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Prabhat Satta 2009-2024 Form
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FAQs परभात मटका प्रभात
Do military members have to pay any fee for leave or fiancee forms?
NOOOOOOO. You are talking to a military romance scammer. I received an email from the US Army that directly answers your question that is pasted below please keep reading.I believe you are the victim of a military Romance Scam whereas the person you are talking to is a foreign national posing as an American Soldier claiming to be stationed overseas on a peacekeeping mission. That's the key to the scam they always claim to be on a peacekeeping mission.Part of their scam is saying that they have no access to their money that their mission is highly dangerous.If your boyfriend girlfriend/future husband/wife is asking you to do the following or has exhibited this behavior, it is a most likely a scam:Moves to private messaging site immediately after meeting you on Facebook or SnapChat or Instagram or some dating or social media site. Often times they delete the site you met them on right after they asked you to move to a more private messaging siteProfesses love to you very quickly & seems to quote poems and song lyrics along with using their own sort of broken language, as they profess their love and devotion quickly. They also showed concern for your health and love for your family.Promises marriage as soon as he/she gets to state for leave that they asked you to pay for.They Requests money (wire transfers) and Amazon, iTune ,Verizon, etc gift cards, for medicine, religious practices, and leaves to come home, internet access, complete job assignments, help sick friend, get him out of trouble, or anything that sounds fishy.The military does provide all the soldier needs including food medical Care and transportation for leave. Trust me, I lived it, you are probably being scammed. I am just trying to show you examples that you are most likely being connned.Below is an email response I received after I sent an inquiry to the US government when I discovered I was scammed. I received this wonderful response back with lots of useful links on how to find and report your scammer. And how to learn more about Romance Scams.Right now you can also copy the picture he gave you and do a google image search and you will hopefully see the pictures of the real person he is impersonating. this doesn't always work and take some digging. if you find the real person you can direct message them and alert them that their image is being used for scamming.Good Luck to you and I'm sorry this may be happening to you. please continue reading the government response I received below it's very informative. You have contacted an email that is monitored by the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command. Unfortunately, this is a common concern. We assure you there is never any reason to send money to anyone claiming to be a Soldier online. If you have only spoken with this person online, it is likely they are not a U.S. Soldier at all. If this is a suspected imposter social media profile, we urge you to report it to that platform as soon as possible. Please continue reading for more resources and answers to other frequently asked questions: How to report an imposter Facebook profile: Caution-https://www.facebook.com/help/16... < Caution-https://www.facebook.com/help/16... > Answers to frequently asked questions: - Soldiers and their loved ones are not charged money so that the Soldier can go on leave. - Soldiers are not charged money for secure communications or leave. - Soldiers do not need permission to get married. - Soldiers emails are in this format: email@example.com < Caution-mailto: email@example.com > anything ending in .us or .com is not an official email account. - Soldiers have medical insurance, which pays for their medical costs when treated at civilian health care facilities worldwide – family and friends do not need to pay their medical expenses. - Military aircraft are not used to transport Privately Owned Vehicles. - Army financial offices are not used to help Soldiers buy or sell items of any kind. - Soldiers deployed to Combat Zones do not need to solicit money from the public to feed or house themselves or their troops. - Deployed Soldiers do not find large unclaimed sums of money and need your help to get that money out of the country. Anyone who tells you one of the above-listed conditions/circumstances is true is likely posing as a Soldier and trying to steal money from you. We would urge you to immediately cease all contact with this individual. For more information on avoiding online scams and to report this crime, please see the following sites and articles: This article may help clarify some of the tricks social media scammers try to use to take advantage of people: Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/61432/< Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/61432/> CID advises vigilance against 'romance scams,' scammers impersonating Soldiers Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/180749 < Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/180749 > FBI Internet Crime Complaint Center: Caution-http://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx< Caution-http://www.ic3.gov/default.aspx> U.S. Army investigators warn public against romance scams: Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/130...< Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/130...> DOD warns troops, families to be cybercrime smart -Caution-http://www.army.mil/article/1450...< Caution-http://www.army.mil/article/1450...> Use caution with social networking Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/146...< Caution-https://www.army.mil/article/146...> Please see our frequently asked questions section under scams and legal issues. Caution-http://www.army.mil/faq/ < Caution-http://www.army.mil/faq/ > or visit Caution-http://www.cid.army.mil/ < Caution-http://www.cid.army.mil/ >. The challenge with most scams is determining if an individual is a legitimate member of the US Army. Based on the Privacy Act of 1974, we cannot provide this information. If concerned about a scam you may contact the Better Business Bureau (if it involves a solicitation for money), or local law enforcement. If you're involved in a Facebook or dating site scam, you are free to contact us direct; (571) 305-4056. If you have a social security number, you can find information about Soldiers online at Caution-https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/sc... < Caution-https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/sc... > . While this is a free search, it does not help you locate a retiree, but it can tell you if the Soldier is active duty or not. If more information is needed such as current duty station or location, you can contact the Commander Soldier's Records Data Center (SRDC) by phone or mail and they will help you locate individuals on active duty only, not retirees. There is a fee of $3.50 for businesses to use this service. The check or money order must be made out to the U.S. Treasury. It is not refundable. The address is: Commander Soldier's Records Data Center (SRDC) 8899 East 56th Street Indianapolis, IN 46249-5301 Phone: 1-866-771-6357 In addition, it is not possible to remove social networking site profiles without legitimate proof of identity theft or a scam. If you suspect fraud on this site, take a screenshot of any advances for money or impersonations and report the account on the social networking platform immediately. Please submit all information you have on this incident to Caution-www.ic3.gov < Caution-http://www.ic3.gov > (FBI website, Internet Criminal Complaint Center), immediately stop contact with the scammer (you are potentially providing them more information which can be used to scam you), and learn how to protect yourself against these scams at Caution-http://www.ftc.gov < Caution-http://www.ftc.gov > (Federal Trade Commission's website)
What do you know about satta matka? How does it work, and how can you guess/find out tomorrow numbers?
