text:
The Day of the Lord Will Come
3 This is now the second letter that I am writing to you, beloved. In both of them gI am stirring up your sincere mind by way of reminder, 2 hthat you should remember the predictions of ithe holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior through your apostles, 3 knowing this first of all, that scoffers will come jin the last days with scoffing, kfollowing their own sinful desires. 4 lThey will say, "Where is the promise of mhis coming? For ever since the fathers fell asleep, all things are continuing as they were from the beginning of creation." 5 For they deliberately overlook this fact, that the heavens existed long ago, and the earth nwas formed out of water and through water oby the word of God, 6 and that by means of these the world that then existed pwas deluged with water and qperished. 7 But by the same word rthe heavens and earth that now exist are stored up for fire, being kept until the day of judgment and sdestruction of the ungodly.
8 But do not overlook this one fact, beloved, that with the Lord one day is as a thousand years, and ta thousand years as one day. 9 uThe Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise vas some count slowness, but wis patient toward you,1 xnot wishing that any should perish, but ythat all should reach repentance. 10 But zthe day of the Lord will come like a thief, and then athe heavens will pass away with a roar, and bthe heavenly bodies2 will be burned up and dissolved, and the earth and the works that are done on it will be exposed.3
11 Since all these things are thus to be dissolved, cwhat sort of people ought you to be in lives of holiness and godliness, 12 dwaiting for and hastening the coming of the day of God, because of which the heavens will be set on fire and dissolved, and ethe heavenly bodies will melt as they burn! 13 But according to his promise we are waiting for fnew heavens and a new earth gin which righteousness dwells.
Final Words
14 hTherefore, beloved, since you are waiting for these, be diligent to be found by him iwithout spot or jblemish, and kat peace. 15 And count lthe patience of our Lord as salvation, just as mour beloved brother Paul also wrote to you naccording to the wisdom given him, 16 as he does in all his letters when he speaks in them of these matters. oThere are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, pas they do the other Scriptures. 17 You therefore, beloved, qknowing this beforehand, rtake care that you are not carried away with the error of lawless people and lose your own stability. 18 But sgrow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. tTo him be the glory both now and to the day of ueternity. Amen.
1 John
The Word of Life
1 aThat which was bfrom the beginning, cwhich we have heard, dwhich we have seen with our eyes, ewhich we looked upon and fhave touched with our hands, concerning the word of life— 2 gthe life hwas made manifest, and we have seen it, and itestify to it and proclaim to you the eternal life, awhich was with the Father and hwas made manifest to us— 3 cthat which we have seen and heard we proclaim also to you, so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed jour fellowship is with the Father and with his Son Jesus Christ. 4 And we are writing these things so kthat our1 joy may be complete.
Walking in the Light
5 lThis is the message we have heard from him and proclaim to you, that mGod is light, and in him is no darkness at all. 6 nIf we say we have fellowship with him while we walk in darkness, we lie and odo not practice the truth. 7 But pif we walk in the light, qas he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and rthe blood of Jesus his Son cleanses us from all sin. 8 sIf we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and tthe truth is not in us. 9 uIf we confess our sins, he is vfaithful and just to forgive us our sins and rto cleanse us from all unrighteousness. 10 If we say we have not sinned, wwe make him a liar, and xhis word is not in us.
Christ Our Advocate
2 My little children, I am writing these things to you so that you may not sin. But if anyone does sin, ywe have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous. 2 zHe is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only but aalso for the sins of the whole world. 3 And by this we know that we have come to know him, if we bkeep his commandments. 4 Whoever says "I know him" but does not keep his commandments cis a liar, and cthe truth is not in him, 5 but whoever dkeeps his word, in him truly ethe love of God is perfected. fBy this we may know that we are in him: 6 whoever says he gabides in him hought to walk in the same way in which he walked.
The New Commandment
7 Beloved, I am writing you ino new commandment, but jan old commandment kthat you had from the beginning. The old commandment is the word that you have heard. 8 At the same time, it is la new commandment that I am writing to you, which is true in him and in you, because1 mthe darkness is passing away and nthe true light is already shining. 9 Whoever says he is in the light and ohates his brother is still in darkness. 10 Whoever loves his brother abides in the light, and in him2 there is no pcause for stumbling. 11 But whoever hates his brother is in the darkness and qwalks in the darkness, and does not know where he is going, because the darkness has blinded his eyes.
12 I am writing to you, little children,
because ryour sins are forgiven for his name's sake.
13 I am writing to you, fathers,
because you know shim who is from the beginning.
I am writing to you, young men,
because tyou have overcome the evil one.
I write to you, children,
because uyou know the Father.
14 I write to you, fathers,
because you know shim who is from the beginning.
I write to you, young men,
because tyou are strong,
and the word of God abides in you,
and you have overcome the evil one.
Do Not Love the World
15 vDo not love the world or the things in the world. wIf anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him. 16 For all that is in the world—xthe desires of the flesh and ythe desires of the eyes and pride of life3—is not from the Father but is from the world. 17 And zthe world is passing away along with its desires, but whoever does the will of God abides forever.
Warning Concerning Antichrists
18 Children, ait is the last hour, and as you have heard that bantichrist is coming, so now cmany antichrists have come. dTherefore we know that it is the last hour. 19 eThey went out from us, but they were not of us; for fif they had been of us, they would have continued with us. But they went out, gthat it might become plain that they all are not of us. 20 But you have been hanointed by ithe Holy One, and jyou all have knowledge.4 21 I write to you, not because you do not know the truth, but because you know it, and because no lie is of the truth. 22 Who is the liar but khe who denies that Jesus is the Christ? This is bthe antichrist, he who denies the Father and the Son. 23 lNo one who denies the Son has the Father. Whoever confesses the Son has the Father also. 24 Let mwhat you heard from the beginning abide in you. If what you heard from the beginning abides in you, then nyou too will abide in the Son and in the Father. 25 And this is the promise that he made to us5—oeternal life.
26 I write these things to you about pthose who are trying to deceive you. 27 But qthe anointing that you received from him abides in you, and ryou have no need that anyone should teach you. But as his anointing teaches you about everything, and sis true, and is no lie—just as it has taught you, abide in him.
Children of God
28 And now, little children, abide in him, so that twhen he appears uwe may have confidence and not shrink from him in shame at his vcoming. 29 If you know that whe is righteous, you may be sure that xeveryone who practices righteousness has been born of him.
3 See ywhat kind of love the Father has given to us, that we should be called zchildren of God; and so we are. The reason why athe world does not know us is that bit did not know him. 2 Beloved, we are zGod's children cnow, and what we will be dhas not yet appeared; but we know that ewhen he appears1 fwe shall be like him, because gwe shall see him as he is. 3 And everyone who hthus hopes in him ipurifies himself as he is pure.
4 Everyone who makes a practice of sinning also practices lawlessness; jsin is lawlessness. 5 You know that khe appeared in order to ltake away sins, and min him there is no sin. 6 No one who abides in him keeps on sinning; nno one who keeps on sinning has either seen him or known him. 7 Little children, olet no one deceive you. pWhoever practices righteousness is righteous, as he is righteous. 8 qWhoever makes a practice of sinning is of the devil, for the devil has been sinning from the beginning. The reason the Son of God appeared was rto destroy the works of the devil. 9 sNo one born of God makes a practice of sinning, for God's2 seed abides in him; and he cannot keep on sinning, because he has been born of God. 10 By this it is evident who are the children of God, and who are the children of the devil: whoever does not practice righteousness is not of God, tnor is the one who udoes not love his brother.
Love One Another
11 For vthis is the message that you have heard from the beginning, wthat we should love one another. 12 We should not be like xCain, who was of the evil one and murdered his brother. And why did he murder him? yBecause his own deeds were evil and his brother's righteous. 13 Do not be surprised, brothers,3 zthat the world hates you. 14 We know that awe have passed out of death into life, because we love the brothers. Whoever does not love abides in death. 15 bEveryone who hates his brother is a murderer, and you know that cno murderer has eternal life abiding in him.
16 By this we know love, that dhe laid down his life for us, and ewe ought to lay down our lives for the brothers. 17 But fif anyone has the world's goods and sees his brother in need, yet gcloses his heart against him, hhow does God's love abide in him? 18 Little children, let us not ilove in word or talk but in deed and jin truth.
19 By this we shall know that we are of the truth and reassure our heart before him; 20 for whenever our heart condemns us, God is greater than our heart, and he knows everything. 21 Beloved, kif our heart does not condemn us, lwe have confidence before God; 22 and mwhatever we ask we receive from him, because we keep his commandments and ndo what pleases him. 23 And this is his commandment, othat we believe in the name of his Son Jesus Christ and plove one another, qjust as he has commanded us. 24 rWhoever keeps his commandments abides in God,4 and God5 in him. And sby this we know that he abides in us, by the Spirit whom he has given us.
Test the Spirits
4 Beloved, tdo not believe every spirit, but utest the spirits to see whether they are from God, for vmany wfalse prophets xhave gone out into the world. 2 By this you know the Spirit of God: yevery spirit that confesses that zJesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, 3 and every spirit athat does not confess Jesus is not from God. This is the spirit of the antichrist, which you heard was coming and bnow is in the world already. 4 Little children, you are from God and have overcome them, for che who is in you is greater than dhe who is in the world. 5 eThey are from the world; therefore they speak from the world, and fthe world listens to them. 6 We are from God. gWhoever knows God listens to us; whoever is not from God does not listen to us. By this we know hthe Spirit of truth and ithe spirit of error.
