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Within SAP Fiori, we distinguish between tree tables and trees. Both usually allow the user to display and work with a hierarchical set of items. While tree tables are usually used for more complex data, trees are generally used for rather basic data. Trees are mostly used in the master list for a master-detail scenario using the flexible column layout and in popovers or dialogs. In certain use cases, they can also be used in the dynamic page layout.
In the case of tree tables and trees, items that contain additional items are called nodes, while items that do not contain any other items are called leaves. If available, a single topmost node is called a root node. Apart from the hierarchical structure of its nodes and leaves, a tree is quite similar to a list.
Use the tree if:
- You need to display the key identifier of hierarchically structured items (for example in the first column of the flexible column layout).
- Selecting one or more items out of a set of hierarchically structured items is a main use case.
- The hierarchy has a restricted number of levels (up to about 12, depending on the content) and items (around 200).
- You want to have only one implementation for all devices.
Do not use the tree if:
- The main use case is to select one item from a very small number of non-hierarchical items, without viewing additional details. In this case, a select or combo box might be more appropriate.
- Items are not structured hierarchically. Use a list instead.
- The hierarchy turns out to have only two levels. In this case, use a grouped list.
- The hierarchy turns out to be just a categorization based on several details of the item. In this case, an analytical table provides multi-level grouping. Note that the analytical table is not fully responsive. It is only available for desktops and tablets, so you will need to take an adaptive approach by offering an additional UI for smartphones.
- You need to display very deep hierarchies with additional data per item. In this case, use a tree table. Note that the tree table is not fully responsive. It is only available for desktops and tablets, so you will need to take an adaptive approach by offering an additional UI for smartphones.
- The structure contains more than around 200 items. In this case, use the tree table. It is optimized for large item sets and provides better performance. Note that the tree table is not fully responsive. It is only available for desktops and tablets, so you will need to take an adaptive approach by offering an additional UI for smartphones.
- You need an overview of a large amount of data. In this case, use a chart.
Check out the table overview to decide which SAP Fiori table is most suitable for your needs.
The tree is like a list containing hierarchical data. It acts as a container for items, with the possibility to expand and collapse nodes. When reducing the width, item texts wrap to ensure that the tree adapts to the new size.
In addition, the tree changes the indentation per level dynamically when the user expands a node, based on number of levels currently showing.
Tree displaying 2 levels
Tree displaying 3 levels
Tree displaying 4 levels
The title bar (optional) contains the title of the tree. In addition, an item counter and toolbar items can be placed on the title bar.
The collection of hierarchical items occupies the main part of the tree.
The title bar consists of a toolbar. The toolbar can contain a title, an item count, and other toolbar items such as actions or view settings, for example.
The standard tree item consists of:
- A highlight indicator (optional)
- An expand/collapse button for nodes
- A selector in form of a checkbox or a radio button (optional)
- An icon (optional)
- A text
- A counter (optional)
- Additional buttons with actions such as Edit, Navigate, or Delete (optional)
If additional controls are needed, use a custom tree item. The custom tree item allows you to use any combination of controls inside the tree.
Behavior and Interaction (incl. Gestures)
Tree Level
The height of the tree is defined by the number of items it contains. It does not have its own scroll container, but is scrolled together with the app.
Same tree, with different expand state
When the user scrolls, the title and the filter infobar can stick to the top of the surrounding layout container (sap.m.Tree, property: sticky).
Selection Modes
A tree can have one of the following selection modes (sap.m.Tree / sap.m.ListBase, property: mode):
None: Items cannot be selected (sap.m.ListMode.None).
Beware: Items can, nevertheless, use the sap.m.ListType "navigation" which allows click-handling on specific items. This should only be used when the click triggers a navigation to a corresponding item details page.
Single select master: One item of the tree can be selected. To select an item, click anywhere on the item. Single select master does not add any visual indication to the tree and therefore cannot be differentiated from trees without selection if no item is selected. Therefore, always keep one item selected. For single selection, this is the preferred mode. (sap.m.ListMode.SingleSelectMaster)
Single select left: One item of the tree can be selected. For this, the tree provides radio buttons on the left side of each line item. Use this selection mode only if clicking on the item triggers something else, such as a navigation. Ideally, always keep one item selected, even in initial state (sap.m.ListMode.SingleSelectLeft).
Multiple selection: Allows the selection of one or more items. For this, the tree provides checkboxes on the left side of each line item. Each item is selected independently of the others. The Shift key can be used to select a range (sap.m.ListMode.MultiSelect).
To delete single items, use the tree in "delete" mode (sap.m.Tree / sap.m.ListBase, property: mode, value: sap.m.ListMode.Delete). This adds a Delete button to each item. Clicking this button triggers the deletion of the corresponding item. Do not use this mode if deleting multiple items at once is the preferred use case. Delete is a mode of the tree and therefore cannot be used together with single selection or multi selection.
Line Item Level
Expandable and Collapsible Nodes
An Expand/Collapse button is provided automatically for each node.
Highlight an Item
To highlight an item, use the "highlight" indicator (sap.m.TreeItemBase, properties: highlight).
To allow navigation from an item, set type to "navigation" within the corresponding item (sap.m.StandardTreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Navigation). This will create an indicator at the end of the line (">") and the entire item will become selectable. Clicking the line triggers the navigation event. However, clicking a selectable area or an expandable/collapse node does not. Use the navigation event to navigate to a new page containing item details.
If no navigation is possible, set type to "inactive".
Navigation is an item type and therefore cannot be used together with "edit" or in combination with click events for the entire item ("active").
Indicate Navigated Item
When multi-selection is used in a master-detail scenario, it is not clear which item was last opened (for example, which item is currently shown in the second column of a flexible column layout). In this case only (multi-selection tree with navigable items), you can display a "navigated" indicator to mark the item that is currently open (sap.m.TreeItemBase, property: navigated).