In satta matka you have to guess any one digits from 10 digits that is known as open or close means one digit at start and one at end. Again guessing two digit at a time is known as jodi. In satta matka jodi you will get more earning than open close. For satta matka guessin[1]g you should follow some tricks and tips.Footnotes[1] KALYAN MATKA CUT ANK
How can I fill out Google's intern host matching form to optimize my chances of receiving a match?
I was selected for a summer internship 2016.I tried to be very open while filling the preference form: I choose many products as my favorite products and I said I'm open about the team I want to join.I even was very open in the location and start date to get host matching interviews (I negotiated the start date in the interview until both me and my host were happy.) You could ask your recruiter to review your form (there are very cool and could help you a lot since they have a bigger experience).Do a search on the potential team.Before the interviews, try to find smart question that you are going to ask for the potential host (do a search on the team to find nice and deep questions to impress your host). Prepare well your resume.You are very likely not going to get algorithm/data structure questions like in the first round. It's going to be just some friendly chat if you are lucky. If your potential team is working on something like machine learning, expect that they are going to ask you questions about machine learning, courses related to machine learning you have and relevant experience (projects, internship). Of course you have to study that before the interview. Take as long time as you need if you feel rusty. It takes some time to get ready for the host matching (it's less than the technical interview) but it's worth it of course.
How do I fill out the form of DU CIC? I couldn't find the link to fill out the form.
Just register on the admission portal and during registration you will get an option for the entrance based course. Just register there. There is no separate form for DU CIC.
How do you know if you need to fill out a 1099 form?
Assuming that you are talking about 1099-MISC. Note that there are other 1099s.check this post - Form 1099 MISC Rules & RegulationsQuick answer - A Form 1099 MISC must be filed for each person to whom payment is made of:$600 or more for services performed for a trade or business by people not treated as employees;Rent or prizes and awards that are not for service ($600 or more) and royalties ($10 or more);any fishing boat proceeds,gross proceeds of $600, or more paid to an attorney during the year, orWithheld any federal income tax under the backup withholding rules regardless of the amount of the payment, etc.
How can I make it easier for users to fill out a form on mobile apps?
I'll tell you a secret - you can thank me later for this.If you want to make the form-filling experience easy for a user - make sure that you have a great UI to offer.Everything boils down to UI at the end.Axonator is one of the best mobile apps to collect data since it offers powerful features bundled with a simple UI.The problem with most of the mobile form apps is that they are overloaded with features that aren't really necessary.The same doesn't hold true for Axonator. It has useful features but it is very unlikely that the user will feel overwhelmed in using them.So, if you are inclined towards having greater form completion rates for your survey or any data collection projects, then Axonator is the way to go.Apart from that, there are other features that make the data collection process faster like offline data collection, rich data capture - audio, video, images, QR code & barcode data capture, live location & time capture, and more!Check all the features here!You will be able to complete more surveys - because productivity will certainly shoot up.Since you aren't using paper forms, errors will drop signNowly.The cost of the paper & print will be saved - your office expenses will drop dramatically.No repeat work. No data entry. Time & money saved yet again.Analytics will empower you to make strategic decisions and explore new revenue opportunities.The app is dirt-cheap & you don't any training to use the app. They come in with a smooth UI. Forget using, even creating forms for your apps is easy on the platform. Just drag & drop - and it's ready for use. Anyone can build an app under hours.
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Aerofly 2 Flight Simulator lets you explore the world of flying in a quality never seen before. Fly a large selection of highly detailed aircrafts with fully animated 3D cockpits in the fantastic region of the San Francisco Bay Area and its surroundings.
