
"They're going to blast that one next," he says, pointing to a peak in the distance. He's referring to a process known as "mountaintop removal," in which coal companies use explosives to blast away hundreds of feet of rock in order to unearth underground seams of coal.
"And then it'll be just blank space," he adds. "Like the Taylor Swift song."
Skinny and shirtless, Hensley looks no more than 11 or 12. His ribs and collarbones protrude from his taut skin. Dipping tobacco is tucked into his right cheek. He has a head of cropped blond curls that jog some memory of mine, but I can't quite figure out what it is. He's pointing at a peak named Coal River Mountain. These days, though, it's known to activists here as "the Last Mountain," as it's the only ridgeline in this area that's still largely intact.
We continue picking our way along a path on topless Kayford "Mountain," a few miles from Hensley's hometown (population 514, according to the 2010 census), as he resumes chronicling his adventures on ATVs. Nearby is the Seng Creek mine, still semi-active and one of Hensley's favorite racing spots. Active mines are always the best race tracks, he assures me, since you get the added thrill of outrunning security guards and watching explosions, which sound, he tells me, like hundreds of dump trucks emptying their loads all at once.
As we walk, we're careful to step over crevices known as "mine cracks" — deep narrow drops into the earth most often formed by the caving in of old underground mines. Hensley stops to peer into one crack filled with broken Bud Lite bottles and I joke that it leads straight through to China.
But Hensley knows better. At his young age, he's already an expert on everything about mountaintop removal: how companies blast the peaks with ammonium nitrate and fuel oil — the same chemical combination that Timothy McVeigh used to detonate the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995. He knows that the process fills the air with toxic coal dust, benzene, and carbon monoxide, while contaminating nearby streams with arsenic.
However, Hensley doesn't know and can hardly imagine what this region — his home — was like before the peaks were removed. "I wasn't alive when those mountains were there," he observes a few hours later. And even though the industry in West Virginia is in the grips of an unprecedented collapse that threatens to dethrone King Coal once and for all, this 14-year-old and all the other children growing up in the shadow of these "blank spaces" will never see the decapitated peaks return to thickly forested mountaintops.
The king is dead
In the first half of this year, at least six domestic coal companies filed for bankruptcy. In February, West Virginia's Covington Coal fell, followed by Xinergy and Grass Creek Coal in April, Patriot and Birmingham Coal & Coke in May, and A&M Coal in June. In August came the biggest announcement of all: the $10-billion coal giant Alpha Natural Resources had entered the bankruptcy sweepstakes, too.
Only four years earlier, Alpha had secured its position as one of the world's largest coal outfits by purchasing the Appalachian company Massey Energy for $7 billion and expanding its operations to 60 mines, many in Appalachia. But its reign would prove short-lived. The price of coal has been plummeting as utility companies shift to significantly cheaper shale gas, extracted through the drilling process known as hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, to produce power. This April, for the first time since the U.S. Energy Information Administration began collecting data in 1973, gas surpassed coal as the nation's No. 1 producer of energy.
By late July, the New York Stock Exchange announced that it had suspended trading of Alpha Natural Resources' stock because it was worth next to nothing.
In August, the inevitable occurred. Alpha submitted a bankruptcy filing which read in part: "The unprecedented changes facing the coal industry run deep and are occurring at a frenetic and unpredictable pace … The U.S. coal industry as currently structured is unsustainable."
By now, the funeral was underway and the first obituaries were appearing. Headlines in various papers not only announced Alpha's demise, but offered autopsies for the entire industry. As the New York Times put it in its headline three days after the filing: "King Coal, Long Besieged, Is Deposed by the Market."
Causes of death: the explosion of cheap natural gas, the rising costs of new environmental and worker safety regulations, and a simple geological reality — the industry has already mined out the majority of all economically recoverable coal.
This energy version of regime change had been long in the making. The coalfields are filled with now-abandoned company towns, where the industry once employed hundreds of thousands of men to work in underground mines. The extraction process generated massive wealth, at least for the mine owners. In the late 1880s, Bramwell, West Virginia, was reputedly home to the highest concentration of millionaires per capita of any town in the United States. Today, its high school still boasts of that legacy through its teams' nickname: the Bramwell Millionaires.
In the second half of the 20th century, many of those towns all but evaporated as the industry turned to strip mining, a mechanized process that uses heavy machinery rather than muscle power to carve away rock and expose seams of coal running along hillsides. The town of Kayford, which sits at the base of its namesake mountain, is one such example. Once a company town for men employed in the mines, its main road is now lined only with poplars, sycamores, and basswood, a few poured-concrete foundations, and a crumbling single-story brick wall. The town's last building is said to have burned down toward the end of the 1970s.
The former town is still, however, home to an active strip mine called Alpha's Republic #1, which employs few people but has managed to extract a considerable amount of coal. In 2012, organizers with the climate justice group Mountain Justice formed a human blockade to shut down work traffic going in and out of the site. It was just one of dozens and dozens of blockades, "tree-sits," and other direct actions Mountain Justice has executed as part of a decade-long campaign, which has won regulatory improvements to reduce water contamination, shielded schools in the coalfields from the worst health impacts of mining, moderated flooding caused by that mining, and demanded the industry do more to replant trees and grasses on old mine sites. That campaign also helped inspire almost all the major environmental activism in the nation today — from the university divestment movement to tree sits in Texas to block the Keystone XL pipeline to the arrest this month of people seeking to halt the construction of the first commercial tar-sands mine in this country.
In many ways, however, Mountain Justice's protests were among the least extreme in the state's long history of organizing. Drive farther up the mountain and you'll find concrete bunkers built by hired guns from the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency sent in to quell a powerful miner's strike in 1912-1913. Less than 10 years later, as many as 10,000 armed miners from West Virginia would launch the largest labor uprising in the nation's history.
The mountains at the center of the world
Even higher up the mountain, past the bunkers, lies Stanley Heirs Park, a 50-acre swath of land surrounded by the final stage of coal extraction: mountaintop removal.
In the 1970s, as more and more of the readily available coal was extracted from West Virginia's underground mines and ridge lines, companies decided to take strip mining to its logical conclusion: They would simply blast away the entire tops of mountains to get at the remaining coal. The results are visible in the flattened, barren mines that surround the park, including the Seng Creek mine where Ryan Hensley likes to ride his ATV.
Hensley and dozens of others converged here for an annual Fourth of July celebration, an event hosted by the family of the late Larry Gibson, a prominent organizer against mountaintop removal. His family has lived here on Kayford Mountain since the late 1700s and this section alone has remained unblasted because Gibson turned the family plot into a land trust in order to fend off the industry.
Before his death in 2012, Gibson was much hated in the area for taking on the coal companies, so his friends and neighbors tell me as we share fried chicken and Budweiser. His house was riddled with bullets. His dogs were poisoned or shot. But he succeeded in protecting at least his small plot of land from the explosives. Now, as his family points out, the land that used to lie in the shadow of surrounding taller peaks has become, after 30 years of mountaintop removal, the highest site in the area.
Few know more about the impact of the mining industry than Elise Keaton, a 30-something native West Virginian with the enthusiastic, commanding voice of a camp counselor. Years ago, she did what many of the state's residents do if they can: she left. She earned a law degree in Texas and later helped with disaster relief in post-Katrina New Orleans.
"But being from West Virginia is like having a fishhook in your heart," she tells me. So she returned and, following Gibson's death, took over the role of educating newcomers about Kayford. Standing at the edge of the Seng Creek mine, owned by the now bankrupt coal company Patriot, Keaton explains that the surrounding mountain peaks have been reduced by at least 400 feet, if not more. The removed earth — known in industry parlance as the "overburden" — was dumped into the nearby valleys, where it covered streams, reducing the region's fresh water supply.
Before coal companies came along, Appalachia had been "burdened" by these mountains for more than 400 million years. They were formed by the same collision of tectonic plates that produced the single supercontinent Pangea. The Appalachian mountain range then lay at the heart of the world's only unified landmass.
Today, the unblasted sections of West Virginia's mountains are blanketed by a temperate forest so diverse that researchers are still discovering new species, including a reddish-orange crayfish that was plucked out of the water in 2013 and dubbed Cambarus hatfieldi — a Latin play on the name of the famed West Virginia family, the Hatfields, who feuded with their neighbors across the river in Kentucky, the McCoys.
Keaton recently invited a forest expert to visit Kayford Mountain and survey the decommissioned mines. The coal companies have made only the most meager efforts to reclaim this devastated land by planting quick-growth pine trees, black locust, grass seed, and other plants that can live with high levels of acids in the soil. Keaton wanted to know how long it would take for these stands of identical pines to be transformed into a diverse rainforest, so she took the expert to one of the ridges and asked him when the real forest would grow back.
