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Network Working Group M. McCahill Request For Comments: 1862 University of Minnesota Category: Informational J. Romkey, Editor M. Schwartz University of Colorado K. Sollins MIT T. Verschuren SURFnet C. Weider Bunyip Information Systems, Inc. November 1995 Report of the IAB Workshop on Internet Information Infrastructure, October 12-14, 1994 Status of this Memo This memo provides information for the Internet community. This memo does not specify an Internet standard of any kind. Distribution of this memo is unlimited. Abstract This document is a report on an Internet architecture workshop, initiated by the IAB and held at MCI on October 12-14, 1994. This workshop generally focused on aspects of the information infrastructure on the Internet. 1. Introduction The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) holds occasional workshops designed to consider long-term issues and strategies for the Internet, and to suggest future directions for the Internet architecture. This long-term planning function of the IAB is complementary to the ongoing engineering efforts performed by working groups of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), under the leadership of the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) and area directorates. An IAB-initiated workshop on the architecture of the "information infrastructure" of the Internet was held on October 12-14, 1994 at MCI in Tysons Corner, Virginia. In addition to the IAB members, attendees at this meeting included the IESG Area Directors for the relevant areas (Applications, User Services) and a group of other experts in the following areas: McCahill, et al Informational [Page 1]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 gopher, the World Wide Web, naming, WAIS, searching, indexing, and library services. The IAB explicitly tried to balance the number of attendees from each area of expertise. Logistics limited the attendance to about 35, which unfortunately meant that many highly qualified experts were omitted from the invitation list. The objectives of the workshop were to explore the architecture of "information" applications on the Internet, to provide the IESG with a solid set of recommendations for further work, and to provide a place for communication between the communities of people associated with the lower and upper layers of the Internet protocol suite, as well as allow experience to be exchanged between the communities. The 34 attendees divided into three "breakout groups" which met for the second half of the first day and the entire second day. Each group wrote a report of its activities. The reports are contained in this document, in addition to a set of specific recommendations to the IESG and IETF community. 2. Summary Although there were some disagreements between the groups on specific functionalities for architectural components, there was broad agreement on the general shape of an information architecture and on general principles for constructing the architecture. The discussions of the architecture generalized a number of concepts that are currently used in deployed systems such as the World Wide Web, but the main thrust was to define general architectural components rather than focus on current technologies. Research recommendations include: - increased focus on a general caching and replication architecture - a rapid deployment of name resolution services, and - the articulation of a common security architecture for information applications. Procedural recommendations for forwarding this work in the IETF include: - making common identifiers such as the IANA assigned numbers available in an on-line database - tightening the requirements on Proposed Standards to insure that they adequately address security McCahill, et al Informational [Page 2]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 - articulating the procedures necessary to facilitate joining IETF working group meetings, and - reviewing the key distribution infrastructure for use in information applications 3. Group 1 report: The Distributed Database Problem Elise Gerich, Tim Berners-Lee, Mark McCahill, Dave Sincoskie, Mike Schwartz, Mitra, Yakov Rekhter, John Klensin, Steve Crocker, Ton Verschuren Editors: Mark McCahill, Mike Schwartz, Ton Verschuren 3.1 Problem and Needs Because of the increasing popularity of accessing networked information, current Internet information services are experiencing performance, reliability, and scaling problems. These are general problems, given the distributed nature of the Internet. Current and future applications would benefit from much more widespread use of caching and replication. For instance, popular WWW and Gopher servers experience serious overloading, as many thousands of users per day attempt to access them simultaneously. Neither of these systems was designed with explicit caching or replication support in the core protocol. Moreover, because the DNS is currently the only widely deployed distributed and replicated data storage system in the Internet, it is often used to help support more scalable operation in this environment -- for example, storing service-specific pointer information, or providing a means of rotating service accesses among replicated copies of NCSA's extremely popular WWW server. In most cases, such uses of the DNS semantically overload the system. The DNS may not be able to stand such "semantic extensions" and continue to perform well. It was not designed to be a general-purpose replicated distributed database system. There are many examples of systems that need or would benefit from caching or replication. Examples include key distribution for authentication services, DHCP, multicast SD, and Internet white pages. To date there have been a number of independent attempts to provide caching and replication facilities. The question we address here is whether it might be possible to define a general service interface or protocol, so that caches and replica servers (implemented in a variety of ways to support a range of different situations) might McCahill, et al Informational [Page 3]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 interoperate, and so that we might reduce the amount of wasted re- implementation effort currently being expended. Replication and caching schemes could form a sort of network "middleware" to fulfill a common need of distributed services. It should be noted that it is an open question whether it would be feasible to define a unified interface to all caching and replication problems. For example, very different considerations must go into providing a system to support a nationwide video service for 1,000,000 concurrent users than would be needed for supporting worldwide accesses to popular WWW pages. We recommend research and experimentation to address this more general issue. 3.2 Characteristics of Solutions While on the surface caching and replication may appear to occupy two ends of a spectrum, further analysis shows that these are two different approaches with different characteristics. There are cases where a combination of the two techniques is the optimal solution, which further complicates the situation. We can roughly characterize the two approaches as follows: Caching: - a cache contains a partial set of data - a cache is built on demand - a cache is audience-specific, since the cache is built in response to demands of a community Replication: - replicated databases contain the entire data set or a server-defined subset of a given database - a replicated database can return an authoritative answer about existence of an item - data is pushed onto the replicating server rather than pulled on demand While there are important differences between caches and replicated databases, there are some issues common to both, especially when considering how updates and data consistency can be handled. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 4]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 A variety of methods can be used to update caches and replicas: - master-slave - peer-to-peer - flooding techniques (such as that used by NNTP). Which strategy one chooses influences important characteristics of the cache or replicated database, such as: - consistency of data - is locking used to achieve consistency? this influences performance... - are there a priori guarantees of existence of an item in the database (is the answer authoritative, do you detect conflicts after the fact, or is there no guarantee on authoritativeness of the answer?) Consistency guarantees depend on the granularity of synchronization (ms, sec, hr, day), and there are cases where it is acceptable to trade consistency for better performance or availability. Since there is a range of qualities of service with respect to consistency and performance, we would like to be able to tune these parameters for a given application. However, we recognize that this may not be possible in all cases since it is unlikely one can implement a high performance solution to all of these problems in a single system. Beyond simply performing replication or caching, there is a need for managing cache and replication servers. There are several models for organizing groups of caches/replication servers that range from totally adaptive to a rigidly administered, centrally controlled model: - a club model. Minimal administrative overhead to join the club. Participation is a function of disk space, CPU, available network bandwidth. - centrally coordinated service. Here administrators can take advantage of their knowledge of the system's topology and the community they intend to serve. There may be scaling problems with this model. - hybrid combinations of the club and centrally coordinated models McCahill, et al Informational [Page 5]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 There are a couple of models for how to organize the management of a group of cooperating servers, but this does not address the question of what sorts of commands the manager (be it a person or a program) issues to a cache or replicated server. A manager needs to be able to address issues on a server such as: - control of caching algorithms, defining how information is aged out of the cache based on disk space, usage demands, etc. This is where you would control time-to-live and expiry settings. - flushing the cache. There are circumstances where the information source has become inaccessible and the normal cache aging strategy is inappropriate since you will not be able to get the information again for an indeterminate amount of time. - management control might also be a way for information providers to control how information is pushed on servers for maintaining data consistency, but this raises tricky problems with trust and authentication. Given a common set of management controls needed, a common protocol would allow for simplified management of a collection of caching and replicating servers since you would be able to both control them with a single set of commands and query them about their capabilities. A common language/protocol would also allow different implementations to interoperate. Replicating or caching information immediately raises issues of billing, access control and authentication. Ignoring authentication and access control issues simplifies the replication and caching problem a great deal. Exactly who is running the replication or caching server makes a big difference in how you approach this issue. If the information publisher runs