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Respondent McGuire was found guilty in a California state court of the second-degree murder of his infant daughter, Tori. Among the prosecution's witnesses were two physicians, who testified that Tori was a battered child who had suffered prior injuries. The battered child testimony revealed evidence of rectal tearing, which was at least six weeks old, and evidence of partially healed rib fractures, which were approximately seven weeks old. The trial court instructed the jury that the prior injury evidence could be considered for "the limited purpose of determining if it tends to show . . . a clear connection between the other two offense[s] and the one of which [McGuire] is accused, so that it may be logically concluded that, if the Defendant committed other offenses, he also committed the crime charged in this case." The State Court of Appeal upheld the conviction, finding that the introduction of prior injury evidence was proper under state law to prove "battered child syndrome," which exists when a child has sustained repeated and/or serious injuries by nonaccidental means. Subsequently, the Federal District Court denied McGuire's petition for habeas corpus. The Court of Appeals reversed, concluding that the trial was arbitrary and fundamentally unfair in violation of due process. It ruled that the prior injury evidence was erroneously admitted to establish battered child syndrome, because there was no evidence linking McGuire to the prior injuries and no claim made at trial that Tori died accidentally, and that the jury instruction on the use of prior act evidence allowed a finding of guilt based simply on a judgment that he committed the prior acts.
Neither the admission of the challenged evidence nor the jury instruction as to its use rises to the level of a due process violation. Pp. 4-12.
REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which WHITE, BLACKMUN, SCALIA, KENNEDY, and SOUTER, JJ., joined, and in Part I of [502 U.S. 62, 64] which STEVENS and O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, J., filed an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part, in which STEVENS, J., joined. THOMAS, J., took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
Dane R. Gillette, Deputy Attorney General of California, argued the cause for petitioner. With him on the briefs were Daniel E. Lungren, Attorney General, George Williamson, Chief Assistant Attorney General, John H. Sugiyama, Senior Assistant Attorney General, and Morris Beatus, Supervising Deputy Attorney General.
Ann Hardgrove Voris, by appointment of the Court, 499 U.S. 917 , argued the cause and filed a brief for respondent. *
[ Footnote * ] Briefs of amici curiae urging reversal were filed for the United States by Solicitor General Starr, Assistant Attorney General Mueller, Deputy Solicitor General Bryson, and Clifford M. Sloan; and for the Criminal Justice Legal Foundation by Kent S. Scheidegger.
Charles D. Weisselberg and Dennis E. Curtis filed a brief for the National Association of Criminal defense Lawyers et al. as amici curiae urging affirmance.
CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST delivered the opinion of the Court.
Respondent Mark Owen McGuire was found guilty in a California state court of second-degree murder for the killing of his infant daughter. After unsuccessfully challenging his conviction on appeal in the state courts, McGuire sought federal habeas relief and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit set aside his conviction. 902 F.2d 749 (1990). We hold that, in so doing, the Court of Appeals exceeded the limited scope of federal habeas review of state convictions.
McGuire and his wife brought their six-month-old daughter, Tori, to a hospital in Hayward, California. The baby was bluish in color, and was not breathing. The attending physician noticed a large and relatively recent bruise on Tori's chest with multiple bruises around it, as well as black and [502 U.S. 62, 65] blue marks around her ears. Efforts to revive the child were unsuccessful; Tori died 45 minutes after being brought to the hospital. An autopsy revealed 17 contusions on the baby's chest, 29 contusions in her abdominal area, a split liver, a split pancreas, a lacerated large intestine, and damage to her heart and one of her lungs. The autopsy also uncovered evidence of rectal tearing, which was at least six weeks old, and evidence of partially healed rib fractures, which were approximately seven weeks old.
The police questioned McGuire and his wife. McGuire stated his belief that Tori's injuries must have resulted from a fall off the family couch. He told the police that, when his wife went out to make a telephone call, he went upstairs, leaving Tori lying on the couch; when he heard the baby cry, he came back downstairs to find her lying on the floor. After a police officer expressed skepticism at this explanation, McGuire replied that "[m]aybe some Mexicans came in" while he was upstairs. Id., at 751. During separate questioning, McGuire's wife stated that she had not hit Tori, and that she was unsure whether her husband had done so.
McGuire was charged with second-degree murder. At trial, the prosecution introduced both the statements made by McGuire to police and the medical evidence, including the evidence of prior rectal tearing and fractured ribs. Two physicians testified that Tori was a battered child, relying in part on the prior rib and rectal injuries, as well as on the more recent injuries. McGuire's neighbor testified that she had seen McGuire carry Tori by one of her arms to the car and roughly pinch her cheeks together when she cried. The neighbor added that McGuire's wife had expressed fear in leaving Tori alone with McGuire, because he had been rough with the baby and "did bad things" to her.
In addition, the prosecution called a witness who had overheard a conversation between McGuire and his wife in the hospital emergency room the night of Tori's death. According to the witness, McGuire's wife several times insistently [502 U.S. 62, 66] asked, "What really happened?" McGuire replied that he "didn't know," and that he "guessed" the baby fell off the couch. His wife continued to press for an answer, stating, "I am very patient. I can wait a long time. I want to know what really happened." Finally, she told McGuire that "the baby was alright when I left. You are responsible." App. 44; Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae 3-4. McGuire's wife was called by the prosecution to testify at trial, after having been granted transactional immunity from future prosecution. In contrast to her prior statement to the police and her declarations at the hospital, she stated that she had beaten Tori on the day of her death before her husband arrived home. The jury convicted McGuire of second-degree murder.
The California Court of Appeal affirmed McGuire's conviction. The court observed that the evidence of prior rib and rectal injuries was introduced to prove "battered child syndrome." That syndrome exists when a child has sustained repeated and/or serious injuries by nonaccidental means. People v. Bledsoe, 36 Cal.3d 236, 249, 203 Cal.Rptr. 450, 458, 681 P.2d 291, 299 (1984). After reviewing California authority on the subject, the court concluded that "proof of Tori's `prior injuries' tending to establish the `battered child syndrome' was patently proper." App. 47. The California Supreme Court denied review.
McGuire then filed a petition for habeas corpus relief in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. That court denied relief. The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed, and granted McGuire's habeas petition. The court ruled that the prior injury evidence was erroneously admitted to establish battered child syndrome, because no evidence linked McGuire to the prior injuries and no claim had been made at trial that the baby died accidentally. In addition, the court believed that the trial court's instruction on the use of prior act evidence allowed a finding of guilt based simply on a judgment that [502 U.S. 62, 67] McGuire committed the prior bad acts. 1 The court concluded that the admission of the evidence, in conjunction with the prejudicial instruction, "rendered [McGuire's] trial arbitrary and fundamentally unfair" in violation of due process. 902 F.2d, at 753. We hold that none of the alleged errors rise to the level of a due process violation, and so reverse.
We first consider whether the admission of the prior injury evidence justified habeas relief. In ruling that McGuire's due process rights were violated by the admission of the evidence, the Court of Appeals relied in part on its conclusion that the evidence was "incorrectly admitted . . . pursuant to California law." Id., at 754. Such an inquiry, however, is no part of a federal court's habeas review of a state conviction. We have stated many times that "federal habeas corpus relief does not lie for errors of state law." Lewis v. Jeffers, 497 U.S. 764 , (1990); see also Pulley v. Harris, 465 U.S. 37, 41 (1984). Today, we reemphasize that it is not the [502 U.S. 62, 68] province of a federal habeas court to reexamine state court determinations on state law questions. In conducting habeas review, a federal court is limited to deciding whether a conviction violated the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States. 28 U.S.C. 2241; Rose v. Hodges, 423 U.S. 19, 21 (1975) (per curiam). 2
We thus turn to the question whether the admission of the evidence violated McGuire's federal constitutional rights. California law allows the prosecution to introduce expert testimony and evidence related to prior injuries in order to prove "battered child syndrome." People v. Bledsoe, supra, at 249, 681 P.2d at 299; Landeros v. Flood, 17 Cal.3d 399, 409, 131 Cal.Rptr. 69, 73, 551 P.2d 389, 393 (1976); People v. Jackson, 18 Cal.App. 3d 504, 506-508, 95 Cal.Rptr. 919, 921-922 (1971). The demonstration of battered child syndrome "simply indicates that a child found with [serious, repeated injuries] has not suffered those injuries by accidental means." Id., at 507, 95 Cal.Rptr., at 921. Thus, evidence demonstrating battered child syndrome helps to prove that the child died at the hands of another, and not by falling off a couch, for example; it also tends to establish that the "other," whoever it may be, inflicted the injuries intentionally. When offered to show that certain injuries are a product of child abuse, rather than accident, evidence of prior injuries is relevant, even though it does not purport to prove the identity of the person who might have inflicted those injuries. See id., at 506-508, 95 Cal.Rptr., at 921-922; People v. Bledsoe, supra, at 249, 681 P.2d at 299. Because the prosecution had [502 U.S. 62, 69] charged McGuire with second-degree murder, it was required to prove that Tori's death was caused by the defendant's intentional act. Proof of Tori's battered child status helped to do just that; although not linked by any direct evidence to McGuire, the evidence demonstrated that Tori's death was the result of an intentional act by someone, and not an accident. The Court of Appeals, however, ignored the principle of battered child syndrome evidence in holding that this evidence was incorrectly admitted. For example, the court stated that "[e]vidence cannot have probative value unless a party connects it to the defendant in some meaningful way." 902 F.2d, at 753. We conclude that the evidence of prior injuries presented at McGuire's trial, whether it was directly linked to McGuire or not, was probative on the question of the intent with which the person who caused the injuries acted.