Aerofly 2 Flight Simulator sets a high value on realistic flight physics, highly detailed aircraft and a stunning, photo realistic, scenery.
Take your seat in the cockpit and enjoy flying over the famous Golden Gate Bridge or visit Alcatraz Island. Learn the basics of flying with our Flight School or practice landings in various atmospheric conditions using the ILS navigation system.
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• over 70 airports to choose from
• 6 aircraft included ( F-18, Learjet 45, C172, Baron 58, ASG 29 glider, Pitts S-2B biplane )
• 11 aircraft available for purchase ( Airbus A320, Airbus A380, B737-500,
Downloads: 1,417+ (for Android)
Report app for spam or abuse!
for Android

subset: commoncrawl


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The Cosmis MR-II remains a popular split 6 spoke design for many reasons. We offer this wheel in 3 different widths, 8.5", 9.5" and 10.5" and 2 different bolt patterns. An aggressive look while still fitting on that daily driver. Embossed lettering on the lip and a name plate style badge, the details really make this wheel shine.
Ordering from DriverMod Industries
DriverMod Industries is an Authorized Dealer for all aftermarket performance parts so we only sell genuine and genuine automotive parts and accessories.
Order updates and tracking
Our goal is always complete customer satisfaction. After you place an order, you will receive an email confirmation of y our order along with your invoice. You can log into our website 24.7 to check on the status of your order anytime. All orders are processed Monday through Friday from 10AM to 6PM MST as soon as it is placed. Once your order ships, we also email you a tracking number so you can track your package anytime. If you have any questions about your order don't hesitate to contact us.
6 distribution centers for fast shipping
We ship from 6 different locations around the United States so you receive your parts as quickly as possible. Not all of our warehouses stock all the same parts, so the closest warehouse to you that has your part in stock is where we will ship your order from to ensure quick shipping. We ship from Arizona, Pennsylvania, Texas, Nevada, Michigan, and California.
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Online security is our priority! We handle all payments through a secure payment processor as well as a secure payment gateway. This means that we never see or store your credit card information. We also other payment methods such as PayPal, Affirm Financing, Amazon Pay, Apple Pay, Google Pay, Venmo, and more!
Have more questions that we haven't answered? Contact us!


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Welcome to biggerbottomlines.com. This is your first post. Edit or delete it, then start blogging!
Your posts can have many words. Lets see how many I can type now. It's a challenge of the highest magnitude and I'm impressing myself just how long I can type and say absolutely nothing!
Wow, it's still going… and I'm not really saying much of anything.
That's pretty impressive and sometimes I have to do this to fill airtime too. Have you ever seen me do that when it's time to ask a question, but it takes way too long of a delay during the live training? It's annoying and I wish it was instantaneous.
Oh well, that's just what we get with what we have. And now I've ruined everything because I actually said something. Oh, well!
Let's see what else I can say. How about Mary had a little lamb. A little lamb. Mary had a little lamb it's amazing website was white as snow.
More, we need more!
But captain, I'm giving 'er all she's got! If I keep pushing the engines like this we're bound to have a warp plasma overload!
I don't care Scotty! Just get it done!
Aye Aye, Sir!


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Cafes/cafebars Inspectors' A seven day eating holiday on the Isle of Wight PC proprietor/chef HR Highly recommended Links:- www.lugleys.co.uk and Hewitt's Restaurant | Pubs
Why do some eateries refuse to take credit/debit cards if a customer spends less than Ł5 in some cases Ł10. It's is a kind of punishment for not spending enough. In some cases they even make a profit on this customer by making a surcharge of Ł1.00. When all cards are based on around 0.58 - 1.5 % interest The charge say on a cup of coffee of Ł2.25 of a pound is a bit steep. I very rarely have cash on me so often where I eat lunch is dependent upon who will fine me for not spending enough. With an increasing number of solo diners it's about time these places reassessed their customer service policy. NB. I have frequently walked out of a place after ordering soup and being told that instead of Ł4.25 it will cost me Ł5.25 if I pay by card Padmore Lodge, Beatrice Avenue, East Cowes, Isle of Wight, PO32 6LP email: firstname.lastname@example.com Links:-www.wightcow.co.uk www.angelahewitt.co.uk www.naturezones.org.uk www.angelahewittdesigns.co.uk www.plantnative.org.uk www.lugleys.co.uk www.bornfree.org.uk www.iwhistory.org |


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Sewer camera is used in plumbing to provide a quick and accurate look at the condition of underground sewer or stormwater drainage systems. At Active Plumbing, we have the latest CCTV survey equipment, which allows us to get the best possible results in our sewer survey. After inspecting with our sewer camera, we will let you see the result and decide what you want us to carry out. Using the sewer camera, we can trace and pinpoint locations of the problems, such as debris, defects, pollutants and threats to drain function. Our sewer camera is ideal for both domestic sewer and stormwater lines as well as junction and utility hole areas.
