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Empedocles (c. 492—432 B.C.E.)
Empedocles (of Acagras in Sicily) was a philosopher and poet: one of the most important of the philosophers working before Socrates (the Presocratics), and a poet of outstanding ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His works On Nature and Purifications (whether they are two poems or only one – see below) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded variously as a materialist physicist, a shamanic magician, a mystical theologian, a healer, a democratic politician, a living god, and a fraud. To him is attributed the invention of the four-element theory of matter (earth, air, fire, and water), one of the earliest theories of particle physics, put forward seemingly to rescue the phenomenal world from the static monism of Parmenides. Empedocles' world-view is of a cosmic cycle of eternal change, growth and decay, in which two personified cosmic forces, Love and Strife, engage in an eternal battle for supremacy. In psychology and ethics Empedocles was a follower of Pythagoras, hence a believer in the transmigration of souls, and hence also a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimôn, a divine or potentially divine being, who, having been banished from the immortals gods for 'three times countless years' for committing the sin of meat-eating and forced to suffer successive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the cosmos, has now achieved the most perfect of human states and will be reborn as an immortal. He also claims seemingly magical powers including the ability to revive the dead and to control the winds and rains.
Table of Contents
- Life
- Works
- Physics and Cosmology
- Biology
- Ethics and the Journey of the Soul
- References and Further Reading
1. Life
The most detailed source for Empedocles' life is Diogenes Laertius' Lives of the Eminent Philosophers 8.51-75. Perhaps because of his claims to divine status and magical powers a remarkable number of apocryphal stories gathered around the life of Empedocles in antiquity. His death in particular attracted attention and is reported to have occurred in several, clearly bathetic, ways: that he fell overboard from a ship and drowned; that he fell from his carriage, broke his leg and died; that he hanged himself; or the most famous account that, when he felt he was shortly to die and because he wished to appear to have been apotheosized, he leapt into the crater of Etna. In this story the ruse was unfortunately discovered when one of his trademark bronze sandals was thrown up by the volcano.
From more reliable sources it seems that he was born at Acragas in Sicily around 492 B.C.E. and died at the age of sixty. He was the son of a certain Meton, and was from an important and wealthy local aristocratic family: his grandfather, also called Empedocles, is reported to have been victorious in horse-racing at the Olympic Games in 496 B.C.E. It is not known where or with whom he studied philosophy, but various teachers are assigned to him by ancient sources, among them Parmenides, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Anaxagoras and Anaximander (from whom he is said to have inherited his extravagant mode of dress). Whether or not he was his pupil, Empedocles was certainly very familiar with the work of Parmenides from whom he took the inspiration to write in hexameter verse, and whose physical system he adopts in part, and partly seeks to rectify.
He is reported to have been wealthy and to have kept a train of boy attendants and also to have provided dowries for many girls of Acragas. In dress he affected a purple robe with a golden girdle, bronze sandals, and a Delphic laurel-wreath, and in his manner he was grave and cultivated a regal public persona. These attributes contrast with his political outlook which is uniformly reported to have been actively pro-democratic. He began his political career with the prosecution of two state officials for their arrogant behaviour towards foreign guests which was seen as a sign of incipient tyrannical tendencies. He is also credited with activities against other anti-democratic citizens, and even with putting down an oligarchy and instituting a democracy at Acragas by use of his powers of rhetorical persuasion. Two speeches of his in favour of equality are also mentioned. His surviving poetry certainly shows considerable rhetorical skills, and indeed he is credited by Aristotle with the invention of rhetoric itself. Another report is of his breaking up a shadowy aristocratic political organisation called the 'Thousand'. As a whole the tradition presents a picture of Empedocles as a popular politician, rhetorician, and champion of democracy and equality. This appears to fit in with the known history of Acragas where after the death of the popular and enlightened tyrant Theron in 473 B.C.E. his son Thrasydaeus proved to be a violent despot. After his forcible removal a democracy was established despite continuing political tensions.
As well as a being a philosopher, poet and politician, Empedocles was famous for his medical skills and healing powers. In his works he presents himself as a wandering healer offering to thousands of eager followers 'prophecies' and 'words of healing for all kinds of illnesses' (fr. 112 (Fragment numbers are those of Diels-Kranz)). He also promises his addressee Pausanias 'you will learn remedies (pharmaka) for ills and help against old age' and even 'you will lead from Hades the life-force of a dead man'. To what degree this represents the real Empedocles is not known, but a tradition grew up of him as both a renowned physician and a practitioner of more magical cures, or as a charlatan. These stories however, may well derive from Empedocles' own words in his poetry. On the other hand his work does show considerable interest in biology and especially in embryology and he was eminent enough as a writer on medicine to be attack ed by the writer of the Hippocratic treatise On Ancient Medicine who attempts to separate medicine from philosophy and rejects Empedocles' work along with all philosophical medical works as irrelevant. The stories of his wonder-working such as curing entire plagues, reviving the dead and controlling the elements are clearly exaggerated at least, but it is becoming clearer, especially since the discovery of the Strasbourg fragments (see below), that, contrary to many former interpretations, Empedocles did not make a clear separation between his philosophy of nature and the more mystical, theological aspects of his philosophy, and so may well have seen no great difference in kind between healing ills through empirical understanding of human physiognomy and healing by means of sacred incantations and ritual purifications. His public as well may have made no great distinction between 'scientific' and sacred medicine as is suggested by the account of Empedocles curing a plague by restoring a fresh water-supply, after which he was venerated as a god.
2. Works
Empedocles work survives only in fragments, but luckily in a far greater number than any of the other Presocratics. These fragments are mostly quotations found in other authors such as Aristotle and Plutarch. Although many works, including tragedies and a medical treatise, are attributed to Empedocles by ancient sources no fragments of these have survived, and the extant fragments all come from a work of hexameter poetry traditionally entitled On Nature (Peri Phuseôs) or Physics (Phusika) and some from a possibly separate work called Purifications (Katharmoi). Of these two titles On Nature is by far the better attested and nearly all the fragments which are cited by ancient authors along with the title of the work they came from are attributed to On Nature, while only two are attributed to the Purifications. Because the fragments contain both material that clearly refers to physics and cosmology – the four elements, the cosmic cycle etc. – and also material concerning the fate of the soul, sin and purification, traditionally the former were placed in reconstructions of On Nature, and the latter in the Purifications. Indeed Empedocles' writings contain ideas and themes that may seem quite incompatible with one another. On Natureas usually reconstructed seemed the work of a mechanist physicist which seeks to replace the traditional gods with four lifeless impersonal elements and two cosmic forces of attraction and repulsion, Love and Strife. The Purifications on the other hand seemed the work of a deeply religious Pythagorean mystic: it was often thought that Empedocles either wrote the Purifications as a move away from the mechanistic materialist position in On Nature, or that the Purifications were an addendum to On Nature, looking at the world from quite a different perspective.
However there have long been doubts about whether there were really two poems or only one poem (perhaps called On Nature and Purifications or with On Nature and Purifications as alternative titles for the same work) which contained both physical and religious material. First, although we may think of a poem called Physics as restricting itself to physical concerns alone, this may well be an anachronistic retrojection of modern rationalistic ideas of a gulf between physics and religion. Further, ancient book titles tend to be generic and there is a long tradition of works called either On Nature (Peri Phuseôs) or Physics (Physika) by various authors, with the earliest attested title for such works being On the Nature of the Universe (Peri Phuseôs tôn Ontôn 'On the Nature of Things that Exist'), and so neither title may be Empedocles' own and the two may perhaps be interchangeable different titles for the same work. Although there is still argument on this subject the Strasbourg fragments now suggest strongly that both physical and religious material was originally together in On Nature.
In 1990 the first ancient papyrus fragments of Empedocles were rediscovered at the University of Strasbourg and were published in 1999. Since these were also the first papyrus fragments of any of the Presocratics their discovery caused considerable excitement. Among other important new information they give about Empedocles' philosophy, with great good fortune fr. a, the longest of the new fragments, was found to be a continuation of the longest of the previously known fragments (fr. 17) and thus now the two together form a continuous text of 69 lines. Fr. 17 is cited by Simplicius as being from book one of On Nature, and again very fortunately Strasbourg fr. a(ii) contains a marginal note by the manuscript copyist identifying line 30 of fr. a(ii) as line 300 of book one of On Nature. Since the Strasbourg fragments seem to have come from a single piece of papyrus, and they also overlap with a formerly known religious fragment usually placed in the Purifications (fr. 1 39) it now seems very likely that Empedocles introduced the themes of sin and purification early on in the physical poem. In fact it can now be argued that all of the fragments of the Purifications can be accommodated in the early part of book one of On Nature.