In holding the prior injury evidence inadmissible, the Court of Appeals also relied on the theory that, because no claim was made at trial that Tori died accidentally, the battered child syndrome evidence was irrelevant and violative of due process. Id., at 754. This ruling ignores the fact that the prosecution must prove all the elements of a criminal offense beyond a reasonable doubt. In this second degree murder case, for example, the prosecution was required to demonstrate that the killing was intentional. Cal. Penal Code Ann. 187, 189 (West 1988). By eliminating the possibility of accident, the evidence regarding battered child syndrome was clearly probative of that essential element, especially in light of the fact that McGuire had claimed prior to trial that Tori had injured herself by falling from the couch. The Court of Appeals, however, ruled that the evidence should have been excluded because McGuire did not raise the defense of accidental death at trial. But the prosecution's burden to prove every element of the crime is not relieved by a defendant's tactical decision not to contest an essential element of the offense. In the federal courts, "[a] [502 U.S. 62, 70] simple plea of not guilty . . . puts the prosecution to its proof as to all elements of the crime charged." Mathews v. United States, 485 U.S. 58, 64 -65 (1988). Neither the Court of Appeals nor the parties have given us any reason to think that the rule is different in California. The evidence of battered child syndrome was relevant to show intent, and nothing in the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires the State to refrain from introducing relevant evidence simply because the defense chooses not to contest the point.
Concluding, as we do, that the prior injury evidence was relevant to an issue in the case, we need not explore further the apparent assumption of the Court of Appeals that it is a violation of the due process guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment for evidence that is not relevant to be received in a criminal trial. We hold that McGuire's due process rights were not violated by the admission of the evidence. See Spencer v. Texas, 385 U.S. 554, 563 -564 (1967) ("Cases in this Court have long proceeded on the premise that the Due Process Clause guarantees the fundamental elements of fairness in a criminal trial. . . . But it has never been thought that such cases establish this Court as a rulemaking organ for the promulgation of state rules of criminal procedure") (citations omitted).
The Court of Appeals, however, did not rely solely on a finding that the admission of the evidence was unconstitutional. It based its decision in part on a belief that the instruction given by the trial court, set forth in n. 1, supra, allowed the jury to consider the prior injury evidence for more than simply proof of the battered child syndrome, and thereby violated McGuire's due process rights. McGuire focuses on the portion of the instruction explaining to the jury that the prior injury evidence [502 U.S. 62, 71]
In arguing his point, McGuire makes much of the fact that, in giving its instruction, the trial court deviated in part from standard jury instruction 2.50 of the California Jury Instructions, Criminal (4th ed. 1979) (CALJIC). 3 As we have stated above, however, the fact that the instruction was allegedly incorrect under state law is not a basis for habeas [502 U.S. 62, 72] relief. See Marshall v. Lonberger, 459 U.S. 422, 438 , n. 6 (1983) ("[T]he Due Process Clause does not permit the federal courts to engage in a finely tuned review of the wisdom of state evidentiary rules"). Federal habeas courts therefore do not grant relief, as might a state appellate court, simply because the instruction may have been deficient in comparison to the CALJIC model. Nor do our habeas powers allow us to reverse McGuire's conviction based on a belief that the trial judge incorrectly interpreted the California Evidence Code in ruling that the prior injury evidence was admissible as bad acts evidence in this case. See Cal.Evid.Code Ann. 1101(b) (West 1988). The only question for us is "whether the ailing instruction by itself so infected the entire trial that the resulting conviction violates due process." Cupp v. Naughten, 414 U.S. 141, 147 (1973); see also Henderson v. Kibbe, 431 U.S. 145, 154 (1977); Donnelly v. DeChristoforo, 416 U.S. 637, 643 (1974) ("`[I]t must be established not merely that the instruction is undesirable, erroneous, or even "universally condemned," but that it violated some [constitutional right]'"). It is well established that the instruction "may not be judged in artificial isolation," but must be considered in the context of the instructions as a whole and the trial record. Cupp v. Naughten, supra, at 147. In addition, in reviewing an ambiguous instruction such as the one at issue here, we inquire "whether there is a reasonable likelihood that the jury has applied the challenged instruction in a way" that violates the Constitution. Boyde v. California, 494 U.S. 370, 380 (1990). 4 And we also bear [502 U.S. 62, 73] in mind our previous admonition that we "have defined the category of infractions that violate `fundamental fairness' very narrowly." Dowling v. United States, 493 U.S. 342, 352 (1990). "Beyond the specific guarantees enumerated in the Bill of Rights, the Due Process Clause has limited operation." Ibid.
McGuire first claims that the instruction directed the jury to find that he had caused the prior injuries, thereby effectively taking that question from the jury. One might argue that the "two offense[s]" referred to in the instruction were McGuire's pinching of the child's cheeks and the lifting of the child by her arm. When read in context, however, we conclude that the most likely interpretation is that the reference was to the rectal tearing and fractured ribs. McGuire argues that, despite the lack of any direct evidence linking him to those injuries, the instruction directed the jury to find that he had committed them. This claim is clearly foreclosed, however, by the language of the instruction. The challenged portion of the instruction included the words "if the Defendant committed other offenses." App. 41. By including this phrase, the trial court unquestionably left it to the jury to determine whether McGuire committed the prior acts; only if the jury believed he was the perpetrator could it use the evidence in deciding whether McGuire was guilty of the crime charged. Therefore, if the jury did not believe McGuire caused the prior injuries, he was not harmed by the challenged portion of the instruction. To the extent that the jury may have believed McGuire committed the prior acts and used that as a factor in its deliberation, we observe that there was sufficient evidence to sustain such a jury [502 U.S. 62, 74] finding by a preponderance of the evidence. Cf. People v. Simon, 184 Cal.App. 3d 125, 134, 228 Cal.Rptr. 855, 858 (Sup. 1986); Huddleston v. United States, 485 U.S. 681, 690 (1988). The proof of battered child syndrome itself narrowed the group of possible perpetrators to McGuire and his wife, because they were the only two people regularly caring for Tori during her short life. See People v. Jackson, 18 Cal.App. 3d, at 507, 95 Cal.Rptr., at 921 ("Only someone regularly `caring' for the child has the continuing opportunity to inflict these types of injuries; an isolated contact with a vicious stranger would not result in this pattern of successive injuries stretching through several months"). A neighbor testified that she had seen McGuire treat Tori roughly on two occasions, and that McGuire's wife was scared to leave Tori alone with McGuire because he "did bad things" to her; the neighbor further testified that she had never seen McGuire's wife abuse the child in any way. Furthermore, when being questioned by the police after Tori died, McGuire's wife stated that she observed bruises on the baby's body when bathing her. When asked by the police for an explanation, she replied, "I don't really know, you know, I am not the only one who is taking care of her." App. 131. The evidence described, along with other evidence in the record, convinces us that there was sufficient proof for the jury to conclude, if it so desired, that McGuire caused the prior rib and rectal injuries.
McGuire also contends that, even if the determination of the perpetrator was left to the jury, the instruction constituted a "propensity" instruction, allowing the jury to base its determination of guilt in part upon the conclusion that McGuire had committed the prior acts, and therefore had a propensity to commit this type of crime. While the instruction was not as clear as it might have been, we find that there is not a "reasonable likelihood" that the jury would have concluded that this instruction, read in the context of other instructions, authorized the use of propensity evidence [502 U.S. 62, 75] pure and simple. Boyde v. California, supra, at 380. It seems far more likely that the jury understood the instruction, supra, at 71, to mean that, if it found a "clear connection" between the prior injuries and the instant injuries, and if it found that McGuire had committed the prior injuries, then it could use that fact in determining that McGuire committed the crime charged. The use of the evidence of prior offenses permitted by this instruction was therefore parallel to the familiar use of evidence of prior acts for the purpose of showing intent, identity, motive, or plan. See, e.g., Fed.Rule Evid. 404(b). Furthermore, the trial court guarded against possible misuse of the instruction by specifically advising the jury that the "[prior injury] evidence, if believed, was not received, and may not be considered by you[,] to prove that [McGuire] is a person of bad character or that he has a disposition to commit crimes." See n. 1, supra. Especially in light of this limiting provision, we reject McGuire's claim that the instruction should be viewed as a propensity instruction. 5
We therefore hold that neither the introduction of the challenged evidence nor the jury instruction as to its use "so infused the trial with unfairness as to deny due process of law." Lisenba v. California, 314 U.S. 219, 228 (1941); see also Donnelly v. DeChristoforo, 416 U.S., at 643 . The judgment of the Court of Appeals is therefore
JUSTICE THOMAS took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.
[ Footnote 2 ] In this regard, we observe that the Ninth Circuit reached a similar result in Blair v. McCarthy, 881 F.2d 602 (1989), cert. granted, 498 U.S. 954 , vacated as moot and remanded, 498 U.S. 954 (1990). In that case, the Court of Appeals based its grant of habeas relief solely on a violation of state law that prejudiced the defendant. Blair v. McCarthy, supra, at 603-604. As our discussion above makes clear, such state law violations provide no basis for federal habeas relief.