"And he said," Elise recalled, "'About 100 million years.'"
Before his death, Gibson dubbed the entrance to the Seng Creek mine "Hell's Gate," since for many years this site looked out across a vast expanse of gray broken only by the movements of massive machines and those explosions, which occurred every day of the year. A writer for Smithsonian Magazinewho visited Kayford in 2009, while this mine was still being blasted frequently, wrote that "entering a mountaintop site is like crossing into a war zone."
Now, few are the explosions at Seng Creek, but the nothingness remains.
There's almost no sound down in the mine itself except for the muffled rush of the wind unshielded by trees. Heaps of sandstone and fragmented shale rock stretch for what looks like miles. Much of the surface dirt has been packed down into undulating wide roads by the giant wheels of coal trucks. Most of the birds long ago left this desolate spot, although you can hear the occasional singing of meadowlarks from nearby reclamation sites. ("We've never had meadow larks here before," Keaton later tells me, as she stands on a nearby ridge overlooking a decommissioned mine seeded with grass. "But this is more like a meadow now.")
I walk to the far edge of the mine, sit down, and peer into some of the cylindrical holes, about 11 inches in diameter, that workers once drilled into the shale rock as places to pack full of ammonium nitrate. I recall what one of the festival's musicians said about coal — that he liked to think of it as old sunlight trapped inside rocks as long decomposed organic matter. Maybe it would be simpler, he added, just to use new sunlight, as the weekend's solar-powered event was, in fact, doing.
Finally, hours later, I conclude that there is very little else to be written, at least by me, at the edge of a mountaintop that's been transformed into blank, dead space. After all, I'm new to West Virginia, which gives me something in common with Ryan Hensley: I never saw the mountains here, either. And I never will.
The life that's left
This state's longest-serving governor once famously asked: "Why does everything bad happen to West Virginia?"
His question gibed well with the sense I ran into that the state's history is a tragic one and that the coal industry's collapse is its grim final act. Indeed, it's unclear just what West Virginia's future will hold. Coal has been the region's mono-industry for so long that it's hard to imagine anything else. Elise Keaton points out that the region's rich coalfields were a major part of the reason President Abraham Lincoln approved a controversial Act of Congress in 1863 to carve out West Virginia as a new state. It was one of only two states created in the midst of the Civil War and even some of Lincoln's advisors deemed the move unconstitutional. But annexing the region was militarily expedient. It gave the north all those rich coalfields and the prized Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which hauled Union soldiers south to the front lines and Appalachian coal north from Charleston to stations in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City.
In other words, West Virginia was created, as Keaton puts it, as a resource colony.
Perhaps, in the end, the death of coal will spell not doom but liberation for the state, freeing it from the energy needs of the rest of the nation. These days, as the coal industry crumbles, West Virginians are rallying in support of what's being called "transition work" — the building, that is, of a new economy based on agriculture, local arts, wineries, and the like.
Indeed, if West Virginia is able to build these alternative economies, if the state is able to do more than simply pivot from being a coal colony to becoming a shale gas supplier, it will provide evidence that any region can be transformed as the planet's industrialized nations hurtle into a post-fossil fuel future, kicking and screaming every step of the way.
Such a transition will require not only building anew, but also healing old wounds.
Hours later, Hensley begins pleading for one more expedition in Stanley Heirs Park, so we set off for Hell's Gate with a handful of others. As we walk, I suddenly realize just whom his cropped blond hair, which has felt so eerily familiar, brought to mind: a young worker I met in North Dakota's fracking fields in the summer of 2014, shortly before he was beaten to death outside a bar. In that moment of recognition, I find myself pleased that Hensley will have, at best, a slim chance of finding a coal job when he's older, but then I begin to worry about where the need for work will carry him if new industries haven't sprung up in time.
Another member of our group is Charles Lee Williams, a former miner who lives a few miles away. Forty-six years old, Williams has a round head and small, deep-set blue eyes. He's a man who knows about death in the coalfields better than most. He worked for coal giant Massey Energy until 2010, when a series of explosions ripped through subterranean tunnels at his worksite killing 29 of his co-workers — and nearly getting him, too. The force of the blasts, he tells me, was so powerful that it felt as if his skull were being sucked out of his head.
Now, Williams spends most nights dreaming of the ghosts of those men. He sought treatment once for the resulting PTSD, but the pills prescribed for him only seemed to make the nightmares worse. In them, he tells me, his former co-workers usually appear headless.
After we've returned from Hell's Gate, Williams confesses that it's his first time surveying a mountaintop removal site from above — despite living so close to mines that the explosions sometimes shake his house.
"It feels like there's nothing alive left over there," he says. Then he pauses and adds, "That's what it feels like in the mornings, too. That there ain't no life left in me, neither."


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Climate change
Shrinking ice sheets and melting ice caps are well known consequences of climate change. But a new study reveals that impacts on biodiversity will be just as severe in other regions of the world. When multiple dimensions of climate change are analyzed, different regions emerge as threatened by different aspects of climate change. The tropics, for example, will be highly affected by local changes in temperature and precipitation, leading to novel climates with no current analogues in the planet. These results, recently published in Science, expose the complexities of climate change effects on biodiversity and the challenges in predicting and preserving natural ecosystems in a changing Earth.
Biodiversity faces very diverse climatic challenges across regions, such as extreme climate events, novel climates, and the shrinkage or displacement of the climatic conditions they are adapted to. Photo: Christian Ostrosky
"Polar regions have gained substantial attention because they are experiencing a very high temperature increase. Polar climates will shrink in area, providing reduced habitat for arctic and subarctic species, but climate change is more than melting ice. Warming in the tropics will create entirely novel climatic conditions, currently not experienced by species anywhere else on Earth. Whether species will be able to adapt to these novel climates is an open question. There is a risk of neglecting such vital information because the temperature increase in the polar regions is easier to grasp in comparison", says senior author Miguel Araújo, Chair in Integrative Biogeography at Imperial College London, senior researcher of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) at the National Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid, and visiting Full Professor at University of Copenhagen.
Some species face extreme events, others a long move
The study, which is the outcome of an international collaboration led by the CSIC National Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid and the University of Copenhagen in collaboration with the Universities of évora, Helsinki and the Imperial College London, is the first to provide a detailed global overview of the threats and opportunities for biodiversity arising from different measurements of climate change.
Using 15 climate change models used by the IPCC (International Panel for Climate Change), the authors examined how different aspects of change in temperature and precipitation could affect species persistence around the world. They reviewed most climate change metrics available, applied them into the 21st century, and related the emerging climate change patterns to expected threats and opportunities for biodiversity.
Raquel Garcia researcher from the CSIC National Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid and Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate at University of Copenhagen:
Warming in the tropics will create entirely novel climatic conditions, currently not experienced by species anywhere else on Earth. Credit: Gary Sauer-Thompson
"Climate change can be measured in many more ways than is traditionally done in studies of climate change impacts on biodiversity. For example, we can measure whether extreme events will become more or less extreme, whether given climatic conditions will become more or less available, and how far climatic conditions will move from their current locations. When we compare this variety of measurements into the future, it becomes apparent that biodiversity will experience different climatic challenges in different regions. Extreme warming and drying events, for example, are projected to mainly affect the tropics, causing a severe threat for sensitive species. When we consider how far the current climatic conditions will move, the distance is greatest in some regions of cold and polar climates. Species in such regions will thus face greater difficulties in tracking the types of climates they have adapted to."
One cure does not fit all
Carsten Rahbek, co-author of the paper, Director of Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate at University of Copenhagen and professor at Imperial College London:
"These results provide us with a much more nuanced picture of the implications of climate change for biodiversity. Although climate change is a global phenomenon, it is expressed in many different ways, varying from region to region and thus there is no single cure to apply to all areas. We need to consider the consequences according to the main regional effects. The good news is that the better we understand the implications of climate change, the better we can design management actions to preserve biodiversity and ecosystems."
Conservation scientist Mar Cabeza, co-author from University of Helsinki says:
"Improving habitat quality in areas shrinking climatically to help species adapt locally, or promoting landscape connectivity for species that need to move to track suitable climates through time, are sound conservation strategies. Yet, combinations of novel climates and extreme events, such as expected for the tropics, imply that great uncertainties exist regarding species needs in a changing climate. In such cases, climate change mitigation remains a critical conservation option."
The complexity of nature
"Scientists are far from being able to accurately predict the impacts of global environmental changes on biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide. The actual effects of climate change on biodiversity are extremely difficult to predict. To put it plainly, the level of complexity we have to deal with when trying to predict the future effects of climate changes on species and ecosystems, is unprecedented in natural sciences, and this is why we have to work with simplifications that uncover the major trends of change that are happening in the natural world", says Miguel Araújo.