a set of servers, they can easily handle billing and authentication. On the other hand, if an organization is running a cache on its firewall (a boundary cache), and purchasing information from a vendor, there are sticky issues regarding intellectual property in this scenario. Selecting an appropriate cache or replica of a database is simple in the case of a captive user group (for instance a company behind a firewall). In this case, configuring the user's software to go through one or more boundary caches/replication servers directs the users to the closest server. In the more general case, there are several replicated/cached copies of an object, so you may receive several URLs when you resolve a URN. How do you select the best URL? Either client developers create ad hoc performance metrics or (in an ideal world) the lower level protocols would give the client McCahill, et al Informational [Page 6]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 application some guidance about the "closest" copy of the object. In other words, if better information about network performance was available from lower levels of the protocol stack, applications would not have to build ad hoc models of network topology We did not model the functions of a cache/replication server in detail, but we did an (incomplete) model of some of the functions (see Figure 1). The idea here was to start work on a general form which might include features such as a push function for use in both maintaining consistency and in preloading information that the information publisher believes will be requested in the near future. Preloading information via a push command might be a function of observed behavior patterns (when you ask for A you'll probably want B and C). The decision about what to preload can be made either by the information publisher or by the cache server. The cache server has the advantage that it has better knowledge of the use patterns of its community. The distributed nature of links to other servers also limit the knowledge of a single information publisher. In any case, being able to accurately predict usage patterns can result in significant performance enhancements for caches. Figure 1: a rough cut at functions requests from client (in) | | | \|/ +---------------------+ | | (management) | cache/replicated db |<--- commands from admins, | | publishers, caches +---------------------+ | | | \|/ requests sent to information providers (out) in: (requests from a client) - give me meta-info about cached object (how up-to-date, ttl, expiry, signatures/checksum, billing information ) - give me the object - go get the object from the net McCahill, et al Informational [Page 7]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 - cache, what objects should I pre-fetch? (this assumes that the client software believes that the cache/replica has some knowledge of use patterns and can predict what the user will do next) out: (requests sent to an information publisher or a cache further up the food chain) - server, do I have latest copy of this object? - give me object x and the meta data for object x - I have a copy of object x (announcing you have a copy of object x to other caches or URN to URL server) - info publisher, what objects should I pre-fetch? (this assumes that the information publisher has some knowledge of use patterns and can predict what the user will do next) management: (commands from administrators, other cooperating caches, and object publishers) - turn parameters (e.g. consistency) on/off - flush the cache - there's a new version of object x, take it 3.3 Recommendations Caching and replication are important pieces of Internet middleware, and solutions need to be found soon. Caches and replicas have different performance characteristics, and there are cases where a combination of the two provides the best solution. There are also many strategies for updating and maintaining consistency of caches and replicated databases, and we do not believe any single implementation can suffice for the broad range of needs in the Internet. One possible solution would be to define a general protocol for a replicated distributed database and for caching so that different information application implementations can interoperate and be managed via a common management interface. A common protocol would provide a framework for future protocols (e.g., URN2URL, DHCP) or existing protocols (e.g., Gopher or WWW) that presently lack a consistent solution. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 8]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 4. Group 2A report: Building an Information Architecture Karen Sollins, Abel Weinrib, Barry Leiner, Clifford Neuman, Dan LaLiberte, Erik Huizer, John Curran, John Klensin, Lixia Zhang, Michael Mealling, Mitchell Charity, Mike St. Johns, Paul Mockapetris This group took as its central agenda exploring an information architecture, the services that would instantiate such an architecture, and the functional interfaces between a realization of such an architecture and both layers on which it would sit and the layers that would sit on it. In order to describe an architecture, one must describe not only what it includes, but also what it excludes. 4.1. The core model and service structure The general architecture has as its centerpiece objects, or as they are known in the Uniform Resource Identifier Working Group, resources. An object in this architecture has several characteristics. First, it has an identifier, assigned within the context of some namespace. Such an identifier is globally unique and will not be reassigned to another object. Thus, it can be said to be globally unique for a long time. Because such an identifier must remain unique for all time, it cannot contain location-relevant information ... locations can and will be reused. Also, since resources may appear in zero, one, or many locations simultaneously, location-dependent information can lead to a vast number of identifiers for an object, which will make it difficult to identify separately retrieved copies of an object as being the same object. These locations are defined by the supporting layers that provide transport and access. Therefore the definition of locations is not within the architecture, although their existence is accepted. Second, an object will support one or more abstract types. Further determination beyond this statement was not made. One can conclude from these two points that an object cannot be part of such an architected universe without having at least one such identifier and without supporting at least one type if it has at least one location. In addition, the architecture contains several other components. First, there will be a prescribed class of objects called links that express a relationship among other objects including the nature of that relationship. It is through links that composite objects composed of related objects can be created and managed. Finally, there is a need for several sorts of meta-information, both in order to discover identifiers (e.g. for indices and in support of searching) and to aid in the process of mapping an identifier to one or more potential locations. Both of these sorts of meta-information are associated with objects, although they will be used and therefore McCahill, et al Informational [Page 9]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 most likely managed differently, to support their distinctive access and update requirements. Given this architecture of information objects, one can identify several boundary points. First, something that does not have an identifier or type is outside the architecture. Second, the architecture does not, at this point, include any statement about computations, or communications paradigms other than second-handedly by assuming that traversal of links will occur. Third, although pre-fetching, caching, and replication are important, such details may be hidden from higher level software components, and thus are not part of the data model exposed to the application in the normal case (though some applications may want to specify such characteristics). Now one can ask how such a model fits into a layered network model, how it might be modularized and realized. We envisioned this information layer as an information "wholesale" layer. It provides the general, broad model and provision of shared, network-based information. Above this sit the "retailers," the marketers or providers of information to the marketplace of applications users. Below the "wholesalers" lie the providers of "raw materials." Here will be the provision of supporting mechanisms and architecture from which information objects can come. The remainder of this group's report describes the modular decomposition of the wholesale layer, including the interactions among those modules, separate discussions of the interactions first between the retail and wholesale layers and then between the wholesale and raw material layers. The report concludes with recommendations for where the most effective immediate efforts could be made to provide for the wholesale layer and make it useful. 4.2. The Wholesale Layer In order to realize the information architecture in the network a variety of classes of services or functionality must be provided. In each case, there will be many instances of a sort of service, coordinating to a lesser or greater degree, but all within the general Internet model of autonomy and loose federation. There also may be variants of any sort of service, to provide more specialized or constrained service. In addition, services may exist that will provide more than one of these services, where that is deemed useful. Each such service will reside in one or more administrative domains and may be restricted or managed based on policies of those domains. The list of core services is described below. Because there are many interdependencies, there may often be forward references in describing a service and its relationships to other services. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 10]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 * RESOURCE DISCOVERY: Much of the activity of resource discovery, indexing and searching, will be in the domain of the retailers, although there are supporting hooks that can be provided by the wholesaler layer as well. A resource discovery service will hold mappings from descriptions to identifiers of objects. They will need to be queried. Thus there is a general functionality for a wholesale layer service that answers queries formulated in certain ways and responds with identifiers. The business of on what basis indices are computed or how they are managed will be domain specific. * NAMING or IDENTIFICATION: There are two aspects to assigning an identifier to an object, one in the wholesale layer, and one, arguably, in the retail layer. In the wholesale layer, one can generate identifiers that are guaranteed to be unique. In the retail layer one might ask the question about whether two objects are the same or different by the rules of an identification authority that therefore would determine whether they should bear the same or different identification from that authority. It should be noted that the URI Working Group has included these two functions in the requirements document for URNs. An identification service will obviously provide functionality to the uniqueness authority. It will also provide identification in the process of publication of objects, as will be discussed below, in the management of resource discovery information, object location and storage services, as well as cache and replication management. * NAME or IDENTIFICATION RESOLUTION: Since identifiers are presumed to be location independent, there is a need for a resolution service. Such a service may sometimes return other identifiers at this same level of abstraction (the equivalent of aliases) or location information, the information delivered to a transport service to access or retrieve an object. * OBJECT RETRIEVAL: Object retrieval is tightly coupled to resolution, because without resolution it cannot proceed. Object retrieval provides the functionality of causing a representation of an object to be provided locally to the requester of an object retrieval. This may involve the functionality of object publication (see below) and object storage, caching and replication services as well as the supporting transport facilities. * OBJECT PUBLICATION: When an object comes into existence in the universe of the information infrastructure, it is said to be "published." There will be two common scenarios in publication. One will be the use of tools to directly enter and create the information that comprises an object in the information infrastructure. Thus there may be object creation tools visible to users in applications. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 11]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 In contrast there may also be tools outside the information infrastructure (for example word processing or text editing tools) that provide for the entry of data separately from the operation of assigning an object an identifier and causing it to support information infrastructure definitions of objects. Thus, there will also be visible at the interface between the wholesale and retail layers the ability to cause some pre-existing data to become one or more objects. In addition to interacting with the identification service, publication is likely to cause interaction with object storage, and possibly caching and replication. * DEFINITIONS: If the information infrastructure is to both survive and evolve over a long time period, we must be prepared for a wide variety and growing number of different sorts of information with different functionalities that each supports. For objects available on the net, the functionality that each provides must be exposed or able to be learned. To do this objects must be able to indicate by name or identifier the types of functionality they are supporting. Given such an identifier, an object is only useful to a client, if the client can discover the definition and perhaps a useful implementation of the type in question. This will be acquired from a definitions service, which will be used in conjunction with applications themselves directly, object publication, and object retrieval. * ATTRIBUTE MANAGEMENT: The attributes considered here relate to policy, although any understanding of that policy will be above the wholesale level. There are, for example, access management and copyright attributes. There is a question here about whether there is or should be any access time enforcement or only after the fact enforcement. The information is likely to be in the form of attribute-value pairs and must be able to capture copyright knowledge effectively. * ACCOUNTING: An accounting service provides metering of the use of resources. The resources wholly contained in the wholesale layer are the services discussed here. It will also be important to provide metering tools in the wholesale layer to be used by the retail layer to meter usage or content access in that layer. Metering may be used for a variety of purposes ranging from providing better utilization or service from the resources to pricing and billing. Hence accounting services will be used by object storage, caching and replication, lower layer networking services, as well as pricing and billing services. In the form of content metering it will also interact with attribute management. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 12]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 * PRICING, BILLING and PAYMENT: Pricing and payment services straddle two layers in the information infrastructure. Servers that maintain account balances and with which users interact to retrieve and edit account information are applications that will be built on top of wholesale layer services. Pricing will be determined in the applications environment for application level activities. However, it must be possible for middle layer services to process payment instruments analogous to cash, credit card slips, and checks, without an understanding of the specific implementation of the payment mechanism. Application programming interfaces supporting payment should be provided, and a common tagged representation of payment instruments should allow instruments from a variety of payment systems to be presented within middle layer protocols. * OBJECT STORAGE, CACHING and REPLICATION: There is a recognition that caching and replication are important, but the discussion of that was left to another group that had taken that as the focus of their agenda. Object storage will take an object and put it somewhere, while maintaining both the identity and nature of the object. It is tightly coupled to caching and replication, as well as accounting, often in order to determine patterns of caching and replication. It is also tightly coupled to object publication, translation, and provides interfaces to both supporting storage facilities such as local file systems, as well as direct access from applications, needing access to objects. * TRANSLATION: A translation service allows an object to behave with a nature different than that it would otherwise support. Thus, for example, it might provide a WYSIWYG interface to an object whose functionality might not otherwise support that, or it might generate text on the fly from an audio stream. Translation services will be used by object publication (allowing for identification of an object including a translation of it) and with object storage, providing an interface only within the wholesale or to the retail layers. * SERVER AND SERVICE LOCATION: It will be necessary as part of the infrastructure to be able to find services of the kinds described here and the servers supporting them. This service has direct contact with the lower layer of raw materials, in that it will provide, in the final analysis, the addresses needed to actually locate objects and services using lower level protocols, such as the existing access protocols in use today, for example FTP, SMTP, HTTP, or TCP. This service will provide functionality directly to resource discovery as well as remote object storage services. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 13]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 * ADAPTIVE GLUE: This is not a single service as much as a recognition that there must be a path for a flow of information between the network layers and the applications. The application may have constraints, based both on its own needs as well as needs of the objects in the wholesale layer. Only the application can really know what compromises in services provided below are acceptable to it. At the same time, the supporting network layers understand what qualities of service are available at what price. Hence there is the potential for flow of information both up and down through the wholesale layer, perhaps mediated by the wholesale layer. Hence the adaptive glue has hooks into all three levels. * SECURITY: Security services will be a critical piece of the infrastructure architecture. For any real business to be conducted, organizations must make their information available over the network, yet they require the ability to control access to that information on a per user and per object basis. To account properly for the use of higher level services, organization must be able to identify and authenticate their users accurately. Finally, payment services must be based on security to prevent fraudulent charges, or disclosure of compromising information. The two biggest problems in providing security services at the wholesale layer are poor infrastructure and multiple security mechanisms that need to be individually integrated with applications. The poor state of the infrastructure is the result of a lack of an accepted certification hierarchy for authentication. A commonly held position is that there will not be a single hierarchy, but there must be established authorities whose assertions are widely accepted, who indirectly certify the identities of individuals with which one has not had prior contact. Integration with applications is made difficult because, though security services are themselves layered upon one another, such services do not fit into the information architecture at a single layer. By integrating security services with lower layers of the information infrastructure, security can be provided to higher layers, but some security information, such as client's identity, may be needed at higher layers, so such support will not be completely transparent. Further, the security requirements for each middle layer information service, and of the application itself, must be considered and appropriate use must be made of the middle-layer security services applied. Integration with applications will require user demand for security, together with common interfaces such as the GSS-API, so that applications and middle layer information services can utilize the security services that are available, without understanding the McCahill, et al Informational [Page 14]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 details of the specific security mechanism that is employed. * BOOTSTRAPPING: In order for a newly participating machine to join the infrastructure, it must have some way of finding out about at least one instance of many of the services described here. This can be done either by providing it with some form of configuration provided by the human bringing it up or by a bootstrapping service. The bootstrapping service is more flexible and manageable; it is included here in recognition that this information must be provided in some form or other. The bootstrapping service will sit directly on the raw materials layer and will have contact with all the services described here. This completes the description of the services as identified by this group in the wholesale layer. Although this section suggests which services have interfaces to the retail and raw materials layers, each of these topics will need to be described separately as well, to clarify the functionality expected by each layer of the layer below. 3. Interface to retail layer The interface to the retail layer is the embodiment of the object model and attendant services. Thus the interface provides the application environment with a collection of objects having identifiers for distinguishing them within the wholesale layer and support for a typing or abstract functionality model. It provides for the ability to create or import objects into this object world by the publication paradigm, and allows objects to evolve to support new or evolving functionality through the translation paradigm. Access to the objects is provided by object storage, enhanced with caching and replication services and mediated by the attributes managed by attribute management and accounting or content metering. Discovery of resources (figuring out which identifier to be chasing) is provided by resource discovery services. Types are registered and hence available both as definitions and perhaps in the form of implementations from a definition service. Lastly, there is a vertical model of providing the two-way services of adaptive glue for quality of service negotiation and for security constraints and requirements, with access and services at all three layers. 