Editing Items
To allow the user to edit an item, set type to "detail" within the corresponding item (sap.m.StandardTreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Detail or sap.m.ListType.DetailAndActive). This will create an edit button at the end of the line. Clicking the button triggers the edit event. Use this event to either open a dialog or a details page where the item can be edited.
Edit is an item type and therefore cannot be used together with "navigation" or in combination with click events for the entire item ("active").
Clicking an Item
Items as a whole can be clickable. An event is fired by clicking on the item (anywhere except when triggering a selection or when expanding/collapsing a node). Apps can react to the event, such as by opening a dialog (sap.m.StandardTreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Active or sap.m.ListType.DetailAndActive).
Active elements do not have a visual indication and therefore cannot be differentiated from non-active elements.
"Active" is an item type and therefore cannot be used together with "navigation" or "edit". In addition, "active" uses the entire item as a clickable area and thus cannot be used together with single select master.
Context Menu
The context menu can be triggered for the tree or per item.
Context menus are opened by right-clicking (desktop), long press (mobile), the context menu key, or Shift+F10.
Be aware that using the context menu overrides the browser context menu, which can no longer be opened.
If a control inside a tree is the "click target", and the control also provides a context menu, the control context menu "wins".
Drag and Drop
One or several items can be repositioned within a tree or moved to other UI elements using drag and drop operations (sap.m.ListBase, aggregation: dragDropConfig). While being dragged, the items are shown as ghost elements on the mouse cursor.
Drop targets can be on items, between items, or both (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropPosition). On a drop target, the mouse cursor changes to either a "copy", "link", "move", or "none" cursor. "None" indicates that the dragged item cannot be dropped in the current position (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropEffect).
Drag and drop is only available on supporting browsers.
Tree vs. List
Trees are more complex than lists due to their hierarchical view. Users tend to have more problems finding items in hierarchical views than in flat lists, except where the hierarchical view is natural. By natural we mean that every child node should be part of only one parent, and this relationship between the child and parent is clear and well known.
Broad vs. Deep Hierarchies
When you use trees, you should choose broad hierarchies over deep hierarchies. Deep hierarchies make finding items more complicated. So try to reduce hierarchical levels where possible, especially if the hierarchy is not natural. Ideally, a tree should have a maximum of four levels, the first two of which should contain the most important items.
You can use the following methods to reduce hierarchy levels:
- Avoid a single root node. It is usually not needed.
- Container nodes at the top level can usually be replaced by tabs or value pickers.
- Eliminate unnecessary mid-level containers, for example, by combining redundant ones.
- Exercise care when using a tree due to its overall complexity. The hierarchical structure of the data does not necessarily mean that a tree control is required.
Design Concepts
The tree can be used to display hierarchical data. Unfortunately, trees convey an immediate feeling of complexity. Ideally, show trees only if there is no other option. You should instead try the following:
- Flatten the data. A list is still complex, but less so than a tree. A combo box might also fit in some use cases.
- When only two levels are needed, a grouped list control can be used. This works well, where group nodes are used for categorizing their children and where the group nodes themselves do not need to be selectable.
- Break down the data into manageable chunks. Allow the user to navigate or drill down between them.
- Use charts with drilldown functionality until the amount of data is more manageable.
Design for Performance
To optimize performance, we recommend showing no more than 200 items at once in the tree. For larger datasets (up to 1,000 items), use the "growing" mechanism to limit the number of displayed items, and make sure that users can filter the data.
Use a title only if the title of the tree is not indicated in the surrounding area. If needed, implement the title text by adding a title to a toolbar. Place the toolbar above the tree.
Do not use a title if it simply repeats text that is already above the tree. For example:
- A Beverages tree is the only control on a tab labeled Beverages.
- A section or subsection on an object page contains only one tree.
Use a title if you need the item count, toolbar, or variant management. To avoid repeating text, feel free to use generic text as a title, such as Items.
Exception: If the surrounding area contains the title, and both the item count and toolbar can be added to the surrounding area, no additional title is needed.
Example: An object page (sub-)section contains only one tree. In this case, add the item count and the table toolbar to the (sub-)section header.
If you use a title, be sure to include the following:
- A title text for the tree.
- An (optional) item count using the following format: Title (Number of Items). For example, Items (17). Depending on the use case, either count all items or only leaves (for example, if nodes are mainly used for categorization).
Remove the item count in the title if there are zero items.
If possible, keep the toolbar sticky (sap.m.Tree, property: sticky).
Loading Data
To indicate that the tree is currently loading items, use the busy state (sap.m.Tree, property: busy). Do not show any items or text. As soon as the data is loaded, remove the busy state and show all items.
Initial Display
Think of the initial expandable/collapsible state of a tree. If your structure contains many items on the root level, it might make sense to collapse the whole tree in its initial state.
In contrast, if the most important items are displayed on a deeper level (if, for example, the parent nodes are simply a kind of categorization), the tree should be expanded up to the first level where the most important items immediately appear.
Content Formatting
To display object names with an ID, show the ID in brackets after the corresponding object name.
Try not to display an empty tree. If there is no way around this, provide instructions on how to fill the tree with data (sap.m.Tree / sap.m.ListBase, properties: showNoData, noDataText).
- If a tree is initially empty, provide at least a basic text:
No items available.
Overwrite this whenever a hint can be provided on how to fill the tree with data. - If a tree is used together with a filter bar (as in the list report), and is initially empty, use the following text:
No filters set. To start, enter your search and filter settings and run the search. - If a tree is used together with a filter bar and the filter does not return results, use the following text:
No items found. Check the search and filter settings.
Adapt the texts above if:
- The text is not precise enough for your use case (for example, no search is offered, only the search is offered).
- You are using the live search (no Go button in the filter bar). In this case, leave out "run the search".
- The standard text is misleading (for example, if the data is filled based on a master-detail pattern instead of search and filter settings).
Highlighting Items
To show that an item needs attention, you can display a highlight indicator in front of the item. The highlight indicator can be used to indicate:
- A semantic state, such as red or orange for an error or warning. In this case, use semantic colors.