[ Footnote 3 ] Meticulous compliance with CALJIC 2.50, as in effect at McGuire's trial, would have led the trial court to instruct the jury that the prior injury evidence
[ Footnote 4 ] We acknowledge that language in the later cases of Cage v. Louisiana, 498 U.S. 39 (1990), and Yates v. Evatt, 500 U.S. 391 (1991), might be read as endorsing a different standard of review for jury instructions. See Cage, supra, at 41 ("In construing the instruction, we consider how reasonable jurors could have understood the charge as a whole"); Yates, supra, at 401 ("We think a reasonable juror would have understood the [instruction] to mean . . ."). In Boyde, however, we made it a point to settle on a single standard of review for jury instructions - the "reasonable likelihood" standard - after considering the many different phrasings that had [502 U.S. 62, 73] previously been used by this Court. 494 U.S., at 379 -380 (considering and rejecting standards that required examination of either what a reasonable juror "could" have done or "would" have done). So that we may once again speak with one voice on this issue, we now disapprove the standard of review language in Cage and Yates, and reaffirm the standard set out in Boyde.
[ Footnote 5 ] Because we need not reach the issue, we express no opinion on whether a state law would violate the Due Process Clause if it permitted the use of "prior crimes" evidence to show propensity to commit a charged crime.
JUSTICE O'CONNOR, with whom JUSTICE STEVENS joins, concurring in part and dissenting in part.
I agree with the Court that the evidence of battered child syndrome was relevant. The State had to prove that Mark [502 U.S. 62, 76] McGuire intended to kill his daughter, and the evidence that Tori was a battered child was probative of causation and intent. I therefore join Part I of the Court's opinion.
I do not join Part II of the opinion, because I think there is a reasonable likelihood that the jury misapplied the prior acts instruction. The trial court instructed the jury that evidence of Tori's prior injuries had been admitted to show that McGuire had committed offenses similar to that for which he was on trial, and that, if the jury found a "clear connection" between the prior offenses and the charged offense, "it may be logically concluded that, if the Defendant committed other offenses, he also committed the crime charged in this case." App. 41. In my view, the instruction encouraged the jury to assume that McGuire had inflicted the prior injuries, and then directed the jury to conclude that the prior abuser was the murderer. Because the instruction may have relieved the State of its burden of proving the identity of Tori's murderer beyond a reasonable doubt, I would hold that the instruction was error, and remand to the Court of Appeals for a determination of whether that error was harmless.
The fact that a 6-month-old child was repeatedly beaten in the course of her short life is so horrifying that a trial court should take special care to inform the jury as to the significance of that evidence. As the Court notes, the demonstration of battered child syndrome is relevant because it "`indicates that a child found with [serious, repeated injuries] has not suffered those injuries by accidental means,'" ante at 68 (quoting People v. Jackson, 18 Cal.App. 3d 504, 507; 95 Cal.Rptr. 919, 921 (1971)). I therefore agree that proof of Tori's battered child status, although "not linked by any direct evidence to McGuire," was properly admitted because "the evidence demonstrated that Tori's death was the result of an intentional act by someone, and not an accident." Ante, at 69. Precisely because the relevance of battered child syndrome is not tied to the identity of the abuser, however, I [502 U.S. 62, 77] believe that a jury instruction clarifying the limited probative value of that evidence was required.
Instead of an instruction limiting the use of evidence of Tori's prior injuries, the trial judge gave an instruction limiting the use of evidence of McGuire's prior bad acts. In so doing, the trial judge himself appears to have assumed that the prior injuries could be attributed to McGuire. The judge told the jury that "[e]vidence has been introduced for the purpose of showing that the Defendant committed acts similar to those constituting a crime other than that for which he is on trial. App. 40. The State concedes that this category of evidence encompasses both the acts for which McGuire was positively identified as the actor (carrying the child by one arm and roughly pinching her cheeks) and the far more brutal acts for which no actor was identified (the fractured ribs and the rectal tearing). The grouping of these two distinct classes of evidence created a reasonable likelihood that the jury would believe that McGuire had been identified - at least in the eyes of the trial judge - as the prior abuser.
The trial court's error in implying that McGuire had been identified as the prior abuser was compounded by its further instruction that, if the jury found a "clear connection" between the prior offenses and the charged offense, "it may be logically concluded that, if the Defendant committed other offenses, he also committed the crime charged in this case." The Court finds it "likely" that the jury understood the instruction to mean that "if it found a "clear connection" between the prior injuries and the instant injuries, and if it found that McGuire had committed the prior injuries, then it could use that fact in determining that McGuire committed the crime charged." Ante at 75. In my view, there is a reasonable likelihood that the jury did not understand this single sentence to establish a two-step process.
The jury was instructed to "consider" the evidence that McGuire had "committed acts similar" to the crime charged [502 U.S. 62, 78] and to "determin[e]" whether there was a "clear connection" between these prior acts and the ones that resulted in Tori's death. App. 40, 41. The trial court did not instruct the jury that it must first "determine" whether McGuire had in fact inflicted the prior injuries. The part of the instruction relied upon by the Court - "it may be logically concluded that, if the defendant committed other offenses, he also committed the crime charged in this case" - does not make clear that it is the jury's role to ascertain whether McGuire was the perpetrator of the prior abuse. Rather, coming as it does in the middle of what appears to be a conclusion of law, it is reasonably likely that the jury understood that such a determination had already been made, and that its role was merely to determine if there was a "clear connection" between Tori's prior injuries and the injuries that killed her.
Although we "have defined the category of infractions that violate `fundamental fairness' very narrowly," Dowling v. United States, 493 U.S. 342, 352 (1990), it is well established that the fundamental fairness guarantee of the Due Process Clause requires the prosecution to prove beyond a reasonable doubt every element of the offense. In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 364 (1970); McMillan v. Pennsylvania, 477 U.S. 79, 85 (1986). This constitutional principle "prohibits the State from using evidentiary presumptions in a jury charge that have the effect of relieving the State of its burden of persuasion beyond a reasonable doubt of every essential element of a crime." Francis v. Franklin, 471 U.S. 307, 313 (1985); Sandstrom v. Montana, 442 U.S. 510 (1979). Thus, we have held that mandatory presumptions violate the Due Process Clause if they relieve the State of the burden of persuasion on an element of the offense. Patterson v. New York, 432 U.S. 197, 215 (1977); Sandstrom, supra, at 520-524. By contrast, a permissive inference is not a violation [502 U.S. 62, 79] of due process, because the State still has the burden of persuading the jury that the suggested conclusion should be inferred based on the predicate facts proved. Ulster County Court v. Allen, 442 U.S. 140, 157 -163 (1979).
In this case, the instruction perhaps was intended to posit a permissive inference that whoever had inflicted Tori's prior injuries was likely to have inflicted the injuries that caused her death. But the trial court did not make clear that the State first had to prove the predicate facts from which the inference was to be drawn. Furthermore, the wording of the instruction is such that the jury may well have assumed that it had no choice but to "logically conclud[e]" that McGuire was the murderer once it found a "clear connection" between the prior injuries and the fatal ones. * Because I cannot say with any confidence that the instruction allowed a mere permissive inference drawing from proven facts, I think the instruction should be treated as a mandatory presumption that may have relieved the State of its burden of proving the identity of Tori's killer beyond a reasonable doubt.
Had the instruction been clearly worded, I would agree with the Court that there is sufficient circumstantial evidence in the record to support a finding that McGuire was the perpetrator of the prior injuries. After all, as the Court points out, "[t]he proof of battered child syndrome itself narrowed the group of possible perpetrators to McGuire and his wife, because they were the only two people regularly caring for Tori." Ante at 74. In this case, however, it is important to remember that the other person regularly caring for Tori - Daisy McGuire - took the stand and testified, under a grant of immunity, that he was the one who inflicted the fatal injuries on the night of July 7, 1981. [502 U.S. 62, 80]
McGuire's jury deliberated for three days before returning a verdict of guilty. Any evaluation of the jury instruction must be conducted against the background of Daisy McGuire's surprise testimony and the dilemma it so clearly posed for the jury. In my view, the jury instruction on similar acts was so "ambiguous," ante at 72, that there was a reasonable likelihood that the jury was encouraged to make assumptions and conclusions about the identity of Tori's murderer that relieved the State of having to prove that element of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt. In cases where the Court has found that jury instructions included mandatory presumptions inconsistent with the guarantees of the Due Process Clause, the Court has remanded to determine whether the erroneous instruction was harmless, which is the course that should be followed here. See, e.g., Sandstrom, supra, at 526-527; Roe v. Clark, 478 U.S. 570, 584 (1986); Carella v. California, 491 U.S. 263, 266 -267 (1989) (per curiam).
[ Footnote * ] Although not dispositive, it is worth noting that California's model jury instructions on "evidence of other crimes" has since been revised to eliminate the phrase "so that it may be logically concluded." See California Jury Instructions, Criminal 2.50 (5th ed. 1987). [502 U.S. 62, 81]
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Citation: 502 U.S. 62
Docket No: No. 90-1074
Argued: October 09, 1991
Decided: December 04, 1991
Court: United States Supreme Court
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Written by Amanda Wang, Innovation & Management M.S. 2019
In this multi-part blog series, we will be exploring why current #TuftsGrad students chose to pursue their graduate education at Tufts University. Today, we hear from Amanda Wang, Innovation & Management M.S. 2019, in part 2 of our 'Why Tufts?' series.
Why did I choose Tufts to continue my studies after four years of college life in Hong Kong? Let me tell you!
I decided that I wanted to attend a prestigious university with great resources for students in a vibrant city in the United States. For international students like me, it is generally very hard or even impossible to go to a school for an Admitted Student's Day or to do a campus tour, but making the decision to attend Tufts was easy and straightforward. I knew the professors from my admission interviews and studied their profiles on the school's website, I searched for news on the school, read student comments, and talked to the students who were already in my program. I found Tufts to be that amazing university with an attractive location near downtown Boston, and it became my choice without any hesitation.