3. Physics and Cosmology
a. Physics
The foundations of Empedocles' physics lie in the assumption that there are four 'elements' of matter, or 'roots' as he calls them, using a botanical metaphor that stresses their creative potential: earth, air, fire and water. These are able to create all things, including all living creatures, by being 'mixed' in different combinations and proportions. Each of the elements however, retains its own characteristics in the mixture, and each is eternal and unchanging. The positing of these four roots of matter forms part of a tradition of opposite material creative principles in Presocratic philosophy, but it also has its origins in an attempt to counter the theories of Parmenides who had argued that the world is single and unchanging since nothing can come from nothing and nothing can be destroyed into nothing: the theory known as Eleatic monism. Empedocles' response was to appropriate Parmenides' ideas and to use them against themselves. Nothing can come from nothing nor be destroyed into nothing (fr. 12), and therefore, in order to rescue the reality of the phenomenal world, there must be assumed to exist something eternal and unchanging beneath the constant change, growth and decay of the visible world. Empedocles then, transfers the changelessness that Parmenides attributes to the entire world to his four elements, and replaces the static singularity Parmenides' world with a dynamic plurality. The four elements correspond closely to their expression at the macroscopic level of nature, with the traditional quadripartite division of the cosmos into earth, sea, air, and the fiery aether of the heavenly bodies: these four naturally occurring 'elements' of the cosmos clearly represent a fundamental natural division of matter at the largest scale. This division at the macroscopic level of reality is applied reductively at the microscopic level to produce a parallelism between the constituents of matter and the fundamental constituents of the cosmos, but the reduction of the world into four types of material particles does not deny the reality of the world we see, but instead validates it. Empedocles stresses this parallel between the elements at the different levels of reality by using the terms 'sun' 'sea' and 'Earth' interchangeably with 'fire', 'water' and 'earth'. Of the four elements, although Empedocles stresses their equality of powers, fire is also granted a special role both in its hardening effect on mixtures of the other elements and also as the fundamental principle of living things.
b. Cosmology
Empedocles also posits two cosmic forces which work upon the elements in both creative and destructive ways. These he personifies as Love (Philia) – a force of attraction and combination – and Strife (Neikos) – a force of repulsion and separation. Whether these cosmic forces are to be envisaged in simply mechanistic terms as descriptions of the way things happen, or as expressions of internal properties of the elements, or as external forces that act upon the elements, is not clear. It is also unclear whether the two forces are to be seen as impersonal mechanistic physical forces or as intelligent divinities that act in purposive ways in creation and destruction. Evidence can be found for all these interpretations. What is clear is that these two forces are engaged in an eternal battle for domination of the cosmos and that they each prevail in turn in an endless cosmic cycle. The details of this cosmic cycle are also difficult to establish, but the most widely accepted interpretation is represented in the following diagram:
Beginning from the top of the diagram and proceeding clockwise, when Love is completely dominant she draws all the elements fully together into a Sphere in which, although the elements are not fused together into a single mass, each is indistinguishable from the others. The Sphere then, is an a-cosmic state during which no matter can exist, and no life is possible. Then as Love's power gradually weakens and Strife begins to grow in power, he gradually separates out the elements from the Sphere until there is enough separation for matter to come into existence, for the world to be created and for all life to be born. When Strife has achieved total domination we again get an a-cosmic state in which the elements are separated completely and the world and all life is destroyed in a Whirl. Then Love begins to increase in power and to draw the elements together again, and as she does so the world is again created and life is again born. When Love has achieved full dominan ce we return once more to the sphere. As Empedocles puts it in fr. 17.1-8:
A twofold tale I shall tell: at one time it grew to be one only from many, and at another again it divided to be many from one. There is a double birth of what is mortal, and a double passing away; for the uniting of all things brings one generation into being and destroys it, and the other is reared and scattered as they are again being divided. And these things never cease their continuous exchange of position, at one time all coming together into one through Love, at another again being borne away from each other by Strife's repulsion.
The cosmos exists in a state of constant flux then, beneath which there is a certain sort of stability in the eternity of the elements. The world is in a constant state of organic evolution, and there appear to be two different creations and two different worlds which have no direct link between them. According the most widely accepted interpretation Empedocles considered that we ourselves inhabit the world under the increasing power of Strife.
4. Biology
Empedocles' physics have a particularly biological focus as is indicated by his choice of the botanical metaphor of 'roots' for what were later called 'elements'. The term 'roots' stresses the creative potential of the roots rather than illustrating the way they create things by being mixed in different combinations: 'elements' (stoicheia in Greek, elementa in Latin) is the word for the letters of the alphabet, and is a metaphor that stresses the ability of the elements of matter to form different types of matter by interchange of position just as a limited number of letters are able to form all sorts of different words on the page. To illustrate this aspect of the creative abilities of his roots Empedocles uses an analogy with the way painters can use a limited number of colours to create all sorts of different colours and represent all the different productions of nature.
Fr. 23:
As painters, men well taught by wisdom in the practice of their art, decorate temple offerings when they take in their hands pigments of various colours, and after fitting them in close combination – more of some and less of others – they produce from them shapes resembling all things, creating trees and men and women, animals and birds and water-nourished fish, and long-lived gods too, highest in honor; so let not error convince you in your mind that there is any other source for the countless perishables that are seen, but know this clearly, since the account you have heard is divinely revealed.
Among other aspects, this analogy exhibits Empedocles' tendency to think about the creative abilities of the elements in terms of their biological products, here a characteristically Empedoclean list of creatures representing the different orders of nature: plants, humans, land animals, birds, and fish, as well as gods. If painters use a mixture of a small number of pigments to produce copies of the works of nature, then the same process is productive of those works of nature. In other ways as well in his presentation of the cosmic cycle and the endless combination and separation of the elements he tends to elide the distinction between the elements and the life-forms they produce. Just as in the parallel he draws between the elements of the cosmos on both microscopic and macroscopic levels, so a close parallel is drawn between living creatures and their constituent elements.
a. Origin of Species
Empedocles presents us with the earliest extant attempt at producing a detailed rational mechanism for the origin of species. Greek traditions include the aetiological myths of the origin of a particular species of animal by transformation from a human being (many of these ancient mythological aetiologies are collected by Ovid in the Metamorphoses). The origins of humans, or of particular heroes, founders of cities or of races is frequently explained by what I term a botanical analogy: they originally emerged autochthonously from the ground just as plants do today, and this is also standard in ancient scientific theories as well: the original spontaneous generation of life from the earth, with all creatures emerging in their present species. Empedocles attempts to provide a comprehensive mechanism for the origins not simply of humans or of a particular animal but of all animal life, including humans, and a rational mechanism that would seem to do away with the need for any design in creatures or any external agency to order them and separate them into their individual species.
In Strasbourg fr. a(ii) 23-30 we now find the following lines in which Empedocles seemingly introduces his account of zoogony:
I will show you to your eyes too, where they find a larger body: first the coming together and the unfolding of birth, and as many as are now remaining of this generation. This [is to be seen] among the wilder species of mountain-roaming beasts; this [is to be seen] in the twofold offspring of men, this [is to be seen] in the produce of the root-bearing fields and of the cluster of grapes mounting on the vine. From these convey to your mind unerring proofs of my account: for you will see the coming together and unfolding of birth.
Empedocles promises an exposition of zoogony and the origin of species which, from the examples he gives – wild animals, humans and plants – is clearly intended to encompass all animal and plant life, including humans. He appeals to present day species as proofs of his theories: we can see both the products of this process of zoogony around us in nature today and also, it seems, we can see the same processes still going on today. That the theory refers to present day species rather than creatures in some counter world is underlined by the stress Empedocles puts on 'as many as are now remaining of this generation'. So the theory is intended to explain the origin and development of all life and refers specifically to the animals and plants around us today, both as examples of and as proofs of the theory he will propose. This process of generation he describes by the repeated 'the coming together and the unfolding of birth'. This seems to posit two processes which work, either together or separately, to produce the life we see around us today: a process of coming together and also a process of unfolding or perhaps more strictly 'unleafing' since the metaphor originates from the leaves of plants. So the second part of this process of zoogony involves a botanical metaphor: just as in the traditional botanical analogy of the myths of autochthony, an appeal to the development and growth of plants is used to describe the process of the development of all life.