"While climate change metrics implemented in this study do not account for detailed responses of individual species to climate change, they are likely to remain an important tool in the toolbox for biodiversity impact assessments", concludes Raquel Garcia and continues:
"The sheer number of underdescribed and undiscovered species means that assessments relying on available species data represent a very small proportion of the existing biodiversity. For example, global inventories account for less than 20% of all existing insects, a group with considerable influence on ecosystem functioning and services. When carefully implemented and linked to threats and opportunities, measurements of climate change, such as those examined in our study, yield first-order assessments of the potential effects on the biota as a whole."
Professor Miguel Araújo, mobile: +44 7714051440, mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Dr. Raquel Garcia, mobile: +351 96 879 39 39, mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Professor Carsten Rahbek, mobile: +45 38 79 48 60, mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Dr. Mar Cabeza, mobile: +35 8407482588, mail: firstname.lastname@example.com

subset: commoncrawl


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When Amanda from Mommy is Coocoo shared her bathroom makeover after, I had serious bathroom envy. That doesn't sound right, does it? But read on, you'll get it.
And when she shared the 'before' pictures, I may have involuntarily shuddered. There's a reason you've never seen our upstairs bathrooms. It's the stuff nightmares are made of. Amanda understands because she had a nightmare bathroom too…
{see all 'before' bathroom pictures here}
This bathroom was HOT STUFF back in the early 1990s. Wallpaper {those are lambs and roosters…are you to be lulled to sleep counting sheep or cock-a-doodle-doo'd wide awake?}, gold fixtures, the Hollywood vanity lighting, and jacuzzi tub. Hubba hubba…luxxxxuuuuuury, baby.
But as time wore on (holy cow! 1990 was 23 years ago? way to feel old.), the wallpaper peeled, the gold wasn't as classy, the tub broke, tiles cracked, color coordinated metal blinds went out-of-style…
but Amanda had had enough and designed a brand new relaxing, peaceful, functional, beautiful bathroom retreat…and yea, I'm envious.
It's a bathroom that dreams (no nightmares) are made of now.
Go ahead, visit Amanda at Mommy is Coocoo for the full details on her bathroom reveal. Just walk right into the bathroom. She won't mind. I've already warned her you'll be stopping by.
And I love it "as is". Now (not before) but girlfriend looooves color. Evidence here:
{click the pictures below to be redirected to her original posts}
I wonder what she's up to with adding color to the bathroom. I can't wait to see!


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A trendy beach bag, where you can put everything that matters when hitting those warm beaches.
• 100% polyester
• Maximum weight limit – 44lbs (20kg)
• Large inside pocket
• Comfortable cotton webbing handles
• Vibrant colors that won't fade
• Available in one size
• Blank product components sourced from China
This product is made especially for you as soon as you place an order, which is why it takes us a bit longer to deliver it to you. Making products on demand instead of in bulk helps reduce overproduction, so thank you for making thoughtful purchasing decisions!
Fortune Teller Beach Bag


text:
Kaz Hirai hints the PS4 will release after Xbox 720
Kaz Hirai has hinted the next PlayStation console will not go on sale before Microsoft launches its Xbox 360 follow up.
When asked about console release cycles, Hirai indicated Sony is waiting for Microsoft to strike first. Speaking to The Times, he said, "why go first when your competitors can look at your specifications and come up with something better?"
We've received a lot of next-gen rumours across the last couple of weeks, including the suggestion that PS4 consoles will harness a significant power advantage over the 360's successor.
Is Sony playing it cool with this in mind? Time will tell.
Thanks, IGN.


text:
Related media – Related media
There was "a lot of interior space and very little access to natural light," said Kelley M. Bender, the firm's chief operating partner. And retrofitting the old offices for current technology, including that needed for hybrid meetings, would be difficult.
The firm also acknowledged that the work force had changed, requiring less space. Lawyers who commit to returning to work three days of week are assigned their own offices; those who don't still have office space, "but not necessarily one with their name on the door," Ms. Bender said.
Chapman's decision was in keeping with others in the Chicago market, said Daniel Arends, the chairman of the law firm services group at Colliers, a real estate services firm. He added that in the past nine years, 33 law firms had downsized by an average of 33.53 percent.
Since the pandemic, firms are focusing more on features like air filtration and acoustics, which have become particularly important with the increase in hybrid meetings. And in addition to the emphasis on expansive windows, there's more interest in improved artificial lighting; architects and designers are more likely to incorporate direct, ambient and task layers, said Sherry Banaei, an architect and creative director at Studio Alliance, a design firm in Washington.
Benches are uncommon — lawyers, after all, must retain confidences, and privacy is harder to control in open spaces. But other office design elements, like wellness areas, have become popular. And recreation has come to the fore: Few will own up to adding a foosball table, but Venable does have a regulation bocce ball court in its Washington office.
Related media – Connected media


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RECORD: Darwin, C. R. 1857. On the action of sea-water on the germination of seeds. [Read 6 May 1856.] Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London (Botany) 1: 130-140.
REVISION HISTORY: Scanned, text prepared and edited by John van Wyhe 2002-8, corrections by Kees Rookmaaker 3.2006, textual corrections by Sue Asscher 12.2006. RN5
NOTE: See record in the Freeman Bibliographical Database, enter its Identifier here.
See the rought draft of and notes for this this item in CUL-DAR27.1.E1-E9
On the Action of Sea-water on the Germination of Seeds. By CHARLES DARWIN, Esq., Vice-Pres. R.S., F.L.S. &c.
[Read May 6th, 1856.]
DURING the spring of last year it occurred to me that it would be worth while, in relation to the distribution of plants, to test how long seeds could endure immersion in sea-water, and yet retain their vitality. As far as I knew, this had not been tried by bota-
nists, who would have been far more capable of doing it efficiently than myself; and I now find that M. Alph. DeCandolle,1 in his admirable work, "Géographie Botanique," regrets that such experiments have not been tried; I think, that had he known even the few facts here to be recorded, some of his opinions on the means of distribution of particular families would have been slightly modified. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley2 has likewise tested fifty-three different kinds of seeds, and has published a report in the "Gardener's Chronicle*," to which periodical I have also sent two brief notices on the same subject†. I intend here to give, with Mr. Berkeley's kind permission, an account of our joint experiments. I may premise, that not knowing, at first, whether the seeds would endure even a week's immersion, I selected a few by simple chance, taking, however, the seeds of different families; subsequently I have been aided by suggestions from Dr. Hooker.
I must briefly describe how my experiments were tried: the seeds were placed in small bottles, each holding two or three ounces of salt water, carefully made according to Schweitzer's3 analysis: as both algæ and marine animals have, as is well known, long survived in water thus made, there can be no doubt that the experiment was thus fairly tried. Mr. Berkeley sent his seeds to Ramsgate, tied up in little bags and placed in the sea-water, daily renewed; and they were thus immersed for three weeks, and when partially dried, but still damp, were sent off, but by accident were not unpacked for four days subsequently, so that their total immersion "was equivalent to one of more than a month." Some of my bottles were put out of doors in the shade, and were exposed to an average weekly temperature of from 35° to 57°; the other bottles were kept in my cellar, and were exposed to much less variation of temperature, viz. to a daily mean average of from 46° to 56°. Further, to test the effect of temperature, I immersed eighteen different sorts of seeds in salt water, in a tank, which, from containing much snow, was for six weeks at the temperature of 32°, slowly rising for the next six weeks to 44°; but the seeds thus tested did not seem to withstand the injurious effect of the salt water better than those exposed to a higher but variable temperature. I may remark, that amongst the eighteen kinds of seeds immersed in the cold salt water, there were seeds of a somewhat tender constitution, as capsicum and vegetable marrow, but the exposure to the cold in no degree injured their germination. In the case of some of the seeds which I first tried,
* Sept. 1st, 1855.
† May 26th and Nov. 24th, 1855.4
1 Alphonse de Candolle (1806-1893), Swiss botanist, lawyer and politician. de Candolle 1855.
2 Berkeley reported the results of his experiments with immersing seeds in sea-water in Berkeley 1855.
3 Edward G. Schweitzer, German physician and chemist, Director of the Royal German Spa, Brighton. Darwin may refer to Schweitzer 1839.