God Is Love
7 Beloved, jlet us love one another, for love is from God, and kwhoever loves has been born of God and knows God. 8 lAnyone who does not love does not know God, because mGod is love. 9 In this the love of God was made manifest among us, that nGod sent his only Son into the world, so that we might live through him. 10 In this is love, onot that we have loved God nbut that he loved us and sent his Son to be pthe propitiation for our sins. 11 Beloved, if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another. 12 qNo one has ever seen God; if we love one another, God abides in us and rhis love is perfected in us.
13 sBy this we know that we abide in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit. 14 And twe have seen and testify that uthe Father has sent his Son to be the Savior of vthe world. 15 wWhoever confesses that Jesus is the Son of God, God abides in him, and he in God. 16 So xwe have come to know and to believe the love that God has for us. yGod is love, and zwhoever abides in love abides in God, and God abides in him. 17 By this ais love perfected with us, so that bwe may have confidence for the day of judgment, because cas he is so also are we in this world. 18 There is no fear in love, but dperfect love casts out fear. For fear has to do with punishment, and whoever fears has not abeen perfected in love. 19 eWe love because he first loved us. 20 fIf anyone says, "I love God," and ghates his brother, he is a liar; for he who does not love his brother whom he has seen cannot1 love God hwhom he has not seen. 21 And ithis commandment we have from him: jwhoever loves God must also love his brother.


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The deepest dive recorded by the free-diving Bajau Laut people of Southeast Asia was to an impressive 79 metres (259 feet), and the longest time spent underwater by them was just over three minutes.
Although the Bajau do not dive to these depths or for this length of time during their day-to-day fishing, they spend up to 60 percent of their working life underwater.
Research published in the journal Cell in April shows that they have some physical and genetic adaptations to help them make these amazing dives.
It seems that, although we tend to see ourselves as at the pinnacle of the natural world, evolution still has a grip on some groups of people. It is changing them to better suit their environment and their unusual lifestyle.
The Bajau Laut have traditionally lived a nomadic life on houseboats, exploiting the rich resources of the coral reefs and mangrove forests of the region.
During the 20th century, some populations of Bajau settled on the shore but continued living a subsistence lifestyle (working just to survive) based on their traditional methods of fishing.
Since the only diving equipment available is a pair of wooden goggles and some hand weights, their success depends on their ability to dive deep and hold their breath for a long time.
An international team of researchers studied the Bajau and found they had significantly larger spleens than the people of a neighbouring village who primarily farm rather than fish for their food.
This was true even for members of the Bajau community that don't dive, suggesting that it is an inherited trait rather than a change in individuals caused by a lifetime of diving.
The size of the spleen is important because it is a reservoir in which red blood cells are stored. During a dive, the spleen contracts and pushes these extra red cells into the circulating blood, increasing its capacity to carry oxygen. This response has also been found in diving mammals such as seals.
DNA analysis revealed another change that turned out to be one of the most frequent gene variations in the Bajau population. This was in a gene that helps to control levels of a hormone called T4, which is produced by the thyroid gland.
This hormone causes increases in metabolic rate (the amount of energy the body can use in a given time period), which can help to combat low oxygen levels, but is also associated with larger spleen size in mice.
Other genes that varied among the Bajau more than would be expected in the general population were associated with the way the body responds to diving.
One such gene caused blood to be squeezed out of the limbs and non-essential areas of the body so that the brain, heart and lungs could continue to receive oxygen.
Another prevented high levels of carbon dioxide from building up in the blood.This all suggests that natural selection has helped to shape the Bajau so that they can dive deeper and longer.
Other examples
This is not the first time that examples of continuing human evolution among specific groups of people have been discovered.
For example, most ethnic Tibetans have a mutation not typically found in ethnic Chinese people that produces more red blood cells to compensate for the reduced oxygen levels in the air at high altitudes.
Other studies have shown that groups of Inuit in Greenland have adapted to the large amounts of fat they eat in a way that means they can cope with this diet without an increased risk of heart disease.
The authors of the Bajau study suggest that understanding their adaptations may help research on treating hypoxia, which is when body tissue doesn't receive enough oxygen because of disease or injury.
It would also be interesting to know whether the Bajau have other changes in their genes similar to those in most Tibetans. Both groups may have evolved the changes because hypoxia was common enough from living at higher altitudes or breath-holding under water that having the mutated genes gave them a significant advantage.
We know that mutations affecting specific bodily functions can sometimes arise separately in unrelated people or groups.
But it's also possible that, in this case, two communities who are very far apart could have different mutations with similar effects on their ability to cope with low oxygen levels.
Perhaps that comparison will be the next step of this very interesting investigation.
A version of this article was first published in April 2018.
Jan Hoole, Lecturer in Biology, Keele University.
This article was originally published by The Conversation. Read the original article.

subset: commoncrawl


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Teaching after the Manner of the Spirit
While we are all teachers, we must fully realize that it is the Holy Ghost who is the real teacher and witness of all truth.
Many years ago I was with my companion at the missionary training center when I heard the voice of a child say, "Grandma, are those real missionaries?" I turned to see a young girl holding her grandmother's hand and pointing at me and my companion. I smiled, extended my hand, looked her square in the eye, and said, "Hello, I am Elder Richardson, and we are real missionaries." Her face beamed as she looked at me, thrilled that she was in the company of genuine missionaries.
I walked away from that experience with renewed dedication. I wanted to be the type of missionary that the Savior, my family, and this young girl expected me to be. For the next two years, I worked hard to look like, think like, act like, and especially to teach like a real missionary.
Upon my return home, it became increasingly apparent that even though I had left my mission, my mission didn't leave me. In fact, even after all these years, I still feel that my mission was the best two years for my life. One unexpected carryover from my mission was that young girl's voice. Only now I was hearing in my mind, "Grandma, is that a real priesthood holder?" "Grandma, is that a real husband or a real father?" or "Grandma, is that a real member of the Church?"
I have learned that a key to becoming real in every aspect of our lives is our ability to teach in a way that does not restrict learning. You see, a real life requires real learning, which depends on real teaching. "The responsibility to teach [effectively] is not limited to those who have formal callings as teachers."1 In fact, every family member, Church leader, and Church member (including the youth and children) has a responsibility to teach.
While we are all teachers, we must fully realize that it is the Holy Ghost who is the real teacher and witness of all truth. Those who do not fully understand this either try to take over for the Holy Ghost and do everything themselves, politely invite the Spirit to be with them but only in a supporting role, or believe they are turning all their teaching over to the Spirit when, in truth, they are actually just "winging it." All parents, leaders, and teachers have the responsibility to teach "by the Spirit."2 They should not teach "in front of the Spirit" or "behind the Spirit" but "by the Spirit" so the Spirit can teach the truth unrestrained.
Moroni helps us understand how we can teach by the Spirit without replacing, diluting, or dismissing the Holy Ghost as the real teacher. Moroni said the Saints conducted their experiences "after the manner of the workings of the Spirit."3 This requires more than just having the Spirit with us. To conduct ourselves "after the manner" of the Holy Ghost means that we may need to change our way of teaching to emulate the way the Holy Ghost teaches. As we align our manner with the Holy Ghost's manner, then the Holy Ghost can teach and testify without restraint. This important alignment may be illustrated by the following example.
Many years ago my children and I hiked to the top of South Sister, a 10,358-foot (3,157 m) mountain in Oregon. After several hours we encountered a long 45-degree slope of tiny volcanic pebbles. With the summit in sight, we pressed on only to find that with every step, our feet would sink in the pebbles, causing us to slide backward several inches. My 12-year-old son forged ahead as I stayed with my 8-year-old daughter. Fatigue and discouragement soon set in, and she was heartbroken, thinking that she might not join her brother at the top. My first impulse was to carry her. My spirit was willing, but sadly my flesh was weak. We sat down on the rocks, assessed our situation, and devised a new plan. I told her to put her hands in my back pants pockets, hold on tight, and—most important—as soon as I lifted my foot to take a step, she should quickly put her foot in its place. She mirrored my every move and relied on the lift that came from hanging on to my pockets. After what seemed like an eternity, we made it to the top of the mountain. Her expression of triumph and satisfaction was priceless. And yes, she and her brother were, in my estimation, real hikers.
My daughter's success was a result of her diligent effort and how well she hiked after the manner that I hiked. As she synchronized her movement with mine, we achieved a rhythm together, allowing me to utilize my full energy. Such is the case when we teach "after the manner of the workings of the Spirit." As we align the manner of our teaching to match that of the Holy Ghost, the Spirit strengthens us and, at the same time, is not constrained. With this in mind, please consider two fundamental "workings of the Spirit" worthy of our emulation.