According to fragments B57, B59, B60, and B61, first of all individual limbs and organs were produced from the earth. These wandered separately at first and then under the combining power of Love they came together in all sorts of wild and seemingly random hybrid combinations, producing double fronted creatures, hermaphrodites, ox-faced man creatures and man-faced ox-creatures. This weird picture is explained by Aristotle in the Physics and later in more detail by Simplicius in his commentary on the Physics as a theory of the origin of species in which, as we would put it, a certain form of natural selection is operative. The creatures assembled wrongly from parts of disparate animals will die out, either immediately, or by being unable to breed, and only the creatures by chance put together from homogeneous limbs will survive and so go on to found the species that we see today. The production of species and their ordering then is explained by a mechanistic process long recognised as a forerunner of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Unlike in Darwin's theory however, there would seem to be no gradual evolution of one species into another, and all of the variety of nature is produced in a great burst of birth in the beginning and is then whittled down by extinctions into the creatures we see today. That this theory intends to account for the origins of both humans and animals is ensured by the component parts of the ox-headed man-creatures and man-headed ox-creatures. There will clearly also be created by this system man-headed man-creatures and ox-headed ox-creatures, that is to say normal oxen and normal humans, although they are not mentioned. Further evidence that this zoogony relates to present day creatures is given by Aristotle and Simplicius who tell us that this process is still going on today.
However, Empedocles also adds to this theory another explanation of the origins of humans very much along the lines of traditional myths of autochthony. In fr. B62 and Strasbourg fr. d he describes the 'shoots' of men and women arising from the earth, drawn up by fire as it separates out from the other elements during the creation under the power of increasing Strife. As his choice of the word 'shoots' indicates these are not yet fully articulated people with distinct limbs but 'whole-nature forms' that 'did not as yet show the lovely shape of limbs, or voice or language native to man'. We may assume that as Strife increases in power these 'shoots' will, just as plant buds do, gradually become fully articulated with distinct limbs and features. So human origins are accounted for by a botanical analogy, with humans as biological productions of the earth itself. This theory is also intended to account for modern-day as humans, as Strasbourg fr. d tells us 'even now daylight beholds their remains'. So both the creation under Love and the creation under Strife refer to the origins of modern plants, animals, and humans. This is problematic since according to the picture of the cosmic cycle given above the world created by Strife is quite separate from that created by Love, and two quite different explanations are given by Empedocles for each creation of life. Various attempts have been made to account for this, including a radical revision of the cosmic cycle in order to allow both creations of life to take place within the same world, and also seeing the two different worlds of the cosmic cycle as more useful devices for examining different aspects of creation separately than absolutely chronologically separate phases of a cycle: the work of Love in combining creatures and the work of Strife in articulating them would then actually take place at the same time, but are simply described as operative in chronologically separate phases.
b. Embryology
Empedocles is an exponent of the pangenetic theory of embryology. In this theory inheritance of characteristics from both mother and father is explained by each of the two parents' limbs and organs creating tiny copies of themselves. These miniature limbs and organs then flow together in the generative seed and when the two seeds combine in the womb the father's seed may provide the model for the nose, while the mother's seed the model for the eyes and so on. This is an elegant way of accounting for inheritance of characteristics, but this is unlikely to be the whole story. As Aristotle points out there are strong conceptual similarities between Empedocles' embryology and the creation under Love in which we see the coming together of pre-formed limbs creating life. So Empedocles thinks of the original formation of animals as a process analogous to the present day formation of the embryo in the womb. From his description in Strasbourg fr. a (ii) 23-30 'the coming together and unfolding of birth' we seem to have two processes that are at work in the formation of both present day creatures and the original creation of life. The 'coming together' describes both the original coming together of the limbs of the first creatures and also the coming together of the tiny limbs in conception. The other side of the creative process, the 'unfolding' is illustrated by the creation under Strife of the 'shoots of men and pitiable women' whose limbs are at first not fully articulated or defined: they will undergo a process of 'unfolding' just like plant buds and become fully developed humans. This 'unfolding' is clearly paralleled in embryology by the gradual development and growth of the embryo in the womb. Therefore it may be best to think of the tiny limbs and organs contained in the generative seed not as fully developed limbs and organs, but as the genetic material that contains the potential for the development of limbs and organs. This is so mewhat speculative, but would provide Empedocles with a much more nearly truly evolutionary theory of the origin of species than had previously been ascribed to him. Certainly the differentiation into the two sexes is described in terms of potential: the warmth of the womb determines whether the embryo will be male or female, cf. fr B 65: 'They were poured in pure places; some met with cold and became women', fr. B 67: 'For the male was warmer . . . this is the reason why men are dark, more powerfully built, and hairier'. It may be that other characteristics are also determined or informed by environmental factors as well.
c. Perception and Thought
Empedocles seems to have been the first philosopher to give a detailed explanation of the mechanism by which we perceive things. His theory, criticised by Aristotle and Theophrastus, is that all things give off effluences and that these enter pores in the sense organs. The pores and the effluences will be of varying shapes and sizes and so only certain effluences enter certain sense-organs if they meet pores of the correct size and shape to admit them. Further, perception is achieved by the attraction of similars: we perceive light colours with fire in the eye, dark colours with water, smell is achieved by the presence of breath in the nostrils etc.
As Theophrastus complains, perception is closely linked to thought by Empedocles, cf. fr. B109:
With earth, we perceive earth, with water water, with air divine fire, with fire destructive fire, with love love, and strife with baneful strife.
fr. B 107:
All things are fitted together and constructed out of these, and by means of them they think and feel pleasure and pain.
In B 109 Empedocles moves from perception of physical elements to ethical perceptions using the same theory of perception by similars, while in B 107 we can see the theory used to account more directly for thought itself. Hence for Empedocles there is a close link between what we perceive and what we think. Further our thoughts will also be affected by our own physical constitutions (B 108). This process of the attraction of like to like is operative from the most fundamental level with the parts of the roots of matter being attracted to their like, right up to the highest level of the purest mixture which is the highest form of thought. Hence it seems that everything in nature has a share in perception and intelligence, cf. fr. 110.10: 'know that all things have intelligence and a share of thought'.
5. Ethics and the Journey of the Soul
a. The Daimôns and Transmigration of Souls
Plutarch cites the following fragment as coming from 'the beginning of Empedocles' philosophy', fr. B 115:
There is a decree of necessity, ratified long ago by gods, eternal and sealed by broad oaths, that whenever one in error, from fear, defiles his own limbs, having by his error made false the oath he swore – daimôns to whom life long-lasting is apportioned – he wanders from the blessed ones for three-times countless years, being born throughout the time as all kinds of mortal forms, exchanging one hard way of life for another. For the force of air pursues him into the sea, and sea spits him out onto earth's surface, earth casts him in the rays of blazing sun, and sun into the eddies of air; one takes him from another, and all abhor him. I too am now one of these, an exile from the gods and a wanderer, having put my trust in raving Strife.
Traditionally Plutarch's seeming attribution of this fragment to On Naturewas assumed to be incorrect and it was placed in the Purifications instead. However from the evidence of the Strasbourg fragments it seems that it may well be that Plutarch was correct, since they contain a description of the details of the sin Empedocles accuses himself of in fr. 115, cf. Strasbourg fr. d lines 5-6:
'Alas that merciless day did not destroy me sooner, before I devised with my claws terrible deeds for the sake of food'
In fr. 115 Empedocles describes himself as a 'daimôn', a being to whom long life has been granted, but who has committed the sin of meat-eating and bloodshed and consequently is punished by banishment from the company of the immortal gods. The banishment lasts three myriads of years, either 'three-times countless years' or thirty thousand years. In either case he must atone for his sin by being repeatedly reincarnated into all the different living forms of the different orders of nature. Elsewhere he says: 'For before now I have been at some time boy and girl, bush, bird, and a mute fish in the sea' (fr. B 117). Empedocles then, has already suffered this nearly endless cycle of reincarnations having been seemingly hurled down to the lowest rung of the scale of nature but has worked his way up, has been purified at last and, as he tells us in fr. B. 112, is himself now an immortal god. There are others too numbered among the daimôns, those who 'at the end … come among men on earth as prophets, minstrels, physicians and leaders, and from these they arise as gods, highest in honour.' (fr. 146). It is not entirely clear whether we are meant to imagine the daimôns as an entirely separate class of blessed being with a different creation and a different fate from ourselves, the ordinary mortals, or as people who began as ordinary mortals but who, having purified themselves and having achieved perfection, are now approaching divine status. The latter reading would perhaps make more sense in terms of Empedocles' didactic ethical mission: if we are all potentially perfectable, then his purificatory teaching becomes much more crucial. Empedocles himself, as his life shows, has achieved all four of the states that qualify the daimôns for immortality, he is a prophet, a minstrel, a physician and a leader, and can now pass on his wisdom to those on earth whom he is about to leave behind when he rejoins the company of the immortals. As can be seen from the description above, there are strong similarities between Empedocles and the teachings of Pythagoras on the transmigration of souls. Empedocles is clearly a follower of Pythagoras, in his ethics and psychology at least, and shares his vegetarianism and pacifism.
b. Meat-Eating and Sin
Slaughter and meat-eating are the most terrible of sins, indeed for him animal slaughter is murder and meat-eating is cannibalism, as shown by fr. 137:
The father will lift up his dear son in changed form, and blind fool, as he prays he will slay him, and those who take part in the sacrifice bring the victim as he pleads. But the father, deaf to his cries, slays him in his house and prepares an evil feast. In the same way son seizes father, and children their mother, and having bereaved them of life devour the flesh of those they love.