4 Darwin 1855 and Darwin 1855. See also Darwin 1855.
and which were put out of doors, I did not change the salt water for fifty-six days, and it became putrid and smelt offensively to a quite surprising degree, especially the water with the cabbage, radish, cress and onion seed, which also gave out strongly the odour of each kind; so that I thought the putridity would infallibly have been communicated to the seeds; but judging from the seeds of some of the same plants (but not actually from the same lot of seed) placed in salt water often renewed, and likewise kept in the cellar under a less variable temperature, neither the putridity of the water nor the changing temperature had any marked effect on their vitality. Cress seed (Lepidium sativum) and that of Phalaris Canariensis, after twenty-two days' immersion, were thoroughly dried for a week and then planted; they germinated pretty well, but the seeds themselves of this particular lot were not very good. At first I tried the seeds after each successive week's immersion, and they germinated at the same period as did seeds of the same kind which had not been salted; celery and rhubarb seed, however, were somewhat accelerated in their germination. Some kinds of seeds, as of Trifolium incarnatum, Sinapis nigra, peas, kidney and common beans, swelled much in the salt water, and they generally were killed by a short immersion; but the swollen seeds of Lupinus polyphyllus germinated better than those which did not swell. I was surprised to observe that most of the seeds of Convolvulus tricolor germinated after seven days under the salt water and lived for some time in it; as did likewise the fresh seed of Tussilago farfara after 9 days; after 25 days I took out some of the young plants of the Tussilago and planted them, and one of them grew: some of the seeds of the garden orache (Atriplex) also germinated under water after 56 days' immersion, but I failed in raising the seedlings; the other seeds of the same lot of the orache germinated excellently after 100 days' immersion.
The total number of seeds tried by Mr. Berkeley and myself amount only to 87, for unfortunately we happened to select some of the same kinds; in one respect, however, this has been fortunate, for we have thus tested each other's results, and they accord perfectly as far as they go; the seed of the tomato, however, germinated better after a month's immersion with Mr. Berkeley than after only 22 days with me; but my seed appeared to be old. And this leads me to remark, that I suspect that fresh seed withstands the salt water better than old, but yet good seed; this was the case with Trifolium incarnatum, Phlox Drummondii,
and I believe with Sinapis nigra. Of the genus Godetia, Mr. Berkeley found one species was killed by, and another survived, a month's immersion: but a far more curious case is presented by the varieties of the cabbage; for I found that good seed of the "Mammoth white broccoli" germinated after 11 days' immersion, but was killed by 22 days; seed of the "early cauliflower" survived 22 days; but was killed by 36 days; "Cattell's cabbage" germinated excellently after 36 days, but was killed by 50 days; and lastly, fresh seed of the wild cabbage from Tenby germinated excellently after 50 days, very well after 110 days, and two seeds out of some hundreds germinated after 133 days' immersion.
Of the 87 kinds of seeds tried, 23 or more than one quarter did not endure 28 days' immersion: capsicum has endured the trial best, for 30 out of 56 seeds germinated well after 137 days' immersion: of celery seed after the same period of 137 days, only 6 out of several hundreds germinated. The worst germinators have been dwarf kidney beans and Hibiscus manihot, both killed by 11 days' immersion; common peas were killed by 14 days'; Tussilago farfara germinated under water after 9 days, but the young plants kept alive for some time: the next worse germinators have been Phlox Drummondii, Trifolium incarnatum, Linum usitatissimum, and Sinapis nigra, very few of which survived 15 days' immersion.
From such scanty materials it is, perhaps, rash to draw any sort of deduction in regard to the power of resistance to salt water in the different divisions of the vegetable kingdom; but a few remarks may be permitted. Three out of the 17 Endogens and 20 out of the 70 Exogens were killed by a month or 28 days' immersion: this fact, together with the marked power of endurance in the Atriplex, Beta, Spinacea, and Rheum, lowly organized exogens, accords with, and is perhaps connected with, the fact, insisted on so much by M. A. DeCandolle, of the wider range of the Endogens and of the lowly organized Exogens, than of the higher Exogens*. The four Solanaceæ and two Umbelliferæ endured the salt water very well, and each included the longest survivor of all the species tried. Ten Compositæ were tried, and only one was killed by a month's immersion, that is excepting the Tussilago which germinated under water. Eight Cruciferæ were tried, and all withstood the influence well, excepting Sinapis nigra, which
* Godron in his "Florula Juvenalis,"1 p. 16, states that the seeds of some plants, as of Atriplex and certain Gramineæ, germinate perfectly in salt-marshes, where they have been immersed during all the winter under salt water.
1 Godron 1853.
was killed by 25 days' immersion; three of the Cruciferæ survived 85 days: this power of endurance in the seeds of this family is, perhaps, surprising, considering the oil in their seeds. Nine Leguminosæ were tried; these all resisted the salt water badly, with the exception of the hard thin seeds of Mimosa sensitiva, which germinated pretty well after 50 days; three species of Lupine seemed just able occasionally to withstand about 36 days' immersion; the seeds of the other Leguminosæ having all been killed by much shorter periods. I suspect that it is the water, and not the salt, which kills the Leguminosæ; at least I found that a lot of fresh "Thurston Reliance" peas were all killed by 13 days' immersion in pure water*; and I have been assured that a much shorter immersion will kill kidney beans. Lastly, seven species of the allied families of Hydrophyllaceæ and Polemoniaceæ (six having been selected by Mr. Berkeley) were killed by a month's immersion, and so great a proportion can hardly be accidental.
From the great difference in the powers of resistance to the sea-water in the different families just specified, and even in the varieties of the same species; and from the Leguminosæ being apparently in this respect the tenderest, whereas they are generally believed to keep longer than any other seeds in a dry state, I think we may learn a lesson of caution, not to infer with too much certainty which seeds will endure longest when naturally buried in damp earth, from knowing what kinds will keep best in an artificial state.
I had intended trying many more seeds, as I at one time thought that these experiments would have thrown more light on the dispersal of plants than I now think they do. I soon became aware that most seeds, in accordance with the common experience of gardeners, sink in water; at least I have found this to be the case, after a few days, with the 51 kinds of seeds which I have myself tried; so that such seeds could not possibly be transported by sea-currents beyond a very short distance. Some few seeds, however, do float, as I have tried with some of those cast by the Gulf Stream on the coast of Norway. From knowing that timber is often cast on the shores of oceanic islands far from the mainland, and from having met with accounts of floating vege-
* Loiseleur-Deslongchamps says (Consid. sur les Céréales, Part ii. p. 234)1 that in wheat put into water the embryo comes out in the course of two days; as Mr. Berkeley's wheat survived after 30 days' immersion in sea-water, one may suspect that in this case, the seed would survive longer under sea-water than under fresh water.
1 Loiseleur-Deslongchamps 1843.
table rubbish off estuaries, I assumed that plants, with ripe seeds, washed into the sea by rivers, landslips, &c., might be drifted by sea-currents during a period of some weeks. The closing of the capsules, pods, and heads of the Compositæ, &c., when wetted, and their re-opening when cast on shore and dried, the seeds being thus allowed to be driven inland by the first stormy winds, seemed to favour such means of transport. But in putting 34 plants of different orders, with ripe fruit, into salt water, one alone, the Euonymus, floated for a month, being buoyed up by its fruit; the others all sunk in 21 days, some in 5, and several in 7, 9, and 11 days. But I am not sure that I have made the trial fairly, for I kept the floating plants in too warm and dark a place, which might have favoured their decay. Finally I may remark, that the seeds of very few species are, as far as we yet know, all killed by 10 days' immersion,—that some plants will float for this period,—that the average rate of the ten currents in the Atlantic Ocean, given in Johnston's "Physical Atlas,"1 is 33 miles per diem (the main Equatorial current running at the rate of 60 miles, and the Cape Stream at 80 miles per diem); and therefore I conclude, under the existing extremely scanty materials for forming any opinion, that some plants might under favourable conditions be transported over arms of the sea 300 or even more miles in breadth; and if cast on the shore of an island not well stocked with species, might become naturalized.
In the following list, to save repetition, I have marked the plants tried by Mr. Berkeley, and which germinated after a month's immersion, with †; when they did not germinate, this is expressly stated. The "cold water" refers to the seeds placed in salt water in the tank with snow.
I have arranged the families in accordance with Lindley's "Vegetable Kingdom."2
Avena (common oats): after 85 days' immersion germinated excellently; after 100 days some germinated; after 120 days some half-germinated.
Hordeum (common barley): germinated well after 28 days, but none after 42 days; in the cold water well after 30 days (†).
† Triticum (wheat).
Phalaris Canariensis: after 70 days nearly all germinated; in
2 Lindley 1853.
another lot after 85, most of the seeds germinated, but the seedlings died off; after 100 and likewise after 120 days' immersion, in each case, a single seedling came up.
Holcus saccharatus: after 36 days germinated fairly; after 50 days all died.
† Zea Mays: none germinated after a month's immersion.
† Arum maculatum.
† Anomatheca cruenta.
† Babiana plicata.
† Trichonema pudicum.