However, if I am asked the question of "Why Tufts" again, I now have a more adequate answer after having experienced my first two semesters on campus.
The resources that Tufts provides for its students are great. Top-tier classes, a huge alumni network, digital and physical resources in the library – everything you need is right at hand. Tufts encourages students to innovate and become real problem solvers, not only for personal and business life, but for the world in a larger sense. Alumni are always ready to help, and if you do not know how to kick-start your networking process, the Career Center is there for you to seek advice. Plus, many alumni give great speeches at campus events, which further broaden my horizons and areas of interest. The Tufts community encourages me to always dream big no matter how difficult it may seem, and to be courageous and fearless to overcome obstacles while searching for my own meaning.
Tufts always tries to make sure that every student is studying their favorite subject. I am in the M.S. in Innovation & Management (MSIM) program, a full-year program focusing on innovation, entrepreneurship, and business management. Within the program, we learn business through real-world scenarios such as interviews with our potential stakeholders or building a business model from scratch – with the goal of changing the world to a better one starting with the smallest innovations. I chose this program to explore marketing and social innovation. Now after having finished two semesters, I can say I have explored these fields and gained significant personal growth thanks to my professors and the flexibility of the MSIM program. As a member of a cohort of 30 students, we helped each other through the program with non-stop encouragement, feedback, and inspiration to make the most out of our year together.
I believe the location of the university near Boston is essential for personal development. I can easily explore urban life in one of the most beautiful cities in the United States while enjoying a campus surrounded by trees, birds, and bunnies. Tufts students even have free access to the Museum of Fine Arts! I always enjoy the breathtaking art collections and avant-garde exhibitions in the museum. Great food places spread all over Boston, and the freshest lobster from Maine is always on the top of my list. With a long history, Boston is a city full of culture, arts, technology, and diversity.
There is an old Chinese proverb that says, "There are a thousand ways to interpret Hamlet." Similarly, every Jumbo may have a unique answer for the question "Why Tufts?". As for me, Tufts is the best place to improve myself, to find my path, and to make real changes in the future. If I could make the decision again, Tufts would still be my choice.

subset: commoncrawl


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For joint actions around the Greek elections, and for large Euro-Mediterranean's mobilizations in autumn 2012!
The response to the financial and economic crisis is the same everywhere: cuts in expenditure and austerity measures under the pretext of reducing deficits and the repayment of a public debt which is the direct outcome of 20 years of neoliberal policies. Governments in the service of finance and big European capital are actually using this pretext to further reduce social spending, lower wages and pensions, privatize health care, dismantle social benefits and deregulate labour laws, increase taxes on the majority while social and tax giveaways are generalized for the big companies and the highest net worth households.
Measures of violence against the populations, similar to those tested in the Greek social laboratory for two years, are already being implemented in Portugal, Ireland, Spain, Italy, and in Eastern European countries. Latvia, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria have inaugurated the same sad litany of austerity measures, with drastic fiscal cuts (significant decrease in wages, closure of schools and hospitals, partial or total axing of social benefits, rise of VAT rates...). All the European peoples are threatened. This political orientation, which results in growing unemployment and poverty, must be radically rejected. Everywhere, companies are closing down and industrial wastelands are created, all for the greater glory of immediate gains. Everywhere, social inequalities are increasing. The public debt grows whilst many countries enter into economic recession.
Finally, while governments of technocrats are put in place by the creditors flouting universal suffrage and the most elementary democratic rules, new European treaties (ESM, European Stability Mechanism, and TSCG, Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance in the Economic and Monetary Union) are adopted to the detriment of democracy, for the benefit of financial markets and behind the people's backs. These treaties grant immunity to senior civil servants, allow for the participation of the private sector in close collaboration with the IMF, impose a limit on deficits and give priority to the repayment of debt, no matter the consequences.
Faced with such coordinated attacks on our social gains, resistance is getting organized among Euro-Meditarrenean peoples, there are national general strikes and the 'indignados' movements are increasingly active. In Iceland the people refused to pay the Icesave debt to the UK and the Netherlands. In Europe as in Egypt and Tunisia, initiatives for a citizens' audit of public debt analyze how much of the public debt is illegal, illegitimate, odious or unsustainable, and must therefore be cancelled. Until all rights are guaranteed to all habitants, all debt repayments should be suspended until exhaustive audits have been completed. Paying creditors is stealing what rightfully belongs to the population and payments will continue to be the cause of college and hospital closures, pensions cuts, etc. The Greek resistance persevered for 2 years and recent election results in Greece show a strong rejection of current neoliberal policies. We here express our firm support of the refusal, by the Greek people in their ballots on 6 May 2012, to negotiate with the Troika and to apply its memorandums and the creditors' villainous conditionalities.
However the neoliberal steamroller has not yet been stopped, and it is high time for the populations and their organizations to develop mobilization on a more significant scale.
Along with other European and international networks such as the Joint Social Conference, the International Citizen debt Audit Network (ICAN) calls for a common mobilization of all groups and trends within the social movement, without exception, including trade unions, 'Indignados' and 'Occupy' movements, women's movements, alterglobalization associations and NGOs, political organizations, leading figures, grassroots citizens, intellectuals and artists.
Aware of the need of convergence of all mass mobilizations, we call for large Euro-Mediterranean's mobilizations in autumn 2012, coordinating an international level of solidarity with the Greek people, against illegitimate, illegal, odious or simply unsustainable debt and austerity measures, to be organized around the traditional week of global action against debt and international financial institutions which, this year, coincides with the 25th anniversary of the death of Thomas Sankara.
In the same spirit, we call for the creation or reinforcement of grassroots' committees together with local audit groups in all European countries – they would spearhead resistance against the EU's attacks and give substance to our solidarity with the Greek people and all harassed peoples.
Together we can !
Please send your signature to : debtauditineuromed gmail.com.
NB: For a better coordination, the International Citizen debt Audit Network (ICAN) will provide further information in each country where it is present:
Belgium, http://www.sauvetage-dexia.be/ and www.cadtm.org
Egypt, http://www.dropegyptsdebt.org/
France, http://www.audit-citoyen.org/ and https://sites.google.com/site/referendumdette/
Germany, http://blockupy-frankfurt.org/es and http://www.attac-netzwerk.de/ag-schulden and http://www.zukunftskonvent.de/
Greece, http://www.contra-xreos.gr/ and www.elegr.gr
Ireland, http://www.notourdebt.ie/
Italy, http://rivoltaildebito.globalist.it/ and www.smontaildebito.org
Poland, http://nienaszdlug.pl/
Portugal, http://auditoriacidada.info/
United Kingdom, http://www.jubileedebtcampaign.org.uk/
Spain, http://auditoria15m.org/
Tunisia, http://www.tunisie.attac.org/dette/index.php / and http://zelzel.net/


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The Hares were so persecuted by the other beasts, they did not know where to go.
As soon as they saw a single animal approach them, off they used to run.
One day they saw a troop of wild Horses stampeding about, and in quite a panic all the Hares scuttled off to a lake hard by, determined to drown themselves rather than live in such a continual state of fear.
But just as they got near the bank of the lake, a troop of Frogs, frightened in their turn by the approach of the Hares scuttled off, and jumped into the water.
"Truly," said one of the Hares, "things are not so bad as they seem, there is always someone worse off than yourself".
Moral of Aesop's Fable:
"There is always someone worse off than yourself"
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The latest report from the Federal Housing Finance Authority is hot off the press. They rank 241 major metropolitan areas across the U.S. for yearly home price appreciation.
They show that, nationally, home prices have gone up 4.99% over the last 12 months.
Here's how the major cities rank in Colorado among the 241:
#22 Greeley = 7.94%
#27 Colorado Springs = 7.64%
#63 Fort Collins = 6.34%
#133 Denver = 4.83%
#188 Boulder = 3.41%
** Interesting fun fact: In the WORST economy of our lifetime (2008 recession), home appreciation in Fort Collins only went down 2.2%. Compare that to places like Las Vegas that went down by over 35%! Now that's a stable economy.**
The post Ranked! appeared first on Fort Collins Real Estate | Fort Collins Homes for Sale & Property Search.


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FDA sends Star Scientific a warning letter
Glen Allen-based dietary supplement company Star Scientific Inc. said Tuesday that it had received a warning from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for two of its consumer products.
The FDA's letter states that anatabine, which is used in two of the company's products — Anatabloc and CigRx — is a new dietary ingredient that required premarket notification to the agency. It also states that the company's products are unapproved new drugs based on statements on the company's website, according to Star Scientific.
The agency says that the company's failure to address these violations could result in regulatory action.
The company says it is responding to the letter and already has told the agency that it plans to work "cooperatively to resolve these issues."
CigRx is a dietary supplement that is supposed to reduce the urge to smoke. Anatabloc, Star Scientific's primary product, is an anti-inflammatory drug. Anatabine is an alkaloid naturally found in plants, such as tomato and tobacco plants.
The company also announced Tuesday that it is entered into an agreement with Jonnie R. Williams Sr., who resigned as CEO of the company last week, for a $15 million credit facility. Williams, who owns almost 10 percent of the company's shares, founded Star Scientific.
Under the credit facility, the company can borrow up to $10 million without shareholder approval. Borrowing the other $5 million may require shareholder approval under NASDAQ rules, the company said.
The company is undergoing an executive management change as it has transitioned away from its roots as a tobacco products company into a drug supplement company.
State and federal investigations are currently ongoing regarding Gov. Bob McDonnell's relationship with Williams, who gave more than $160,000 in gifts and loans to McDonnell and his family.