Here, in terms reminiscent of Hesiod's description of the coming horrors of the Iron Age in Works and Days, we see the appalling consequences of meat-eating: murder, cannibalism, the destruction of whole families and, by extrapolation, of entire societies. This is a radical position in both political and religious terms. Plato's Protagoras in the eponymous dialogue can simply assume that all men agree that warfare is 'a fine and noble thing'. For Empedocles warfare, one fundamental plank of the Greek city state, is the most appalling of all evils and is punished by the immortals by hurling the perpetrators not only out of their society, but out of human society and even down to the level of the lowest forms of nature.
c. Theology
In religious terms as well traditional animal sacrifice, another fundamental basis of Greek society, becomes the grossest impiety of all. A probably apocryphal tale reports that Empedocles sacrificed an ox made of honey and meal at Olympia, the religious heart of Greece: a pointed act of criticism of traditional religion. Further evidence for his radical theology lies in his appropriation of the names of the Olympian gods for his roots of matter and his cosmic forces. Implicitly he argues that the Olympian gods came into being as misinterpretations of the natural world: the real 'gods' are the elements of nature and the cosmic forces that direct their endless evolutionary cycle. His religious and ethical teachings then are of purification of the soul in an attempt to achieve perfection and unity with perfect Love. He pictures a time in the past, a sort of golden age, when this universal harmony existed, fr. B 128:
They did not have Ares as god or Kydoimos, nor king Zeus, nor Kronos, nor Poseidon but queen Kypris [Love]. Her they propitiated with holy images and painted animal figures, with perfumes of subtle fragrance and offerings of distilled myrrh and sweet-smelling frankincense, and pouring on the earth libations of golden honey. Their altar was not drenched by the unspeakable slaughter of bulls, but this was the greatest defilement among men – to bereave of life and eat noble limbs.
fr. B 130:
All creatures, both animals and birds, were tame and gentle to men, and bright was the flame of their friendship.
Originally people worshipped only one god, Love, and this resulted in universal harmony, even between humans and animals. Implicitly the argument runs that the worship of the Olympian gods he mentions, Ares, Zeus and Poseidon, and the sacrifices they demand have destroyed this harmony, resulting in worship also of Kydoimos, the personification of the noise of battle. Traditional religion with their sacrificial slaughter and meat-eating have had a degrading effect on society.
d. Physics and Theology
As I say above it now seems very likely that Empedocles discussed purificatory topics early on in his poem On Nature. Unlike for modern rationalists then, it seems that for Empedocles there was no fundamental divide between physics and religion. Indeed as can be seen from fr. B 115 above the sin of the daimôn results in an expiatory journey of the soul not only through the different orders of living creatures but through the physical elements of the cosmos. Empedocles draws a close analogy between the cycle of the soul and the cycle of the cosmos itself. This is a hallmark of his work: frequently he uses the same language whether describing the journey of the soul or the cycle of the elements. Sometimes in the Strasbourg fragments the description of the elements coming together under the power of Love is rendered as 'we are coming together'. His sin, in fr. 115, he describes as resulting from having put his trust in raving Strife, one of his cosmic forces, and conversely in fr. 130 we see the people of the golden age worshipping the other cosmic force, Love. Clearly there is more than a little cross-over between physics and ethics for Empedocles. How this works in detail is hard to pin down but perhaps the best reading we can give of On Natureis that it represents the detailed expression of the cycle of the soul at the level of the entire cosmos. The endless evolutionary cycling of the elements is in fact part of the cycle of the soul.
(Note: all translations are by M. R. Wright except those of the Strasbourg fragments which are by O. Primavesi and A. Martin.)
6. References and Further Reading
a. Texts and Commentaries
- Bollack, J. Empédocle, (Paris, 1965-9), 4 vols. With Greek text, French translation, and commentary.
- Diels, H. and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (Berlin, 1952), vol. 1, ch. 31, 276-375. Greek text of both fragments (B) and testimonia (A) with German translation.
- Wright, M. R. (2nd edn.), Empedocles the Extant Fragments (London, 1995). With Greek text, English translation, introduction and commentary.
- Inwood, B. The Poem of Empedocles (Toronto, 1992). With Greek text, facing English translation and introduction.
- Martin, A. and O. Primavesi, L'Empédocle de Strasbourg: (P. Strasb. gr. Inv. 1665-1666) (Berlin/Strasbourg, 1998). With Greek text, French and English translations, introduction, commentary, and English summary.
b. Studies
- Gemelli Marciano, L. "Le 'demonologie' empedoclee: problemi di metodo e altro", Aevum Antiquum 1 (2003), 205-35
- Gemelli Marciano, L. Le metamorfosi della tradizione: mutamenti de significato e neologismi nel Peri physeos di Empedocle (Bari, 1999).
- Guthrie, W.K.C. A History of Greek Philosophy vol. 2 (Cambridge 1969), ch. 3
- Kingsley, P. Ancient Philosophy, Mystery and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition (Oxford, 1995)
- Kirk, G. S. and J.E. Raven, M. Schofield, (2nd edn.), The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge 1983), ch. 10.
- O'Brien, D. Empedocles' Cosmic Cycle (Cambridge, 1969)
- Osborne, C. 'Empedocles recycled', Classical Quarterly NS 37 (1987), 24-50
- Osbourne, C. 'Rummaging in the recycling bins of Upper Egypt: a discussion of A. Martin and O. Primavesi, ZL' Empédocle de Strasbourg', Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 18 (Oxford, 2000), 329-56.
- Sedley, D. N. 'Empedocles' life cycles', in Proceedings of the Symposium Tertium Mykonense (forthcoming, 2004)
- Solmsen, F. 'Love and Strife in Empedocles' cosmology', Phronesis 10 (1965), 123-45; repr. in R.E. Allen and D.J. Furley (eds), Studies in Presocratic Philosophy, (London, 1975), vol. 2, 221-64.
- Trépanier, S. 'Empedocles on the ultimate symmetry of the world', Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 24 (2003), 1-57
- Trépanier, S. Empedocles: An Interpretation (London, 2004)
Author Information
Gordon Campbell
Email: email@example.com
National University of Ireland, Maynooth


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Yes, There are a total of nine English public school boards in Quebec. Other boards in the greater Montreal area are; Lester B. Pearson School Board (West Island), Riverside School Board (South Shore) and the Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board (Laval). For a full list of Anglophone school boards in Quebec, please visit the Quebec English School Boards Association (QESBA) website.
This information can be found in the Admissions section of our website. If you have a specific question you can contact a representative who will be happy to help you.
This information can be found in the Registration section of our website. If you have a specific question you can contact a representative who will be happy to help you.
Yes. The Before and After School Enrichment (B.A.S.E.) daycare program is a government funded day supervision service, organized outside class hours for preschool and elementary school children. B.A.S.E. provides a program of activities in keeping with the needs of the child in a safe environment supervised by qualified staff. More information can be found in the B.A.S.E. Daycare Services section of our website
This information can be found in the Transportation section of our website. If you have a specific question you can contact a representative who will be happy to help you.
The EMSB's Outreach Network is designed to provide an opportunity for students who have left school before graduation to return to a different educational setting. The system is designed to help students continue their studies in a less formal atmosphere. Some programs will lead to sufficient credits for a high school leaving certificate, while others will permit the student to return to a regular high school setting. In some cases, the student will be prepared for entering the workforce. Visit the Outreach Network website for more information.
If your child is over 16 years of age and meets the required prerequisites at the Secondary III or IV level he/she may choose to register in a Vocational Program offered by one of our Vocational Centres. He/she may also choose to complete secondary school at any time by attending classes in one of our Adult Education Centres or through distance education. Visit the Adult Education and Vocational Services website for more information.
Yes, our Student Services Department organizes and provides educational services for students with special needs at the pre-school, elementary and secondary levels - whether they have handicaps, social maladjustments or learning disabilities - with the hope of integrating them into regular classroom settings. More information can be found in the Special Seeds section of our website.