First, the Holy Ghost teaches individuals in a very personal way. This makes it possible for us to intimately know truth for ourselves. Because of our different needs, circumstances, and progression, the Holy Ghost teaches what we must know and do so we may become what we must be. Please note that while the Holy Ghost teaches "the truth of all things,"4 He does not teach all truth all at once. The Spirit teaches truth "line upon line, precept upon precept, here a little and there a little."5
Those who teach after the manner of the Spirit understand they teach people, not lessons. As such, they overcome the urge to cover everything in a manual or teach all they have learned on the subject and focus instead on those things that their family or class members need to know and do. Parents, leaders, and teachers who mirror how the Spirit teaches learn quickly that real teaching involves much more than just talking and telling. As a result, they intentionally pause to listen, carefully observe, and then discern what to do next.6 When they do this, the Holy Ghost is in a position to teach both learners and teachers what they should do and say.7
Second, the Holy Ghost teaches by inviting, prompting, encouraging, and inspiring us to act. Christ assured us that we come to the truth when we live doctrine and act accordingly.8 The Spirit leads, guides, and shows us what to do.9 He will not, however, do for us what only we can do for ourselves. You see, the Holy Ghost cannot learn for us, feel for us, or act for us because this would be contrary to the doctrine of agency. He can facilitate opportunities and invite us to learn, feel, and act.
Those who teach after this manner of the Spirit help others by inviting, encouraging, and providing them opportunities to use their agency. Parents, leaders, and teachers realize they cannot feel for, learn for, or even repent for their family, congregation, or class members. Rather than asking, "What can I do for my children, class members, or others?" they ask, "How do I invite and help those around me to learn for themselves?" Parents who mirror the workings of the Holy Ghost create homes where families learn to value rather than just learn about values. In like manner, rather than just talking about doctrines, teachers help learners understand and live gospel doctrines. The Holy Ghost is unrestrained as individuals exercise their agency appropriately.
With the current conditions of the world, we desperately need real learning and teaching in our homes, meetings, and gospel classes. I know that your quest to improve may seem overwhelming at times. Please do not become discouraged with your progress. I think back on my experience hiking with my children. We agreed that every time we stopped to catch our breath, rather than focusing exclusively on how much farther we needed to go, we would immediately turn around and look down the mountain. We would take in the scenery and say to each other, "Look how far we've come." Then we would take a deep breath, quickly turn, face uphill, and start climbing again one step at a time. Brothers and sisters, you can parent, lead, and teach after the manner of the workings of the Spirit. I know you can do this. I testify you can do this, and lives will change.
My life has been blessed by real teachers, who have taught with the Spirit and especially by the Spirit. I invite you to align the manner of your teaching after the manner of the Holy Ghost in all you do. I testify that Jesus Christ is our Savior and that His gospel is restored. Because of this we must be real parents, real leaders, real teachers, and real learners. I testify God will help you in your efforts, in the sacred name of our Savior, Jesus Christ, amen.


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I (and Global Spin) have changed a bit over the last few months. Nothing you'd notice much, but I've set aside a few projects and picked up a few others. Specifically, I'm starting the long road toward becoming a licensed scientician.
Long story short: Global Spin is shifting towards science blogging. For the remainder of 2011 I'm going to post something sciencey once a week, probably on Tuesdays.
Older posts will still all be here; in fact, I've fixed the archives list in the sidebar so it shows posts going back to 2003. However, the focus going forward will be on science, culture, space, and technology. Those four categories catch most of what I've posted in the last two years anyway, so it won't be a big shock.
I've also streamlined the site a bit. It's not a community place anymore; social-media sites are much better at that now. It's not even a place to store my personal commentary on the rest of the web; Tumblr and Twitter and Reader (oh my!) fit that need nicely.
One thing I'm going to try (and maybe go back on): I've turned off comments on these posts. Again, most of the commentary seems to happen elsewhere, so having those empty boxes at the bottom of each post seems a bit archaic. If you disagree, contact me and I'll reconsider.
The motto hasn't changed, though: We still protect our freaks.
To Science!


text: If you have ever knocked over a frame propped against the hive, you know why you need this. The frame perch fits snugly over the edge of the hive body to conveniently and securely hold your frames during a routine inspection. It holds three frames, giving you plenty of room in the hive to manipulate frames. Not only will you love it, but your bees will love it too! Stainless steel construction.


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The hunt for life on Mars took a new turn today (Nov. 2), with the news that NASA's Mars rover Curiosity detected no methane in its first few sniffs of Red Planet air.
The search for Red Planet life has long been intertwined with the search for methane, which is why so many scientists and laypeople alike were probably disappointed by the initial atmospheric readings from Curiosity's Sample Analysis at Mars instrument, or SAM.
"Everybody is excited about the possibility about methane from Mars, because life as we know it produces methane," SAM co-investigator Sushil Atreya, of the University of Michigan, told reporters today.
A possible biosignature
At least 90 percent of the methane in Earth's atmosphere is biologically derived, Atreya said. As a result, many researchers regard Martian methane as a possible indicator of Red Planet life.
Further, scientists think the gas disappears rapidly from the Martian atmosphere, meaning any methane swirling there today was likely produced in the recent past.
"The conventional destruction mechanism of methane is photochemistry, as on Earth, and that results in a several-hundred-year lifetime of methane on Mars," Atreya said, adding that some of the gas is probably absorbed by the Red Planet surface as well.
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But detecting lots of methane on Mars would not be convincing evidence of life by any stretch. The gas can also be produced by abiotic processes, such as the degradation of interplanetary dust particles by ultraviolet light and interactions between water and rocks. Comet strikes may also deliver methane to Mars, Atreya said.
An evolving story
Other research teams using several different ground-based and space-based instruments have detected methane in Mars air. The observed concentrations have been very low, between 10 and 50 parts per billion or so.
SAM's initial readings don't necessarily invalidate these previous measurements, researchers say. But the rover's results do highlight the need to better understand the sources and sinks of Martian methane.
Toward that end, the Curiosity team plans to keep hunting for methane over the course of Curiosity's two-year mission, which aims to determine if the Red Planet could ever have supported microbial life.
"At least for now, the sinks seem to be winning over the sources," Atreya said. "But that also could change with time."
Follow SPACE.com senior writer Mike Wall on Twitter @michaeldwall or SPACE.com @Spacedotcom. We're also on Facebook and Google+.
Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: firstname.lastname@example.com.
Michael Wall is a Senior Space Writer with Space.com and joined the team in 2010. He primarily covers exoplanets, spaceflight and military space, but has been known to dabble in the space art beat. His book about the search for alien life, "Out There," was published on Nov. 13, 2018. Before becoming a science writer, Michael worked as a herpetologist and wildlife biologist. He has a Ph.D. in evolutionary biology from the University of Sydney, Australia, a bachelor's degree from the University of Arizona, and a graduate certificate in science writing from the University of California, Santa Cruz. To find out what his latest project is, you can follow Michael on Twitter.


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21 Be subject to one another out of reverence for Christ.
22 Wives, be subject to your husbands as you are to the Lord. 23For the husband is the head of the wife just as Christ is the head of the church, the body of which he is the Saviour. 24Just as the church is subject to Christ, so also wives ought to be, in everything, to their husbands.
25 Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her, 26in order to make her holy by cleansing her with the washing of water by the word, 27so as to present the church to himself in splendour, without a spot or wrinkle or anything of the kindyes, so that she may be holy and without blemish. 28In the same way, husbands should love their wives as they do their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. 29For no one ever hates his own body, but he nourishes and tenderly cares for it, just as Christ does for the church, 30because we are members of his body.* 31For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two will become one flesh. 32This is a great mystery, and I am applying it to Christ and the church. 33Each of you, however, should love his wife as himself, and a wife should respect her husband.
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New Revised Standard Version Bible: Anglicized Edition, copyright © 1989, 1995 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide. http://nrsvbibles.org
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30 June 2021


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The Workhorse Group will offer a battery-electric city delivery vehicle that's equipped with Dana Spicer's electrified integrated e-Drive axle, the vehicle modifier has announced.
The new integrated e-Drive axle, which expands on the Spicer Electrified portfolio, delivers substantial efficiency for its city delivery duty cycle while offering a significant weight savings of 388 pounds, according to the company.
"With our 20 years of electrification proficiency and multiple electrified products already in the marketplace, the integrated e-Drive axle solution leverages proven competencies that will enhance the Workhorse electric vehicle architecture to deliver maximum efficiency at a reduced system weight," said Mark Wallace, executive vice president of Dana and president of Dana Commercial Driveline Technologies.
Due to its integrated design, the e-Drive axle also offers optimized packaging, with more chassis space to position batteries inside the frame rails and accommodate features such as side steps that are common with medium- and heavy-duty vehicles.
"We look forward to enhancing our EV offerings with Dana's leadership position in drivetrain and propulsion technologies," said Steve Burns, CEO of Workhorse. "This alliance uniquely positions us to jointly develop sustainable solutions that will encourage city delivery fleets to go electric and feel confident in the vehicle's performance and cost of ownership."
Workhorse, which is based in Loveland, Ohio, has been developing sustainable electric vehicle solutions since 2007 and has nearly 3 million miles on Workhorse EVs in live, real-world, last-mile delivery routes with major fleet customers.
Related: Workhorse Deploys Electric Van Fleet in San Francisco
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Creme brulee's signature is that crisp, caramelized crust that sits atop the delicate custard. You make it by sprinkling on a layer of sugar, then caramelizing it with the flame of a kitchen torch. If you've made creme brulee, before you may have run into a common problem with this straightforward-sounding step. Sugar that is in too thin of a layer won't caramelize into a crisp crust. Sugar that is too coarse will not caramelize easily, leaving you with uncooked sugar at the top of your brulee or with a slightly melting custard beneath a topping that needed too long under the torch.