- Additional information, such as blue to highlight newly added items. In this case, use semantic colors.
- Industry-specific or process-specific states, such as "out of stock" or "excess of inventory". In this case, use indication colors.
Be aware that the highlight is just an indication. It does not tell users exactly what is wrong. Make sure that you provide this information within the table row, ideally in the same color.
For details on the use of highlight colors, see How To Use Semantic Colors.
(sap.m.ListItemBase, property: highlight)
Item States
To show that an item has been modified, for example within the global edit flow, add the string (Modified) to the text of the item.
To show that a modified item contains an error, for example within the global edit flow, add the string (Contains errors) to the text of the item and highlight the row accordingly.
To show that an item is locked, add the string (Locked by [name]) to the text of the item.
To show that an item is in a draft state, add the string (Draft) to the text of the item.
Show only one state at any one time.
To trigger actions on items, show the actions on a toolbar above the tree. Do not offer action triggering on multiple items if the tree is expected to have fewer than 10 items in most cases.
The following actions on single items must always be in-line:
Delete: Use "Delete" mode (sap.m.Tree / sap.m.ListBase, property: mode, value: sap.m.ListMode.Delete). This places a Delete button at the end of each item.
Navigation: Use the "Navigation" item type (sap.m.StandardTreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Navigation). This places a navigation indicator at the end of the corresponding items. Use this to navigate to a new page containing item details.
Edit: Use the "Detail" item type (sap.m.TreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Detail). This places an Edit icon at the end of the corresponding items.
From these three actions (delete, navigation, and edit), you can combine delete and edit, or delete and navigation. Edit and navigation cannot be combined.
To trigger actions that are independent of the selection, show the actions on a toolbar above the tree. For example: Add, Collapse All, Expand All, …
To trigger a default action on the entire item, use the "Active" or "DetailAndActive" item type (sap.m.TreeItem / sap.m.ListItemBase, property: type, value: sap.m.ListType.Active). Active items trigger an event when clicked, which can be handled by apps, for example, to open a dialog. Selection and expanding/collapsing a node does not trigger the event, but are handled by the tree. Do not use this for navigation, to switch the line item to an edit state, or to delete the item.
Active can be combined with edit and delete, but not with navigation. Do not combine active with single selection master.
Add Items
For adding items, place an Add or Create text button on the toolbar.
- Use Create if the button adds a brand new item that doesn't yet exist on the database.
- Use Add if the item already exists and is merely added or assigned to the current object.
Show new items as the first item of the tree or node:
- If nothing is selected, add the new item to the root.
- If a single node is selected, add the new item to the selected node.
- If a single leaf is selected, add the new item as a child of this leaf. The original selected item becomes a node.
If your tree doesn't support adding items to the root, selected node, or selected leaf, disable Create or Add for the corresponding levels.
Disable Create or Add if more than one item is selected.
Enable the shortcut Ctrl+Enter to trigger the Add and Create buttons.
For more details, see guidelines for managing objects (including subarticles).
Enabling/Disabling Actions
To indicate if an action can be applied to the current selection:
- Enable the action if it always works, regardless of whether or not items are selected.
- Enable the action if it can be applied to all selected items.
- Enable the action if it can be applied to some of the selected items. If the action is triggered, show a message that tells the user how many items will be affected. Let users choose whether to apply the action anyway or cancel the action.
- Only disable the action if it can be applied to none of the selected items.
For more details, see UI Element – States.
If the action was applied and the items are still available, keep them selected.
Editing Items
To edit items, add an Edit button either in-line on the toolbar above the tree. Triggering the button either opens a dialog or navigates to an editable details page.
For mass editing:
- Provide multiselection (sap.m.Tree/ sap.m.ListBase, property: mode, value: sap.m.ListMode.MultiSelect).
- Provide an Edit button on the toolbar above the tree.
- If several items are selected, triggering the Edit button opens a dialog in which the user edits the corresponding fields for all selected items.
For more details, see mass editing.
Context Menu
Use the context menu only to give users a quick way of accessing functions that are already available elsewhere (for example, as buttons in the toolbar).
Don't just offer actions in the context menu itself, as users might not realize that these actions are available at all.
Drag and Drop
Drag and drop is "invisible" on the UI: users can't see where dragging is available and where it isn't. Also, because there is no generic keyboard interaction, drag and drop isn't accessible. Moreover, drag and drop is not available on all browsers. For these reasons, offer drag and drop only in addition to existing (and visible) UI elements that fulfill the same purpose. For example, offer (toolbar) buttons for moving or for copying and pasting items.
If you offer drag and drop for rearranging items within a tree, use the following options:
- For dropping items as a child, use whole nodes as drop targets (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropPosition.On).
- For dropping items on the same level, use the space between items as drop targets (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropPosition.Between).
- If you want to allow users to drop items as a child or sibling, offer both drop targets (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropPosition.OnOrBetween).
This provides better feedback on where the item will be inserted. Show the "move" mouse cursor (sap.ui.core.dnd.DropEffect.Move).
Do not combine rearranging items within one level and sorting. If you really need to do so, make sure there is a dedicated sort criterion for the user-defined sort order, and only offer options for rearranging items if this sort order is set.
Moving items from one node to another can be combined with sorting without any issues.
Visible Alternatives to Drag and Drop
Depending on the functionality you need, use one or more of the following alternatives:
- To move items up or down within a node:
Use the Move Up and Move Down buttons on the toolbar. These buttons move the selected items until the first selected item can't be moved up or the last selected item can't be moved down any further.
Depending on your tree, this can make sense for both leaves and nodes, only for leaves, or only for nodes. When moving a node, move the whole node and (if applicable) all its children up or down to the next position within the parent node.
Always make sure that when the user moves an item in one direction and then moves it back, the order is the same as it was before.
Do not combine the option to move items up and down with sorting. - To move items to another node:
Use Copy and Paste buttons on the toolbar.