† Sisyrinchium iridifolium.
Canna Indica: after 50 days several germinated, but not very strongly.
† Colchicum autumnale: did not germinate.
Allium cepa: after 56 days' immersion, 3 out of 15 germinated; after 82 days in the cold water, most of the seeds grew well; after 100 days, 2 or 3 grew out of about 25 planted (†).
† Bulbine annua.
† Asphodelus luteus.
† Uropetalum serotinum: did not germinate.
Ricinus communis (var. major and minor): both germinated after 36 days.
Cucurbita Melopepo (vegetable marrow): germinated after 100 days; of 4 seeds immersed in the cold water for 82 days, 2 germinated.
† Cucumis Melo (melon).
Cistus (mixed shrubby garden varieties): germinated well after 36 days, and some germinated after 70 days.
Lepidium sativum: after 85 days' immersion only one out of many germinated; after 56 days 6/57 grew: in the cold water, after 65 days, 4/60 grew. (†var., golden cress.) These seeds gave out an astonishing quantity of slime in the salt water.
Brassica oleracea, var. "Mammoth white Broccoli:" germinated after 11 days' immersion, but after 22 days all died.
——— ———, var. "Early Cauliflower:" after 22 days, 5 out of 100 germinated; after 36 days all dead.
Brassica oleracea, var. "Cattell's Cabbage:" germinated excellently after 36 days; all dead after 50 days.
——— ———, var. growing wild on the Castle Rocks of Tenby; fresh seeds, after 50 days germinated excellently; after 110 days germinated very well; after 133 days only two out of some hundreds germinated (†).
† Brassica Rapa (var. yellow turnip).
Raphanus sativus: after 85 days, 2/30 germinated; the cold water seemed to be injurious to these seeds, for after only 30 or 50 days all the seeds were dead (var. black radish) (†).
Erysimum Perowskianum: after 36 days germinated well; after 50 only one seed; after 70 days all dead (†).
Matthiola annua: germinated after 28 days; all dead after 54 days.
Sinapis nigra: seeds much swollen; germinated after 11 days; all dead after 22 days: fresh seed germinated pretty well after 15 days, but were all killed by 25 days' immersion.
Crambe maritima: after 37 days germinated well.
Tropæolum majus: after 37 days nearly all germinated, but after 50 days none did.
† Limnanthes Douglasii.
Hibiscus Manihot: all were killed by 11 days' immersion (†).
† Malope grandiflora.
Papaver somniferum: germinated well after 28 days; was killed by 54 days.
Argemone Mexicana: came up excellently after 50 days, and pretty well after 70 days.
† Chryseis crocea (germinated very imperfectly after the month).
Linum usitatissimum: after 7 and after 14 days only two or three seeds, out of very many, germinated; after 28 only one seed came up; after 42 days not one germinated. These seeds gave out much slime.
† Silene compacta.
Rheum Rhaponticum: germinated well after 82 days.
Atriplex (garden orache): some of the seed germinated under water after 56 days' immersion; the remaining seed germinated excellently after 100 days.
Beta vulgaris: excellently after 100 days (†).
Spinacea oleracea: excellently after 70 days; a few after 120 days; all killed by 137 days (†).
Vicia Faba (var. "Johnston's Wonder"): two out of six lived
after 11 days' immersion; one half-germinated after 14 days; after 22 days all dead: many of these beans swelled greatly. I tried sixty after 28 days and found all dead. None survived 30 days in the cold water.
Pisum sativum: after 11 days some germinated; none survived 14 days; none survived 30 days in the cold water. Another lot of fresh seed ("Thurston's Reliance") all died after 12 days; none survived 30 days in the cold water. I found 13 days' immersion in pure water killed these latter fresh peas. (†None germinated.)
Phaseolus vulgaris (var. "early frame dwarf"): all died after 11 days' immersion; after 28 days' immersion, 80 were planted, but all dead. I tried another lot of fresh seed, but none of them resisted even 10 days' immersion; nor did they resist 30 days in the cold water: many of these seeds swelled much (†).
Trifolium incarnatum: all died after 11 days' immersion, and after 30 in the cold water. Fresh seed germinated excellently after 5 days' immersion, well after 12 days, and one single seed out of some hundreds germinated after 20 days. These seeds swelled much.
Ulex europæus: after 11 days germinated well; after 14 days two germinated; after 28 days all dead.
Lupinus polyphyllus: after 22 days, out of seven swollen seeds three germinated; seven others did not swell and were all dead; after 36 days' immersion one began to germinate and then died.
Lupinus luteus (pale var.): after 22 days 4/12 lived; after 36 days' immersion 3/18 germinated; after 50 days all dead.
† Lupinus pubescens germinated after a month, but Mr. Berkeley says the greater number were rotten.
Mimosa sensitiva: germinated excellently after 36 days' immersion, and pretty well after 50 days.
Geum coccineum (var. splendens): after 36 days germinated well, and after 70 days one single seed germinated.
Saxifraga incurvifolia: did not germinate after 30 days' immersion.
——— aizoides, nor did this species, but the seed was not very good.
Capsicum annuum: after 137 days' immersion, 30, out of 56 planted, germinated well (†).
Solanum tuberosum: germinated excellently after 70 days, well after 100; all dead after 120 days.
——— lycopersicum (common tomato): one seed germinated after 22 days' immersion, the rest were killed by 36 and 50 days' immersion. († But Mr. Berkeley found that they germinated after a month.)
† ——— melongena.
Convolvulus tricolor: after having been 7 days in the salt water, many of the seeds germinated, and the embryos came out of the husks: of those which did not germinate under water, one germinated after 36 days' immersion.
(POLEMONIACEÆ and HYDROPHYLLACEÆ.)
Gilia tricolor († was killed by a month's immersion).
Phlox Drummondii: of old seed none germinated after 11 days; but of fresh seed, 3 out of many germinated after 15 days, and none after 25 days' immersion.
Eutoca viscida. | ⌉ | | | | ⌋ |
† |
None of these were found by Mr. Berkeley to germinate after a month's immersion. |
Nemophila insignis. | |||
———— atomaria. | |||
———— maculata. | |||
———— discoidalis. |
Borago officinalis: a few came up after 14 days' immersion, one after 28 days, and none after 42 days.
† Nolana grandiflora.
Satureja (common savory): after 42 days, 3 seeds out of many germinated.
Campanula Pentagonia († did not germinate after a month's immersion).
† Fedia graciliflora.
† Fedia (corn salad).
Lactuca sativa (common lettuce): after 56 days' immersion 7/20 of the seed came up; after 85 days only one out of several germinated. Cold water had no marked effect, but after 65 days they germinated rather better than the others (†).
† Cichorium Endivia.
Galinsoga trilobata: germinated after 22 days.
Aster Chinensis (mixed German varieties): germinated after 28 days; all dead after 54 days' immersion.
Ageratum Mexicanum: after 100 days, one seed out of many germinated; at much shorter periods these seeds did not germinate well.
Leontodon Taraxacum: germinated excellently after 61 days' immersion; the seeds were fresh.
Tussilago Farfara: fresh seeds being placed in the salt water, after 9 days, many of them germinated under water. After 25 days, I took out some of the young plants and planted them: one grew. The germination of these seeds is the more remarkable, as this is not a sea-side plant.
† Monolopia Californica.
† Cenia turbinata.
† Cosmos luteus: did not germinate after a month's immersion.
Clarkia pulchella: germinated well after 28 days; was killed by 54 days' immersion.
† Godetia rubicunda.
†——— Lindleyana was killed by a month's immersion.
Apium graveolens (var. "Cattell's white"): after 137 days only 6 seeds out of some hundreds germinated; after 85 days the seeds germinated excellently; they did not appear to germinate quite so well after 82 days in the cold water (†).
Daucus carota: a very few germinated after 85 days; after only 56 days 3/30 grew (†).
Citation: John van Wyhe, ed. 2002-. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. (http://darwin-online.org.uk/)
File last updated 14 January, 2023


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text:
I just started a new project using the latest release candidate of Django 1.5. One thing that I needed was the local flavor add-on so I could get a list of US states. This functionality used to be rolled into the main codebase, but it was rightfully removed in Django 1.5. To install the US local flavor package, just use PIP.
pip install https://github.com/django/django-localflavor-us/zipball/master
Now you should be able to import anything you need from the package in the usual manner, except from the new package instead of the old one.
from django_localflavor_us.us_states import STATE_CHOICES |
For more information, check out the How To Migrate section of the local flavor docs on the Django documentation site.