The best sugar for topping off a creme brulee is superfine sugar. Its tiny crystals caramelize quickly and easily. You can find it at most grocery stores, but if you can't, regular sugar is your next best bet because it is also relatively fine in texture. Brown sugar is too moist and clumpy and raw sugars tend to be far too coarse. If you have a large-grained sugar that you would like to use, give it a whizz in the food processor to break down some of those crystals and make it more like regular or superfine sugar, then use it to top off your brulee.


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Proverbs 7:1-27 (NLT)
1 Follow my advice, my son; always treasure my commands.
2 Obey my commands and live! Guard my instructions as you guard your own eyes.
3 Tie them on your fingers as a reminder. Write them deep within your heart.
4 Love wisdom like a sister; make insight a beloved member of your family.
5 Let them protect you from an affair with an immoral woman, from listening to the flattery of a promiscuous woman.
6 While I was at the window of my house, looking through the curtain,
7 I saw some naive young men, and one in particular who lacked common sense.
8 He was crossing the street near the house of an immoral woman, strolling down the path by her house.
9 It was at twilight, in the evening, as deep darkness fell.
10 The woman approached him, seductively dressed and sly of heart.
11 She was the brash, rebellious type, never content to stay at home.
12 She is often in the streets and markets, soliciting at every corner.
13 She threw her arms around him and kissed him, and with a brazen look she said,
14 "I've just made my peace offerings and fulfilled my vows.
15 You're the one I was looking for! I came out to find you, and here you are!
16 My bed is spread with beautiful blankets, with colored sheets of Egyptian linen.
17 I've perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon.
18 Come, let's drink our fill of love until morning. Let's enjoy each other's caresses,
19 for my husband is not home. He's away on a long trip.
20 He has taken a wallet full of money with him and won't return until later this month."
21 So she seduced him with her pretty speech and enticed him with her flattery.
22 He followed her at once, like an ox going to the slaughter. He was like a stag caught in a trap,
23 awaiting the arrow that would pierce its heart. He was like a bird flying into a snare, little knowing it would cost him his life.
24 So listen to me, my sons, and pay attention to my words.
25 Don't let your hearts stray away toward her. Don't wander down her wayward path.
26 For she has been the ruin of many; many men have been her victims.
27 Her house is the road to the grave. Her bedroom is the den of death.


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Death of John the Baptist. (1-12) Five thousand people miraculously fed. (13-21) Jesus walks upon the sea. (22-33) Jesus healing the sick. (34-36)
Verses 1-12 The terror and reproach of conscience, which Herod, like other daring offenders, could not shake off, are proofs and warnings of a future judgment, and of future misery to them. But there may be the terror of convictions, where there is not the truth of conversion. When men pretend to favour the gospel, yet live in evil, we must not favour their self-delusion, but must deliver our consciences as John did. The world may call this rudeness and blind zeal. False professors, or timid Christians, may censure it as want of civility; but the most powerful enemies can go no further than the Lord sees good to permit. Herod feared that the putting of John to death might raise a rebellion among the people, which it did not; but he never feared it might stir up his own conscience against him, which it did. Men fear being hanged for what they do not fear being damned for. And times of carnal mirth and jollity are convenient times for carrying on bad designs against God's people. Herod would profusely reward a worthless dance, while imprisonment and death were the recompence of the man of God who sought the salvation of his soul. But there was real malice to John beneath his consent, or else Herod would have found ways to get clear of his promise. When the under shepherds are smitten, the sheep need not be scattered while they have the Great Shepherd to go to. And it is better to be drawn to Christ by want and loss, than not to come to him at all.
Verses 13-21 When Christ and his word withdraw, it is best for us to follow, seeking the means of grace for our souls before any worldly advantages. The presence of Christ and his gospel, makes a desert not only tolerable, but desirable. This little supply of bread was increased by Christ's creating power, till the whole multitude were satisfied. In seeking the welfare of men's souls, we should have compassion on their bodies likewise. Let us also remember always to crave a blessing on our meals, and learn to avoid all waste, as frugality is the proper source of liberality. See in this miracle an emblem of the Bread of life, which came down from heaven to sustain our perishing souls. The provisions of Christ's gospel appear mean and scanty to the world, yet they satisfy all that feed on him in their hearts by faith with thanksgiving.
Verses 22-33 Those are not Christ's followers who cannot enjoy being alone with God and their own hearts. It is good, upon special occasions, and when we find our hearts enlarged, to continue long in secret prayer, and in pouring out our hearts before the Lord. It is no new thing for Christ's disciples to meet with storms in the way of duty, but he thereby shows himself with the more grace to them and for them. He can take what way he pleases to save his people. But even appearances of deliverance sometimes occasion trouble and perplexity to God's people, from mistakes about Christ. Nothing ought to affright those that have Christ near them, and know he is theirs; not death itself. Peter walked upon the water, not for diversion or to boast of it, but to go to Jesus; and in that he was thus wonderfully borne up. Special supports are promised, and are to be expected, but only in spiritual pursuits; nor can we ever come to Jesus, unless we are upheld by his power. Christ bade Peter come, not only that he might walk upon the water, and so know his Lord's power, but that he might know his own weakness. And the Lord often lets his servants have their choice, to humble and prove them, and to show the greatness of his power and grace. When we look off from Christ, and look at the greatness of opposing difficulties, we shall begin to fall; but when we call to him, he will stretch out his arm, and save us. Christ is the great Saviour; those who would be saved, must come to him, and cry to him, for salvation; we are never brought to this, till we find ourselves sinking: the sense of need drives us to him. He rebuked Peter. Could we but believe more, we should suffer less. The weakness of faith, and the prevailing of our doubts, displease our Lord Jesus, for there is no good reason why Christ's disciples should be of a doubtful mind. Even in a stormy day he is to them a very present help. None but the world's Creator could multiply the loaves, none but its Governor could tread upon the waters of the sea: the disciples yield to the evidence, and confess their faith. They were suitably affected, and worshipped Christ. He that comes to God, must believe; and he that believes in God, will come, ( Hebrews 11:6 ) .
Verses 34-36 Whithersoever Christ went, he was doing good. They brought unto him all that were diseased. They came humbly beseeching him to help them. The experiences of others may direct and encourage us in seeking for Christ. As many as touched, were made perfectly whole. Those whom Christ heals, he heals perfectly. Were men more acquainted with Christ, and with the diseased state of their souls, they would flock to receive his healing influences. The healing virtue was not in the finger, but in their faith; or rather, it was in Christ, whom their faith took hold upon.


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The Sun
- How do scientists know how big the Sun is?
- What kind of star is the Sun?
- How fast does the Sun spin? Which way is N, S, E, and W?
- If it is true that all heavier substances move
towards the center, then why is it that the Sun is the center of our
solar system when it is made of hydrogen?
- Why does the Sun's center have a greater
density than its outside?
- How did scientist discover that the Sun makes an
18 octave sound when space is a vacuum in which you can not hear sound
- Does the Sun have an orbit?
- Have there been any data collected by SOHO
which help explain the discrepancy in solar neutrino flux?
- Lyman Alpha has to do with recombination of
electrons in hydrogen atoms (from n=2 to n=1). However, with
chormospheric temperatures above 10,000, the electrons should be
stripped away from the hydrogen atom. Can you explain why this is not
- What causes the so called "waves" on the
- How is the amount of hydrogen in the Sun
- Does a doppler shift occur between the
Earth and the Sun? What effect does it have on the color
- How big was the largest sunspot group?
- Why is it that the areas that appear
brightest in the x-ray pictures correspond to sunspot
- What is the origin and structure of the
designation process for sunspots?
- Do Sunspots only appear on certain
- Why do sunspots seem to enhance radio
wave propagation on Earth?
- Does the number of sunspots have any
effect on the climate here on Earth?
Solar Activity
- What is the tail of a comet made of?
- Is there a list of sungrazing comets?
- Do comets crash into the Sun?
- What are some good Sun-related books that would be useful to an upper
elementary, middle school, or high-school student?
- Do you wear safety goggles to observe the Sun?
- Which reaction releases more energy: fusion or fission?
- Are there any space pictures of the Sun taken from distances much greater
than the Earth?
- Why do the Earth and other planets orbit around the Sun?
Science Careers and Scientists
- How did you become a scientist?
- What classes and degrees do I need to pursue for a professional career in astronomy?
- Where did you go to school? What did you study?
- What is it like to be a scientist? Do you enjoy your job?
Have you looked at our Frequently Asked Questions list?
Still have questions about the Sun? about SOHO?
Then ask Dr. SOHO any question about SOHO or the Sun!!!
How do scientists know how big the Sun is?
In order to determine the size of the Sun, we have to figure out its distance. Then we can use geometry to calculate the Sun's size, which is directly proportional to its distance. Information on determining the distance to the Sun should be in any good introductory astronomy text book written for people who know geometry.