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Knowing the times that we are in, we give you, yet again, an overview of some important legal rights for women that every one must be aware of.
Exercise your right to free legal aid. Often, women go to the police station unaccompanied by a lawyer to get their statement recorded, and they stand the risk of being misquoted or their statement being tampered with. The police may also treat the entire episode lightly and not lodge an FIR. So, it is necessary to have a lawyer with you while you lodge the FIR. "According to a Delhi High Court ruling, whenever a rape is reported, the SHO has to bring this to the notice of the Delhi Legal Services Authority. The legal body then arranges for a lawyer for the victim," says Saumya Bhaumik, women rights lawyer.
Under section 164 of the Criminal Procedure Code, a woman who has been raped can record her statement before the district magistrate when the case is under trial, and no one else needs to be present. Alternatively, she can record the statement with only one police officer and woman constable in a convenient place that is not crowded and does not provide any possibility of the statement being overheard by a fourth person. The cops have to, by law, upkeep the woman's right to privacy. It's important for the person to feel comfortable and not be under any kind of stress while narrating the incident.
The police cannot refuse to register an FIR even if a considerable period of time has elapsed since the incident of rape or molestation took place. If the police tells you that they can't lodge your FIR since you didn't report it earlier, do not concede. "Rape is a horrifying incident for any woman, so it's natural for her to go into shock and not want to report it immediately. She may also fear for her safety and the reputation and dignity of her family. For this reason, the Supreme Court has ruled that the police must register an FIR even if there has been a gap between the report and the occurrence of the incident," says Tariq Abeed, advocate, Supreme Court.
According to the guidelines issued by the Delhi Police, a woman has the privilege of lodging a complaint via email or registered post. If, for some reason, a woman can't go to the police station, she can send a written complaint through an email or registered post addressed to a senior police officer of the level of Deputy Commissioner or Commissioner of Police. The officer then directs the SHO of the police station, of the area where the incident occurred, to conduct proper verification of the complainant and lodge an FIR. The police can then come over to the residence of the victim to take her statement.
Arape victim can register her police complaint from any police station under the Zero FIR ruling by Supreme Court. "Sometimes, the police station under which the incident occurs refuses to register the victim's complaint in order to keep clear of responsibility, and tries sending the victim to another police station. In such cases, she has the right to lodge an FIR at any police station in the city under the Zero FIR ruling. The senior officer will then direct the SHO of the concerned police station to lodge the FIR," says Abeed. This is a Supreme Court ruling that not many women are aware of, so don't let the SHO of a police station send you away saying it "doesn't come under his area".
According to a Supreme Court ruling, a woman cannot be arrested after sunset and before sunrise. There are many cases of women being harassed by the police at wee hours, but all this can be avoided if you exercise the right of being present in the police station only during daytime. "Even if there is a woman constable accompanying the officers, the police can't arrest a woman at night. In case the woman has committed a serious crime, the police has to get it in writing from the magistrate explaining why the arrest is necessary during the night," says Bhaumik.
Women cannot be called to the police station for interrogation under Section 160 of the Criminal Procedure Code. This law provides Indian women the right of not being physically present at the police station for interrogation. "The police can interrogate a woman at her residence in the presence of a woman constable and family members or friends," says Abeed. So, the next time you're called to the police station for queries or interrogation when you have faced any kind of harassment, quote this guideline of the Supreme Court to exercise your right and remind the cops about it.
Under no circumstances can the identity of a rape victim be revealed. Neither the police nor media can make known the name of the victim in public. Section 228-A of the Indian Penal Code makes the disclosure of a victim's identity a punishable offense. Printing or publishing the name or any matter which may make known the identity of a woman against whom an offense has been committed is punishable. This is done to prevent social victimisation or ostracism of the victim of a sexual offense. Even while a judgment is in progress at the high court or a lower court, the name of the victim is not indicated, she is only described as 'victim' in the judgment.
Acase of rape can't be dismissed even if the doctor says rape had not taken place. A victim of rape needs to be medically examined as per Section 164 A of the Criminal Procedure Code, and only the report can act as proof. "A woman has the right to have a copy of the medical report from the doctor. Rape is crime and not a medical condition. It is a legal term and not a diagnosis to be made by the medical officer treating the victim. The only statement that can be made by the medical officer is that there is evidence of recent sexual activity. Whether the rape has occurred or not is a legal conclusion and the doctor can't decide on this," explains Bhaumik.
It is the duty of every employer to create a Sexual Harassment Complaints Committee within the organisation for redressal of such complaints. According to a guideline issued by the Supreme Court, it is mandatory for all firms, public and private, to set up these committees to resolve matters of sexual harassment. It is also necessary that the committee be headed by a woman and comprise 50% women as members. Also, one of the members should be from a women's welfare group.
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Welivetogether - Private Show
On the way home from school Kelly invited Cali over to hang out. Kelly enforced the idea that it was cool since nobody was going to be home. Kelly has been eager to get Cali alone, for she was horny eighteen year old.
Once they got inside Kelly pushed her mark against the wall. They locked lips because there was nothing needed to say. Cali was all for it as Kelly moved her hand up Cali's skirt.
Cali seemed to be ready for action since she had no panties on. These two were naughty school girls that love to eat pussy. Kelly made her self at home with her face planted between Cali's legs as she was urged to go harder.
They moved over to the couch where Cali shared the love. Their pussy really got wet when they moved into the 69 position. The sounds of slippery wet pussy filled the room.
These two will most likely be study buddies for some time.
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Kenai Peninsula Borough School District
Oct. 18: Inservice, no school.
Chapman School
Oct. 21-25: Scholastic Book Fair.
Oct. 22: Basketball at Nikolaevsk, 3:30 and 5 p.m.
Oct. 23: Basketball at Chapman, 4 and 5:30 p.m.
Fireweed Academy (grades K-2)
Today: Potato sundae party.
Oct. 23: Ellis Island simulation.
Fireweed Academy (grades 3-6)
Oct. 22: Fifth- and sixth-graders to Islands and Ocean, 2-3 p.m.
Oct. 23: Ellis Island activity.
Flex School
Today: Great Alaska ShakeOut, 10:17 a.m.
Today: Student eligibility check due 3 p.m.
Oct. 21: Staff PBIS meeting, 3:30 p.m.
McNeil Canyon Elementary School
Today: Learning lab.
Oct. 22: Learning lab.
Oct. 22: Spotlight lunch honoring students: Ulita Anfilofev, Breyan Cathey, Nicolas Erickson, Jade Campbell, Wolfgang O'Phelan, Daisy Walker, Blaise Banks, Chase Jones, Eryn Field, Bristol Johnson, Sam Hambrick, Fiona Hatton, Liam James, Neviya Reed, Paige Jones, Maya Kelly, Tanner Reid and Madison Story.
Voznesenka School
Today: Parent-teacher conferences, 3:20-6:40 p.m.
Oct. 18: Parent-teacher conferences, 8 a.m.-3:30 p.m.
Oct. 22: 11th adn 12th grade college fair, Kenai Peninsula college Soldotna.
West Homer Elementary School
Oct. 17: Fifth-grade band, 2:40 p.m.
Oct. 21: Sixth-grade band, 11:35 a.m.
Oct. 22: Fifth-grade band, 12:35 p.m.
Oct. 23: Sixth-grade band, 12:35 p.m.
College fair
Oct. 22: Kenai Peninsula College Fair, Soldotna Sports Center.
Contests, Scholarships
Veterans of Foreign Wars: Students in grades 6-8 are invited to participate in the "Patriot's Pen" essay contest, deadline Nov. 15. Call 399-7572.
Veterans of Foreign Wars: "Voice of Democracy" scholarship competition, deadline Nov. 15. Call 399-7572.


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Dear Headmaster: Why don't men hate being single as much as women do? I know you say most men are marriage-minded underneath but they seem ...
Dear Headmaster: Why don't men hate being single as much as women do? I know you say most men are marriage-minded underneath but they seem much less interested in getting into a stable, committed relationship than women do, and seem to drag their heels. Some of the things I hate about being single are (in no particular order): lack of love, affection and emotional support; not having someone to go on vacation with; not having someone to share domestic tasks with; being excluded from social gatherings because I don't have a partner; not having someone to talk to at home on a day to day basis; having to cope with the financial burden of being single (apartment, bills etc.); not having a regular source of quality sex available. Surely these things apply to men just as much as women? If this is the case, why aren't men jumping up and down with excitement when they meet someone they connect with, like we are? Why aren't they just as keen as we are to know "where things are going" early on in the relationship? A lot of men my age seem uninterested in a committed relationship, seeming to prefer a more casual "low investment, low return" approach to relationships. Do men actually ENJOY the endless tedium and stress of going on a string of disappointing dates? Or does it all simply come down to the capriciousness of the female orgasm – since men can have an orgasm with practically anyone, they don't much care who they're with, whereas if a woman finds someone who's actually good in bed she's desperate to hang on to him?! Your insights would be much appreciated. -Elaine
Dear Elaine:
Why Don't Men Hate Being Single As Much as Women Do? |
I particularly love your list of what sucks about being single. As a guy who was single for 35 years, I completely agree and think that – all things remaining equal – having a good relationship is a far superior state of being than being alone.
(This does not mean that I look down on single people or think you should be in an unsatisfying relationship so, please, spare me the complaints.)
My assistant says it's because when they're single, they can play video games and watch porn, and if they got a girlfriend, she'd insist they give up one or both.