text:
Gross domestic product
Gross domestic product
Gross domestic products (GDP) is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced in a specific time period, often annually.[2][3] GDP (nominal) per capita does not, however, reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation rates of the countries; therefore using a basis of GDP per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) is arguably more useful when comparing differences in living standards between nations.[4]
The OECD defines GDP as "an aggregate measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident and institutional units engaged in production and services (plus any taxes, and minus any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs)."[5] An IMF publication states that, "GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services—that are bought by the final user—produced in a country in a given period of time (say a quarter or a year)."[6]
Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of each industry or sector of the economy.[7] The ratio of GDP to the total population of the region is the per capita GDP and the same is called Mean Standard of Living. GDP is considered the "world's most powerful statistical indicator of national development and progress".[8]
William Petty came up with a basic concept of GDP to attack landlords against unfair taxation during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1654 and 1676.[9] Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695.[10] The modern concept of GDP was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a US Congress report in 1934.[11] In this report, Kuznets warned against its use as a measure of welfare[1] (see below under limitations and criticisms). After the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a country's economy.[12] At that time gross national product (GNP) was the preferred estimate, which differed from GDP in that it measured production by a country's citizens at home and abroad rather than its 'resident institutional units' (see OECD definition above). The switch from GNP to GDP in the US was in 1991, trailing behind most other nations. The role that measurements of GDP played in World War II was crucial to the subsequent political acceptance of GDP values as indicators of national development and progress.[13] A crucial role was played here by the US Department of Commerce under Milton Gilbert where ideas from Kuznets were embedded into governmental institutions.
The history of the concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in ways of estimating it. The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the public sector, by financial industries, and by intangible asset creation is more complex. These activities are increasingly important in developed economies, and the international conventions governing their estimation and their inclusion or exclusion in GDP regularly change in an attempt to keep up with industrial advances. In the words of one academic economist "The actual number for GDP is therefore the product of a vast patchwork of statistics and a complicated set of processes carried out on the raw data to fit them to the conceptual framework."[14]
Determining gross domestic product (GDP)
GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, in principle, give the same result. They are the production (or output or value added) approach, the income approach, or the speculated expenditure approach.
The most direct of the three is the production approach, which sums the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total. The expenditure approach works on the principle that all of the product must be bought by somebody, therefore the value of the total product must be equal to people's total expenditures in buying things. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the productive factors ("producers," colloquially) must be equal to the value of their product, and determines GDP by finding the sum of all producers' incomes.[15]
Production approach
This approach mirrors the OECD definition given above.
Estimate the gross value of domestic output out of the many various economic activities;
Determine the intermediate consumption, i.e., the cost of material, supplies and services used to produce final goods or services.
Deduct intermediate consumption from gross value to obtain the gross value added.
Gross value added = gross value of output – value of intermediate consumption.
Value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus value of changes in the inventory.
The sum of the gross value added in the various economic activities is known as "GDP at factor cost".
GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes less subsidies on products = "GDP at producer price".
For measuring output of domestic product, economic activities (i.e. industries) are classified into various sectors. After classifying economic activities, the output of each sector is calculated by any of the following two methods:
By multiplying the output of each sector by their respective market price and adding them together
By collecting data on gross sales and inventories from the records of companies and adding them together
The value of output of all sectors is then added to get the gross value of output at factor cost. Subtracting each sector's intermediate consumption from gross output value gives the GVA (=GDP) at factor cost. Adding indirect tax minus subsidies to GVA (GDP) at factor cost gives the "GVA (GDP) at producer prices".
Income approach
The second way of estimating GDP is to use "the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer units".[5]
If GDP is calculated this way it is sometimes called gross domestic income (GDI), or GDP (I). GDI should provide the same amount as the expenditure method described later. By definition, GDI is equal to GDP. In practice, however, measurement errors will make the two figures slightly off when reported by national statistical agencies.
This method measures GDP by adding incomes that firms pay households for factors of production they hire - wages for labour, interest for capital, rent for land and profits for entrepreneurship.
The US "National Income and Expenditure Accounts" divide incomes into five categories:
Wages, salaries, and supplementary labour income
Corporate profits
Interest and miscellaneous investment income
Farmers' incomes
Income from non-farm unincorporated businesses
These five income components sum to net domestic income at factor cost.
Two adjustments must be made to get GDP:
Indirect taxes minus subsidies are added to get from factor cost to market prices.
Depreciation (or capital consumption allowance) is added to get from net domestic product to gross domestic product.
Total income can be subdivided according to various schemes, leading to various formulae for GDP measured by the income approach. A common one is:
- *GDP =compensation of employees
- taxes less subsidies on production and imports*
Compensation of employees (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done. It includes wages and salaries, as well as employer contributions to social security and other such programs.
Gross operating surplus (GOS) is the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses. Often called profits, although only a subset of total costs are subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS.
Gross mixed income (GMI) is the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses. This often includes most small businesses.
The sum of COE, GOS and GMI is called total factor income; it is the income of all of the factors of production in society. It measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices. The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP(I) at factor cost to GDP(I) at final prices.
Total factor income is also sometimes expressed as:
- Total factor income = employee compensation + corporate profits + proprietor's income + rental income + net interest[16]
Expenditure approach
The third way to estimate GDP is to calculate the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers' prices.[5]
Market goods which are produced are purchased by someone. In the case where a good is produced and unsold, the standard accounting convention is that the producer has bought the good from themselves. Therefore, measuring the total expenditure used to buy things is a way of measuring production. This is known as the expenditure method of calculating GDP.
Components of GDP by expenditure
GDP (Y) is the sum of consumption (C), investment (I), government spending (G) and net exports (X – M).
Here is a description of each GDP component:
C (consumption) is normally the largest GDP component in the economy, consisting of private expenditures in the economy (household final consumption expenditure). These personal expenditures fall under one of the following categories: durable goods, nondurable goods, and services. Examples include food, rent, jewelry, gasoline, and medical expenses, but not the purchase of new housing.
I (investment) includes, for instance, business investment in equipment, but does not include exchanges of existing assets. Examples include construction of a new mine, purchase of software, or purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory. Spending by households (not government) on new houses is also included in investment. In contrast to its colloquial meaning, "investment" in GDP does not mean purchases of financial products. Buying financial products is classed as 'saving', as opposed to investment. This avoids double-counting: if one buys shares in a company, and the company uses the money received to buy plant, equipment, etc., the amount will be counted toward GDP when the company spends the money on those things; to also count it when one gives it to the company would be to count two times an amount that only corresponds to one group of products. Buying bonds or stocks is a swapping of deeds, a transfer of claims on future production, not directly an expenditure on products.
G (government spending) is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes salaries of public servants, purchases of weapons for the military and any investment expenditure by a government. It does not include any transfer payments, such as social security or unemployment benefits.
X (exports) represents gross exports. GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for other nations' consumption, therefore exports are added.
M (imports) represents gross imports. Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms G, I, or C, and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign supply as domestic.
Note that C, G, and I are expenditures on final goods and services; expenditures on intermediate goods and services do not count. (Intermediate goods and services are those used by businesses to produce other goods and services within the accounting year.[17])
According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is responsible for calculating the national accounts in the United States, "In general, the source data for the expenditures components are considered more reliable than those for the income components [see income method, below]."[18]
GDP vs GNI
GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP) or, as it is now known, gross national income (GNI). The difference is that GDP defines its scope according to location, while GNI defines its scope according to ownership. In a global context, world GDP and world GNI are, therefore, equivalent terms.
GDP is product produced within a country's borders; GNI is product produced by enterprises owned by a country's citizens. The two would be the same if all of the productive enterprises in a country were owned by its own citizens, and those citizens did not own productive enterprises in any other countries. In practice, however, foreign ownership makes GDP and GNI non-identical. Production within a country's borders, but by an enterprise owned by somebody outside the country, counts as part of its GDP but not its GNI; on the other hand, production by an enterprise located outside the country, but owned by one of its citizens, counts as part of its GNI but not its GDP.
For example, the GNI of the USA is the value of output produced by American-owned firms, regardless of where the firms are located. Similarly, if a country becomes increasingly in debt, and spends large amounts of income servicing this debt this will be reflected in a decreased GNI but not a decreased GDP. Similarly, if a country sells off its resources to entities outside their country this will also be reflected over time in decreased GNI, but not decreased GDP. This would make the use of GDP more attractive for politicians in countries with increasing national debt and decreasing assets.
Gross national income (GNI) equals GDP plus income receipts from the rest of the world minus income payments to the rest of the world.[19]
In 1991, the United States switched from using GNP to using GDP as its primary measure of production.[20] The relationship between United States GDP and GNP is shown in table 1.7.5 of the National Income and Product Accounts.[21]
International standards
The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book System of National Accounts (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund, European Union, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank. The publication is normally referred to as SNA93 to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68) [22]
SNA93 provides a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions.