In the past, methods involving geometry of the Earth, Moon and Sun
were used. The ancient Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos used a method involving
phases of the Moon. He underestimated the distance and the size of the Sun,
but only because the measurements he used were not accurate. You can read a
description of the calculation here:
Currently we can measure the distance to the Sun by bouncing radio waves off of it (radar). We know the speed of light and so we can tell how far the signal has gone by measuring how long it takes to go there and back: distance = time × speed of light/2
Go back to TOP.
What kind of star is the Sun?
The Sun is basically a very ordinary star, about mid-way through its "life cycle." It is a dwarf star (astronomers call stars either "giants" or "dwarfs" - the normal stars are "dwarfs") with a surface temperature of about 6,000 degrees Kelvin. This makes it appear yellow in color. Hotter stars are more blue in color, and cooler stars are more red.
Technically, the Sun is classified as a G2V star. Stars are classified according to their surface temperature and luminosity (brightness). The Sun appears very bright because it is much closer to us than other stars, but in fact it is not unusually luminous. If we put the Sun at the same distance as other "nearby" stars, it would look about the same as many other stars. The main temperature classes are denoted (in decreasing temperature) by the letters O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
Each class is then divided into ten subclasses using numbers from 0 to 9, so a G2 star is roughly 20% of the way between a G0 and a K0 star. There are also five luminosity classes, denoted by the Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V and VI. The Sun belongs in luminosity class V, and temperature (or spectral) class G2, hence the designation G2V.
The reasons for this messy system of classification are historical, and no doubt we could come up with a better system. However, astronomers have gotten used to this system, and with some experience you can use these classifications to tell an awful lot about a star. For example, knowing the surface temperature and luminosity class allows you to compute a star's size (a big star at a certain temperature is brighter than a small one at the same temperature).
Check out this web site for more on our Sun and stars:
(Astronomy Notes)
Go back to TOP.
How fast does the Sun spin? Which way is N, S, E, and W?
The rotation period of the Sun varies from about 25 days at the equator to over 30 days at the poles, so it takes roughly two weeks for a feature to cross the solar disk.
Sunspot groups can last more than one rotation. However, each time a region comes around, it gets a new number - that keeps it simpler because it is hard to be absolutely positive it is the same region without being able to watch its evolution on the far side of the Sun.
When you look at something in the sky east and west get reversed (think about lying on the ground with your head point north - it is the opposite of the normal map convention in which you are floating above the ground looking down), so we say the sunspots go from east (which is the left hand side of our maps) to west ( on the right hand side).
Check out this web site for more on how the Sun Spins:
(Stanford Solar Center)
Go back to TOP.
If it is true that all heavier substances move towards the center, then why is it that the sun is the center of our solar system when it is made of hydrogen?
If you had ten cotton balls they would not weigh very much, but if you had 10,000 they would. Each cotton ball is very light, but if you have enough of them together they are very heavy.
Hydrogen atoms are like the cotton balls. Each individual hydrogen atom is very light, but if you have enough of them together yo can still get something, like the Sun, which has a lot of mass and a lot of gravitational pull.
Another thing to mention is that it is the density of an object that makes it sink rather than their total weight. Density is how much stuff is put in a particular volume. That is why a giant iceberg the size of a mountain will float, but a rock the size of your hand will sink. The rock weighs less, but is denser than the iceberg.
Check out this web site for more on the Sun:
(University of Michigan Solar site)
Go back to TOP.
Why does the sun's center have a greater density than its outside?
Imagine yourself under water in the ocean. If you are near the surface, there isn't much pressure on you and you can swim around comfortably. But you might know that as you go deeper and deeper, the pressure would increase. Even submarines can't go too deeply, or they would be crushed. Well, the same sort of pressure increase occurs as you go deeper and deeper into the Sun.
The difference between water and gas is that we can't compress water. If we push down on it, it doesn't get any smaller. But if we increase the pressure on gas, it will get smaller. Which means the individual atoms in the gas all get closer together, increasing the density.
Go back to TOP.
How did scientist discover that the Sun makes an 18 octave sound when space is a vacuum in which you can not hear sound in?
It is true that we can't hear the Sun with a microphone. Instead, we see the sound waves because of the effect they have on the Sun. The Sun is full of all sorts of sound waves traveling through the interior. Some of them resonate because they are particular frequencies.
These sound waves are actually reflected at the surface, although it isn't solid. But there is an abrupt change in density, which allows the reflection to happen.
The sound waves as they reflect at the surface cause a change in brightness and push up some too. So, with the right sort of instruments (see SOHO/MDI) we can measure the changes in brightness and the velocity changes at the surface. From those measurments, we can work out the sound of the Sun.
Check out these web sites for more on MDI and the Sun:
(MDI web site)
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Does the Sun have an orbit? Where is it headed?
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy, in the same way as the Earth orbits the Sun. It takes about 250 million years to complete one orbit traveling at about 200-300 kilometers/second. In an orbit, you follow an elliptical path, so you are not really going towards or away from something in particular, but at the moment the motion of the Sun is towards the constellation of Hercules.
Go back to TOP.
Have there been any data collected by SOHO which help explain the discrepancy in solar neutrino flux?
A neutrino is a by-product of basic nuclear reactions. A big fusion reactor like the Sun should be emitting vast amounts of neutrinos all the time. Unfortunately, neutrinos are difficult to detect. Even more unfortunately, the first neutrino detectors (in the 1960s) reported only about 30% of the expected neutrino flux. That result has been duplicated many times with different experiments in the decades since.
In short yes, although not without a significant contribution being made by the neutrino and particle physics communities. The ground-based Helioseismic Network along with MDI and GOLF have focussed on refining the structure of the Sun's inner atmosphere, such as the temperature, density and speed of sound. Until the observation of a neutrino oscillation these dynamic parameters were thought to be critical components causing the solar neutrino discrepancy.
Recently, research on the standard solar model with a massive
dataset comprising data from SOHO (GOLF and MDI), ground-based
helioseismic observatories (Bison, GONG, LOWL) and the underground
solar neutrino detectors (GALLEX, SAGE, Kamiokande and
super-Kamiokande) has shown that the solar neutrino discrepancy can be
understood in terms of a strange phenomenon known as a
For many years particle physicists have known that neutrinos exist
in three
Check out these web sites for more on solar neutrinos:
(The John Bahcall site)
(The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory)
Go back to TOP.
Lyman Alpha has to do with recombination of electrons in hydrogen atoms (from n=2 to n=1). However, with chormospheric temperatures above 10,000, the electrons should be stripped away from the hydrogen atom. Can you explain why this is not so?
You are correct that Lyman Alpha is the n=2 to n=1 transition of the neutral hydrogen atom. One formation mechanism for Lyman Alpha is ionization and recombination. At the temperatures of the solar chromosphere, a substantial fraction of the hydrogen atoms have their electrons stripped away. Some of these electrons then recombine with hydrogen ions, and start to cascade down through the levels until they reach the ground level.
However, even at 20,000 degrees, not all of the hydrogen atoms are ionized. This is because the density is so low that collisions are not frequent enough to knock off the electrons from all the atoms faster than they can recombine. Thus, there is always a population of neutral hydrogen, which also contributes to the Lyman Alpha line.
Go back to TOP.
What causes the so called "waves" on the Sun?
The so called waves that you see on the Sun in some of the beautiful SOHO movies are just a surface response to an explosion that ejects large quantities of gas and magnetic field upwards and out from the Sun. Think of an underwater explosion: you will get water forced upwards as a great spray, but you will also get a wave on the surface of the water that travels outwards from the explosion site. The waves on the Sun are similar, although in this case the explosion occurs just above the surface rather than below it.
If the explosion (or coronal mass ejection, to use the solar physicists' term) happens to be directed towards Earth, then we can get geomagnetic storms and spectacular auroral effects when it arrives here, usually a few days later.
Go back to TOP.
How is the amount of hydrogen in the Sun measured?
There are several ways we can measure the relative amount of hydrogen in the Sun.
One way is to measure the particles directly in the solar wind. The solar wind particles are ionized. That means that they have been heated so much that one or more of the electrons orbiting the atomic nucleus have been kicked off. The absence of the electrons gives the atom a positive charge, and makes it sensitive to the electric and magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere. These ions (and electrons) then get accelerated into the solar wind. It is possible to measure the mass, charge, and energy of these particles by observing their reaction to electric and magnetic fields, and thus deduce their composition. SOHO is one of a number of satellites which measure the properties of particles in the solar wind.
Another, and much older, way to determine the composition of the Sun is through spectral analysis. Every element will have characteristic wavelengths (colors) associated with it. This is a result of quantum mechanics. The electrons surrounding the atomic nuclei can only be found in specific orbits. For example, an electron can't be halfway between one allowed orbit and another. If a photon of light has exactly the right amount of energy, which is directly given by its wavelength, then it will be able to kick an electron from one orbit into a higher one. The photon will be absorbed by the atom, and we'll see a reduction of light at that wavelength. We call these diminished areas in the spectrum absorption lines, because they appear as dark lines in a slit spectrum. They're also known as Fraunhofer lines, after the person who discovered them. It's possible, by measuring the depth and width of these lines, to determine the total number of atoms of the element which produced the absorption line.
Of course, these measurements only tell us about the outer layers of the Sun. We can't measure the inner parts of the Sun directly, but we can infer things about it through theoretical models, and by observing stars like the Sun at various ages in their development, some of which have shed their outer atmospheres. Also, the relatively new science of helioseismology allows us to infer some of the properties of the solar interior.