Alternatively, offer a Move To button. Clicking Move To opens a dialog that shows all the nodes of the tree, but no leaves. Selecting an item in this dialog closes the dialog and moves the corresponding items to the selected node. - To change the level of an item:
In some trees, such as document structures, users can change the level of an item without affecting the level of parent or child items. In this case, use left and right arrow buttons ( ).
What exactly needs to stay or be removed is highly dependent on the kind of structure and data your tree displays. For many trees, the following approach works well if you want to apply filters only to the leaves of a tree:
- Remove all leaves that don't fit the filter criteria
- Remove empty nodes
If you also apply filters to nodes, keep the following in mind:
- A node may or may not fit the filter criteria.
- A node can contain items (nodes and/or leaves) that fit the filter criteria.
Because of this, the results might contain more nodes than those that are relevant for the filter criteria.
Before you start, ask yourself if sorting is meaningful in your tree. If so, decide on a meaningful default sort order.
If sorting is meaningful, is it meaningful on all levels? Or does the tree structure need to be stable? In the latter case, sort only leaves, but not nodes.
The descending sort order must always be the exact reverse of the ascending sort order. Use a meaningful sort order. For example:
- Sort text alphabetically
- Sort numbers by their value
- Sort status information by the severity of the status:
- Ascending: Sort status information from positive to negative, with neutral last.
- Descending: Sort status information from negative to positive, with neutral first.
- Ascending with different values per severity level: Sort status information from positive to negative, with neutral last. Sort different values within a severity level (semantic color) alphabetically.
- Descending with different values per severity level: Sort status information from negative to positive, with neutral first. Sort different values within a severity level (semantic color) alphabetically.
Export to Spreadsheet
On the table toolbar, apps can provide a menu button for exporting the tree data to a spreadsheet. For the export, use the export to spreadsheet function.
Want to dive deeper? Follow the links below to find out more about related controls, the SAPUI5 implementation, and the visual design.
Elements and Controls
- Table Toolbar (guidelines)
- Table Overview (guidelines)
- View Settings Dialog (guidelines)
- Tree (SAPUI5 samples)
- Tree (SAPUI5 API reference)
- Standard Tree Item (SAPUI5 API reference)
- Custom Tree Item (SAPUI5 API reference)


text:
Imprès des de
Indymedia Barcelona
: http://barcelona.indymedia.org/
Anàlisi :: @rtivisme : xarxa i llibertat
Radical machines against the techno-empire. From utopia to network
Matteo Pasquinelli
22 feb 2004
Deleuze and Guattari took the machine out of the factory, now it is up to us to take it out of the network and imagine a post-internet generation.
(rtf + pdf:
Everyone of us is a machine of the real,
everyone of us is a constructive machine.
-- Toni Negri
Technical machines only work if they are not out of
order. Desiring machines on the contrary continually
break down as they run, and in fact run only when they
are not functioning properly. Art often takes advantage
of this property by creating veritable group fantasies in
which desiring production is used to short-circuit social
production, and to interfere with the reproductive
function of technical machines by introducing an
element of dysfunction.
-- Gilles Deluze, Felix Guattari, L'anti-Oedipe
What is knowledge sharing? How does the knowledge economy function? Where is the general intellect at work? Take the cigarettes machine. The machine you see is the embodying of a scientific knowledge into hardware and software components, generations of engineering stratified for commercial use: it automatically manages fluxes of money and commodities, substitutes a human with a user-friendly interface, defends private property, functions on the basis of a minimal control and restocking routine. Where has the tobacconist gone? Sometimes he enjoys free time. Other times the company that owns the chain of distribution has replaced him. In his place one often meets the technician. Far from emulating Marx's Fragment on machines with a Fragment on cigarette machines, this unhealthy example is meant to show how postfordist theories live around us and that material or abstract machines built by collective intelligence are organically chained to the fluxes of the economy and of our needs.
Rather than of general intellect we should talk of general intellects. There are multipleforms of collective intelligence. Some can become totalitarian systems, such as the military-managerial ideology of the neocons or of Microsoft empire. Others can be embodied in social democratic bureaucracies, in the apparatus of police control, in the maths of stock market speculators, in the architecture of our cities (every day we walk on concretions of collective intelligence). In the dystopias of 2001 Space Odysseyand The Matrix, the brain of machines evolves into self-consciousness to the point of getting rid of the human. 'Good' collective intelligences, on the other hand, produce international networks of cooperation such as the network of the global movement, of precarious workers, of free software developers, of media activism. They also produce the sharing of knowledge in universities, the Creative Commons open licenses and participative urban planning, narrations and imaginaries of liberation.
From a geopolitical perspective we could figure ourselves in one of Philip Dick's sci-fi paranoia: Earth is dominated by one Intelligence, but inside of it a war unfolds between two Organisations of the general intellect, opposed yet intertwined.
Used to thetraditionalrepresentativeforms of the global movement we fail to grasp the new productive conflicts. Concerned as we are about theimperial war, we do not appreciate the centrality of this struggle. Following Manuel Castells, we define the movement as aresistance identity that fails to become aprojectidentity. We are not aware of the distance between the global movement and the centre of capitalist production. Paraphrasing Paolo Virno, we say that there already is too much politics in new forms of production for the politics of the movement to still enjoy any autonomous dignity.[1]
The events of 1977 (not only in Italy but also in the punk season) sanctioned the end of the 'revolutionary' paradigm and the beginning of that of movement, opening new spaces of conflict in the fields of communication, media and the production of the imagery. These days we are discovering that the 'movement' as a format needs to be overcome, in favour of that of network.
Three kinds of action, well separated in the XIXth century - labour, politics and art - are now integrated into one attitude and central to each productive process. In order to work, do politics or produce imaginary today one needs hybrid competences. This means that we all are workers-artists-activists, but it also means that the figures of the militant and the artist are surpassed and that such competences are only formed in a common space that is the sphere of the collective intellect.