4. Interface to the raw materials layer The raw materials layer falls into networking and operating systems. Hence it provides all those services currently available from current networking and operating systems. Wholesale services such as object management will be dependent on local operating system support such as a file system, as well as perhaps transport protocols. In fact, all instances of any of the above services will be dependent on local McCahill, et al Informational [Page 15]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 storage, process management, local access control and other security mechanisms, as well as general transport protocols for communications both often among services of the same sort and among services dependent on each other that may not be collocated. In addition the group identified a set of issues that appear important for the networking components of the raw materials layer to provide to the wholesale layer in addition to the basic best effort transmission services that are commonly available. These take the form of a wish list with the recognition that they are not all equally easy or possible. * Connectivity: It is useful and important for the operation of applications and the wholesale services to understand what connectivity is currently available. The group identified four categories of connectivity that it would be useful to know about represented by four questions: 1) Is there a wire out of the back of my machine? 2) Am I connected to a router? 3) Am I connected to the global internet? (Can I get beyond my own domain?) 4) Am I connected to a specific host? These are probably in increasing difficulty of knowing. * Connectivity forecast: Although this is recognized as either extremely difficult or impossible to do, some form of connectivity forecast would be very useful to the upper layers * Bandwidth availability and reservation: It is useful for the application to know both what bandwidth might be available to it and, better yet, for it to be able to make some form of reservation. * Latency availability and reservation: It is useful for the application to know both what latency the network is experiencing and, better yet, be able to set limits on it by means of a reservation. * Reliability availability and reservation: Again, reliability constraints are important for many applications, although they may have differing reliability constraints and may be able to adapt differently to different circumstances. But, if the application could make a statement (reservation) about what level of unreliability it can tolerate, it might be able to make tradeoffs. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 16]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 * Burstiness support: Although it is unlikely that the network can make predictions about the burstiness of its services, if the application can predict to the network its burstiness behavior, the network might be able to take advantage of that knowledge. * Service envelope: It is possible that, as an alternative to the above four issues, the raw materials layer could negotiate a whole service envelope with the layers it is supporting. * Security availability: In many cases, it will be important for the upper layers to be able to know what sorts and levels of security are available from the raw materials layer. This is true of both any operating system support as well as transmission. * Cost: If there is to be usage charging at other than fixed flat rates, it will be important for applications and users to understand what those costs or at least estimates of them will be. * Policy routing: If it will be important for transport services to support policy routing, it will be important for users of the transport services to identify into which policy classes they might fall. 4.5. Recommendations This group has two categories of recommendations. One is those services in the wholesale layer that will both be especially useful and readily achieved because work is soon to be or already underway. The other set of recommendations was a three item rank ordering of services that are most important for the lower layer to provide to the wholesale layer. Within the wholesale layer, the first services that should be provided are: * Object retrieval, * Name resolution, * Caching and replication. In addition, the group rank ordered three areas in which there would be quick payoff if the raw materials layer could provide them. They are: 1. Connectivity 2. Bandwidth, latency, and reliability or service envelope McCahill, et al Informational [Page 17]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 3. Security constraints on communication and transactions 5. Group 2B Report: Components of an Internet Information Architecture Cecilia Preston, Chris Weider, Christian Huitema, Cliff Lynch, John Romkey, Joyce Reynolds, Larry Masinter, Mitra, Jill Foster Group 2B discussed various aspects of problems in the Internet Information Infrastructure, thinking about recommendations to the IESG to focus on particular areas, and also paying attention to some of the philosophical and economic backgrounds to some of the problems. Economics can dictate some points of architecture: one can see economically why a publisher might bear the burden of the costs of publishing, or a consumer might bear the burden of costs associated with consumption, but not how some free-floating third party would necessarily bear the costs of providing services (such as third-party translators). The group discussed the following topics: access(URL) gateways URN resolution definitions updates service location cache & replication security & authentication payments, charging presentation search & index metainformation boot service general computation McCahill, et al Informational [Page 18]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 5.1 URNs There are several issues in the use of Uniform Resource Names and Uniform Resource Locators. URN resolution is a database lookup that returns the URLs associated with a URN. The architecture must take into account not only how the lookup is performed, but how the database is maintained. Both the lookup problem and the update problem must be solved at the same time to allow deployment of URNs. There are at least two problems in human interaction with unique names. First, the notion of a unique name is a fallacy. Unique naming cannot be enforced. Names may be forged or may simply be duplicated due to human error. The architecture must accept this observation and still operate in the face of it. Designing for global uniqueness, but not requiring it, was adequate. Errors based on names not being unique are likely to be insignificant compared to other errors. Also, people frequently make assertions and assumptions about names rather than the documents that are being named. Making assertions about names is working at the wrong level of indirection. Making assumptions about names, such as determining the contents of the named object from the syntax of the name, can lead to nasty surprises. Having a single, unified naming system is vital. While it is healthy to have multiple competing forms of other aspects of the information architecture, the naming system is what ties it all together. There must be only one naming system. If there is more than one, it may not be possible to compare names or to lookup locations based on names, and we will continue (to our detriment) to use locators rather than names. 5.2 Global Service Location The IANA has become the central switch point for service identification. and recommended that numbers that are formally defined and kept in documents for use in distributed information systems (for instance, Assigned Numbers) should also be distributed online in some kind of database for use by applications. This distribution requires both an access method (perhaps multiple access methods) and an update method. 5.3 Security Issues involving security arose over and over again. Security includes things like validation of authority, confidentiality, integrity of data, integrity of services, access control. The group agreed that, although often overlooked, confidentiality is important, McCahill, et al Informational [Page 19]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 and, more strongly: anonymity is important. It should be possible to access documents or objects without the architecture requiring you to leave digital fingerprints all over the place. Security must occur on an end-to-end basis. Documents or objects used on the Internet may not only traverse the Internet. Relying on security mechanisms in the underlying protocol suite does not necessarily provide end-to-end authentication or confidentiality. Currently lower layer security is ill-defined and widely unimplemented. Designers building information applications atop the Internet currently receive little guidance in how to design security features into their applications, leading to weak ad hoc or nonexistent security in new applications. Designers are also unclear as to how to deal with the "security considerations" section that is mandatory in RFCs, and often fill them with boilerplate text. Furthermore, retrofitting security into existing architectures does not work well. The best systems are built considering security from the very beginning. Some systems are being designed that, for instance, have no place for a digital signature to authenticate the data they pass. These issues apply to data management as well. The group makes the following recommendations to the IESG regarding security: A. Develop and communicate a security model usable by designers of information applications - current models are not considered usable. B. RFC authors should be given advice on what security considerations need to be outlined and how to write them. The IESG security area should prepare guidelines for writing security considerations. C. Proposed Standards should not be accepted by the IESG unless they really consider security. This will require that recommendations A and B have been implemented and that the guidelines have received enough visibility to reasonably expect authors to know of their existence. D. Develop security modules usable by the implementors of information clients and servers - reusable across many different, heterogeneous applications and platforms. E. Make clear what security services you can expect from the lower layers. F. Make sure that the key distribution infrastructure is reviewed for usability by information applications. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 20]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 5.4 Search and Index Searching is looking through directories that point to information. Indexing is scanning information to create directories. A "unified directory" is the result of combining several indices. Indexing is currently done on the Internet via many mechanisms. Given the current ad hoc nature of the indexing, information is frequently indexed multiple times. This is wasteful, but due to the current economics of the Internet, it tends not to cost more money. If the Internet (or parts of thereof) transitions to usage based charging, it may cost the information provider too much to allow the information to be indexed. In general, the provider should have control over how the information they control is indexed. Above all, the architecture should not encourage a situation where information is normally not indexed. It should encourage the collection of indexing data only a single time. Having a local computation of a summary which is sent to a search/index server is vastly preferable to having that server "walk the net" to discover information to index. Indexing and search techniques are quite varied. It is quite likely that index and search are too close to general computation to try to standardize on a single protocol for either. Instead, it is important that the architecture allow multiple search techniques. There are currently certain types of indices that can only be generated by humans because of their level of semantic content. There are large differences in the quality and usability of indices that are machine-generated vs. human generated. Unified directories tend to combine indexing results from quite different techniques. The architecture should constrain indexing so that it remains possible to merge the results of two searches done by different protocols or indexing systems. Returning information in standard formats such as URNs can help this problem. Vocabulary issues in search and index are very difficult. The library and information services communities do not necessarily use vocabulary that is consistent with the IETF community, which can lead to difficult misunderstandings. "Searching the Internet" is an inappropriate attempt to categorize the information you're attempting to search. Instead, we search certain public spaces on the Internet. The concept of public space vs. private space on the Internet deserves further investigation. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 21]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 Indexing can run afoul of access control considerations. Access control must be done at the object, but access control information should be propagated through indices as well. The index should be able to say "you're not allowed to ask that" rather than the user attempting to retrieve the object and being denied. An architectural point was raised that an index query should return the same result independent of who is asking. This is an important notion in the Domain Name System. This is inconsistent with some real-world indexing (for instance, corporate record management systems) which doesn't want to admit that some documents exist if you're not allowed to read them. 5.5 Miscellaneous Electronic mail, netnews, FTP and the web are frequently used to access information on the net today. Each protocol seems to provide a consistent view of the information on the Internet. In addition, the recent popularity of multi-protocol clients such as Mosaic seem to imply that the information content of the Internet is uniformly retrievable and manageable. This perception is misleading because most protocols are used for other applications than they were originally designed for. In addition, Telnet, which has no concept of information retrieval and management, is often used to access information as well, for example in DIALOG and card file accesses. Since each protocol has different access and management capabilities, the inconsistencies show up in erratic search and retrieval results, puzzling error messages, and a basic lack of standard techniques for dealing with information. A consistent underlying information architecture will go a long way towards alleviating these problems. As the information architecture develops we should reconsider the electronic mail and netnews architecture in terms of the new architecture. The group noted that there have been difficulties in scheduling joint working group meetings and recommends that there be a clearly defined process inside the IETF to facilitate scheduling such meetings. 6. Conclusions and Recommendations The workshop provided an opportunity for ongoing conversations about the architecture to continue and also provided space for focused examination of some issues and for some new voices and experience from other areas of Internet growth to participate in the architectural process. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 22]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 Part of the conclusion of the workshop is a set of recommendations to the IESG and IETF community. Recommendations on research/implementation directions: 1. Caching and replication are important and overlooked pieces of Internet middleware. We should do something about it as soon as possible, perhaps by defining an architecture and service model for common implementation. 2. Within the 'wholesale' layer, i.e. within the layer which provides a consistent view of the information resources available on the Internet, the first services that should be provided are: * Object retrieval, * Name resolution, * Caching and replication. 3. There would be quick payoff if the raw materials layer, i.e. the layer in which information resources are physically transmitted to computers, could provide the following services: * Connectivity * Bandwidth, latency, and reliability or a service envelope * Security constraints on communication and transactions 4. Develop security modules usable by the implementors of information clients and servers - reusable across many different, heterogeneous applications and platforms Recommendations to the IESG, IETF, and IANA 1. Numbers that are formally defined and kept in documents in distributed information systems (for instance, Assigned Numbers) should be available in some kind of database for use by applications. 2. Develop and communicate a security model usable by designers of information applications - current models are not considered usable or are not widely accepted on the Internet. 3. RFC authors should be given advice on how security considerations need to be written. The IESG security area should prepare guidelines for writing security considerations. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 23]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 4. Proposed Standards should not be accepted by the IESG unless they really consider security. This will require recommendations 2 and 3 to be implemented first. 5. Make clear what security services you can expect from the lower layers. 6. Make sure that the key distribution infrastructure is reviewed for usability by information applications. 7. There needs to be a process inside the IETF for scheduling a joint meeting between two working groups - for example, so that the key distribution WG can meet jointly with IIIR. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 24]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 APPENDIX A - Workshop Organization The workshop was held at MCI's facility in Tyson Corners, Virginia. The workshop organizers and attendees wish to thank MCI for the use of their facilities to host the workshop. All attendees met in joint session for the first half of October 12. They then split into three groups. The first group considered the "distributed database" problem which has arisen over and over again in the design of parts of the Internet. The two other groups met to consider a list of issues pertaining to the information infrastructure. The groups ran independently until the morning of October 14, when they met again in joint session. The following people attended the workshop: Abel Weinrib email@example.com Barry Leiner email@example.com Cecilia Preston firstname.lastname@example.com Chris Weider email@example.com Christian Huitema email@example.com Cliff Lynch email@example.com Clifford Neuman firstname.lastname@example.com Dan LaLiberte email@example.com Dave Sincoskie email@example.com Elise Gerich email@example.com Erik Huizer firstname.lastname@example.com Jill Foster email@example.com John Curran email@example.com John Klensin firstname.lastname@example.com John Romkey email@example.com Joyce Reynolds firstname.lastname@example.com McCahill, et al Informational [Page 25]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995 Karen Sollins email@example.com Larry Masinter email@example.com Lixia Zhang email@example.com Mark McCahill firstname.lastname@example.com Michael Mealling firstname.lastname@example.com Mitchell Charity firstname.lastname@example.com Mike Schwartz firstname.lastname@example.com Mike St. Johns email@example.com Mitra email@example.com Paul Mockapetris firstname.lastname@example.com Steve Crocker firstname.lastname@example.com Tim Berners-Lee firstname.lastname@example.com Ton Verschuren email@example.com Yakov Rekhter firstname.lastname@example.com Security Considerations This memo discusses certain aspects of security and the information infrastructure. It contains general recommendations about security enhancements required by information applications on the Internet. McCahill, et al Informational [Page 26]
RFC 1862 IAB Workshop Report November 1995
Authors' Addresses
Mark McCahill
University of Minnesota
room 190 Shepherd Labs
100 Union Street SE
Minneapolis, MN 55455
EMail: firstname.lastname@example.com
John Romkey [Editor]
1770 Massachusetts Ave. #331
Cambridge, MA 02140
EMail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Michael F. Schwartz
Department of Computer Science
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO 80309-0430
EMail: email@example.com
Karen Sollins
MIT Laboratory for Computer Science
545 Technology Square
Cambridge, MA 02139-1986
EMail: email@example.com
Ton Verschuren
P.O. Box 19035
3501 DA Utrecht
The Netherlands
EMail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Chris Weider
Bunyip Information Systems
310 St. Catherine St. West
Suite 300
Montreal, PQ H2A 2X1
EMail: email@example.com
McCahill, et al Informational [Page 27]


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We have been developing Real Estate Websites, Internet Solutions and Marketing Strategies for REALTORS ?since 1992 and provide you with not only the tools necessary to manage and customize your web presence, but the peace of mind that comes from knowing we are experts in our business. RE/Advantage has produced many award winning websites, been featured in REALTOR?Magazine and has proven methods of generating traffic to YOUR website. We utilize the latest techniques in Internet marketing strategies such as long tail keyword density, placement and formatting as well as current lead capturing technology.
RE/Advantage websites are built off of a semi-custom design platform -- meaning you can finally create a web presence that fits your business! Being able to provide input on design, graphics and lead capture tools is important to a REALTOR ?and RE/Advantage understands that you are branding a business and image YOU know best.
Whether you are looking to create a Facebook Business Page, setup a YouTube video channel or simply better understand social media in general RE/Advantage has a solution for you. We teach you the "WHY - HOW - WHEN" in regards to posting and content. We understand how Social Networking works in the Real Estate Business and can help you start your own Social Media campaign.
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Take advantage of the mobile world. RE/Advantage can deliver Responsive Websites, Mobile Websites or Mobile Apps. We have a staff of programmers with the expertise to deliver any mobile solution you need.