Sewer Camera Inspection Service
Using our state-of-the-art sewer camera and expertise, we can provide a comprehensive inspection of wastewater systems. Our sewer cameras are specially developed to offer a full-colour video inspection service on all types of pipes. We offer you a detailed report and let you see the results of the sewer inspection. All cameras are tracked from the surface, and we marked the precise location of defects or blockages for service. We ensure that all our surveys comply with pipeline surveying accreditation.
Sewer Camera Inspection for Preventive Maintenance
Our sewer camera inspection can also be used in preventive maintenance to ensure high-risk sewer and drainage systems are functioning well. High-risk sewer and drainage systems are those that require regular call-outs in removing blockages, systems exposed to environmental hazards, ageing systems, and systems that have been subjected to high levels of human traffic or building works. Our prime customers for our maintenance services are the public facilities, shopping centres, large industrial sites, and rental properties as well as home owners.
We can provide regular sewer camera inspection to identify potential problems and prevent costly repairs. Periodic assessment of sewer drainage and stormwater systems ensure that your systems function as efficiently as possible. Regular sewer camera inspection can assess the condition of pipes and identify needs, such as sewer cleaning, debris, fat and silt removal, root cutting and prevention, blockage removal, builders waste drain removal, manhole cleaning, and gross pollutant trap cleaning.
Sewer Camera Inspection Experts
Servicing customers in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane for many years, Active Plumbing provides solutions for many homeowners, leading business and government organisations. We do the job right the first time using our latest tools and expertise. Contact us today to see how we can help you to ensure that your home or business plumbing runs smoothly.


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10 Steps to a Successful 4-H Shooting Sports Program
Experience with youth development programs suggests that a successful approach to building a strong 4-H Shooting Sports Program involves 10 major steps.
- Identify a key leader or leaders in your county.
Conservation officers, wildlife and fisheries professionals, hunter education instructors, and officers in local gun clubs are good places to start. If you have no personal knowledge of these people, contact local sporting goods dealers, outdoor writers, National Guard units, or law enforcement agencies. Be sure to ask contact people if they have any additional suggestions of interested people even if they prove not to be interested personally. In general, it is best to look outside the present corps of 4-H leaders to recruit new Shooting Sports leaders. This expands the leadership base and recruitment potential of the county clubs. 4-H leaders must be well prepared, highly motivated, and interested in interacting with young people. Remember, interest in youth development is a key to locating good leaders. - Identify a group of potentially interested people with different backgrounds and skills.
These people should meet the criteria listed above and be willing to represent a broad range of shooting disciplines. Every major component of the Mississippi 4-H Shooting Sports curriculum should be represented by at least one person: archery, muzzleloading, pistol, rifle, and shotgun. - Invite the large group of potential leaders to an initial meeting to discuss organizing a county 4-H Shooting Sports Program.
Be prepared to discuss the philosophy, content, purposes, and objectives of the program. Assistance from state coordinators, a nearby member of the state 4-H Shooting Sports committee, or a leader from a successful county program is extremely valuable. At this meeting, inform those present that it is necessary for county trainers to attend a training workshop. - Form a county team of adults and encourage them to recruit others to be trained.
When they attend a training workshop, this team will learn how to recruit new volunteers and train young people. Work to select a strong leader to be the county coordinator. The group can benefit from having a preliminary discussion of the county's target disciplines before they attend the training session. - Attend a training workshop.
Having a large county team ensures a high leader-to-youth ratio. A full team should accompany the county Extension agent to the workshop. If a partial team attends, the members may become frustrated, and the program's potential will be limited by the training of the people present. If an Extension agent does not attend, there will be no bond of common knowledge between the agent and the team. If your county does not have a full team, join with another county to produce a complete, cooperative team.
Workshops are a fun and exciting tool for delivering youth development and conservation messages. 4-H Shooting Sports leaders are different! Even instructors trained by other national organizations have benefited from the 4-H Shooting Sports training and, in turn, added to the richness of this program.
- Develop a county or multi-county plan.
This process will start with the training session. Identify which disciplines the young people want to participate in, set timelines to meet requirements for the state events, etc. Continue to refine the plan as soon as the team returns from training. Do not let more than a couple of weeks pass! The excitement and confidence built at the workshop may fade if too much time elapses from training to implementation. - Develop the necessary support for the program: human, financial, and material.
Equipment and facilities are not limiting factors if you apply a little creativity. Conservation officers, local gun clubs, and sporting goods dealers are excellent contacts. All can benefit from partnering with you. Having a large county team requires constant recruitment of volunteers by volunteers and meaningful involvement of newly recruited team members. - Set the county plan in motion by recruiting leaders and young people.