But what gets me the most excited, Elaine, is that you've forced me to consider something that I've never actually considered before:
Why Don't Men Hate Being Single As Much as Women Do?
My assistant says it's because when they're single, they can play video games and watch porn, and if they got a girlfriend, she'd insist they give up one or both.
Funny, but probably not the entire picture.
So, together, let's consider why men are generally cooler with being single than women:
1. Low investment, low return. As I observed in "Why He Disappeared", this tends to be the way that men deal with most of their relationships. When a man hangs out with another man, he'll watch sports, play poker, talk trash, grab a few drinks, and maybe talk about whether he's hooking up. This takes care of most of a man's basic needs – for companionship, for laughs, for fun.
Men are more likely to define themselves by their careers – What do I do? How much do I earn? What kind of car do I drive? How big is my TV?
As I look at that list, it occurs to me that most of my clients who are perfectly content being single are satisfied with their female friendships. My mom, for example: she volunteers at the hospital, she tap dances in the musical at her clubhouse, she plays canasta with the girls twice a week, she does Sudoku in her garden, she's on the party-planning committee… and while she misses a travel companion, movie companion and regular sex, life is pretty much okay as it is.
I just think there are more men than women who are okay with low-investment, low-return, that's all. Which brings us to…
2. Self-definition. Men are more likely to define themselves by their careers – What do I do? How much do I earn? What kind of car do I drive? How big is my TV?
This is unfortunate and short-sighted because nobody dies thinking that he wishes he had a 72" Sony instead of a 64" Vizio. But hey, that's men.
Women, who are, in general, more emotional and intuitive, are more likely to define their lives by their relationships. So when they lack a partner, they'll be disproportionately sadder than men, who just bury themselves in more work and (sometimes) play.
Then again, many of my smart, strong, successful clients also bury themselves in their work for a decade, and emerge from their cocoon of success and travel, only to learn that they're really, really lonely. I can only imagine there are millions of women who haven't contacted me who continue to immerse themselves in that worldview that success and accomplishment matters more than love. Which brings us to…
3. Communication styles. I've said it before, I'll say it again: men need more help; women ask for more help. And nowhere is that clearer than in the realm of relationships.
A few thoughts off the top of my head:
• Over twice as many women take anti-depressants, compared to men. I remember reading somewhere that it was about 1 in 6 women vs. 1 in 48 men.
• 90% of the self-help market in bookstores is for women. Seriously, apart from "The Game" have you ever seen a relationship book for men that's sold in airport bookstores?
• Women maintain closer friendships throughout life. My mom talks to her best friend every day. She has friends who talk to their daughters every day. I'm as sensitive as they come and I talk to my best friends in New York about once a month.
In other words, even if men feel the emotional need to connect, they rarely reach out to do so – with each other, with their families, and with you.
Women talk about their feelings with much greater frequency and intensity, further feeding the perception/reality that they care more about relationships.
4. Sex – Perhaps Charlie Sheen said it best, years ago, when talking about his predilection for prostitutes: "I don't pay them for sex. I pay them to leave."
There are a decent number of men out there who don't really desire the same kind of relationship as you do. Their needs are met by their male friendships and their careers and the last thing they want to do is hold your purse when shopping at Nordstrom.
You can tell who these men are because when they're not with you, you don't exist. They'll call you once a week to hook up and that's all. These guys play on their terms, not yours and are a total waste of time to any woman trying to forge something real and lasting. It's like trying to teach a fish to ride a bicycle. In my experience, there are very few women who treat men as if they're good for nothing but sex.
So yeah, a man's ability to separate sex and love is another valid reason he's not terribly upset when he's single.
The last thing men want to do is hold your purse when shopping at Nordstrom.
5. Expectations about relationships. I think this is the most important point of all. Women expect their relationships to be transcendent. They expect the man to illuminate and inspire. You remember "Eat, Pray, Love," right? "You don't need a man. You need a champion."
Guys don't work that way. We want someone who is attractive, who doesn't criticize us or tell us how much we need to change, who we can spend lots of time with without getting bored, who we can bring around our friends and families with minimal incident.
- You don't have to play fantasy football.
- You don't have to make six figures.
- You don't have to have washboard abs.
- You don't have to have an M.B.A.
- You don't have to be spiritual.
As a result, most men can date lots of women.
Women – at least my clients – can only date .0001% of men.
Elizabeth Gilbert, in her follow-up to "Eat, Pray, Love," called "Committed", explores these outlandish expectations that Western women have for love – which are nothing like what women in other cultures experience. As a result, Western women are very disappointed in their men, whereas men aren't nearly as disappointed in women.
In other words, we think you're fine as you are.
We just hate the fact that you need us to change so much.
As a result of all of these biological and societal observations about men, it shouldn't be too surprising that there are no Time Magazine cover stories or best-selling books about desperate men.
We can separate sex and love, we define ourselves by our work, we don't lack dating options, we get 95% of our needs met without female companionship, and we don't talk about relationships nearly as much.
If there's anything I missed, please let me know. Guys, please chime in here. Why are you okay not being in a relationship – and how is this different than the women you know?
Celebrities Extreme - Celebrities in Zimbabwe is a multi-media entertainment group, providing premium pop culture trends, extensive celebrity photo galleries and breaking entertainment news in Zimbabwe.
An established internet presence, Celebrities Extreme - Celebrities in Zimbabwe has grown rapidly due to the fresh perspective it brings to the often harsh world of celebrity news. Over the years it has built a team of smart, savvy contributors dedicated to delivering the latest pop culture 24/7.
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Tiger Pillow Case
Approximate delivery to
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Pillow case measures 76cm wide by 50cm high.Made from polyester.
Standard side opening to fit most standard size pillows. Pillow not included.
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I'm a paper artist based in the North West of England.
The Beginning
For me, it all started with one of those bumper packs of felt tips. One of my earliest memories is of tearing open Christmas wrapping paper to find a vivid array of coloured pens inside – then immediately rearranging the colours in a way that pleased me better. That was it; I was off on a voyage of creative discovery that continues to this day.


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If you've been following the financial news in Canada lately (or if you read the blog here regularly), you will know that a lot is changing in the world of mortgage financing. Most recently, the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) announced an increase in their insurance premiums that will come into effect on March 17th 2017. And although we are still in early February, the impacts of this change are already being felt.
One of these impacts; as odd as it may sound, is that coming up with a larger downpayment doesn't necessarily mean you will be able to secure a mortgage with the lowest interest rate available on the market. In fact, in today's market, borrowers with a 5% downpayment are actually being favoured to borrowers with a 20% downpayment and can access mortgage products with a little lower interest rate. But it's all really a matter of optics, here is what is really going on!
High ratio mortgages (less than 20% downpayment) are required to have mortgage default insurance in place. This cost is incurred by the borrower and usually included into the cost of the mortgage. So, let's say you have a 5% downpayment, with the latest CMHC premium increase, you would be paying a 4% insurance premium. That is a significant amount of money added to the mortgage.
Conventional ratio mortgages (more than 20% downpayment) are not required to have mortgage default insurance in place, however a lot of lenders opt to insure these mortgages anyway. The cost to insure the mortgage is incurred by the lender as a cost of doing business. This is where the change has taken place, with the latest increase in premiums to insure mortgages, it has just gotten a lot more expensive for lenders to insure their mortgages against default. This is a cost that they can't pass along to consumers as a fee like what happens with high ratio mortgages (that would look really bad), so they simply increase the mortgage rate to make up the difference.
This leaves the market in a very interesting (and sometimes confusing) spot. It would seem that the less money you put down, the better rate you are able to secure. However that isn't really the case, it's just that the cost of the default insurance is being paid as a fee added to the mortgage, instead of being an additional cost to the lender that has been included in the sticker price of your mortgage.
Now, if we are being honest, rates are really good right now, we are at near all time historic Canadian lows. Comparatively, any rate today is a good rate! If you want to discuss your options, look at all the numbers, and figure out the best mortgage product for you, please don't hesitate to contact me anytime!


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This article was posted by CrystalWind.ca.
Age of Galactic Humanhood
5 Manik, 10 Tzotz, 13 Caban
Dratzo! Those who know the history of this old republic rejoice that this new version is so securely involved in NESARA. Back in the era following the American Civil War, Congress had passed a Washington, D.C. reformation act. This legislation became the cover for the minions' final deception: USA, Inc. This corporate lie was permitted to rule America and encourage a form of dishonesty that made a firm mockery of this nation's bold origins. This vile deceit led to an upsurge in stealing, and in heinous organizations like the Federal Reserve and the IRS. It led, too, to a position in the dark's hierarchy never conceived of when America was first born. This nation became the forerunner of an evil that was only multiplied as the 20th century advanced from the end of the Second World War to the advent of the 21st Century. The start of this century again demonstrated the boldness of this illegal governance with the shock of 9/11 and the sudden rise in wars that quickly followed. The USA had become the henchman for a clique of aristocrats that were fully intent on ruling and decimating this globe. It is only a bold gathering of the Light that has diligently worked to stop them!
This magnificent assemblage at last brought back a degree of sanity. It allowed as well for a special coalition of military and civilians to resurrect NESARA and bring down the huge monster that USA, Inc had become. It is this growth of a broad-based international partnership that gave the American group the means to swiftly move forward with their strategies to replace this vile regime. This process had originally come from the way NESARA was first passed into law in the early 2000s. This operation had been somewhat waylaid by the endless Middle Eastern wars that sprang up between 2003 and 2011. In the mid-2010s, this operation was revived, leading to the project to firmly install NESARA governance. The rise of this new institution is to be part of a worldwide movement to establish new financial and governmental institutions that encourage global prosperity and end governmental corruption. This process is now systematically coming online and letting the world's population breathe easier. There are several additional benefits as well.