subset: commoncrawl


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Coordinates: 8°S 178°E / 8°S 178°E / -8; 178
Tuvalu (i/tuːˈvɑːluː/ too-VAH-loo or /ˈtuːvəluː/ TOO-və-loo), formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, midway between Hawaii and Australia. It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line. Its nearest neighbours are Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa and Fiji. Tuvalu has a population of 10,837 (2012 census). The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi).
The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from Samoa and Tonga into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.
In 1568, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay. The islands came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson of HMS Curacoa between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT), and then as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.
Tuvalu is a 1999 experimental movie from Germany. The style evokes early 20th Century Silent movies and motifs commonly found in German expressionism. The sparse dialog is presented in a mix of European languages. The film stars Denis Lavant as Anton and Chulpan Khamatova as Eva.
The film focuses on Anton as he tries to win the heart of Eva and save his family's bath house from the wrecking ball.
Tuvalu is a Finnish band, founded in 2003 in Tampere-Helsinki-axis. They gained recognition with their debut EP Mitä muut ajattelevat sinusta? in 2004. The band was named after Veit Helmer's movie and the island nation with the same name.
The first album "Pimeä saartaa meitä!" was released in 2006. Rumba called the album "a stylish debut" but criticised the lyrics. Aamulehti gave the album 4/5 stars.
In 2008 the album "Viimeiset hetket ovat käsillä!" was released.
The band has stated that Tuvalu's music will not be played in radios in an act against Finnish music business.


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Ryan's website and see his work! You will fall in love.
P.S. Most of these photos were taken off of Ryan's assistant Erich's instagram.
He is another great photographer based out of Oregon and you can
check out his site here.
Follow all of us on Instagram:
Me- juliahengel
Ryan- imryanray
Erich- erichmcvey


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SEO - Power Up Orlando Website Design
We make Website Design, SEO and Web Development for your website simple
Websites Orlando .Com offers complete web business solutions including Dynamic Website Design, Hosting, Search Engine Marketing ( SEM ), and Search Engine Optimization ( SEO ). Our mission is simple -
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SEO improves the number of quality visitors to your company website. It involves re-authoring your website so that web search engines easily locate and index your pages. Basic SEO Design and Search Engine Optimization involves placing target keywords throughout your website page text and page code. The goal is to have your company website appear in the top 10 search results for your target keywords and keyword phrases. Our SEO "Power Up" strategy ensures that your website is search engine friendly, and is proven to increase website page rank and website traffic. Power up your website at websitesorlando.com!
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Mobile sites are a secondary or second website to communicate your business message. They are independent of your regular website and contain scaled down information that is easily viewed on a smart phone or Mobile Device. Web page size, graphics, and code are smaller and optimized for easy viewing in a Mobile environment. Flash and Javascript elements are generally not used, as iPhone and iPad do not display Flash with their current operating system. A simple redirect script on your regular website sends users of Mobile Devices to your mobile website URL or subdomain.
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Google launches major algorithm updates frequently. The new changes will always slightly impact some websites search results. If your website is affected, your organic non-paid website traffic could be reduced. The purpose of the updates is to reduce rankings for Low Quality Sites, Irrelevant Content, Link Farms, Scraper sites, Blackhat SEO and anything else Google deems relevant to filter in the future. Matt Cutts is lead engineer for the Web spam division at Google.
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First, take a deep breath and don't panic. Substantial low quality on a website can cause a decline in rankings for the entire website. Remove any poor quality pages from your website that are poorly written or not unique. Verify only high quality relevamt content for your site that is free of duplicate content. Verify that your page descriptions and titles match the search queries for which your pages are highly ranked. Avoid unnatural language that attempts to over-optimize keywords in an attempt to achieve favorable search engine rankings. Overall user experience is important including brand perception, functionality, ad to content ratio, and design elements. Do not overwhelm your pages with advertising (ads). Engage your page and site content with social media and other backlink avenues. Expand your website with interesting content such as photos, videos, and blogs.
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LED wall cylinder light - Product color: copper - Wattage: 3*4 watts - Lighting color: white
LED wall cylinder light - Product color: copper - Wattage: 3*4 watts - Lighting color: white
To be one of the most prominent leading companies in the field of construction and finishing, by manufacturing national products with international quality and standards, and by supplying and selling various products that meet the needs of the local and regional market at competitive prices. At Zinco, we aspire to qualify youth energies and employ national cadres and competencies to contribute our role in building and achieving the vision. 2030.
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● Committed to credibility first
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● We are keen to implement energy conservation standards.
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It is to be the first and most prominent name in the world of construction and finishing, where we work to create a new concept of quality and guarantee to raise our ambitions to the sky.
Sign up, and it only takes a second to get the news.


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Chemicals company Solvay announced on Feb. 6 its entry into service in Flanders of what it said was the largest fuel cell of its type in the world.
A super-battery that produces enough electricity to power nearly 1,400 homes, the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell has been producing clean electricity at a "steady rate" for weeks at a SolVin plant part-owned by BASF in Antwerp.
SolVin is a market leader in vinyl, or PVC production.
The fuel cell converts the chemical energy from hydrogen into clean electricity through an electrochemical reaction with oxygen, and "has generated over 500 MWh in about 800 hours of operation," Solvay said.
The company said this equates to the electricity consumption of 1,370 families over the same period.
Fuel-cell technology is tipped by developers as a future power solution for everything from cars to ships.
Flanders has benefited from a 14-million-euro investment in this applied technology, with the EU, the Dutch and the Belgian Flemish governments backers of Solvay's 5 million euros investment.
Copyright Agence France-Presse, 2012


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-A friend at the Washington Nationals game on Saturday night told me that Elizabeth Dole's presence there was announced by the PA announcer. Obviously she has made no effort whatsoever to pretend to move back to North Carolina since losing her Senate seat. That's not a surprise- and certainly was part of why she lost- but I think it's strange no one in the NC press has really written that story.
-I wrote earlier today about Obama's poor Colorado approval in the 50 state numbers Gallup released. The state he lost last year where he's doing best is North Dakota, where his approval breaks down 63/32. That's good news for Byron Dorgan if John Hoeven really decides to challenge him in a place where the two different polls we've seen had widely diverging numbers.
-A new poll today showed Harry Reid trailing the chair of the Nevada Republican Party in a possible 2010 contest. Given how bad the poll numbers we've been finding for Democrats across the board are right now I totally believe it. I doubt our Colorado poll this week is going to be too pretty for either Michael Bennet or Bill Ritter, in Bennet's case even though none of his opponents are that hot. More thoughts on the importance (or not) of candidate recruitment tomorrow.
-I'd be interested to see someone in our North Carolina Press Corps get Richard Burr's take on the birthers. I'm guessing he thinks it's a crackpot theory, but our poll found that 38% of voters who approve of his job performance think Obama was not born in the US while only 35% think he was, so he risks antagonizing his base if he goes too far.
-Finally, we'll have our monthly look at Bev Perdue's popularity tomorrow- her approval is on the rise! Which is not saying much.
And you would have read this all already if you were following us on twitter.
Tuesday, August 11, 2009
1 comment:
I really want to see both the match-ups and primaries for Governor and Senator in Colorado. Especially Dan Maes and Cleve Tidwell...they're starting to make their ways up
- August 11, 2009 at 9:10 PM
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Postgraduate study
Postgraduate advanced learning program – introduction
Sydney Nursing School offers postgraduate advanced learning coursework programs in a number of specialty practice areas for registered nurses, and at various articulating levels. The specialty and practice areas include:
- Advanced Nursing Practice and Clinical Nursing
- Cancer and Haematology Nursing
- Clinical Trials Practice
- Emergency Nursing
- Intensive Care Nursing
- Mental Health Nursing
- Nurse Practitioner
- Primary Health Care Nursing.
The focus of the postgraduate advanced learning courses is on the development of practice knowledge and clinical judgement skills within the context of specialty clinical practice.