Be prepared to have moderate success in the first attempt, and try to keep the size of the group manageable. Be alert for opportunities to recruit volunteers during the course of the program, and be sure to involve new volunteers quickly in activities appropriate to their interests and abilities. Keep them busy with tasks that can lead to more important activities. - Let the volunteers run the program.
The county Extension agent needs to maintain some presence, but the program should belong to the volunteers. The county planning committee will require agent oversight. Consider the evaluation process while the program is being planned, implemented, and critiqued. Encourage immediate debriefing of the leaders after each segment of the program is completed. - Draw advanced participants in the program into junior leadership and coaching roles.
This program, like other 4-H programs, needs to have advancement opportunities for the participants. The second-generation leadership will come from young people involved in leadership roles while they are members. Older 4-H'ers and parents who are actively involved and given increasingly important duties will gain a valuable sense of responsibility and leadership skills. Recruiting must be continuous. Avoid overworking the experienced ones by constantly adding to the corps. Get your team of adults involved at the state level. Many opportunities exist for assisting the state organization.
From start to finish, the process of developing a local 4-H Shooting Sports Program should take a minimum of 3 to 6 months. Later, programs become increasingly easier, and a flow of new leaders develops naturally. Be sure to share new ideas with your state through newsletters and other forms of communication. Your innovation may result in success for other areas.
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
Publication 3878 (POD-03-23)
Reviewed by Reid Nevins, 4-H Environmental Science and Education Specialist, Center for 4-H Youth Development.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662-325-2262.


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Immune system
WikiDoc Resources for Immune system |
Articles |
Most recent articles on Immune system Most cited articles on Immune system |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own healthy cells and tissues in order to function properly. Detection is complicated as pathogens adapt and evolve new ways to successfully infect the host organism.
To survive this challenge, several mechanisms evolved that recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess enzyme systems that protect against viral infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants, fish, reptiles, and insects. These mechanisms include antimicrobial peptides called defensins, phagocytosis, and the complement system. More sophisticated mechanisms, however, developed relatively recently, with the evolution of vertebrates.[1] The immune systems of vertebrates such as humans consist of many types of proteins, cells, organs, and tissues, which interact in an elaborate and dynamic network. As part of this more complex immune response, the vertebrate system adapts over time to recognize particular pathogens more efficiently. The adaptation process creates immunological memories and allows even more effective protection during future encounters with these pathogens. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.
Disorders in the immune system can cause disease. Immunodeficiency diseases occur when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. Immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease, such as severe combined immunodeficiency, or be produced by pharmaceuticals or an infection, such as the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that is caused by the retrovirus HIV. In contrast, autoimmune diseases result from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1 and lupus erythematosus. These critical roles of immunology in health and disease are areas of intense scientific study.
Layered defense in immunity
The immune system protects you from dying from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. Most simply, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the body. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals.[2] However, if pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a third layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.[3]
Innate immune system | Adaptive immune system |
Response is non-specific | Pathogen and antigen specific response |
Exposure leads to immediate maximal response | Lag time between exposure and maximal response |
Cell-mediated and humoral components | Cell-mediated and humoral components |
No immunological memory | Exposure leads to immunological memory |
Found in nearly all forms of life | Found only in jawed vertebrates |
Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system.[4] Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.[5]
Surface barriers
Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of the mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection.[5] However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed against their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.[6]
Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins.[7] Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials.[8][9] Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens.[10][11] In the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens.
Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron.[12] This reduces the probability that pathogens will be able to reach sufficient numbers to cause illness. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an "overgrowth" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (yeast infection).[13] There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in yoghurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.[14][15][16]
Innate immunity
Microorganisms that successfully enter an organism will encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms.[17] Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way.[5] This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms.[2]
Humoral and chemical barriers
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection.[18] The symptoms of inflammation are redness and swelling, which are caused by increased blood flow into a tissue. Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes).[19][20] Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell.[21] Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.[22]
Complement system
The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by antibodies. Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response.[23][24] Many species have complement systems, including non-mammals like plants, fish, and some invertebrates.[25]
In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes. This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response.[26] The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs following sequential proteolytic activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled positive feedback.[27] The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase vascular permeability, and opsonize (coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their plasma membrane.[23]
Cellular barriers of the innate system
Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system.[5] The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells. These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms.[25] Innate cells are also important mediators in the activation of the adaptive immune system.[3]
Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called 'phagocytes' that engulf, or eat, pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines.[5] Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome.[28][29] Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism.[30] Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.[31]
Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens.[32] Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50% to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes.[33] During the acute phase of inflammation, particularly as a result of bacterial infection, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce a wide array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and regulatory factors such as interleukin 1.[34] Macrophages also act as scavengers, ridding the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system.[3]
Dendritic cells (DC) are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines.[35] They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, as both have many spine-like projections, but dendritic cells are in no way connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they present antigen to T cells, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.[35]
Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate the inflammatory response.[36] They are most often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis.[33] Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma.[37] Natural killer (NK cells) cells are leukocytes that attack and destroy tumor cells, or cells that have been infected by viruses.[38]
Adaptive immunity
The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen.[39] The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.