Since Marx's Grundrisse, the general intellect is the patriarch of a family of concepts that are more numerous and cover a wide range of issues:knowledge-based economy,information society,cognitive capitalism,immaterial labour, collective intelligence, creative class,cognitariat,knowledge sharing and postfordism. In the last few yearsthe political lexiconhas got rich of interlaced critical tools that we turn over in our hands wondering about their exact usefulness.For the sake of simplicity, we only accounted for the terms that inherited an Enlightenment, speculative, angelic and almost neognostic approach. But reality is much more complex and we wait for new forms to claim for themselves the role that within the same field is due to desire, body, aesthetics, biopolitics. We also remember the quarrel of cognitivevs. precariousworkers, two faces of the same medal that the precogsof Chainworkers.org describe in this way: "cognitive workers are networkers, precarious workers are networked, the former are brainworkers, the latter chainworkers: the former first seduced and then abandoned by companies and financial markets, the latter dragged into and made flexible by the fluxes of global capital".[2]
The point is that we are searching for a new collective agent and a new point of application for the rusted revolutionary lever. The success of the concept of multitude also reflects the current disorientation. Critical thought continuously seeks to forge the collective actor that can embody the Zeitgeistand we can go back to history reconstructing the underlying forms of each paradigm of political action: the more or less collective social agent, the more or less vertical organisation, the more or less utopian goal. Proletariat and multitude, party and movement, revolution and self-organisation.
In the current imaginary the general intellect (or whatever you want to call it) seems to be the collective agent, its form being the network, its goal creating a plane of self-organisation, its field of action being biopolitical spectacular cognitive capitalism.
We are not talking about multitude here, because it is a concept at once too noble and inflated, heir of centuries of philosophy and too often called for by marching megaphones. The concept of multitude has been more useful to exorcise the identitary pretences of the global movement, than as a constructive tool. The pars construenswill be a task for the general intellect: philosophers such as Paolo Virno, when they have to find a common ground, the lost collective agent, reconstruct the Collective Intelligence and Cooperation as emerging and constitutive properties of the multitude.
In a different paranoid fable, we imagine that technology is the last heir of a series of collective agents generated by history as in a matryoshka doll: religion - theology - philosophy - ideology - science - technology. This is to say that in information and intelligence technologies the history of thought is stratified, even though we only remember the last episode of this series, i.e. the network that embodies the dreams of the previous political generation.
How did we come to all this? We are at the point of convergence between different historical planes: the inheritance of historical vanguards in the synthesis of aesthetics and politics; the struggles of '68 and '77 that open up new spaces for conflict outside of the factories and inside the imaginary and communication; the hypertrophy of the society of the spectacle and the economy of the logo; the transformation of fordist wage labour into postfordist autonomous precarious labour; the information revolution and the emergence of the internet, the net economy and the network society; utopia turned into technology. The highest exercise of representation that becomes molecular production.
Some perceive the current moment as a lively world network, some as an indistinct cloud, some as a new form of exploitation, some as an opportunity. Today the density reaches its critical mass and forms a global radical class on the intersection of the planes of activism, communication, arts, network technologies and independent research. What does it mean, to be productive and projectual, to abandon mere representation of conflict and the representative forms of politics?
There is a hegemonic metaphor in political debate, in the arts world, in philosophy, in media criticism, in network culture: that is Free Software. We hear it quoted at the end of each intervention that poses the problem of what is to be done (but also in articles of strategic marketing.), whilst the twin metaphor of open source contaminates every discipline: open source architecture, open source literature, open source democracy, open source city...
Softwares are immaterial machines. The metaphor of Free Software is so simple for its immateriality that it often fails to clash with the real world. Even if we know that it is a good and right thing, we ask polemically: what will change when all the computers in the world will run free software? The most interesting aspect of the free software model is the immense cooperative network that was created by programmers on a global scale, but which other concrete examples can we refer to in proposing new forms of action in the real world and not only in the digital realm?
In the '70s Deleuze and Guattari had the intuition of the machinic, an introjection / imitation of the industrial form of production. Finally a hydraulic materialism was talking about desiring, revolutionary, celibate, war machines rather than representative or ideological ones.[3]
Deleuze and Guattari took the machine out of the factory, now it is up to us to take it out of the network and imagine a post-internet generation.
Cognitive labour produces machines of all kinds, not only software: electronic machines, narrative machines, advertising machines, mediatic machines, acting machines, psychic machines, social machines, libidinous machines. In the XIXth century the definition of machine referred to a device transforming energy. In the XXth century Turing's machine - the foundation of all computing - starts interpreting information in the form of sequences of 0 and 1. For Deleuze and Guattari on the other hand a desiring machine produces, cuts and composes fluxes and without rest it produces the real.
Today we intend by machine the elementary form of the general intellect, each node of the network of collective intelligence, each material or immaterial dispositif that organically interlinks the fluxes of the economy and our desires.
At a higher level, the network can itself be regarded as a mega-machine of assemblage of other machines, and even the multitude becomes machinic, as Negri and Hardt write in Empire: "The multitude not only uses machines to produce, but also becomes increasingly machinic itself, as the means of production are increasingly integrated into the minds and bodies of the multitude. In this context reappropriation means having free access to and control over knowledge, information, communication, and affects because these are some of the primary means of biopolitical production. Just because these productive machines have been integrated into the multitude does not mean that the multitude has control over them. Rather, it makes more vicious and injurious their alienation. The right to reappropriation is really the multitude's right to self-control and autonomous self-production".[4]
In other words in postfordism the factory has come out of the factory and the whole of society has become a factory. An already machinic multitude suggests that the actual subversion of the productive system into an autonomous plane could be possible in a flash, by disconnecting the multitude from capital command. But the operation is not that easy in the traditional terms of 'reappropriation of the means of production'. Why?