Check out this web site for more on the Sun:
(Stanford Solar Center)
Go back to TOP.
Does a doppler shift occur between the Earth and the Sun? What effect does it have on the color spectrum?
There are actually a number of doppler shift effects one needs to worry about when measuring velocities on the Sun. One of these doppler shifts, is caused by the motion of the Earth about the Sun. If the Earth's orbit was exactly circular, then there would be no doppler shift. However, the orbit is slightly elliptical, and Earth is closest to the Sun in January, and farthest away in July. The maximum doppler shift, though, occurs halfway between these dates, in April and October. The size of this doppler shift is about 0.5 kilometers per second.
For a telescope on the Earth, another doppler effect which needs to be accounted for is the Earth's daily rotation. This is also on the order of 0.5 kilometers per second. On the other hand, a satellite in orbit about the Earth would have a much larger effect. Since a typical orbital period in low Earth orbit is once every 90 minutes, the doppler shift would then be about 7.5 kilometers per second.
(Because of SOHO's special orbit around the L1 Lagrange point between the Earth and the Sun, the doppler shifts are much more complicated than what is described above. The NASA Flight Dynamics Facility keeps track of SOHO's position for us, and one of the products that they provide us is the relative velocity between the spacecraft and the Sun, on 10 minute intervals. This is then used to calibrate SOHO data.)
One also has to take into account the fact that the Sun itself is rotating, about once every 25 days at the equator. Since the Earth is also revolving in the same direction, it makes it look like the Sun takes a little bit longer to rotate, about 27 days. This produces a doppler effect of up to 2 kilometers per second. This doppler shift can be clearly seen in MDI data from SOHO.
Go back to TOP.
How big was the largest sunspot group?
The largest sunspot group since 1900 was one in 1947 which measured 6132 millionths of the solar disk, or 18 times the surface area of the Earth.
Go back to TOP.
Why is it that the areas that appear brightest in the x-ray pictures correspond to sunspot locations?
Sunspots are areas where the Sun's magnetic field is very high. We believe they are dark at the photosphere level (what we see in visible light, generally considered to be the Sun's surface) because they inhibit the convection that transports energy up to the photosphere. X-ray pictures show the Sun's corona-its hot outer atmosphere. We are still trying to work out the exact details of how this happens.
Go back to TOP.
What is the origin and structure of the designation process for sunspots?
Sunspot groups are given numbers by the Space Environment Center, a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Sunspot groups are numbered sequentially as they are identified. If a group rotates around the far side of the Sun and then back into view it is given a new number when it is spotted again at the east limb of the Sun.
The numbering system got started in the mid 1960s by solar physicist Pat McIntosh who soon after joined the then forming NOAA. Pat says that the number system was set back to zero at the start of 1970, but that the numbers have been continually increasing since around 1972 or 1973.
Go back to TOP.
Do sunspots only appear on certain latitudes?
Sunspots have a preferred latitude, depending on where you are in the solar cycle. At the beginning of each 11-year solar cycle, sunspots form at fairly high latitudes. Then, as the solar cycle progresses, the preferred latitude for sunspots shifts down towards the equator.
The magnetic field at the poles is substantially different from that at the Sun's equator. At the equator, the magnetic field lines generally do not stray far from the surface. They come out from one point in the surface and go back in again not far away, forming loops. Sunspots are found at the bases of really strong loops. At the poles, however, the magnetic field lines go out to far distances away from the Sun. If they go back again at all, it's far away from where they came out. Sunspots can't form under these conditions.
Check out this web site for more on sunspots:
(The Sunspot Cycle)
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Why do sunspots seem to enhance radio wave propagation on Earth?
Sunspots themselves don't enhance radio communications, but rather magnetic storms on the Sun which cause changes in the Earth's ionosphere that enhance radio communication.
For more on sunspots check out these web sites:
(Basic Facts About Space Weather)
(Space Storms and Radio Communications)
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Does the number of sunspots have any effect on the climate here on Earth?
Sunspots are slightly cooler areas on the surface of the Sun, due to the intense magnetic fields, so they radiate a little less energy than the surroundings. However, there are usually nearby areas associated with the sunspots that are a little hotter (called falculae), and they more than compensate. The result is that there is a little bit more radiation coming from the Sun when it has more sunspots, but the effect is so small that it has very little impact on the weather and climate on Earth.
However, there are more important indirect effects: sunspots are associated with what we call "active regions", with large magnetic structured containing very hot material (being held in place by the magnetism). This caused more ultraviolet (or UV) radiation (the rays that give you a suntan or sunburn), and extreme ultraviolet radiation (EUV). These types of radiation have an impact on the chemistry of the upper atmosphere (e.g. producing ozone). Since some of these products act as greenhouse gases, the number of sunpots (through association with active regions) may influence the climate in this way.
Many active regions produce giant outflows of material that are called Coronal Mass Ejections. These ejections drag with them some of the more intense magnetic fields that are found in the active regions. The magnetic fields act as a shield for high-energy particles coming from various sources in our galaxy (outside the solar system). These "cosmic rays" (CRs) cause ionization of molecules in the atmosphere, and thereby can cause clouds to form (because the ionized molecules or dust particle can act as "seeds" for drop formation).
If clouds are formed very high in the atmosphere, the net result is a heating of the Earth - it acts as a "blanket" that keeps warmth in. If clouds are formed lower down in the atmosphere, they reflect sunlight better than they keep heat inside, so the net result is cooling. Which processes are dominant is still a matter of research.
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Why do solar flares happen?
On the internet, a good place to start learning
about solar flares is the following NASA web page:
(The Solar Flare Theory Page) This has a number of descriptions, questions and
answers, and links to other interesting pages
including information on how Solar flares may affect
YOU! Below are a couple of sections taken from this
A flare is defined as a sudden, rapid, and intense variation in brightness. A solar flare occurs when magnetic energy that has built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly released. Radiation is emitted across virtually the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves at the long wavelength end, through optical emission to x-rays and gamma rays at the short wavelength end. The amount of energy released is the equivalent of millions of 100-megaton hydrogen bombs exploding at the same time!
The first solar flare recorded in astronomical literature was on September 1, 1859. Two scientists, Richard C. Carrington and Richard Hodgson, were independently observing sunspots at the time, when they viewed a large flare in white (visible) light.
Solar flares are thought to result from the build up and explosive release of magnetic energy in the solar atmosphere. The outer layer of the Sun is convective, meaning that the gas rolls up and down like in a pot of boiling water. This ionized gas (plasma) drags the Sun's magnetic field with it, twisting it and strengthening it. In some regions the magnetic field becomes particularly strong and breaks out into the solar atmosphere as discrete, loop-like structures. In active regions where flares occur, these structures either interact or become internally unstable, giving a flare. The signs of a flare are gas rapidly heated to high temperatures, electrons and ions accelerated to high energies, and bulk mass motions. The energy in the magnetic field is thought to be converted into these things through a process called magnetic reconnection, in which oppositely directed magnetic field lines "break" and connect to each other and part of their energy is transferred to the gas in the solar atmosphere. This is the basic picture. Some aspects of it may not be entirely correct and many of the details are not yet understood.
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How long does it take a CME to reach the Earth?
The average distance from the Sun to the Earth is 150 million kilometers which can be written as 150 x 10^6 Km.
CME's can vary in speed. They can range from 200 km/s to 1000 km/s, although typically, most of them travel at about 424 km/s (Avg 1996-1998 speed St. Cyr et al., 2000).
Assuming that CME's don't accelerate or decelerate on their way from the Sun to the Earth, we can easily compute from the numbers given, the minimum travel time, the maximum travel time, as well as the average travel time.
So, the average time it would take a CME to get to the Earth is 98 hrs. At 1000 km/s, a CME would take 42 hrs, and at 200 km/s, a CME would take 208 hrs.
Check out these web sites for more on CME's:
(A student activity: track CME's as they head towards Earth)
(SOHO/LASCO list of all CME's observed since SOHO launch)
Go back to TOP.
What is the tail of a comet made of?
Did you know that if you condensed the entire 100 thousand mile long tail of a comet such as Hale-Bopp to the density of water, it would not even fill a swimming pool?
Comet tails are made up gas and dust. These evaporate off the comet itself, which is made of ice and rock. The ice is both regular water ice (H20) and other kinds, like carbon-dioxide ice (C02, also known as "dry ice").
Comets often have two tails: A "plasma tail," which is made up of charged ions, and a "dust tail" which is made up of dust. The lighter ions are "blown" directly away from the Sun by the solar wind, but the heavier dust particles form a tail which points at an angle closer to the path of the comet's motion.
Check out these web sites for more on comets:
(The Nine Planets Comet Page)
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Is there a list of sungrazing comets?
For a list of comets take a look at the LASCO Sungrazer Home Page.
This site discusses the sungrazing comets and lists the ones observed by SOHO so far.
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Do comets crash into the Sun?
SOHO has discovered a number of small comets which have disappeared into the Sun. We might not say they "crash in to the Sun," as we think they actually burn up in the Sun's outer atmosphere (the corona), rather than hitting its surface (the photosphere).
All comets that come close enough to the Sun to burn up in this way are part of the Kreutz family of comets. You can read more about them on the Sungrazer home page.