The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.[25] B cells are involved in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are involved in cell-mediated immune response.
Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a "non-self" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a "self" receptor called a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. There are two major subtypes of T cells: the killer T cell and the helper T cell. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class I MHC molecules, while helper T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors.[40]
In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface, and recognizes whole pathogens without any need for antigen processing. Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture.[25]
Killer T cells
Killer T cell are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional.[42] As with B cells, each type of T cell recognises a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their T cell receptor (TCR) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a co-receptor on the T cell, called CD8. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called granulysin (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis.[43] T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below).[43]
Helper T cells
Helper T cells regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which types of immune responses the body will make to a particular pathogen.[44][45] These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks.
Helper T cells express T cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's CD4 co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (e.g. Lck) that are responsible for T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen in order to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell.[46] The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells.[5] In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called CD154), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells.[47]
γδ T cells
γδ T cells possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity.[48] On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in epithelia will respond to stressed epithelial cells.[49]
B lymphocytes and antibodies
A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen.[50] This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases lymphokines and activates the B cell.[51] As the activated B cell then begins to divide, its offspring (plasma cells) secrete millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in blood plasma and lymph, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by complement activation or for uptake and destruction by phagocytes. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells.[52]CD20 antigen is also found on B lymphocytes.
Alternative adaptive immune system
Although the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g. antibodies and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.[53]
Immunological memory
When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring will become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can either be in the form of passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.
Passive memory
Passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting between a few days and several months. Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called IgG, is transported from mother to baby directly across the placenta, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother.[54] Breast milk also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.[55] This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies, it only borrows them. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum.[56]
Active memory and immunization
Long-term active memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through vaccination. The principle behind vaccination (also called immunization) is to introduce an antigen from a pathogen in order to stimulate the immune system and develop specific immunity against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism.[5] This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.[57][25]
Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses, while many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of micro-organisms, including harmless toxin components.[5] Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional adjuvants that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system and maximize immunogenicity.[58]
Disorders of human immunity
The immune system is a remarkably effective structure that incorporates specificity, inducibility and adaptation. Failures of host defense do occur, however, and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.
Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence.[59][60] In developed countries, obesity, alcoholism, and illegal drug abuse are common causes of poor immune function.[60] However, malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries.[60] Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, IgA antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Deficiency of single nutrients such as iron; copper; zinc; selenium; vitamins A, C, E, and B6; and folic acid (vitamin B9) also reduces immune responses.[60] Additionally, the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection.[61]
Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or 'acquired'.[5] Chronic granulomatous disease, where phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or congenital, immunodeficiency. AIDS and some types of cancer cause acquired immunodeficiency.[62][63]
Overactive immune responses comprise the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the autoimmune disorders. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with "self" peptides.[64] One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the thymus and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with self antigens produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize self-antigens, preventing autoimmunity.[50]
Hypersensitivity is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. They are divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or anaphylactic reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE released from mast cells and basophils.[65] Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the patient's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies.[65] Immune complexes (aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions.[65] Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve contact dermatitis (poison ivy). These reactions are mediated by T cells, monocytes, and macrophages.[65]
Other mechanisms of host defense
It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates, as invertebrates do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response.[1] Many species, however, utilize mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the most structurally-simple forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called bacteriophages.[66]
Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity.[1] The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life. Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.[67]
Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, and most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant.[68] When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent.[68] RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication.[69]
Tumor immunology
Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate tumors. The transformed cells of tumors express antigens that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources;[71] some are derived from oncogenic viruses like human papillomavirus, which causes cervical cancer,[72] while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called tyrosinase that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (e.g. melanocytes) into tumors called melanomas.[73][74] A third possible source of tumor antigens are proteins normally important for regulating cell growth and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called oncogenes.[71][75][76]
The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells.[74][77] Tumor antigens are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal.[78] NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors.[79] Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system.[75]
Clearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers.[80] Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells.[78] Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes.[81] In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.[80]
Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth [82] when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages which then generate cytokines and growth factors that nurture tumor development. In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks metastasis and thereby assists spread of cancer cells.