Students might commence their study in a graduate certificate course and progress to graduate diploma and master's level within the chosen specialty areas. Depending upon qualifications, students may also enrol directly into a master's degree.
Subject to meeting entry requirements, it may be possible to credit units of study already undertaken for a graduate certificate or graduate diploma, towards a master's degree. This can be done immediately upon completion – if students wish to continue their studies at that point – or at a later date upon return to study.
Taking account of the employment demands on registered nurses, the nursing units of study are offered with minimal on-campus requirements, usually up to four days attendance per unit of study. Please refer to the unit of study tables and listings for further information.
With the exception of Clinical Trials Practice, all students are required to be registered nurses in either Australia or their country of residence. The level of entry (graduate certificate, graduate diploma or master's degree) is dependent upon current qualifications. If uncertain as to which course to take or the entry level best suited, students should contact the faculty.
For further information please refer to the relevant specialty chapters contained in this handbook.


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Flowers at a makeshift memorial near the Islamic Cultural Center in Quebec City, Canada on January 30, 2017 Flowers at a makeshift memorial near the Islamic Cultural Center in Quebec City, Canada on January 30, 2017.—VNA/AFP Photo |
QUEBEC CITY — A Canadian political science student known to have nationalist sympathies was charged Monday with six counts of murder over a shooting spree at a Quebec mosque -- one of the worst attacks ever to target Muslims in a western country.
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau condemned as a "terrorist attack" Sunday night's assault on the Islamic Cultural Center in a busy district of Quebec City, which sent terrified worshippers fleeing barefoot in the snow.
Eight people were also wounded in the crossfire, and five of them remained in critical condition in hospital Monday.
Alexandre Bissonnette, who made a brief court appearance after surrendering to authorities, was charged with six counts of premeditated murder and five of attempted murder, police said.
More indictments are expected later, police added.
"There are search warrants underway," a spokeswoman for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police told a press conference.
"We hope to obtain the evidence to reach the point where we will be able to lay terrorism and national security charges," she said.
So far, authorities have shed no light on what may have prompted the attack.
Local media said Bissonnette is a Quebec nationalist and anti-feminist who recently "liked" US President Donald Trump's page on Facebook. He also has reportedly expressed support for French far-right politician Marine Le Pen.
Both police and witnesses had initially described two masked men opening fire inside the mosque, where worshippers were gathered for evening prayer.
But authorities said Monday that a second person detained had only been questioned as a witness.
Explaining how one suspect was eventually let go, the RCMP said: "This morning and last evening we had reason to believe that two individuals should be arrested, that two people had participated."
After investigating, they said: "we reached the conclusion that we should focus on one single suspect. And there was no reason to believe that the other individual had participated."
Victims are dual nationals
Some 50 people were in the mosque at the time of the attack.
The dead are all dual Canadian nationals: one Moroccan, two Algerians, one Tunisian and two Guineans.
Quebec has traditionally attracted Muslim immigrants from North Africa.
Bissonnette, who is a student at Laval University, surrendered 20 kilometers (12 miles) outside the city after calling an emergency services hotline an hour after the attack to reveal his location.
"It is a domestic investigation at this time," Royal Canadian Mounted Police Inspector Martin Plante said.
Public Safety Minister Ralph Goodale said the nation's security threat level remained at medium -- requiring security forces to be on guard but having no specific information about an imminent threat.
It was raised to this level in October 2014 after a lone gunman attacked parliament.
Open door to Muslims
Police are continuing to collect evidence in a bid to "identify exactly who is involved and what was their motivation," Goodale said.
Authorities, he added, don't have "sufficient, hard facts yet to be able to draw conclusions."
The Quebec mosque had already been the target of hate: a pig's head was left on the doorstep last June during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan.
Other mosques in Canada have been targeted with anti-Muslim graffiti in recent months.
Police stationed near the mosque told AFP that they had feared this type of attack "because it's happening all over the world."
The shooting came as Canada vowed to open its arms to Muslim refugees after Trump's controversial immigration ban prompted travel chaos and outrage around the world.
"Last night's horrible crime against the Muslim community was an act of terror committed against Canada and against all Canadians," Trudeau said.
To the one million Canadians who profess the Muslim faith, he said "36 million hearts are breaking with yours," alluding to the country's total population.
"Canadians will not be intimidated," Trudeau added. "We will not meet violence with more violence. We will meet fear and hatred with love and compassion."
Trump telephoned Trudeau to offer his condolences following the attack, which was condemned around the world including by leading Sunni Muslim body Al-Azhar, as well as Egypt and Jordan.
'Senseless violence'
Mohamed Ali Saidane, who lost a relative in the shooting, joined elected officials at city hall Monday to denounce escalating hate.
"The Arab-Muslim community has become the victim of populist politics," he told AFP.
People fleeing the mosque -- where custom requires worshippers to remove their shoes during prayer -- did not have time to collect their winter boots.
"They arrived in a panic," said Louis-Gabriel Cloutier, the manager of a cafe across the street who saw them fleeing the rampage.
Some took refuge at the cafe.
"I never thought that such a thing could happen," said a man who frequents another of the city's 10 mosques. He had ventured to the scene because "I know people who were inside."
Hamid Nadji learned of the shooting from a friend and rushed to the mosque area.
"For us Muslims, Quebec and Canada had been a safe zone," he said.—AFP


text:
We were driving down a steep hill in a grey vehicle. I was in the passenger seat greatly concerned that we would crash into the debris that dotted the grassy hill - beams and bars of steel, piles of sandstone blocks, and stacks of cut wood. At the top of a rise we stopped, where I voiced my concerns to the driver, who merely stared forward, his face an unreadable mien. Below the rise stood the first tee of a disc-golf course next to a dead tree, but my companion turned and walked back up the way we'd come. I followed him back upward onto a dirt path that lead along a ridge covered in snow, from which we surveyed the surrounding countryside of cultivated fields, scattered woods, and distant farm houses.
Walking back down to the tee, we came upon a half dozen other persons kitted out for disc-golf. Somewhere nearby but out of sight a person was screaming with horrible urgency, which scared me enough that I ran for shelter. The formerly dead tree had grown tremendously, great reaching tendrils of a hardened, textured, grey plastic that dug back into the ground, forming a wall. Finding my exit blocked, I turned to find the others standing close by, a massive newcomer in their midst. (He reminded me of a figure from my childhood, a giant scotsman dressed in battle fatigues.) The newcomer apologized for the screaming in a way that took my fear away, at which point the dream changed radically.
[ americanifesto / 場黑麥 / jpr / urbanartopia / whorphan ]


text:
Why Tell the Israeli Spying Story Now?
"Intelligence professionals have a saying: There are no friendly intelligence services," the WSJ describes former House Intelligence Chair Mike Rogers saying, on the record. While there's no way of telling — particularly not with WSJ's described "more than two dozen current and former U.S. intelligence and administration officials" sources behind it's blockbuster story on US spying on Bibi Netanyahu and other Israelis, Rogers is a likely candidate for some of the other statements attributed to "former US officials," a moniker that can include agency officials, consultants, and members of Congress.
Which is awfully funny, given that two of the people squealing most loudly in response to the story are Rogers' immediate predecessor, Crazy Pete Hoekstra, who called it a "Maybe unprecedented abuse of power," and successor, Devin Nunes, who has already started an investigation into the allegations in the story.
It is the height of hypocrisy for these men, who have been privy to and by their silence have assented to this and, in Crazy Pete's case, far worse patently illegal spying, to wail about a story that shows the Administration abiding by NSA minimization procedures they've both celebrated as more than adequate to protect US person privacy. If NSA's minimization procedures are inadequate to protect US persons, the first thing Nunes should do is repeal FISA Amendments Act, which can expose far more people than the tailored, presumably EO 12333 tap placed on Bibi, not to mention OmniCISA, which can be targeted at Americans and will have even fewer protections for US persons.