National measurement
Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organizations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments).
Nominal GDP and adjustments to GDP
The raw GDP figure as given by the equations above is called the nominal, historical, or current, GDP. When one compares GDP figures from one year to another, it is desirable to compensate for changes in the value of money – for the effects of inflation or deflation. To make it more meaningful for year-to-year comparisons, it may be multiplied by the ratio between the value of money in the year the GDP was measured and the value of money in a base year.
For example, suppose a country's GDP in 1990 was $100 million and its GDP in 2000 was $300 million. Suppose also that inflation had halved the value of its currency over that period. To meaningfully compare its GDP in 2000 to its GDP in 1990, we could multiply the GDP in 2000 by one-half, to make it relative to 1990 as a base year. The result would be that the GDP in 2000 equals $300 million × one-half = $150 million, in 1990 monetary terms. We would see that the country's GDP had realistically increased 50 percent over that period, not 200 percent, as it might appear from the raw GDP data. The GDP adjusted for changes in money value in this way is called the real, or constant, GDP.
The factor used to convert GDP from current to constant values in this way is called the GDP deflator. Unlike consumer price index, which measures inflation or deflation in the price of household consumer goods, the GDP deflator measures changes in the prices of all domestically produced goods and services in an economy including investment goods and government services, as well as household consumption goods.[24]
Constant-GDP figures allow us to calculate a GDP growth rate, which indicates how much a country's production has increased (or decreased, if the growth rate is negative) compared to the previous year.
- Real GDP growth rate for year n
Another thing that it may be desirable to account for is population growth. If a country's GDP doubled over a certain period, but its population tripled, the increase in GDP may not mean that the standard of living increased for the country's residents; the average person in the country is producing less than they were before. Per-capita GDP is a measure to account for population growth.
Cross-border comparison and purchasing power parity
The level of GDP in countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to either the current currency exchange rate, or the purchasing power parity exchange rate.
Current currency exchange rate is the exchange rate in the international foreign exchange market.
Purchasing power parity exchange rate is the exchange rate based on the purchasing power parity (PPP) of a currency relative to a selected standard (usually the United States dollar). This is a comparative (and theoretical) exchange rate, the only way to directly realize this rate is to sell an entire CPI basket in one country, convert the cash at the currency market rate & then rebuy that same basket of goods in the other country (with the converted cash). Going from country to country, the distribution of prices within the basket will vary; typically, non-tradable purchases will consume a greater proportion of the basket's total cost in the higher GDP country, per the Balassa-Samuelson effect.
The ranking of countries may differ significantly based on which method is used.
The current exchange rate method converts the value of goods and services using global currency exchange rates. The method can offer better indications of a country's international purchasing power. For instance, if 10% of GDP is being spent on buying hi-tech foreign arms, the number of weapons purchased is entirely governed by current exchange rates, since arms are a traded product bought on the international market. There is no meaningful 'local' price distinct from the international price for high technology goods. The PPP method of GDP conversion is more relevant to non-traded goods and services. In the above example if hi-tech weapons are to be produced internally their amount will be governed by GDP (PPP) rather than nominal GDP.
There is a clear pattern of the purchasing power parity method decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the current exchange rate method. This finding is called the Penn effect.
For more information, see Measures of national income and output.
Standard of living and GDP: wealth distribution and externalities
GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of living standards.[25]
The major advantage of GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living is that it is measured frequently, widely, and consistently. It is measured frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis, allowing trends to be seen quickly. It is measured widely in that some measure of GDP is available for almost every country in the world, allowing inter-country comparisons. It is measured consistently in that the technical definition of GDP is relatively consistent among countries.
GDP does not include several factors that influence the standard of living. In particular, it fails to account for:
Externalities – Economic growth may entail an increase in negative externalities that are not directly measured in GDP.[26][27] Increased industrial output might grow GDP, but any pollution is not counted.[28]
Non-market transactions– GDP excludes activities that are not provided through the market, such as household production, bartering of goods and services, and volunteer or unpaid services.
Non-monetary economy– GDP omits economies where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or abnormally low GDP figures. For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are not easily registered. Bartering may be more prominent than the use of money, even extending to services.[27]
Quality improvements and inclusion of new products– by not fully adjusting for quality improvements and new products, GDP understates true economic growth. For instance, although computers today are less expensive and more powerful than computers from the past, GDP treats them as the same products by only accounting for the monetary value. The introduction of new products is also difficult to measure accurately and is not reflected in GDP despite the fact that it may increase the standard of living. For example, even the richest person in 1900 could not purchase standard products, such as antibiotics and cell phones, that an average consumer can buy today, since such modern conveniences did not exist then.
Sustainability of growth– GDP is a measurement of economic historic activity and is not necessarily a projection.
Wealth distribution – GDP does not account for variances in incomes of various demographic groups. See income inequality metrics for discussion of a variety of inequality-based economic measures.[27]
It can be argued that GDP per capita as an indicator standard of living is correlated with these factors, capturing them indirectly.[25][29] As a result, GDP per capita as a standard of living is a continued usage because most people have a fairly accurate idea of what it is and know it is tough to come up with quantitative measures for such constructs as happiness, quality of life, and well-being.[25]
Limitations and criticisms
Limitations at introduction
Simon Kuznets, the economist who developed the first comprehensive set of measures of national income, stated in his first report to the US Congress in 1934, in a section titled "Uses and Abuses of National Income Measurements":[11]
The valuable capacity of the human mind to simplify a complex situation in a compact characterization becomes dangerous when not controlled in terms of definitely stated criteria. With quantitative measurements especially, the definiteness of the result suggests, often misleadingly, a precision and simplicity in the outlines of the object measured. Measurements of national income are subject to this type of illusion and resulting abuse, especially since they deal with matters that are the center of conflict of opposing social groups where the effectiveness of an argument is often contingent upon oversimplification. [...]
All these qualifications upon estimates of national income as an index of productivity are just as important when income measurements are interpreted from the point of view of economic welfare. But in the latter case additional difficulties will be suggested to anyone who wants to penetrate below the surface of total figures and market values. Economic welfare cannot be adequately measured unless the personal distribution of income is known. And no income measurement undertakes to estimate the reverse side of income, that is, the intensity and unpleasantness of effort going into the earning of income. The welfare of a nation can, therefore, scarcely be inferred from a measurement of national income as defined above.
In 1962, Kuznets stated:[30]
Distinctions must be kept in mind between quantity and quality of growth, between costs and returns, and between the short and long run. Goals for more growth should specify more growth of what and for what.
Further criticisms
Ever since the development of GDP, multiple observers have pointed out limitations of using GDP as the overarching measure of economic and social progress.
Many environmentalists argue that GDP is a poor measure of social progress because it does not take into account harm to the environment.[31][32]
Although a high or rising level of GDP is often associated with increased economic and social progress within a country, a number of scholars have pointed out that this does not necessarily play out in many instances. For example, Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen have pointed out that an increase in GDP or in GDP growth does not necessarily lead to a higher standard of living, particularly in areas such as healthcare and education.[33] Another important area that does not necessarily improve along with GDP is political liberty, which is most notable in China, where GDP growth is strong yet political liberties are heavily restricted.[34]
GDP does not account for the distribution of income among the residents of a country, because GDP is merely an aggregate measure. An economy may be highly developed or growing rapidly, but also contain a wide gap between the rich and the poor in a society. These inequalities often occur on the lines of race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or other minority status within countries. This can lead to misleading characterizations of economic well-being if the income distribution is heavily skewed toward the high end, as the poorer residents will not directly benefit from the overall level of wealth and income generated in their country. Even GDP per capita measures may have the same downside if inequality is high. For example, South Africa during apartheid ranked high in terms of GDP per capita, but the benefits of this immense wealth and income were not shared equally among the country.
GDP does not take into account the value of household and other unpaid work. Some, including Martha Nussbaum, argue that this value should be included in measuring GDP, as household labor is largely a substitute for goods and services that would otherwise be purchased for value.[35] Even under conservative estimates, the value of unpaid labor in Australia has been calculated to be over 50% of the country's GDP.[36] A later study analyzed this value in other countries, with results ranging from a low of about 15% in Canada (using conservative estimates) to high of nearly 70% in the United Kingdom (using more liberal estimates). For the United States, the value was estimated to be between about 20% on the low end to nearly 50% on the high end, depending on the methodology being used.[37] Because many public policies are shaped by GDP calculations and by the related field of national accounts,[38] the non-inclusion of unpaid work in calculating GDP can create distortions in public policy, and some economists have advocated for changes in the way public policies are formed and implemented.[39]
The UK's Natural Capital Committee highlighted the shortcomings of GDP in its advice to the UK Government in 2013, pointing out that GDP "focuses on flows, not stocks. As a result, an economy can run down its assets yet, at the same time, record high levels of GDP growth, until a point is reached where the depleted assets act as a check on future growth". They then went on to say that "it is apparent that the recorded GDP growth rate overstates the sustainable growth rate. Broader measures of wellbeing and wealth are needed for this and there is a danger that short-term decisions based solely on what is currently measured by national accounts may prove to be costly in the long-term".