Physiological regulation
Hormones can act as immunomodulators, altering the sensitivity of the immune system. For example, female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive[83] and innate immune responses.[84] Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty. By contrast, male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive.[85] Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D.[86][87] It is conjectured that a progressive decline in hormone levels with age is partially responsible for weakened immune responses in aging individuals.[88] Conversely, some hormones are regulated by the immune system, notably thyroid hormone activity.[89]
The immune system is enhanced by sleep and rest,[90] and is impaired by stress.[91]
Diet may affect the immune system; for example, fresh fruits, vegetables, and foods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy immune system.[92] Likewise, fetal undernourishment can cause a lifelong impairment of the immune system.[93] In traditional medicine, some herbs are believed to stimulate the immune system, such as echinacea, licorice, ginseng, astragalus, sage, garlic, elderberry, shitake and lingzhi mushrooms, and hyssop, as well as honey. Studies have suggested that such herbs can indeed stimulate the immune system,[94] although their mode of action is complex and difficult to characterize.
Manipulation in medicine
The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and transplant rejection, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see immunization). Immunosuppressive drugs are used to control autoimmune disorders or inflammation when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent transplant rejection after an organ transplant.[25][95]
Anti-inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation. The glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs; however, these drugs can have many undesirable side effects (e.g., central obesity, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis) and their use must be tightly controlled.[96] Therefore, lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine. Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. However, the killing is indiscriminate and other organs and cell types are affected, which causes toxic side effects.[95] Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways.[97]
Larger drugs (>500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids;[98] however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set.[99] A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells.[100] The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as immunoinformatics.[101]
Manipulation by pathogens
The success of any pathogen is dependent on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens have developed several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading immune-mediated destruction.[102] Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier — for example, by using a type II secretion system.[103] Alternatively, using a type III secretion system, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, which provides a direct conduit for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host; the proteins transported along the tube are often used to shut down host defenses.[104]
An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to circumvent the innate immune system is intracellular replication (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends a majority of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium Salmonella and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.). Other bacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement.[105] Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response.[102] Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.[106] Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include Streptococcus (protein G), Staphylococcus aureus (protein A), and Peptostreptococcus magnus (protein L).[107]
The mechanisms used by viruses to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the invader's surface, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. HIV, for example, regularly mutates the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at these proteins.[108] Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the viron is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self".[109]
History of immunology
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.[110] This observation of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease.[111] Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease.[112] Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.[113]
Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity.[114] Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Metchnikoff.[115]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Immunology. |
- Clonal selection
- Epitope
- Hapten
- Human physiology
- Immunostimulator
- Monoclonal antibodies
- Original antigenic sin
- Polyclonal antibody
- Tumor antigens
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Beck, Gregory (November 1996). "Immunity and the Invertebrates" (PDF). Scientific American: 60–66. Retrieved 2007-01-01. Unknown parameter
ignored (help) - ↑ 2.0 2.1 Litman G, Cannon J, Dishaw L (2005). "Reconstructing immune phylogeny: new perspectives". Nat Rev Immunol. 5 (11): 866–79. PMID 16261174.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Mayer, Gene (2006). "Immunology - Chapter One: Innate (non-specific) Immunity". Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook. USC School of Medicine. Retrieved 2007-01-01.
- ↑ Smith A.D. (Ed) Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology. (1997) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854768-4
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell; Fourth Edition. New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. Unknown parameter
ignored (help) - ↑ Boyton R, Openshaw P. "Pulmonary defences to acute respiratory infection". Br Med Bull. 61: 1–12. PMID 11997295.
- ↑ Agerberth B, Gudmundsson G. "Host antimicrobial defence peptides in human disease". Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 306: 67–90. PMID 16909918.
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ignored (help) - ↑ Bowers, William (2006). "Immunology -Chapter Thirteen: Immunoregulation". Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook. USC School of Medicine. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
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ignored (help) - ↑ Lang, TJ (2004). "Estrogen as an immunomodulator". Clin Immunol. 113: 224&ndash, 230. PMID 15507385.
Moriyama, A (1999). "Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) concentrations in cervical mucus of women with normal menstrual cycle". Molecular Human Reproduction. 5: 656&ndash, 661. PMID 10381821. Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (help)
Cutolo, M (2004). "Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity". Lupus. 13: 635&ndash, 638. PMID 15485092. Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (help)
King, AE (2000). "Presence of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in human endometrium and first trimester decidua suggests an antibacterial role". Molecular Human Reproduction. 6: 191&ndash, 196. PMID 10655462. Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (help) - ↑ Fimmel (2005). "Influence of physiological androgen levels on wound healing and immune status in men". Aging Male. 8: 166&ndash, 174. PMID 16390741. Unknown parameter
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|fist=
ignored (help) - ↑ Dorshkind, K (2000). "The Roles of Prolactin, Growth Hormone, Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I, and Thyroid Hormones in Lymphocyte Development and Function: Insights from Genetic Models of Hormones and Hormone Receptor Deficiency". Endocrine Reviews. 21: 292&ndash, 312. PMID 10857555. Unknown parameter
ignored (help) - ↑ Nagpal, Sunil (2005). "Noncalcemic Actions of Vitamin D Receptor Ligands". Endocrine Reviews. 26 (5): 662&ndash, 687. PMID 15798098. Unknown parameter
ignored (help). - ↑ Hertoghe, T (2005). "The "multiple hormone deficiency" theory of aging: Is human senescence caused mainly by multiple hormone deficiencies?". Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 1051: 448&ndash, 465. PMID 16399912.