Whilst it is true that today the main means of labour is the brain and that workers can immediately reappropriate the means of production, it is also true that control and exploitation in society have become immaterial, cognitive, networked. Not only the general intellect of the multitudes has grown, but also the general intellect of the empire. The workers, armed with their computers, can reappropriate the means of production, but as soon as the stick their nose out of their desktop they have to face a Godzilla that they had not predicted, the Godzilla of the enemy's general intellect.
Social, state and economic meta-machines – to which human beings are connected like appendixes - are dominated by conscious and subconscious automatisms. Meta-machines are ruled by a particular kind of cognitive labour which is the administrative political managerial labour, that runs projects, organizes, controls on a vast scale: a form of general intellect that we have never considered, whose prince is a figure that appears on the scene in the second half of the XXth century: the manager.
As Bifo tells us recalling Orwell, in our post-democratic world (or if you prefer in empire) managers have seized command: "Capitalism is disappearing, but Socialism is not replacing it. What is now arising is a new kind of planned, centralised society which will be neither capitalist nor, in any accepted sense of the word, democratic. The rulers of this new society will be the people who effectively control the means of production: that is, business executives, technicians, bureaucrats and soldiers, lumped together by Burnham, under the name of managers. These people will eliminate the old capitalist class, crush the working class, and so organise society that all power and economic privilege remain in their own hands. Private property rights will be abolished, but common ownership will not be established. The new managerial societies will not consist of a patchwork of small, independent states, but of great super-states grouped round the main industrial centres in Europe, Asia, and America. Internally, each society will be hierarchical, with an aristocracy of talent at the top and a mass of semi-slaves at the bottom".[5]
At the beginning we mentioned two intelligences that face one another in the world and the forms in which they manifest themselves. The multitude functions as a machine because it is inside a scheme, a social software, thought for the exploitation of its energies and its ideas. Then, the techno-managers (public private or military) are those who, whether consciously or not, plan and control machines made up of human beings assembled with one another. The dream of General intellect brings forth monsters.
Compared with the pervasive neoliberal techno-management, the intelligence of the global movement is of little importance. What's to be done? We need to invent virtuous revolutionary radical machines to place them in the nodal points of the network, as well as facing the general intellect that administers the imperial meta-machines. Before starting this we need to be aware of the density of the 'intelligence' that is condensed in each commodity, organization, message and media, in each machine of postmodern society.
Don't hate the machine, be the machine. How can we turn the sharing of knowledge, tools and spaces into new radical revolutionary productive machines, beyond the inflated Free Software? This is the challenge that once upon the time was called reappropriation of the means of production.
Will the global radical class manage to invent social machines that can challenge capital and function as planes of autonomy and autopoiesis? Radical machines that are able to face the techno-managerial intelligence and imperial meta-machines lined up all around us? The match multitude vs. empire becomes the match radical machines vs. imperial techno-monsters. How do we start building these machines?
Matteo Pasquinelli
mat AT rekombinant.org
Berlin - Bologna, February 2004
(translated by Arianna Bove)
[1] Paolo Virno, A Grammar of the Multitude, Semiotext(e), New York 2003.
Orig. ed. Grammatica della moltitudine, Derive Approdi, Roma 2002.
[2] Chainworkers, Il precognitariato. L'europrecariato si è sollevato, 2003,
published on
See also
[3] Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari, L'anti-Oedipe, Les Editions De Minuit, Paris 1972.
[4] Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 2000.
[5] George Orwell, Second Thoughts on James Burnham, 1946, quoted in
Franco "Bifo" Berardi, Il totalitarismo tecno-manageriale da Burnham a Bush, 2004,
published on
Mira també:

subset: commoncrawl


text:
A Case Study in Tightly Coupled Multi-paradigm Parallel Programming
Workshop on Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing (LCPC) 2008
Publication Type: Paper
Repository URL: lcpcMultiParadigm
Programming paradigms are designed to express algorithms elegantly
and efficiently. There are many parallel programming paradigms,
each suited to a certain class of problems. Selecting the best
parallel programming paradigm for a problem minimizes programming
effort and maximizes performance. Given the increasing complexity
of parallel applications, no one paradigm may be suitable for all
components of an application. Today, most parallel scientific
applications are programmed with a single paradigm and the
challenge of multi-paradigm parallel programming remains unmet in
the broader community. We believe that each component of a parallel
program should be programmed using the most suitable paradigm.
Furthermore, it is not sufficient to simply bolt modules together:
programmers should be able to switch between paradigms easily, and
resource management across paradigms should be automatic. We
present a pre-existing adaptive runtime system (ARTS) and show how
it can be used to meet these challenges by allowing the
simultaneous use of multiple parallel programming paradigms and
supporting resource management across all of them. We discuss the
implementation of some common paradigms within the ARTS and
demonstrate the use of multiple paradigms within our feature-rich
unstructured mesh framework. We show how this approach boosts
performance and productivity for an application developed using
this framework.
Sayantan Chakravorty, Aaron Becker, Terry Wilmarth, and Laxmikant V. Kale
A Case Study in Tightly Coupled Multi-Paradigm Parallel Programming
Proceedings of Languages and Compilers for Parallel Computing (LCPC '08), 2008
Research Areas


text:
Foreigners must obtain Inner Line Permit (ILP) to visit Sikkim. These can be obtained from all Indian Missions, Sikkim Tourism Offices at New Delhi, Kolkata, District Magistrates Office of Darjeeling, Siliguri, and Rangpo on the strength of an Indian Visa. The 30 days duration Permit is issued on the spot without any delay provided photocopies of the passport and visa along with two pass port photos of the applicants are made available. The permissible duration of the stay for foreign tourists is 30 days initially.
The State Government is authorized to extend the same by a further period of 30 days. The extension of the permit can be obtained from FRO at Gangtok and office of Superintendent of Police of the North, West and South Districts.
For those interested in going for trekking in the interior region of the state, the Tourism and Civil Aviation issues Protected Area Permit (PAP) at Gangtok which is available for certain specified area for groups consisting of two or more foreigners subject to condition that the trekking programme is arranged through a registered travel agency.