The EMSB Social Affairs network of schools provides a complete education, as well as the full range of complimentary services to children and teenagers who are unable to attend regular schools and must remain in hospitals or youth protection centres. Our schools work closely with Integrated Health and Social Services Centres (CISSS) and Integrated University Health and Social Services Centres (CIUSSS).
Yes, families who reside within the territory of the EMSB may apply for a
Le Comité de gestion de la taxe scolaire de l'île de Montréal (originally known as the School Council of the Island of Montreal), which was created as a result of legislation adopted by the government of Quebec, on February 28, 2003. Under the terms of the Education Act , the Comité de gestion de la taxe scolaire de l'île de Montréal is responsible for the administration of the long-term debt of the five school boards of the Island of Montreal, contracts loans on behalf of the school boards, fixes the school tax rate, collects and distributes the tax to the school boards.
This information can be found in our French P
School boards are local democratic institutions that oversee pre-school, primary, secondary, adult academic and vocational education for both youth and adults on their assigned territory. Each school board in Quebec is governed by a council of commissioners all of whom are publicly elected through general elections which take place every four years.
Along with educating the population, their task also involves offering a variety of services to the community. They carry out a mission of prime importance, one which lies at the very heart of any community's development.
Yes, our Adult Education and Vocational Services (A.E.V.S.) offers both academic and vocational courses for individuals 16 years and older.
Please visit the A.E.V.S. website for more information on how to register for a program of your choice.

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text: Introduction Road rage is referred to as "incidents of angry and aggressive driving", are taking place with increasing frequency on SA roads. It is defined as an assault with a motor vehicle or other dangerous weapon by the operator or passenger/s of one motor vehicle on the operator or passenger/s of another motor vehicle or is caused by an incident that occurred on a roadway and is considered a criminal offence. Have you ever witnessed or heard of the following incidents: " A seemingly stressed, harassed driver weaves through rush hour traffic. Another vehicle in front of him does not pull away immediately when the robot turns green. The stressed driver gets onto his hooter, rushes past the person in front of him, barely missing a pedestrian standing on the side of the road. As he passes the car in front of him, he leans over and gives the other driver the middle finger…!" "A middle-aged female driver gets passed, quite legally by another driver, who happens to be a young male. She seems to "lose it", chases after him, forces him to pull off the road and gives him a verbal lesson on, among other issues, "the decaying of the morals of the youth" "A newspaper headline: "Two killed in roadside anger incident" These are a couple of examples of what is commonly referred to as "road rage", and is usually characterized by behaviours such as verbal swearing, tailgating, cutting someone off, making obscene gestures, flashing headlights and physical violence. In its worst outcome, it can lead to maiming, psychological scarring and even death. Many factors such as limited road capacity, an increase of the number of drivers, cars, pedestrians etc. maybe some of the precipitating factors which create anger and frustration on the road. Sharkin (2004) states that the term road rage has become common vernacular to describe any displays of anger while driving, although such displays are also referred to as "angry or aggressive driving." Angry or aggressive driving may range from mild displays of anger, such as following too closely on another driver's bumper, to more serious forms of violence, such as physical assault and vehicular homicide. Whereas a considerable amount of attention has been devoted to the assessment and treatment of maladaptive anger in general (Sharkin, 1988), little attention has been paid to the specific case of driving anger. Driving anger may be in need of more attention, especially given that anger may be experienced more frequently while driving than during other activities (Parkinson, 2001). In my view, road rage is an illness. It is an emotional, cognitive and behavioural psychiatric disorder just as the antisocial personality (criminal) is viewed as one. Society, at this point, however, seems to tolerate road "ragers" vs criminals. The extreme outcomes of road rage incidents, however, resemble the same as that of a criminal e.g maiming, killing. The main reason for society not "crying foul" at this time is most probably due to the fact that the less extreme outcomes of road rage such as showing the finger, swearing, tailgating, etc. are experienced by most normal people during a period of time. I, therefore, believe that society accepts road rage as normal behaviour and normal outcomes of the stress of driving. It is only when someone gets hurt or killed that such a raged person is deemed as being a criminal/problem to society and needs to be removed/incarcerated. This statement is supported by Smart, e.a (2002) who states that current reporting on road rage could just be the tip of the iceberg. This line of argumentation begs the question as to where the dividing line between "ordinary/normal" and "extraordinary/abnormal" road rage lies. There is some evidence to suggest that milder forms of aggressive driving may escalate into more serious incidents (Novaco, 1991). Are certain personality types more prone to the second type? Research suggests that the "typical" low self-esteemed/external locus of control/low maturity level/low self-control/low impulse control/high anger evoked/etc. the type may be more prone to overt and more serious actions during/following their experience of road rage thoughts and emotions (Jerome, e.a 2004). So how long is a piece of string? When is a headache, depression real depression? Very diffuse and intangible. For the sake of this paper, road rage is viewed as a mental illness of human functioning as triggered by the interaction between environmental factors such as heavy traffic, and mental thoughts and emotions vary in intensity in individuals/situations, is evoked differently in individuals and leads to different behavioural outcomes in individuals. The question which then arises is whether it is a treatable illness or not. In this article typical road rage causes and treatment, protocols will be discussed. Also, visit the following sections: Avoiding aggressive driving 10 Point plan to avoid Road Rage Road Rage in South Africa South African research on Road Rage Road Rage - A South African Perspective Road Rage Study Faster Vehicles Become Victims of Road Rage


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Bright Horizons in Dallas/Fort Worth offers quality, year-round programming and a number of convenient locations throughout Downtown Dallas, North Dallas, North Dallas Tollway, Shops of Legacy, Downtown Fort Worth, Sundance Square, and Near Hospital District.
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Having a sitter or two familiar with your family can be extremely helpful when you need back-up care. With Sittercity, you can search for local babysitters and nannies, or post a job detailing your needs, and have interested child care providers reach out to you directly. Sittercity has built-in screening tools that give you control to hire with ease and confidence, which include secure messaging, interview booking, professional references, and background checks.
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With a babysitter or nanny in your home, your child gets personalized, one-on-one attention in an environment controlled by you. Your child care will match the exact schedule you need, all in the convenience of your home. If desired, you can also get house management help from your in-home provider. A daycare facility tends to be a more cost-effective option that takes place in a child-specific setting. Most will have built-in programming and structured socialization for all of the children in attendance. In the end, there's no one-size-fits-all approach to child care—pick the environment that's best for you.
How are working parents supported by Bright Horizons in Dallas-Fort Worth?
Bright Horizons in Dallas-Fort Worth supports the whole family because we know that success at work and success at home go hand-in-hand. We designed our centers, programs, and schedules to keep the needs of both children and parents in mind.
Does Bright Horizons have summer care in Dallas-Fort Worth?
Does Bright Horizons in Dallas-Fort Worth provide daycare for children with special needs?
Yes. Bright Horizons in Dallas-Fort Worth accommodates a wide range of special and individualized needs in our group programs. We offer inclusive programs that focus on each child's strengths and support a collaborative team approach with the teacher, director, specialists, and families. The team will work closely together to maximize your child's opportunities for learning, growth, and development, and minimize any barriers or safety issues that a group program may present.


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PLEASE NOTE: This list includes LED light sets only. Excludes all LEGO sets shown in pictures and videos
About this item:
- Creating fun: We used good quality small cables and lights to hide between the bricks without affecting the look of the model.
About installation:
- When to install lights: Install lights while building or completing your LEGO model.
- Multiple opions: can be powered by mobile power supply/battery box/wall charger/other devices with usb port (output voltage should be less than 6V)
- Installation guide: Comes with detailed instruction, detailed description in the form of pictures, step by step lead you how to install and use, it is easy to find the way.
About shipping and delivery:
- Orders will ship within 1-3 days.
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The Entry of the Most Holy Mother of God into the Temple
According to Holy Tradition, the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple took place in the following manner. The parents of the Virgin Mary, Saints Joachim and Anna, praying for an end to their childlessness, vowed that if a child were born to them, they would dedicate it to the service of God.
When the Most Holy Virgin reached the age of three, the holy parents decided to fulfill their vow. They gathered together their relatives and acquaintances, and dressed the All-Pure Virgin in Her finest clothes. Singing sacred songs and with lighted candles in their hands, virgins escorted Her to the Temple (Ps. 44/45:14-15). There the High Priest and several priests met the handmaiden of God. In the Temple, fifteen high steps led to the sanctuary, which only the priests and High Priest could enter. (Because they recited a Psalm on each step, Psalms 119/120-133/134 are called "Psalms of Ascent.") The child Mary, so it seemed, could not make it up this stairway. But just as they placed Her on the first step, strengthened by the power of God, She quickly went up the remaining steps and ascended to the highest one. Then the High Priest, through inspiration from above, led the Most Holy Virgin into the Holy of Holies, where only the High Priest entered once a year to offer a purifying sacrifice of blood. Therefore, all those present in the Temple were astonished at this most unusual occurrence.