Go back to TOP.
What are some good Sun-related books that would be useful to an upper elementary, middle school, or high-school student?
Here are some books recommended by members of our team.
1. Sun, Earth and Sky, by Kenneth Lang. We frequently use this book around here. Comprehensive and well-illustrated, it would be appropriate for high school students. It is quite recent; it was published just before SOHO launched, and it has information and pictures from the Yohkoh mission.
2. Catching the Light: The Entwined History of Light and Mind, by Arthur Zajonc (Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0 -19-509575-8. Not specifically about the Sun, but "...it's a delightful book which traces how humans have endeavored to understand the phenomenon of light. Blends myth, science, literature, art, religion, and physics into one unified exploration of the nature of light. Easy to read, it might captivate a few high-schoolers."
3. For young elementary students, one colleague of ours likes Isaac Asimov's astronomy series (20+ books; one is about the Sun).
4. Sun Up, Sun Down, by Gail Gibbons. I recently saw this book and looked through it quickly. Aimed at first-graders, it has things about the seasons as well as basic stuff about the Sun (such as: the Sun is a star, and it is the center of our solar system).
5. Someone here has a copy of the Audubon Society's The Sun and the Moon pocket guide. This has essentially no flow. However, each little blurb seems accurate, and the pictures are quite good.
6. Guide to the Sun, by K. J. H. Phillips (Cambridge University Press, 1996). This book is a useful resource for specific information about solar science. It contains extensive information on the Sun, particularly current knowledge about the physics and astronomy of the Sun. It is written at the level of popular science magazines. Mathematics has been kept to a minimum.
7. Exploring the Cosmos, by L. Berman and J. C. Evans (Harper Collins College Press, 1987), is another valuable source of information on the Sun and astronomy in general. This is a well organized, well written, and easy to understand introductory text.
Secrets of the Sun, Ronald Giovanelli. (Cambridge University Press, 1984)
Interested in observing the Sun for a project or hobby? These books will help:
Observing the Sun, Peter, O. Taylor (Cambridge University Press,
1991) Peter Taylor manages a Forum on CompuServe (GO SUNSPOT)
Solar Astronomy Handbook, R. Back, H.Hilbrecht, K. Reinsch, and
P. Volker, (Willmann-Bell Inc., Richmond VA, 1995)
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Do you wear safety goggles to observe the Sun?
I mostly observe the Sun with telescopes on the spacecraft, so I don't need to look directly at it. Astronomers using telescopes on the ground observe with special filters that block out much of the Sun's light.
There are kinds of "safety glasses" you can use to look at the Sun briefly, but unless you are very sure you have the right kind, it is better to project a light from the Sun on a wall or piece of paper and look at that. One way to do that is with a "pin hole camera."
Above all, NEVER look at the Sun with your naked eyes -- not even for a quick glance. Obey this rule and your retinas will thank you.
Check out this web site for more:
(How to View an Eclipse)
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Which reaction releases more energy: fusion or fission?
For a particular reaction formula (e.g. 1 hydrogen + 1 deuterium -> 1 helium + 1 neutron + 16.6 MeV of energy) fission reaction are about 10 times more energetic than fusion reactions. However, the particles that participate in fusion are much less massive than those of fission reactions. Thus, if the reactions are described in terms of energy per unit mass, fusion reactions produce a few times more energy than fission reactions. (Reference: Chp. 11 of Modern Physics by Tippler, 1st ed.)
Check out these web sites for more in Fusion:
(Fusion in Stars)
(Description of Fusion)
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Are there any space pictures of the Sun from distances much greater than Earth?
One candidate is my very favorite Mars Pathfinder image, because there is something special about this sunset:
Mars is only about 50% further out from the Sun than the
Earth, so the Sun still largely "looks like" the Sun.
In the early 1990s, one of the two Voyager spacecraft took several images of the inner solar system from a distance of many billions of kilometers. The late Carl Sagan published some of them in the book Pale Blue Dot. The title comes from the appearance of the planet Earth at such a distance. Here's what we look like from 6.4 billion km away:
(The Voyager Family Portrait)
As you can see, the Sun is 40 times smaller in diameter when viewed from such a distance.
Remember that most spacecraft -- the Hubble Space Telescope, for example -- try very hard to keep their instruments pointed away from the Sun. Staring at the Sun can be as damaging to a spacecraft sensor as it can be to your own eyes. Mars Pathfinder was one exception, as is SOHO.
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Why do the Earth and other planets orbit around the Sun?
The motion of something in orbit (like a planet around a star) is a combination of the effect of inertia and of gravity. "Inertia" means that something moving will continue going in a straight line at a constant velocity unless it is stopped (this is Newton's first law). If there were no gravity, for instance, something moving past the Sun would just keep going in the same direction.
The force of gravity from the Sun pulls the planet towards the Sun, but the material which formed the planets was moving originally and the inertia from the original motion does not go away; instead you get a sum of the two. That makes for a diagonal motion at any one instant. However, the direction the force of gravity and thus the planet's direction of motion changes as the planets changes its position relative to the Sun. The result is an orbit around the Sun.
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How did you become a scientist?
I started getting interested in science and astronomy when I was very young. I joined an amateur astronomy club in high school, and I made sure to take lots of science and math classes along with the other required courses. In college, I majored in physics. After college, I went on to graduate school and then was able to get a job here at NASA.
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What classes and degrees do I need to pursue for a professional career in astronomy?
Your question is one we like to hear, because it means you might consider a career in one of the oldest, and at the same time, newest and most exciting branches of science. Bear in mind, however, that astrophysical careers are difficult to begin and even harder to maintain.
At the high school level be sure to take classes in science (especially physics and chemistry) and math. In college most future astronomers major in physics or astronomy (although there are other possibilities), so you want to make sure the school you go to is strong in these areas - especially physics. Don't worry if the school does not have an astronomy department - the astronomers are often in the physics department. You should talk to your departmental advisor about exactly what classes to take.
After obtaining your bachelors degree you would go on to graduate school. Most astronomers have PhDs (often getting a masters degree along the way). This takes an average of 6 years or so.
One issue you might think about is whether your talents are such as to lead you to lean towards theoretical work or experimental (try some of both if you can).
Go back to TOP.
Where did you go to school? What did you study?
(A reply from a SOHO scientist): I went to grade school and high school in Evanston, Illinois, where I grew up. I took lots of college preparatory classes, including math and science. For college I went to a place called Carleton College in Minnesota, where I majored in physics. Then I went to graduate school in astrophysics at the University of Colorado.
(A reply from a SOHO engineer): I attended grade school and high school in Pennsylvania, also taking college-preparatory classes. I went to Virginia Polytechnic Institute, which I chose because of its engineering reputation, and I majored in aerospace engineering. Upon my graduation, I applied for and was offered this instrument operations position at the SOHO project.
If you think you want to follow either of us on a similar career path, please start preparing now. Take as many math and science courses as you can, but do not neglect things like English, either (communications skills are vital). Try to take some calculus classes before you finish high school, for example. Apply to the best college you can, and work as hard as you can once you get there. Remember that a scientific or technical education can open many opportunities for you. Good luck!
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What is it like to be a scientist? Do you enjoy your job?
It is usually pretty fun. I especially like my current job because I get to do all sorts of interesting things. I use the instruments on the spacecraft and work with the data when it comes back. I am trying to answer questions about how the Sun works. Then I have to tell people about what I have been doing so that they understand. Sometimes these things are hard and I get frustrated, but mostly it is very interesting and challenging too.
I like to study the Sun for a number of reasons. I am interested in astronomy, and the Sun is the closest star. It makes for a very nice target; studying the Sun is one way to find out things about stars in general. I also like studying something that is related to us directly. The Sun supplies the energy that keeps life on Earth going! Changes on the Sun can affect us. This is true now more than ever, because explosions on the Sun can affect spacecraft, power lines, and astronauts.
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WelcomeThis website shows some of the historic developments that have lead to the design of
the CARGO mobile computer system (V4)
and the associated software.
YesterdayYes, It all started about four years ago. The entire concept of car computing was very immature at that time, and many things as hardware and software had to be made ourselves. Ourselves, as many other people were working, playing or thinking with or about this concept. Very soon I started with the development of the E311 Mini-ITX car power supply, one of the first somewhat affordable power supplies for automotive use in conjuction with the popular VIA Epia mainboards. TodayAfter almost four years of playing and experimenting and three versions of car computers, I decided that it was time for a more serious approach. Today, this more serious approach has lead us to the fourth version; the CARGO mobile computer system. The top-notch of integration, functionality and durability in the field of carpc's. Tomorrow...The design for this 'perfect' car computer is almost complete, sadly this does not yet mean that you can buy one at the shop next door. Building these in decent quantities (which is neccesary in order to offer acceptable prices) is not easy without huge funds or without volume-buyers. The developent of this car computer system has drawn my funds severely, so it's up to volume buyers... The fullfilled wish list...Long time vistors will recognise this long-standing ultimate wish list for mobile computing, which has been almost unchanged for the past years, and which still stands. For first time vistors; this is the requirements list that a self-respecting car computing system should be capable of:
Optional or not (yet) fullfilles wishes and features:
Please take a look around, and if you have any questions regarding this project them please don't hesitate to drop me an
I always appreciate your feedback, questions, ideas or comments. |


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Mixer Tap
This variety of tap accepts both hot and cold water pipes as a main feed, and is capable of dispensing differing amounts of water from each, enabling the user to dynamically adjust the temperature of the water stream.