text:
Travel to developing countries - InDepth
Cholera - InDepth; Dengue fever - InDepth; Traveler's diarrhea - InDepth; Malaria - InDepth; Schistosomiasis - InDepth; Typhoid - InDepth; Yellow fever - InDepth; Zika - InDepthAn in-depth report on travel-related health risks and how to prepare ahead of time to reduce these risks.
Planning Your Trip
Planning for a safe and healthy trip should be part of your travel preparations. If you plan to Travel to developing countries, you should allow plenty of time before your departure to:
- Educate yourself about the health risks in the countries you will be visiting. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), World Health Organization (WHO), and U.S. State Department have websites that provide specific information by country (see "Resources" below).
- Schedule a visit to a travel clinic at least 4 to 6 weeks before your departure. A travel clinic can provide the latest up to date information on medications and immunizations you will need. Before you travel, you should be up to date on all of your routine immunizations. You may need additional vaccinations or booster shots, depending on where you will be traveling.
- Schedule a visit with your health care provider to have a thorough check-up. This is especially important if you have any chronic health conditions. Make sure to get prescriptions for any medications you take so you will not run out during your trip. Take a list of medications and a brief summary of your medical history with you on your trip.
- Make a list of first aid items and other supplies you should pack.
Food and Water Precautions
Traveler's diarrhea is the most common health problem a traveler encounters. To avoid contaminated food or water, "Boil it, peel it, cook it, or forget it" is a useful mantra to remember. Specific tips include:
- Eat only food that is fully cooked and served hot. Peel all fruits and vegetables before consuming. Avoid salads, uncooked and unpasteurized foods, and items sold by street vendors.
- Drink only beverages made with boiled water or commercially bottled water or other beverages that come sealed. Use bottled watered when brushing teeth. Wipe the outsides of bottles or cans before drinking from them.
- Never consume any amount of tap water or items (such as ice cubes) made with tap water. Do not ingest any water when swimming, showering, or brushing teeth.
Insect Protection
Malaria and other disease can be transmitted by mosquitoes (most commonly), flies, and ticks. Make sure you:
- Wear insect repellant products that contains DEET, picaridin, IR3535, or oil of lemon eucalyptus (para-menthane-3, 8-diol).
- Wear permethrin-treated clothing.
- Consider bringing a permethrin-treated bed net.
- Get a yellow fever vaccine if traveling to affected countries.
- Take preventive medication if traveling to malarial regions. Learn about your options for anti-malaria drugs.
Travel to developing countries can be a fun and rewarding experience. But it is important to make sure that health problems do not interfere with enjoyment of your trip. Careful preparation can help prevent problems on, and down, the road.
Infectious diseases are a concern when traveling to underdeveloped regions. These conditions are caused by organisms such as:
- Viruses. Yellow fever, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, hepatitis, Ebola, encephalitis, polio, rabies, and others.
- Bacteria. Cholera, typhoid fever, meningococcal meningitis, tuberculosis, and others.
- Parasites. Malaria, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, African trypanosomiasis, and others.
- Fungi. Ringworm, sporotrichosis, and others.
Pathogens may transmit through:
- Contaminated food and water
- Insect bites
- Contaminated air
- Unprotected sex
In addition to infectious diseases, travelers should be aware of other relevant health issues, such as:
- Air pollution is a particular concern for travelers with breathing problems. If you have a respiratory condition, discuss your travel plans with your health care provider. Bring along a face mask and any necessary medications.
- Motor vehicle accidents are a leading cause of preventable death and injury due to bad roads and poorly maintained vehicles. Try to avoid traveling at night and wear seat belts whenever possible.
- Motion sickness can affect travelers on boats and vehicles, while altitude sickness is a concern in mountainous regions. Drinking plenty of fluids can help. Scopolamine is a drug patch that is effective for motion sickness.
- Jet lag is common when traveling between time zones, especially when flying from west to east. Drink plenty of water and sleep on the plane if you can. When you arrive, stay outside during the day so that your body recalibrates. Some people find melatonin supplements helpful for recovering from jet lag.
- Dangerous wildlife can be the most ignored aspect of a travel plan. If exploring wilderness areas, travel with a local guide or try to gather as much information as possible about the local flora and fauna beforehand. Do not touch or feed wild animals.
Before You Go
Education and preparations are critical for ensuring safe travels. Travelers should educate themselves on the health risks associated with their specific destinations. Resources from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Traveler's Health, the U.S. State Department, and the World Health Organization can provide valuable information. Research their websites as part of your travel preparation (see "Resources" below).
You should check your health insurance to see what coverage your policy provides for travel abroad. (Medicare does not provide coverage outside of the United States.) Depending on your destination, you might consider purchasing a short-term travel medical insurance policy that provides emergency medical evacuation.
A visit to your doctor or hospital travel clinic should be scheduled at least 4 to 6 weeks before your trip. Providers who specialize in travel medicine are up to date on the latest warnings, outbreaks, and precautions for global regions. During your visit, the travel doctor will review your medical history and current medications, recommend non-prescription and prescription medications for (such as an antibiotic for traveler's diarrhea), and provide required or optional immunizations.
It can take 2 weeks for immunizations to take effect, and some immunizations require multiple doses, so it is important not to wait until the last minute. If you are traveling to a region where malaria is prevalent, you may need to start anti-malarial medication a few days before your departure.
If you are traveling while pregnant or have a chronic health condition (diabetes, asthma, or heart disease), it is very important to discuss your travel plans with your provider so you can be informed of specific precautions to take. Pregnant women should not travel to countries with Zika virus infection. If you will be traveling for long distances and are at risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), your provider may recommend compression stockings, medications, or specific exercises to stretch your calf muscles.