After entrusting their child to the Heavenly Father, Joachim and Anna returned home. The All-Holy Virgin remained in the quarters for virgins near the Temple. According to the testimony of Holy Scripture (Exodus 38; 1 Kings 1: 28; Luke 2: 37), and also the historian Josephus Flavius, there were many living quarters around the Temple, in which those who were dedicated to the service of God dwelt.
The earthly life of the Most Holy Theotokos from Her infancy until She was taken up to Heaven is shrouded in deep mystery. Her life at the Jerusalem Temple was also a secret. "If anyone were to ask me," said Saint Jerome, "how the Most Holy Virgin spent the time of Her youth, I would answer that that is known to God Himself and the Archangel Gabriel, Her constant guardian."
But there are accounts in Church Tradition, that during the All-Pure Virgin's stay at the Temple, She grew up in a community of pious virgins, diligently read the Holy Scripture, occupied Herself with handicrafts, prayed constantly, and grew in love for God. From ancient times, the Church has celebrated the Feast of the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple. Indications that the Feast was observed in the first centuries of Christianity are found in the traditions of Palestinian Christians, which say that the holy Empress Helen (May 21) built a church in honor of the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple.
Saint Gregory of Nyssa, in the fourth century, also mentions this Feast. In the eighth century Saints Germanus and Tarasius, Patriarchs of Constantinople, delivered sermons on the Feast of the Entry.
The Feast of the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple foretells God's blessing for the human race, the preaching of salvation, the promise of the coming of Christ.
by Saint Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessalonica
If a tree is known by its fruit, and a good tree bears good fruit (Mt. 7:17; Luke 6:44), then is not the Mother of Goodness Itself, She who bore the Eternal Beauty, incomparably more excellent than every good, whether in this world or the world above? Therefore, the coeternal and identical Image of goodness, Preeternal, transcending all being, He Who is the preexisting and good Word of the Father, moved by His unutterable love for mankind and compassion for us, put on our image, that He might reclaim for Himself our nature which had been dragged down to uttermost Hades, so as to renew this corrupted nature and raise it to the heights of Heaven. For this purpose, He had to assume a flesh that was both new and ours, that He might refashion us from out of ourselves. Now He finds a Handmaiden perfectly suited to these needs, the supplier of Her own unsullied nature, the Ever-Virgin now hymned by us, and Whose miraculous Entrance into the Temple, into the Holy of Holies, we now celebrate. God predestined Her before the ages for the salvation and reclaiming of our kind. She was chosen, not just from the crowd, but from the ranks of the chosen of all ages, renowned for piety and understanding, and for their God-pleasing words and deeds.
In the beginning, there was one who rose up against us: the author of evil, the serpent, who dragged us into the abyss. Many reasons impelled him to rise up against us, and there are many ways by which he enslaved our nature: envy, rivalry, hatred, injustice, treachery, slyness, etc. In addition to all this, he also has within him the power of bringing death, which he himself engendered, being the first to fall away from true life.
The author of evil was jealous of Adam, when he saw him being led from earth to Heaven, from which he was justly cast down. Filled with envy, he pounced upon Adam with a terrible ferocity, and even wished to clothe him with the garb of death. Envy is not only the begetter of hatred, but also of murder, which this truly man-hating serpent brought about in us. For he wanted to be master over the earth-born for the ruin of that which was created in the image and likeness of God. Since he was not bold enough to make a face to face attack, he resorted to cunning and deceit. This truly terrible and malicious plotter pretended to be a friend and useful adviser by assuming the physical form of a serpent, and stealthily took their position. By his God-opposing advice, he instills in man his own death-bearing power, like a venomous poison.
If Adam had been sufficiently strong to keep the divine commandment, then he would have shown himself the vanquisher of his enemy, and withstood his deathly attack. But since he voluntarily gave in to sin, he was defeated and was made a sinner. Since he is the root of our race, he has produced us as death-bearing shoots. So, it was necessary for us, if he were to fight back against his defeat and to claim victory, to rid himself of the death-bearing venomous poison in his soul and body, and to absorb life, eternal and indestructible life.
It was necessary for us to have a new root for our race, a new Adam, not just one Who would be sinless and invincible, but one Who also would be able to forgive sins and set free from punishment those subject to it. And not only would He have life in Himself, but also the capacity to restore to life, so that He could grant to those who cleave to Him and are related to Him by race both life and the forgiveness of their sins, restoring to life not only those who came after Him, but also those who already had died before Him. Therefore, Saint Paul, that great trumpet of the Holy Spirit, exclaims, "the first man Adam was made a living soul, the last Adam was made a quickening spirit" (1 Cor. 15:45).
Except for God, there is no one who is without sin, or life-creating, or able to remit sin. Therefore, the new Adam must be not only Man, but also God. He is at the same time life, wisdom, truth, love, and mercy, and every other good thing, so that He might renew the old Adam and restore him to life through mercy, wisdom and righteousness. These are the opposites of the things which the author of evil used to bring about our aging and death.
As the slayer of mankind raised himself against us with envy and hatred, so the Source of life was lifted up [on the Cross] because of His immeasurable goodness and love for mankind. He intensely desired the salvation of His creature, i.e., that His creature would be restored by Himself. In contrast to this, the author of evil wanted to bring God's creature to ruin, and thereby put mankind under his own power, and tyrannically to afflict us. And just as he achieved the conquest and the fall of mankind by means of injustice and cunning, by deceit and his trickery, so has the Liberator brought about the defeat of the author of evil, and the restoration of His own creature with truth, justice and wisdom.
It was a deed of perfect justice that our nature, which was voluntarily enslaved and struck down, should again enter the struggle for victory and cast off its voluntary enslavement. Therefore, God deigned to receive our nature from us, hypostatically uniting with it in a marvelous way. But it was impossible to unite that Most High Nature, Whose purity is incomprehensible for human reason, to a sinful nature before it had been purified. Therefore, for the conception and birth of the Bestower of purity, a perfectly spotless and Most Pure Virgin was required.
Today we celebrate the memory of those things that contributed, if only once, to the Incarnation. He Who is God by nature, the Co-unoriginate and Coeternal Word and Son of the Transcendent Father, becomes the Son of Man, the Son of the Ever-Virgin. "Jesus Christ the same yesterday and today, and forever" (Heb. 13:8), immutable in His divinity and blameless in His humanity, He alone, as the Prophet Isaiah prophesied, "practiced no iniquity, nor deceit with His lips" (Is. 53: 9). He alone was not brought forth in iniquity, nor was He conceived in sin, in contrast to what the Prophet David says concerning himself and every other man (Ps. 50/51: 5). Even in what He assumes, He is perfectly pure and has no need to be cleansed Himself. But for our sake, He accepted purification, suffering, death and resurrection, that He might transmit them to us.
God is born of the spotless and Holy Virgin, or better to say, of the Most Pure and All-Holy Virgin. She is above every fleshly defilement, and even above every impure thought. Her conceiving resulted not from fleshly lust, but by the overshadowing of the Most Holy Spirit. Such desire being utterly alien to Her, it is through prayer and spiritual readiness that She declared to the angel: "Behold the handmaiden of the Lord; be it unto Me according to thy word" (Luke 1:38), and that She conceived and gave birth. So, in order to render the Virgin worthy of this sublime purpose, God marked this ever-virgin Daughter now praised by us, from before the ages, and from eternity, choosing Her from out of His elect.
Turn your attention then, to where this choice began. From the sons of Adam God chose the wondrous Seth, who showed himself a living heaven through his becoming behavior, and through the beauty of his virtues. That is why he was chosen, and from whom the Virgin would blossom as the divinely fitting chariot of God. She was needed to give birth and to summon the earth-born to heavenly sonship. For this reason also all the lineage of Seth were called "sons of God," because from this lineage a son of man would be born the Son of God. The name Seth signifies a rising or resurrection, or more specifically, it signifies the Lord, Who promises and gives immortal life to all who believe in Him.
And how precisely exact is this parallel! Seth was born of Eve, as she herself said, in place of Abel, whom Cain killed through jealousy (Gen. 4:25); and Christ, the Son of the Virgin, was born for us in place of Adam, whom the author of evil also killed through jealousy. But Seth did not resurrect Abel, since he was only a type of the resurrection. But our Lord Jesus Christ resurrected Adam, since He is the very Life and the Resurrection of the earth-born, for whose sake the descendents of Seth are granted divine adoption through hope, and are called the children of God. It was because of this hope that they were called sons of God, as is evident from the one who was first called so, the successor in the choice. This was Enos, the son of Seth, who as Moses wrote, first hoped to call on the Name of the Lord (Gen. 4:26).