This growing reality is truly about peace, freedom and prosperity. No longer will America have to worry about the evils of the income tax. Americans are also to be rewarded through a jubilee that is to permit all to know that a number of fraudulent loans for housing, cars and the like are to be forgiven. America is thus to be free from debt and all that it brings. It is to be an era in which Americans can begin to be proud again of their government, and to know the incredible things this shift in the world is to bring. All the foreign bases are to be closed as America is finally able to enjoy a peace that its ancestors long enjoyed. It is to be a time when a search for excellence in all things is to return. The rights given by the Constitution are to be fully restored and many people are to be freed from prisons for crimes no longer to be endured. This is to be a happy time for America. The long "little wars" are to end. It is to be a period in which the government again responds to the people and all works well again. It is to be a time of freedom and prosperity!
Not only is a great era of peace, freedom and prosperity on the horizon, but it is to be, moreover, a point at which disclosure can happen. We have worked long through our liaisons to create an atmosphere conducive to numerous official announcements, which can introduce us to you. Since the end of World War II, a conspiracy by the dark minions has existed to deny that we exist. This nonsense was prevalent in the media and movies of the era. We were portrayed as dark, with an agenda for invasion and world domination. This is far from the truth. As part of our heavenly mission, we have undertaken the initiative to aid the Light in your world. Our galactic initiatives derive from the special mission given us more than two decades ago by Heaven's decrees. Each of you is to be returned to full consciousness. This leads us to yet another disclosure that was long denied by your governments: Agartha! Our arrival is not only to ready you for your destiny, but also to introduce you to your cousins, the Agarthans. You are beginning to grab hold of a most marvelous future!
Namaste! We are your Ascended Masters! We come in joy, knowing that new governance is destined to be the law of the land. This carrying out of NESARA is just the beginning of a number of changes that are to alter how America is now seen in the world. At the time of American Independence, we Masters supported and helped this young nation be born. America was meant to be a working prototype for what this globe strongly requires. It was to be a nation whose actions ran counter to those of Europe. This belief was sadly short-circuited by the unfortunate policies of the American regimes that followed the end of America's most tragic Civil War. The dark lords of money and position took over America's noble purpose and derailed it. Now, thanks to your shining visions and grace-filled focus, this great nation is to be reborn. Glory be to all concerned!
The events that are to follow are to show the magnificent power of your collective energies and the miracles that are being accomplished by Heaven. From our gracious hearts, we thank the marvelous works achieved by you and by Heaven. This time is to be known by the great things that you are to do collectively. We are also grateful for Heaven's decree that permitted our space and spiritual families to help. When all is done, you are each to achieve your deepest dreams, and this realm is to finally let go of the dark shackles that have for too long been the regret of any day. This new age of freedom and prosperity is, in part, your wondrous work. We fully commend all of you for your constant work and never-ending hope. Be gracious and, with good will, lend your aid to Gaia and her diverse Eco systems. Hosanna! Hosanna! Hosanna!
All of these glories are to be yours. Do not lose hope. See what is unfolding as a great gift bestowed by Heaven. Thousands of years ago, a great Light was reflected around this world. Since then, it has reverberated repeatedly. It is now able to materialize and - voilà - this new age of wonders is born. You have the gracious opportunity to know it again. This is also a time when We Masters are to explain your true history. Take this in and comprehend its magnificence. Long-hidden inventions and knowledge are to appear. You are to end the long years of frustrations about your Life, your Loves and your Reality. Let this new exchange of energies become one with you and then simply rejoice. This odd, dark realm is ending. Heaven and a vast throng of Angels and guardians are transforming it. Be One in Love!
Today, we continued our weekly reports! Around us are great deeds of Light that are transforming this dark realm into one of Light. These times are thus the old glorious prophecies being born to ready you for the Age of your Galactic Humanhood! Know, dear Ones, that the countless supply and never-ending prosperity of Heaven are indeed yours! So Be It! Selamat Gajun! Selamat Ja! (Sirian for Be One! and Be in Joy!)
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This earring features a vintage reproduction stamped metal starfish in antique silver plating accented with a crystal. The earring hangs about 2 inches from a European wire.
If you do not see a color in the selection menu you would like, please ask because any color can be made by request!
If you select assorted colors we will pick the colors for you.


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This week we have witnessed our fair share of ups and downs for the community. The house has passed the historic Murphy amendment giving the green light towards repealing Don't Ask Don't Tell. Not all are happy about this compromise, and the truth of the matter is openly LGB servicemembers can still be kicked out. This policy is only one violation in a world where being queer can mean imprisonment, torture, and the death penalty. Case in point was a Malawi couple who had been imprisoned, but has since been pardoned. On a less important but interesting note, scientists have proven that gaydar does exist. Other interesting thought provoking points brought up are the fact that sex is part of sexuality and the question of whether a celibate person can be straight. This week props go to atheists who worship the boot to shun an anti-gay preacher. Leaving the best for last, what I find most amazing is the thought process behind Christian Newswire which claims that Ellen's lesbianism has ruined American Idol.
Sunday, May 30, 2010
3 comments:
- Diane J Standiford said...
hahahahahaha, I thought Ellen ruined Cover Girl Make-Up, Anerican Express, wonder why she keeps getting asked to promote these items? Hmmm
I KNEW I had gaydar! Woot! - June 1, 2010 at 12:38 AM
- libhom said...
Atheists sure do know how to use ridicule to combat religious extremists.
- June 1, 2010 at 7:11 PM
- TRiG said...
Thanks for the link to the Boots story. It's rather wonderful.
TRiG. - June 4, 2010 at 2:52 PM
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If you are looking at your small garden space and are confused as to where to start, here are some great design tips to help you create a special space just for you.
Anyone who has a small garden realizes their small garden space can be both a blessing and a curse. Cursed because you just will not have all the room to plant every garden bloom and blossom you have ever admired. Blessed because, from a design perspective, a small space is easier to design, maintain and even harvest!
Focus Your Attention
When your space is small, don't feel that you have to shove a plant into every last square inch of ground. Focus your attention in the space on a focal point, and create a design that simply points the way. Fill the empty space with hardscaping. Now you have a space to impress, with less work, money and time, but much more wow!
Don't Ignore Space
We often tend to ignore certain spaces in a garden, and when you have a small yard to begin with, thats a waste. Utilize forgotten areas such as a side yard to create green space. Keep it simple so it doesn't get overgrown. Pick 3-5 plants that will grow well in the space, then repeat them.
Use Ornaments to Add Oomph.
When our garden design must be limited due to space, one of the tricks of the trade is to use garden ornaments to add a little pizzazz and keep a simple space from looking boring. It also serves to slow the eye down so that it doesn't take in the small garden too quickly. Try placing them at natural stopping points in the flow of the garden.
Go Crazy.
If you are a plant lover like me, restraint probably isn't your strong suit. So pack it in! Create a lush oasis by planting closer than you normally would, especially in borders. Add containers to up the effect. Remember, if you plant closely like this, you need to compensate with extra water and fertilizer throughout the season.
Go Up!
Vertical gardens are trendy, and right on point for a small garden design. If you need more gardening space, or you just want to try something a little more unique and interesting, consider a DIY vertical garden. There is nothing new about the idea of going up in garden design… hanging planters, trees and arbors and porticos are all examples of taking things skyward. So the next time you're trying to figure out how to find enough space to grow those herbs, or what you can do to liven up a ho-hum garden space, go vertical!
Lastly, remember when your space is small, to make it an extension of your indoor living space. Use hardscaping to create entertaining areas, and open those doors wide and let the spaces work together. Use furnishings outdoors, plant grass for "carpet," add planter "accents" and remember to just enjoy the space you have to it's fullest, no matter what its size!


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'Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and the Lady Anne' (1896) Yale University Art Gallery |
Every February I travel to Boston. I visit with family, enjoy the history, attend Boskone, and make my annual pilgrimage to visit the Boston Public Library to see the Abbey murals, "The Quest for the Holy Grail".
International artist, portraitist, costume and set designer, painter, muralist and illustrator. One of the first modern artists to rise out of the Golden Age of Illustration at the cusp of the twentieth century, Edwin Austin Abbey (1852-1911)
Born and trained in Philadelphia, Abbey was heavily influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite's of the 1850's and first found work as an illustrator for publications like Harper's Weekly. In 1878 he moved to England to pursue his work as a painter further developing his style looking at British contemporaries like J.W. Waterhouse and L.A. Tadema. Fascinated by the pageantry and drama of the stories of Shakespeare Abbey's compositions earned him commissions designing sets, costumes and props for the theater. Arguably his greatest master piece is the 15 panel series "Quest for the Holy Grail" for the Boston Public Library that he spent more than a decade painting and completed in 1898. That same year he become a member of the Royal Academy. In 1902 he was commissioned to paint the coronation of King Edward II, and lived out the remainder of his career doing murals for a variety of public buildings and painting Shakespearean subjects.
'King Lear: Cordelia's Farewell' (1898) Metropolitan Museum of Art |
'The Play Scene in Hamlet' (1897) Yale University Art Gallery |
Abbey has always been one of my favorite painters ever since a child and seeing his King Lear in the American Wing at the Met, and his newly renovated Quest of the Holy Grail murals are worth the trip to Boston alone. Every time I visit with these paintings I'm reminded of why Abbey has been such an influence on my work with their epic, sweeping tableaus of costume fantasy decades before Panavision and a century before The Lord of the Rings films. For those of you already familiar with this grandfather of illustration, I urge you to refresh your experience with his work, and for those of you that have not seen his paintings, get to Boston.