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ignored (help) - ↑ Pond, CM (2005). "Adipose tissue and the immune system". Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. 73: 17–30. PMID 15946832.
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ignored (help) - ↑ Spelman, K (2006). "Modulation of cytokine expression by traditional medicines: a review of herbal immunomodulators". Alternative Medicine reviews: 128&ndash, 150. PMID 16813462. Text " volume 11 " ignored (help); Unknown parameter
ignored (help)
Brush, J (2006). "The effect of Echinacea purpurea, Astragalus membranaceus and Glycyrrhiza glabra on CD69 expression and immune cell activation in humans". Phytotherapy Research. 20: 687&ndash, 695. PMID 16807880. Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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- ↑ Masri M (2003). "The mosaic of immunosuppressive drugs". Mol Immunol. 39 (17–18): 1073–7. PMID 12835079.
- ↑ Welling GW, Wiejer WJ, van der Zee R, Welling-Werster S. (1985). "Prediction of sequential antigenic regions in proteins". J Mol Recognit. 88 (2): 215–8. PMID 2411595.
- ↑ Sollner J, Mayer B. (2006). "Machine learning approaches for prediction of linear B-cell epitopes on proteins". 19 (3): 200–8. PMID 16598694.
- ↑ Saha S, Bhasin M, Raghava GP. (2005). "Bcipep: a database of B-cell epitopes". BMC Bioinformatics. 6 (1): 79. PMID 15921533.
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- ↑ Cianciotto NP. (2005). "Type II secretion: a protein secretion system for all seasons". Trends Microbiol. 13 (12): 581–8. PMID 16216510.
- ↑ Winstanley C, Hart CA (2001). "Type III secretion systems and pathogenicity islands". J Med Microbiol. 50 (2): 116–26. PMID 11211218.
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- ↑ Kobayashi H (2005). "Airway biofilms: implications for pathogenesis and therapy of respiratory tract infections". Treat Respir Med. 4 (4): 241–53. PMID 16086598.
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- ↑ Burton, Dennis R. (2005). "Antibody vs. HIV in a clash of evolutionary titans". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 102 (42): 14943–8. PMID 16219699. Unknown parameter
ignored (help) - ↑ Cantin R, Methot S, Tremblay MJ. (2005). "Plunder and stowaways: incorporation of cellular proteins by enveloped viruses". J Virol. 79 (11): 6577–87. PMID 15890896.
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- ↑ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed January 8 2007.
- ↑ Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Accessed January 8 2007.
- ↑
Metchnikoff, Elie (1905). Immunity in Infective Diseases (Full Text Version: Google Books). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 68025143. Unknown parameter
ignored (help) - ↑ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908 Nobelprize.org Accessed January 8 2007
External links
- How Your Immune System Works - from HowStuffWorks
- Immune System - from the University of Hartford
- Immunobiology; Fifth Edition – Online version of the textbook by Charles Janeway (Advanced undergraduate/graduate level)
- Immunology - BioMed Central (free content) scientific journal
- The Inner Life of a Cell - Rendering of the inner functions of the human body
- The Microbial World - Animal defenses against microbes - Chapter in on-line microbiology textbook
- Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook - from the University of South Carolina School of Medicine
- Plant Immunity - Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology at the GSF-National Research Center for Environment and Health
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text:
SAT has poly size circuits.
The Poly Hierarchy collapses.You probably think both are false. Which statements truth would surprise you more? Personally I think SAT has poly size circuits would surprise me more.
Karp-Lipton Theorem:
If SAT has poly size circuits then Poly Hierarchy Collapses.Does this really make your belief that SAT does not have poly sized circuits stronger? You already believed that. I know of one theorists who tells me that she believes SAT does not have poly sized circuits MUCH MORE than she believes that PH does not collapse. Hence this theorem does not tell her anything.
If you have
(unbelievable statement A) --> (unbelievable statement B)what do we then know that we didn't know before? We know that A is MORE unbelievable than B, I suppose. We seem to have taken
BLAH --> P=NPas the gold standard in showing that we believe BLAH is false and
BLAH --> PH=\Sigma_2^p
BLAH --> PH=\Sigma_2^petc. as forming a hierarchy of non-belief.
This is a nice picture, but it may be that BLAH is just not that believable in its own right and does not need to imply something like $\PH = \Sigma_3^p$ to give NOT(BLAH) street cred.


text:
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