In this manner, the choice of the future Mother of God, beginning with the very sons of Adam and proceeding through all the generations of time, through the Providence of God, passes to the Prophet-king David and the successors of his kingdom and lineage. When the chosen time had come, then from the house and posterity of David, Joachim and Anna are chosen by God. Though they were childless, they were by their virtuous life and good disposition the finest of all those descended from the line of David. In prayer they besought God to deliver them from their childlessness, and promised to dedicate their child to God from its infancy. By God Himself, the Mother of God was proclaimed and given to them as a child, so that from such virtuous parents the all-virtuous child would be raised. So in this manner, chastity joined with prayer came to fruition by producing the Mother of virginity, giving birth in the flesh to Him Who was born of God the Father before the ages.
Now, when Righteous Joachim and Anna saw that they had been granted their wish, and that the divine promise to them was realized in fact, then they on their part, as true lovers of God, hastened to fulfill their vow given to God as soon as the child had been weaned from milk. They have now led this truly sanctified child of God, now the Mother of God, this Virgin into the Temple of God. And She, being filled with Divine gifts even at such a tender age, … She, rather than others, determined what was being done over Her. In Her manner She showed that She was not so much presented into the Temple, but that She Herself entered into the service of God of her own accord, as if she had wings, striving towards this sacred and divine love. She considered it desirable and fitting that she should enter into the Temple and dwell in the Holy of Holies.
Therefore, the High Priest, seeing that this child, more than anyone else, had divine grace within Her, wished to set Her within the Holy of Holies. He convinced everyone present to welcome this, since God had advanced it and approved it. Through His angel, God assisted the Virgin and sent Her mystical food, with which She was strengthened in nature, while in body She was brought to maturity and was made purer and more exalted than the angels, having the Heavenly spirits as servants. She was led into the Holy of Holies not just once, but was accepted by God to dwell there with Him during Her youth, so that through Her, the Heavenly Abodes might be opened and given for an eternal habitation to those who believe in Her miraculous birthgiving.
So it is, and this is why She, from the beginning of time, was chosen from among the chosen. She Who is manifest as the Holy of Holies, Who has a body even purer than the spirits purified by virtue, is capable of receiving … the Hypostatic Word of the Unoriginate Father. Today the Ever-Virgin Mary, like a Treasure of God, is stored in the Holy of Holies, so that in due time, (as it later came to pass) She would serve for the enrichment of, and an ornament for, all the world. Therefore, Christ God also glorifies His Mother, both before, and also after His birth.
We who understand the salvation begun for our sake through the Most Holy Virgin, give Her thanks and praise according to our ability. And truly, if the grateful woman (of whom the Gospel tells us), after hearing the saving words of the Lord, blessed and thanked His Mother, raising her voice above the din of the crowd and saying to Christ, "Blessed is the womb that bore Thee, and the paps Thou hast sucked" (Luke 11:27), then we who have the words of eternal life written out for us, and not only the words, but also the miracles and the Passion, and the raising of our nature from death, and its ascent from earth to Heaven, and the promise of immortal life and unfailing salvation, then how shall we not unceasingly hymn and bless the Mother of the Author of our Salvation and the Giver of Life, celebrating Her conception and birth, and now Her Entry into the Holy of Holies?
Now, brethren, let us remove ourselves from earthly to celestial things. Let us change our path from the flesh to the spirit. Let us change our desire from temporal things to those that endure. Let us scorn fleshly delights, which serve as allurements for the soul and soon pass away. Let us desire spiritual gifts, which remain undiminished. Let us turn our reason and our attention from earthly concerns and raise them to the inaccessible places of Heaven, to the Holy of Holies, where the Mother of God now resides.
Therefore, in such manner our songs and prayers to Her will gain entry, and thus through her mediation, we shall be heirs of the everlasting blessings to come, through the grace and love for mankind of Him Who was born of Her for our sake, our Lord Jesus Christ, to Whom be glory, honor and worship, together with His Unoriginate Father and His Coeternal and Life-Creating Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. Amen.


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Promotions and Digital Content Management Internship at Cumulus Broadcasting, Summer, Fall & Spring
Description: Cumulus Broadcasting is located in Columbia, MO but is responsible for radio stations here and in Jefferson City. Our market operates eight radio stations: 102.3 BXR, Q 106.1, Nash FM 100.1, Z 104.1,
101.5 KPLA, News Talk 1400 KFRU, COOL 97.5 and 1240 KLIK. The Promotions Department is in charge of planning the events for each of our eight stations. The Promotions team also manages all of the station
websites, social media and digital content. This department communicates with all aspects of this business, from the Sales and Marketing Department to the Program Directors and on-air teams.
- Will assist Promotions Director prepare for upcoming events
- Consists of hanging banners before concerts, gathering station promo materials, setting up rooms for events
- Assisting listeners with contesting at events
- Following up with business owners and station program directors to make sure everything is ok before, during and after event
- Will work with all departments of radio
- Production – learning how to write, record, voice and produce radio advertisements.
- Programming – learning how commercials are put on air
- Sales – learning how to market radio to our diverse audiences
- Promotions – learn how an event is put together from beginning to end
- Digital Content Creation and social media campaign management
- On-Air – Interns are encouraged to learn how the studios are operated
- Web/Graphic Design
- Must be available to work some nights/weekends
- Must be prompt and dressed appropriately
- Must be responsible
- Must be energetic, confident, creative and a quick learner
This internship is unpaid; all applicants must be currently enrolled in an accredited college or university. Intern must earn college credit for the duration of the internship.
Cumulus Broadcasting
If interested, please send your résumé to [email protected]. No phone calls, please.
CUMULUS MEDIA – Columbia / Jefferson City (KBXR, KJMO, KZJF, KFRU, KLIK, KPLA, KOQL and NASH) is seeking a talented Outside (B2B) Sales Representative who thrives in a fast-paced working environment. We are identifying highly competitive individuals with a proven track record of over-achieving sales goals. In return, we offer a unique career opportunity: one where you are given a challenging mission, world-class tools to help you succeed, and the chance to realize your full potential as a sale's professional.
Sales Leader:
- Recognized top sales performer with a track record of over-achieving sales goals (top 10-20% of company) in past positions
- Able to identify client business needs and proactively develop customized advertising solutions to meet client objectives
- Excel at prospecting and aggressively seeking new clientele by networking, cold calling, canvassing, referrals or other means
- Have strong listening and presentation skills and the ability to quickly build lucrative client relationships
- Stay abreast of the competitive landscape and emerging technologies to best position Cumulus in the marketplace
- Possess rare people skills which allow you to get out in front of problems and proactively provide solutions
What We Offer:
- Competitive pay with uncapped earning potential
- A product that you can be passionate about selling
- Training equivalent to acquiring a Sales-MBA
- Recognition and reward for outstanding performance
- Medical, Dental & Vision Insurance package
- 401K with company match to plan for the long term
- Vacation & Holidays to enjoy the fruits of your labor
Who We Are:
A leader in the Radio Broadcasting industry, Cumulus Media combines high-quality local programming with iconic, nationally syndicated media, sports and entertainment brands to deliver premium content choices to the 245 million people reached each week through its 454 owned-and-operated stations broadcasting in 90 US media markets (including eight of the top 10), more than 8,200 broadcast radio stations affiliated with its Westwood One network and numerous digital channels.
Together, the Cumulus/Westwood One platforms make Cumulus Media one of the few media companies that can provide advertisers with national reach and local impact. Cumulus/Westwood One is the exclusive radio broadcast partner to some of the largest brands in sports and entertainment, including the NFL, the NCAA, the Masters, the Olympics, and the GRAMMYs. Additionally, it is the nation's leading provider of country music and lifestyle content through its NASH brand, which serves country fans nationwide through radio programming, NASH Country Weekly magazine, concerts, licensed products and Television / video.
For more information about Cumulus Media, please visit www.cumulus.com. CLICK HERE TO APPLY.
Cumulus Media is proud to be an equal opportunity workplace. We are committed to equal employment opportunity regardless of race, color, ancestry, religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, age, citizenship, marital status, disability, gender identity or Veteran status.