'Quest for the Holy Grail' (1898) Boston Public Library |
Thank You,


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We need to keep politics out of elections: That sums up recent comments made by Edmonton City Councillor Michael Oshry. The west Edmonton councillor has waded into the 32-candidate by-election race in southeast Edmonton's Ward 12, questioning the decision of some MLAs to endorse candidates in the municipal contest.
Mr. Oshry's comments have sparked a resurgence of the popular and misinformed myth that "there is no partisan politics in municipal elections."
It is natural for politically engaged people to be involved in elections for different levels of government. In fact, the most successful campaigns I have been involved in at a municipal level have attracted organizers and volunteers from a variety of partisan loyalties. It is also not uncommon for municipal politicians to have party connections or the support of politicians from other levels of government. Despite this, no one is proposing to bring political parties back to city council, as existed in Edmonton until the late 1980s.
Like all municipal elections in Edmonton, a number of candidates running in the Ward 12 by-election have party affiliations or are being supported by individuals involved in party politics at the provincial and federal levels.
- Nav Kaur has been endorsed by New Democratic Party MLAs Rod Loyola and Shannon Phillips and recent federal Liberal candidate Beatrice Ghettuba.
- Arundeep Sandhu was vice-president of organization for the Progressive Conservative Party until late 2015 and posted on his Twitter feed that he has the support of Sherwood Park Conservative MP Garnett Genuis.
- Danisha Bhaloo has been endorsed by former PC MLAs Stephen Mandel and Heather Klimchuk and her campaign manager, Catherine Keill, is a former PC candidate and current Vice President of Communications for the PC Party.
- Yash Pal Sharma has been endorsed by former PC MLA Peter Sandhu.
- Balraj Manhas ran for a PC Party nomination in 2015.
- Moe Banga was a candidate for a federal Conservative nomination in 2014.
- Don Koziak ran as a Wildrose Party candidate in 2012 and 2015.
- Laura Thibert was briefly nominated as a Wildrose Party candidate before the 2015 election.
- Mike Butler has run for the NDP and Liberals in numerous provincial and federal elections.
If partisan affiliations in provincial and federal elections or endorsements from provincial or federal politicians precluded citizens from running for political office, then a number of current city councillors, including Mr. Oshry, would be ineligible to serve.
- Mr. Oshry was endorsed by St. Albert PC MLA Stephen Khan during the 2013 municipal election.
- Councillor Tony Caterina ran as a PC candidate in the 2015 election and ran as an Alberta Alliance candidate in the 2004 provincial election.
- Councillor Bev Esslinger was a PC candidate in 2012 election.
- Councillor Ed Gibbons was a Liberal MLA from 1997 to 2001. In 2015, he donated $375.00 to the Fort Saskatchewan-Vegreville PC Association and in 2007 and 2011 he donated $850 and $1,100 to the PC Party.
- Mayor Don Iveson donated $250 to Linda Duncan's election campaign in 2008, while he was city councillor.
- Councillor Dave Loken campaigned for NDP candidate Janis Irwin in the 2015 federal election and donated more than $2,000 to the Alberta NDP between 2011 and 2014.
- Councillor Mike Nickel is a former PC Party constituency director. In 2014, he donated $318.25 to the Leduc-Beaumont Wildrose Association and in 2005 he donated $600 to the PC Party.
- Councillor Michael Walters was an Alberta Party candidate in the 2012 election and endorsed a PC candidate in the 2015 election. He also ran for an NDP nomination in 2000.
Here is a look back at some municipal politicians from the recent past who have had partisan affiliations:
- Former mayor Stephen Mandel was a PC MLA from 2014 to 2015. He donated $3,000 to the PC Party between 2010 and 2012, while he was Mayor of Edmonton.
- Former councillor Kim Krushell was a local PC Party constituency association president before being elected as a city councillor. In 2008, she donated $425 to the PC Party. She now serves as a regional director for the PC Party.
- Former councillor Karen Leibovici was a Liberal MLA from 1993 to 2001 and a federal Liberal candidate in 2015. During her mayoral bid in 2013, she was endorsed by a handful of PC MLAs, including then-deputy premier Thomas Lukaszuk and PC MLA David Xiao.
- Former councillor Linda Sloan was a Liberal MLA from 1997 to 2001. She ran for the Liberal Party leadership in 1998.
- Former councillor Jane Batty donated $425 to the PC Party in 2010.
- Former councillor Wendy Kinsella ran as a PC candidate in the 2001 election, while she was still a sitting city councillor.
- Former councillor Brian Mason was elected as an NDP MLA in a 2000 by-election. He is now Minister of Infrastructure and Transportation.
- Perhaps the strangest example of partisan involvement in municipal politics was in 2007, when the Wildrose Party donated $250 to Kerry Diotte's city council campaign. This is the only example I have found of a political party actually donating money to a municipal election candidate.
These lists demonstrate that after more than four decades of PC governments in Alberta, support for the governing party became engrained in all levels of politics to the point where support for the PCs from municipal politicians was not seen as partisanship, just the way the business of politics was done.


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Nike lets you Tweet to Johannesburg
Largest LED screens popped up in Johannesburg (half as big as a football pitch!) displaying user contributed Facebook msgs, Mxit msgs (local South African social network), QQ msgs (Chinese social network) and Tweets in support of their favorite player(s) from the World Cup! Nike Football has definitely gone all out on this social experiment, blending the contributions of fans across the world to share their voice all the way in South Africa! The messages will appear across the LED screen which triggers an animation of the player mentioned. The user is then pinged back with a photo of their headline on the Life Center. The Life Center is 30 stories tall and 138 meters high, making it the fourth tallest in Johannesburg. Surrounded by 90m tall images of Cristiano Ronaldo and Robinho, this interactive LED screen allows sports fans around the world to write their own headlines and light up the Johannesburg skyline, even if only for a few moments. A really fun and larger than life execution to bring the world closer together… take a peek at video, pics and more on the next page!


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Enjoy the calm and soothing vibes from our beautifully-designed Aroma Diffuser. Compact and smooth, the diffuser works in four ways: as a humidifier, purifier, night light and aromatherapy device. With its ultrasonic technology, the diffuser uses electronic frequencies to create vibrations in water. These are carried to the surface to mate with the essential oils and create lovely therapeutic fragrances that fill the air. A wonderful way to purify the air and remove unwanted odours too. The diffuser comes with two mist frequency adjustments and a 7-colour LED night light. Better still, this unique diffuser also has a built-in 3D fireworks lighting effect to add a brilliant light show while you relax and rejuvenate.
Unique 3D lightening effect
4-in-1: aromatherapy, humidifier, purifier, night light
400ml capacity
7-colour LED night light
2-level light brightness
Ultrasonic smooth cool mist
Two mist adjustment modes
Three timer modes
Remote control
Whisper-quiet operation
Waterless auto off
Low energy consumption
High humidification effect
Material: ABS, PP and glass
Capacity: 400ml
Power: 9W
Voltage: AC220 – 240V/ 50-60Hz/DC 24V
Range of aroma: 20-40m2
Mist mode: Continuous mist / intermittent mist
Working time: Up to 12 hours
Timer setting: 1 / 3 / 6 hours
Night light: 7 colours
Light brightness: Bright and dim
Base colour: Light wood
Package Content
1 x DEVANTI Aroma Diffuser
1 x Measuring Cup
1 x Adaptor
1 x User Manual
1 x Remote
Delivery excludes the following postcodes:
885, 2222, 2449, 2818, 2827, 2829, 2836, 2839, 2874, 2898, 3724, 4477
4490, 4626, 4822, 4871, 4875, 6044, 6209, 6224, 6290, 6442, 6536, 6562
6707, 6713, 6725, 6728, 6743, 6751, 6753, 6754, 7255, 7256, 7258, 7260


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Why Apache OpenOffice: Free/Open-Source Software
Free/Open-Source Software (F/OSS) proponents are turning to Apache OpenOffice both as end-users and as contributors. With its flexible word processor, powerful spreadsheet, dynamic graphics, database access and more, OpenOffice is the office suite of choice of millions of users.
OpenOffice is released under the OSI approved Apache License terms, with over 750 contributors and an international community approaching 400,000 individuals.
Software for all
Apache OpenOffice is the must-have desktop application that tens of millions of people are using - an open-source tool that your family, friends, and neighbors will appreciate. With its free software license and active international community, OpenOffice is a key player in the drive to eradicate digital exclusion and preserve minority languages threatened by being on the wrong side of the digital divide. For tens of thousands of community members, this makes the OpenOffice community their volunteering opportunity of choice.
Open for development
Apache OpenOffice is a mature software product, representing over twenty years' continuous development. It is available across multiple operating systems. Understanding and contributing to the core development requires serious commitment and software engineering skills - not for the fainthearted. However, like all successful open-source projects, OpenOffice has an active developer community, keen to help new arrivals. Alternatively, try writing extensions, or using OpenOffice's UNO based components in other applications.
Open world
If you are using Apache OpenOffice, you will appreciate the work that has gone into providing this software for you to use for free. Help us to ensure future users can continue to use it for free. The OpenOffice community invites contributors: Whatever you do best, do it for OpenOffice. As well as developers, the Community welcomes translators, artists, technical authors, testers, people offering user support, sales and marketing people, lobbyists, donors, … the list is long. The Community operates internationally in all time zones, linked by the internet. Talk to us today.