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Forestalling, tax avoidance and politics
The Office of Budget Responsibility's (OBR) estimates of the tax receipts from both the 50p and 45p tax rate are on p. 111 in their Economic Forecast (pdf).
The table refers to "forestalling" about the 50p rate, and "reverse forestalling" about the 45p rate, and provides estimated figures for both. "Forestalling" means bringing forward income in anticipation of a future tax rise, and "reverse forestalling" is delaying income in anticipation of a future tax cut. Both the 50p and 45p rates were announced a year before their introduction. It is hardly surprising that people who are able to vary the times at which they receive income - typically, business owners receiving dividends from their businesses - will do so in order to reduce their tax bill. So it is not surprising that HMRC's figures (pdf, p.31) suggest that £16-18bn of income from high earners was brought forward into the 2009-10 tax year, which is after the 50p rate was announced but before it was introduced. And similarly, we would expect that following the announcement of the 45p rate to be introduced in April 2013, those who can will delay their income receipts until after that date in order to benefit from the lower rate. We can therefore confidently predict that in the tax year about to commence (2012-13) the 50p rate will raise stuff all, and in the following tax year (2013-14) the 45p rate will raise an AWFUL lot. Of course we won't have real figures for these until, respectively, 2014 and 2015, since self-assessment tax returns don't have to be submitted until the following January after the tax year end. Remind me when that General Election will be, again? 2015, is it? Well, what a coincidence. I have no doubt that the Conservative Party will be proclaiming the success of the 45p rate, and attacking Labour's "high tax policies", as part of their election strategy.
But the forestalling effect is short-term. After all, you can only bring forward or defer so much income. What we really want to know is the long-term effect of these rates. And for that, we need to look at the OBR's original estimates and what it calls the "underlying impact" for the 50p rate, and its estimates for the 45p rate.
(original on p.111 of the OBR link above)
For the 50p rate, the OBR's figures for 2010-11 show the tax only raising £0.7bn against the OBR's original estimate of £2.5bn, a difference of £1.8bn. Both those figures assume zero forestalling. There are of course no actual figures for 2011-12 yet, because tax returns for that year aren't due in for several months yet. However, the OBR has helpfully provided estimates out to 2015-6 for the expected tax take from the 50p rate, which show the take remaining very similar - £0.6 to £0.8bn per year - and therefore a continuing and growing shortfall against the original estimates, which assumed that the tax take would increase. The IFS, in its commentary (pdf, p.13) on the 50p tax rate, noted that the model used to create these estimates was imprecise and the figures should therefore be taken with large amounts of salt. Richard Murphy argues that these figures are ridiculously low, that no-one could possibly avoid that much tax and that the OBR must be deliberately producing low estimates at the behest of the Chancellor, to support his political agenda. I wouldn't put that past Gideon, myself - although claiming that tax can't be avoided to that extent doesn't exactly support Murphy's case for tax reform, either.
But it's all academic now, anyway. We will never know exactly how much the 50p rate would have raised once forestalling effects had unwound, because it will be overtaken by reverse forestalling and other behavioural effects on the 45p rate. The closest we will ever get to the real amount will be in the figures for 2011-12 that should be produced early in 2013 - but even those will probably still include some forestalling effects, as the OBR's estimates suggest. Beyond that the waters become much murkier. Murphy claims that the figures for 2011-12 will prove that his estimate of £6.7 bn for the real tax take from the 50p rate (excluding forestalling) is right. But his calculation that the real figure for 2010-11 is actually £5.7bn is simply wrong (see comments on his blog), and personally I can't see how £0.7bn can turn into £6.7bn in one year.
However, if the OBR figures are in any way reliable, they do indicate how easily high net worth individuals are able to avoid tax. The 50p rate should have raised a lot more - as the OBR's original estimates suggest. That it apparently falls so far short of expectations even after allowing for forestalling indicates that people have also found other ways of reducing or hiding their income. Some of those will of course be completely legitimate - such as spending more time on the golf course, or emigrating. But many will be exploiting quirks in the tax system that enable income to be diverted or hidden in a way that reduces the UK tax liability. Rather than reducing the rate, the obvious thing to do is to reduce the avoidance, by closing loopholes and clamping down on the use of service companies and offshoring.
So is this really about tax take? Or is it actually a move that supports the Government's stated aim to be an internationally competitive tax jurisdiction? Is it really a "gift to the rich", or is it a clumsy attempt to offset the effect of closing tax loopholes for the very rich, in the hopes of getting them to stay in the UK? I don't know. But to me the whole thing looks more political than financial. When is that General Election, again??
UPDATE 17th November 2013.
It's playing out exactly as I expected. Here, the ONS explains that bonus payments went up by 4% in April 2013 due to delayed payments of (mainly financial sector) bonuses to take advantage of new 45p tax rate:
"A number of businesses reported that they deferred some bonuses that would normally have been paid in March 2013 to April 2013. Thus, total bonus payments received across the whole economy during the period May 2012 to April 2013 was £38.6 billion; an increase of 4% compared with a year earlier."And Conservative-supporting writers are crowing about the "increased tax take" from the 45p tax rate:
No doubt this sharp increase in tax revenues will be claimed by the Conservatives as "evidence" that their tax cut raises more money than "Labour's 50p rate". But it is nothing of the kind. We will simply never know whether the 45p rate will raise more, or less, tax than the 50p rate would have done.


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Student Loan Scams
Fraud & Security
College students, take note! As if keeping up with your coursework, acing your exams, and scrambling to hand in every term paper before the deadline weren't enough, you now have something else to worry about: student loan scams are on the rise.
Bad actors know you hate owing tens of thousands of dollars, so they're quick to offer you an easy — but completely bogus — way to free yourself from that debt. Or, they might falsely claim you owe the Federal Government taxes on your debt. If you're already stressed about your student loans, that may make you an easy target.
Don't get scammed! All it takes is a lack of knowledge and a small blunder to be out thousands of dollars. Here's what you need to know about the three most popular student loan scams.
Student Loan Forgiveness Scam
In this scam, a student loan debt company will reach out to you and offer to completely forgive your student loan for a relatively small fee. Your student loan, gone?
Sounds like a dream! Unfortunately, it's more like a nightmare. No student loan company would completely forgive your loan, even for a fee. The company is likely bogus and you've been targeted for a scam.
This scam attempts authenticity by sounding like Public Service Loan Forgiveness, a legitimate federal government program for public servants with federal student loans. They may even claim to be connected to the U.S. Department of Education, but that is also false.
If you fall for the scam, you'll still need to pay off your loan, plus you'll lose the money you just shelled out. If you're looking for student loan debt relief for your federal student loan, consider enrolling in a no-cost student loan repayment plan through the federal government. This plan might offer student loan forgiveness after 20-25 years. Unfortunately, there is no other way for a student loan to be dismissed.
Student Loan Consolidation Scam
In a scenario similar to the above scam, a student loan company will contact you promising to consolidate your loan and lower your monthly payments, all for a modest fee. Right off the bat, you can peg this as a scam.
While many institutions can refinance student loan debt, the federal government is the only entity with the power to consolidate it. And they won't charge a fee for this service. If you're looking to consolidate your student loans, check out Studentloans.gov or call 1-800-557-7394.
Student Loan Tax Scam
Those tax scammers will try everything to hook a victim! In this con, a scammer will spoof the IRS' toll-free number and call a college student, claiming they owe thousands of dollars for a "federal student loan tax."
The scammer will demand immediate payment upon threat of arrest or a lawsuit. They'll also claim to only accept specific forms of payment, like a wire transfer or prepaid debit card. If you're on the receiving end of a phone call like this and you're starting to panic, here's a newsflash for you: the "federal student loan tax" does not exist.
It is nothing more than a not-so-clever trick dreamed up by a bad actor. Also, the IRS will never reach out to you by phone without first notifying you via snail mail. Nor will they demand payment over the phone or insist on a specific payment method — especially a prepaid gift card.
If You're Targeted
If you're targeted by a student loan scam, it's crucial that you don't engage. Hang up as soon as you recognize a scam and delete any suspicious emails, texts, or voicemails about your student loan that land in your inbox.
It's equally important for you to bring the scam to the attention of the authorities to help them capture those scammers. You can file a complaint with the FTC at ftc.gov, alert the local law enforcement agencies, and report any tax-related scams to the IRS at 1-800-829-1040 or at IRS.gov.
Finally, be sure to warn your friends about a circulating scam so they know to be super-careful. Practicing caution and knowing what to expect will protect you from scammers who are out to make a buck off anyone they can bamboozle. You work hard in school; you deserve to keep your money and your sanity, too!
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Truck collision
Fatal traffic accident with truck and trailer
Cooper Law Firm
N. Eric Cooper
Mailing: P.O. Box 2222
Longview, TX 75606
Address: 501 N Third St,
Longview, TX 75601
Telephone: (903) 297-0037
Toll-Free: 1-855-297-HURT (4878)
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Cooper Law Firms main office is located in Longview Texas and handles cases throughout the state of Texas.
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