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Home > Privacy Policy
Privacy Policy
The purpose of this Data Protection and Privacy Statement is to inform you of how Fraser and Neave, Limited and its subsidiaries (collectively referred to as the "F&N Group", "we", "us" or "our"), manage Personal Data which is subject to the Singapore Personal Data Protection Act 2012.This Data Protection and Privacy Statement applies to all F&N Group websites ("Group Websites"), and sets out how we collect, use or disclose Personal Data from you or that you have provided to us through the Group Websites or otherwise.
This Data Protection and Privacy Statement supplements but does not supersede or replace any other consents you may have provided to us in respect of your Personal Data and your consents herein are additional to any rights which the F&N Group may have to collect, use and disclose your Personal Data.
By providing us with your Personal Data, whether through the Group Websites or otherwise, you consent, agree and accept that we, as well as our respective representatives and/or agents may collect, use, disclose and share among ourselves your Personal Data as described in this Data Protection and Privacy Statement.
In this Data Protection and Privacy Statement, "Personal Data" refers to any data, whether true or not, about an individual who can be identified from that data or from that data in combination with other information, to which we may have access.Examples of such Personal Data you may provide to us include (depending on the nature of your interaction with us) your name, NRIC, passport or other identification number, telephone number(s), mailing address, email address and any other information relating to individuals which you have provided us in any form you may have submitted to us, or via any other form of interaction.
Generally, we may collect Personal Data when you:- Visit Group Websites with a cookies-enabled browser or register a user account with Group Websites or use some of our website services and apps including establishing any online accounts with us;
- Conduct any online transactions (such as online shopping or making online purchases or bookings) on Group Websites or through our third party service providers, or such other service providers we may use from time to time;
- Download or use any of our mobile applications (apps);
- Apply to be a member of any of our programmes;
- Enter or respond to our promotions, initiatives or contests;
- Subscribe to our mailing lists for email subscription, postal promotions or phone or other forms of marketing (such as via telephone calls, messaging by SMS/ MMSs and WhatsApp);
- Interact with our representatives or customer service officers via telephone calls, letters, face to face meetings or emails or submit a comment, question or feedback to us using a "Contact Us" or similar feature on Group Websites, or contact us and disclose your Personal Data in any other way;
- Are informed of any changes to Group Websites, or our services, goods and/or products; and
- Submit your Personal Data to us for any other reasons.
- If you provide us with any Personal Data relating to any third party (e.g. information of your spouse, children and/or employees) for particular purposes, by submitting such information to us, you warrant and represent to us that you have obtained the consent of such third party to provide us with the Personal Data for the respective purposes.
You should ensure that all Personal Data submitted to us is complete, accurate, true and correct. Failure by you or a relevant third party to do so may result in our inability to provide you with the products and services you have requested.
The F&N Group and our third party service providers as the case may be, may use your Personal Data:- To facilitate your access to Group Websites or the creation of your user account with Group Websites;
- To evaluate your preferences and for the maintenance of the Group Websites;
- To facilitate your online transactions;
- To register you as a member of any of our programmes and to provide you the benefits of such membership;
- To facilitate your participation in our promotions, initiatives or contests;
- To send you promotional and marketing material via email, post or telephone where appropriate;
- To answer your queries or provide you with assistance in any other way (including without limitation resolving complaints and handling requests); and
- To meet and comply with any applicable rules, laws, regulations, codes of practice or guidelines issued by any legal or regulatory body which are binding on us; and
- For purposes which are reasonably related to the aforesaid.
In order to provide the above services to you, we may share your Personal Data with the following entities:- Other entities of the F&N Group;
- Third-party vendors and service providers (such as subcontractors, agents or network operators) who are employed to perform business, support, operational and/or administrative functions such as marketing, payment, fulfillment and delivery of orders;
- Third parties with whom we conduct joint marketing and/or cross-promotions, including providing rewards or benefits; and
- Our professional advisers such as auditors and lawyers.
Some of the above entities may be located outside of Singapore. Where this is the case, your Personal Data may be transferred overseas from time to time. Such transfers will be carried out in accordance with relevant data protection laws.
Third parties are subject to confidentiality obligations and may only use your Personal Data to perform the necessary functions and not for other purposes.
We may also disclose personal data as permitted or required by law.
A cookie is a small piece of information that is placed on your Internet browsing software (the "browser") by a website that you visit. It helps the website to remember information about your visit to make your next visit easier and the site more useful to you.We may use cookies on Group Websites for the following purposes:
- To enable certain features and functions on Group Websites (e.g. remembering your user-ID, browsing and other product and/or service preferences)
- To identify the causes of problems arising at web servers and to resolve these problems or improve efficiency of Group Websites;
- To improve the contents of Group Websites and emails from us;
- To customize the contents of Group Websites and emails from us to suit your individual interests or purposes;
- To utilize your browsing history on Group Websites and the results of questionnaires for market research or marketing, including sending you advertisements via Group Websites;
- To obtain aggregated Group Website usage and visitation statistics;
- To administer services to you; and
- For purposes which are reasonably related to the aforesaid.
You may reject the use of cookies on Group Websites by configuring your browser to disable the use of cookies.
However, this may result in the loss of functionality which may restrict your use of Group Websites and/or delay or affect the way in which it operates. If you disable the use of cookies, you may no longer be able to receive personalized features of Group Websites, which rely on the use of cookies.
Group Websites may contain links to other third party websites and microsites, whose privacy practices may differ from ours. If you submit Personal Data to any of those sites, your Personal Data is not subject to this Privacy Statement.We encourage you to review the privacy statement of any site you visit. By clicking on or activating such links and leaving Group Websites, we can no longer exercise control over any data or information which you give to any other entity after leaving Group Websites. Any access to such other sites or pages is therefore entirely at your own risk. We are not responsible for the Personal Data policies (including Personal Data protection and cookies), content or security of any third party websites linked to or from Group Websites.
Your Personal Data will be retained for as long as it is necessary to fulfill the purpose for which it is collected or for business or legal purposes, or in accordance with applicable laws.Should you choose to unsubscribe from our mailing list or if your membership expires, please note that your Personal Data may still be retained on our database to the extent permitted by law.
We take reasonable care to keep your Personal Data secure, but we cannot be held liable for any loss you may suffer for unauthorized access or loss of any data provided to Group Websites.We cannot guarantee the security of data that you choose to send us electronically. Sending such information is entirely at your own risk.
You may review and amend your Personal Data, or withdraw your consent to our use of your Personal Data, at any time by signing into your user account (where applicable) and selecting "Update Profile" (or equivalent) or by contacting us as follows:Email: [email protected]
When contacting the Data Protection Officer for assistance, please state (where relevant), your name, address, contact details and Customer/Membership Number.
Please allow ten (10) working days for your request to be processed.
If you withdraw your consent to any or all use of your Personal Data, depending on the nature of your request, we may not be able to provide or continue providing our products and services to you, or administer any contractual relationship already in place. You understand and agree that in such instances where we require your Personal Data to fulfil a contractual obligation to you and you withdraw your consent to collect, use or disclose the relevant Personal Data for those purposes, we cannot be held liable for breach of that agreement. Our legal rights and remedies in such event are expressly reserved.


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Welcome to Momease!
– Sold Out| /
Baltic Amber anklets/bracelets and necklaces are an excellent natural teething solution and can be worn for years after teething is over. All Healing Amber products are 100% natural baltic amber, and therefore sizes, colours and shapes may vary slightly and are approximate.
Used for centuries, Baltic amber has been used for a variety of ailments from teething pain to arthritis. Scientific research has shown that Succinic acid has a very positive influence on the human body. It improves immunity and the balance of acids when absorbed into the bloodstream, it stimulates the thyroid glands to help reduce drooling and soothe inflamed areas. Amber's anti-inflammatory and therapeutic properties are recognized by allopathic medicine as a natural analgesic (pain reliever), which can help to relieve many painful conditions, including arthritis, teething pain, growing pains, migraines and more!
care and usage:
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Faces Canada Splash Nail Enamel, Boysenberry 133, 8ml
Faces Canada Splash Nail Enamels are mini colour bombs which will extend unbeatable color pay off to your nails along with smooth application. A high quality chip resistant formula which smoothly glides to give an attractive and flawless finish. A specially designed round-cut, fan shaped brush, will give your nails an effortless end-to-end coverage.
Going, going, gone! For those who live on the fashion fast lane, these mini nail enamels provide unbeatable full colors and smooth application.Colors are one thing that brighten up your mood anytime, anywhere. Match the colors as per you dress, occasion, mood or style. Features: High performing nail enamels Quick-drying, long-lasting finish Chip defiant formula New shades inspired by the latest trends
- Shake well before use.
- Apply two thin coats to each nail.
- Work on both hands at the same time to ensure proper drying.
- Finish off by applying one coat of Hi-Shine Top Coat to each nail for a lush and long lasting effect.