The immediate attempt by a bunch of surveillance maximalists to turn compliant spying into a big scandal raises the question of why this story is coming out now, not incidentally just after Iran turned over its uranium stockpile over to Russia and in the process achieved another big step of the Iran deal.
I'm not in any way meaning to slight the WSJ reporting. Indeed, the story seems to show a breadth of sources that reflect a broad range of interests, and as such is not — as would otherwise be possible — Mike Rogers attempting to leak something to the WSJ so his fellow Republicans can make a stink about things.
This story includes "current and former U.S. officials" providing a list of leaders they claim were detasked from spying in 2014 — François Hollande, Angela Merkel, and other NATO leaders — and those they claim were not — along with Bibi Netanyahu, Turkey's leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Of course, like James Clapper's claim that Edward Snowden's leaks forced the NSA to shut down its full take spying on Afghanistan, this "confirmation" may instead have been an effort to cover for collection that has since been restarted, especially given the story's even more revealing explanation that, "Instead of removing the [surveillance] implants, Mr. Obama decided to shut off the NSA's monitoring of phone numbers and email addresses of certain allied leaders—a move that could be reversed by the president or his successor." Obama did not eliminate the infrastructure that allows him to request surveillance (in actually, monitoring of surveillance going on in any case) to be turned on like a switch, and this WSJ article just conveyed that detail to Hollande and Merkel.
So the story could serve as disinformation to cover up restarted surveillance, and it could serve as a cue for the bogus, unbelievably hypocritical political scandal that Crazy Pete and Nunes appear to want to make it.
But I'm just as interested in the dick-waving in the story.
Some of the most interesting details in the story — once you get beyond the wailing of people like Crazy Pete and Devin Nunes probably swept up in intercepts described in the story — pertain to what NSA did and did not learn about Bibi's efforts, largely executed through Israeli Ambassador to the US Ron Dermer, to thwart the Iran deal. A key detail here is that while (it is implied) NSA destroyed most or all of the intercepts involving members of Congress directly with Bibi, they passed on (with US person identities masked) the reports back through foreign ministry channels of discussions with or on behalf of Bibi.
The NSA has leeway to collect and disseminate intercepted communications involving U.S. lawmakers if, for example, foreign ambassadors send messages to their foreign ministries that recount their private meetings or phone calls with members of Congress, current and former officials said.
"Either way, we got the same information," a former official said, citing detailed reports prepared by the Israelis after exchanges with lawmakers.
In other words, NSA might not pass on the intercepts of calls members of Congress had with Bibi directly, but they would pass on the reports that Dermer or Bibi's aides would summarize of such discussions. And according to "a former official" (curiously not described as high ranking) by passing on the reports of such conversations, "we got the same information."
Usually, but not always, according to the story.
It describes that "Obama administration officials" (which may but probably doesn't include intelligence officials) didn't learn about John Boehner's invitation to Bibi to address Congress ahead of time, even though Boehner extended that invite through Dermer.
On Jan. 8, John Boehner, then the Republican House Speaker, and incoming Republican Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell agreed on a plan. They would invite Mr. Netanyahu to deliver a speech to a joint session of Congress. A day later, Mr. Boehner called Ron Dermer, the Israeli ambassador, to get Mr. Netanyahu's agreement.
Despite NSA surveillance, Obama administration officials said they were caught off guard when Mr. Boehner announced the invitation on Jan. 21.
According to the description of the article, this call should have been fair game to be shared with the White House as a report through the foreign ministry, but either wasn't reported through normal channels on the Israeli side or NSA didn't pass it along.
But, according to the story, the White House did get many of the details about Dermer's attempt to scotch the Iran deal.
The NSA reports allowed administration officials to peer inside Israeli efforts to turn Congress against the deal. Mr. Dermer was described as coaching unnamed U.S. organizations—which officials could tell from the context were Jewish-American groups—on lines of argument to use with lawmakers, and Israeli officials were reported pressing lawmakers to oppose the deal.
A U.S. intelligence official familiar with the intercepts said Israel's pitch to undecided lawmakers often included such questions as: "How can we get your vote? What's it going to take?"
Let me interject and note that, if the people squealing about these intercepts weren't such raging hypocrites, I might be very concerned about this.
Consider the Jane Harman case. In 2009 it got reported that NSA and FBI collected conversations Jane Harman had (probably on an individual FISA wiretap) with AIPAC suspects in which Harman allegedly agreed to help squelch the criminal investigation into the organization in exchange for help getting the Chairmanship of the House Intelligence Committee. The position, not incidentally, that all the people (save Mike Rogers, who seems to have had no problem with them) squealing about these intercepts have held or currently hold. At least according to 2009 reports on this, lawyers in then Attorney General Alberto Gonzales' DOJ considered criminal charges against Harman, but chose not to pursue them, because Gonzales — who had criminally, personally authorized the Stellar Wind program in March 2004 — needed Harman's support in advance of NYT breaking the Stellar Wind story at the end of 2005. That suggests (if these stories are to be believed) Gonzales used Harman's purported criminal exposure to get protection against his own.
Now, Crazy Pete was out of power well before these particular intercepts were described (though may have his own reason to be concerned about what such intercepts revealed), but in the same period, Devin Nunes got himself appointed HPSCI Chair, just like AIPAC was allegedly brokering with Harman. He got himself appointed HPSCI Chair by the guy, Boehner, who invited Bibi to address Congress.
And what were AIPAC and other groups — who allegedly were offering congressional leadership posts back in 2005 — offering lawmakers last year to oppose the Iran deal? "What's it going to take?" the intercepts apparently recorded.
What were they offering?
This is the reason permitting lawmakers' communications to be incidentally collected is such a risk — because it collects the sausage-making behind legislative stances — but also defensible — because it might disclose untoward quid pro quo by foreign governments of members of Congress. It is a real concern that the Executive is collecting details of Congress' doings. More protections, both for Members of Congress and for regular schlubs, are needed. But wiretapping the incidentally collected communications with foreign leaders is not only solidly within the parameters of Congressionally-approved NSA spying, but may sometimes be important to protect the US.
That's the kind of the thing the White House may have seen outlines of in the reports it got on Darmer's attempts — though the report indicates that Democratic lawmakers and Israelis who supported the Iranian deal (probably including former Mossad head Efraim Halevy, who was criticizing Bibi and Darmer's efforts in real time) were sharing details of Darmer's efforts directly with the White House.
In the final months of the campaign, NSA intercepts yielded few surprises. Officials said the information reaffirmed what they heard directly from lawmakers and Israeli officials opposed to Mr. Netanyahu's campaign—that the prime minister was focused on building opposition among Democratic lawmakers.
Which brings me to the dick-waving part. Here's the last line of the WSJ story.
The NSA intercepts, however, revealed one surprise. Mr. Netanyahu and some of his allies voiced confidence they could win enough votes.
Some of this story is likely to be disinformation for our allies, much of this story seems to be warning (both friendly and unfriendly) to those likely implicated by the intercepts. But this just seems like dick-waving, the spook-and-politician equivalent of spiking the football and doing a lewd dance in the end zone. The Israelis surely knew all the monitoring was going on (even if members of Congress may have been stupid about them), especially given the way John Kerry, as laid out in the story, raised concerns about Israeli spying during negotiations. But this line, the final reveal in the story, mocks the Israelis and their American interlocutors for assuming they had enough to offer — "What's it going to take to get your vote?"– to kill the Iran deal.
This may, in part, be an effort to get those implicated in the intercepts to exercise some more caution. But it also seems to be a victory dance, just as Russia ships away Iran's uranium stockpiles.


text:
Produktdaten: | ||
Artikelnr.: | 14100 | |
Publisher: | Nemeth Designs | |
Sprache: | Englisch |
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