Proposals to overcome GDP limitations
In response to these and other limitations of using GDP, alternative approaches have emerged.
In the 1980s, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum developed the capability approach, which focuses on the functional capabilities enjoyed by people within a country, rather than the aggregate wealth held within a country. These capabilities consist of the functions that a person is able to achieve.[41]
In 1990 Mahbub ul Haq, a Pakistani Economist at the United Nations, introduced the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI is a composite index of life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate and standard of living measured as a logarithmic function of GDP, adjusted to purchasing power parity.
In 1989, John B. Cobb and Herman Daly introduced Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) by taking into account various other factors such as consumption of nonrenewable resources and degradation of the environment. The new formula deducted from GDP (personal consumption + public non-defensive expenditures - private defensive expenditures + capital formation + services from domestic labour - costs of environmental degradation - depreciation of natural capital)
In 2005, Med Jones, an American Economist, at the International Institute of Management, introduced the first secular Gross National Happiness Index a.k.a. Gross National Well-being framework and Index to complement GDP economics with additional seven dimensions, including environment, education, and government, work, social and health (mental and physical) indicators. The proposal was inspired by the King of Bhutan's GNH philosophy.[42][43][44]
In 2009 the European Union released a communication titled GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world[45] that identified five actions to improve the indicators of progress in ways that make it more responsive to the concerns of its citizens: Introduced a proposal to complementing GDP with environmental and social indicators
In 2009 Professors Joseph Stiglitz, Amartya Sen, and Jean-Paul Fitoussi at the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (CMEPSP), formed by French President, Nicolas Sarkozy published a proposal to overcome the limitation of GDP economics to expand the focus to well-being economics with wellbeing framework consisting of health, environment, work, physical safety, economic safety, political freedom.
In 2012, the Karma Ura of the Center for Bhutan Studies published Bhutan Local GNH Index contributors to happiness—physical, mental and spiritual health; time-balance; social and community vitality; cultural vitality; education; living standards; good governance; and ecological vitality. The Bhutan GNH Index.[46]
In 2013 OECD Better Life Index was published by the OECD. The dimensions of the index included health, economic, workplace, income, jobs, housing, civic engagement, life satisfaction
In 2013 professors John Helliwell, Richard Layard and Jeffrey Sachs published World Happiness Report and proposed to measure other wellbeing indicators in addition to GDP. the evaluation framework included GDP per capita, Gini (income inequality), life satisfaction, health, freedom of life choices, trust and absence of corruption.
Lists of countries by their GDP
Lists of countries by GDP
List of countries by GDP (nominal), (per capita)
List of continents by GDP (nominal)
List of countries by GDP (PPP), (per capita), (per hour)
List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate, (per capita)
List of countries by GDP sector composition
List of IMF ranked countries by past and projected GDP (PPP), (per capita), (nominal), (per capita)
See also
Annual average GDP growth
Capability approach
Chained volume series
Circular flow of income
GDP density
Green national product
Gross output
Gross regional product
Gross regional domestic product
Gross state product
Gross value added
Gross world product
Intermediate consumption
Inventory investment
List of countries by average wage
List of countries by household income
List of countries by GDP (nominal)
List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita
List of countries by GDP (PPP)
List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies
Misery index (economics)
National average salary
Potential output
Production (economics)
Real gross domestic product
Gross National Happiness
Gross National Well-being
Social Progress Index
Better Life Index
Genuine Progress Index
Irish modified GNI (or GNI star)


text:
Genetic analysis is a term used to describe the study of a sample of DNA to look at differences, or variants, that may increase an individual's risk for disease or impact drug responses.
While some genetic diseases, like Huntington's disease, are due to single gene changes, most inherited diseases arise from a number of genetic changes that can be compounded by environmental factors, making it difficult for researchers to track down all the related factors.
Although any two people are 99.9% identical at the genetic level, the 0.1 percent difference may help explain why one person is more susceptible to a specific disease than another person. Studying patterns of genetic variation can help scientists determine which differences are disease-related.
With its unprecedented throughput, scalability, and speed, next-generation sequencing (NGS) enables biological studies at a level never before possible.
Learn MoreExtensive resources have been invested in sequencing the human genome and various model organisms. Further resources are now being directed towards increasing our understanding of genetic variation and function, and using these findings to develop future new diagnostic methods and therapeutics.
There's a continuing need to analyze massive numbers of genetic markers and patient samples, in an effort to understand the underpinnings of major diseases. Illumina technologies are uniquely positioned for use in these studies, and are helping further our understanding of genetic variation at the DNA, RNA, and protein levels.
BeadArray technology enables high-density BeadChip arrays to facilitate diverse applications.
Learn MoreThe human body is composed of billions of cells, each containing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which encodes the basic instructions for cellular function. The complete set of an organism's DNA is called its genome.
The human genome is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes which are further divided into over 30,000 smaller regions called genes. Each gene is comprised of a string of nucleotide bases labeled A, C, G and T. Human DNA has approximately 3 billion nucleotide bases and their precise order is known as the DNA sequence.
When a gene is "expressed," a partial copy of its DNA sequence—called messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) or mRNA—is used as a template to direct the synthesis of a protein.
Proteins, in turn, direct all cellular function.
Find array and NGS solutions to advance your complex genetic disease research in autoimmune and rheumatic diseases, heart disease, neurological disorders, psychiatric disorders, and more on a molecular level.
Learn MoreSingle nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are single nucleotide (A, G, C, or T) changes in DNA. SNPs are by far the most common source of genetic variation. The human genome is thought to contain over 10 million SNPs, about one in every 300 bases.
Many genetic analysis tools are available to interrogate SNPs. Researchers can analyze hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the entire genome and compare patterns between healthy and diseased patient samples. Follow-on fine-mapping studies may involve analysis of a smaller number of SNPs in defined regions of the genome, in an attempt to find causative SNPs for a given disease.
Gene expression analysis is the process of determining which genes are active in a specific cell or group of cells. It is commonly studied by measuring messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), the intermediary between genes and proteins.
By comparing gene expression patterns between cells from different environments, such as normal tissue vs. diseased tissue, researchers can determine which genes are active or inactive in various disease states.
DNA methylation is the attachment of methyl groups to cytosine nucleotides at CpG sites in the genome. DNA methylation is thought to affect gene transcriptional regulation and can be heritable.
Since faulty DNA methylation is associated with a variety of human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and certain neurological disorders, methylation patterns have the potential for use as disease biomarkers.
CNV refers to changes in the DNA copy number level of a region when compared to a reference genome. Recent research has shown that the level of CNV in the human genome is much higher than previously thought.
Other types of copy number changes occur when a region within a chromosome or an entire chromosome is amplified erratically or deleted altogether. Copy number aberrations are typical of cancer cells. In some tumors, high-level amplifications correlate with clinical outcome.
LOH represents the loss of a parent's contribution to part of the cell's genome. LOH is extremely common in cancer, where it often indicates the presence of a tumor suppressor gene in the region. Typically, the remaining copy of the tumor suppressor gene will be inactivated by a point mutation.
LOH can sometimes occur without apparent copy number changes (such as gene conversions), and recent publications have documented the critical role of copy-neutral LOH in tumor samples. Events such as these cannot be detected with traditional two-color microarray comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH).
Illumina DNA analysis solutions enable researchers to profile, at increased resolution, the genome for LOH, as well as other chromosomal aberrations routinely found in cancer and other disorders.
The Illumina iHope China program will provide 1800 families with genetic testing in 2024, broadening its reach and impact nationwide
Read articleResearchers at Okayama University in Japan use Illumina Connected Analytics with DRAGEN pipelines for analyzing whole-genome, exome, transcriptome, and metagenome data
Read InterviewAt a private summit, Illumina convened a group of health system leaders to discuss strategies for implementing genomics into clinical care
Read article


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$2,730.38 $3,412.97
2009, "Scream" - oil painting, ready to hang
This original oil painting is one of the latest artworks of the talented contemporary Bulgarian artist, deeply inspired by surrealism and pop art. It represents one screaming man portrait, as its trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas. The artist sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than the actual physical surface reality.
✧Artist: Grigor Velev
✧Size (height, width): 47.2 x 39.4 inches (120 x 100 cm)
✧Materials: Oil Paint, Canvas, Wooden Bars
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