When preparing to travel, you should make sure you and your children are up to date with all routine immunizations. Routine vaccinations include:
- Seasonal influenza
- Tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis (TDP or Tdap)
- Measles-mumps-rubella (MMR)
- Varicella (chickenpox) for children and Zoster (shingles) for adults
- Pneumococcal (PCV13 or PPSV23)
- Hepatitis A and B
- Polio
- Meningococcal disease
- Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) -- for children or adults with immune system problems
- Rotavirus (for infants only)
Depending on your itinerary, and the specifics of your medical history, you may also need required vaccinations for crossing international borders. There are 3 vaccines that are required for entering or leaving certain countries. These 3 vaccines include:
- Polio vaccine a one-time booster is currently required to exit after a stay of 4 weeks of more in Afghanistan, Laos, Nigeria, and Pakistan. This list of nations may change frequently.
- Meningococcal vaccine a single dose quadrivalent ACWY meningococcal vaccine is required to enter The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for Hajj.
- Yellow fever vaccine is required for entry by many countries if you are traveling from countries with risk of yellow fever.
Other travel-specific vaccines that may be necessary, although not required for crossing borders include:
- Typhoid vaccine (available in both oral and injectable forms)
- Japanese encephalitis vaccine
- Rabies preexposure vaccine
- Tick-borne encephalitis (not available in the United States and Canada, but available in endemic areas in Europe)
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website provides up to date vaccine recommendations listed by country or by disease.
What to Pack
First aid and other supplies for travelers should include:
- Antiseptic cleanser
- Antibiotic ointment
- Hydrocortisone cream
- Antifungal cream
- Anti-diarrhea medication such as loperamide (Imodium) and bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol)
- Over-the-counter pain reliever (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, or naproxen)
- Hand sanitizer and disinfectant wipes
- Small packets toilet paper or tissues
- Bandages and gauze
- Sunblock (15 SPF or higher)
- Insect repellent
- Digital thermometer
- Supplies to purify or filter water
- Extra pair of prescription glasses or contact lenses
- EpiPen if you have any food or insect allergies
Pack your prescription medications in your carry-on luggage and keep them in their original labeled containers. You should also bring:
- Extra amounts of your medications in case you run out.
- A list of generic and brand drug names in the countries you will be visiting in case you need to purchase medication while abroad. (For example, acetaminophen, the generic name for Tylenol, is sold as paracetamol outside the United States.)
- A medical summary of your conditions and a list of your current medications.
In addition to your passport, other documents to pack include:
- Your passport and identification.
- International Certificate of Vaccination (Yellow Card). You will need to present this if you are traveling to a country that requires proof of yellow fever vaccination for entry.
- List of U.S. consulate or embassy locations in countries you will be visiting.
- Health insurance information.
While Traveling
Some basic tips for safe health while traveling include:
- If traveling long distances, flex and straighten your legs, feet, and toes to help prevent deep vein thrombosis. For extended air travel, get up periodically and walk.
- Eat only food that is fully cooked and served hot. Peel all fruits and vegetables before consuming. Avoid salads, uncooked and unpasteurized foods, and items sold by street vendors. Do not eat "bushmeat" such as bats, monkeys, or other wild game.
- Drink only beverages made with boiled water or commercial bottled water or other beverages that come sealed. Use bottled watered when brushing teeth. Wipe the outsides of bottles or cans before drinking from them. Never consume any amount of tap water or items (such as ice cubes) made with tap water.
- If swimming, brushing your teeth, or showering, take care not to ingest any water. Never swim if you have any open cuts, sores, or abrasions. If traveling to an area where schistosomiasis is common, avoid swimming or wading in fresh water.
- Use DEET insect repellant and wear permethrin-treated clothing to prevent bites from disease-carrying mosquitoes, flies, and ticks.
After You Return
If you develop any symptoms of illness after you return to the United States, be sure to immediately contact your health care provider or travel clinic doctor and volunteer the details of your travel history. Some infections can take over 30 days to develop so it is important to remind your provider of your past travel even if it was months prior. Let your provider know where you have been, in addition to what symptoms you are experiencing. Symptoms to watch for include fever, rash, fatigue, and respiratory or stomach problems.
If you are traveling to a country where tuberculosis (TB) is prevalent and you may have prolonged exposure to someone with TB, your doctor may recommend you get a skin or blood TB test before you depart and a repeat test 8 to 10 weeks after you return.
Traveler's Diarrhea
Traveler's diarrhea (TD) is the most common health problem a traveler encounters. It is almost always caused by ingesting certain organisms (viruses, parasites, or bacteria) in contaminated food or water:
- Escherichia coli (E coli) is the most common bacterial and overall cause of traveler's diarrhea. Other bacterial causes include Campylobacter jejeuni, Shigella, and Salmonella. Some of these infections are associated with bloody diarrhea (dysentery).
- Giardia, a protozoa, is the most common parasitic cause of diarrhea. Other parasitic causes include Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidia, Cystoisospora, Cyclospora, and Microsporidia.
- Noroviruses, also called Norwalk-like viruses, are an increasingly common cause of traveler's diarrhea in Central American countries and on cruise ships. Other viral causes include rotaviruses, adenoviruses, and astroviruses.
Symptoms of traveler's diarrhea may include:
- Loose, watery stools
- Stomach cramps
- Fever (uncommon in norovirus infection)
- Vomiting
- In severe cases, bloody diarrhea (dysentery)
The onset and course of traveler's diarrhea depends on the type of organism that causes it:
- Bacterial and viral diarrhea comes on rapidly 6 to 48 hours after exposure to the pathogen. If not treated, it can last for 2 to 5 days.
- Protozoal diarrhea tends to emerge more gradually 1 to 2 weeks after exposure to the parasite. If not treated, it can persist for weeks or months.
- People who have a severe or prolonged case of traveler's diarrhea may continue to experience gastrointestinal symptoms even after the initial infection goes away.
Traveler's diarrhea is rarely life threatening, although it can be severely debilitating, especially in children. Dehydration (loss of fluids) is the main concern. Symptoms of dehydration include:
- Lack of urine or tears
- Dry mouth
- Sunken eyes
- Dizziness and weakness
Seek immediate medical attention if you or your child has symptoms of severe dehydration, high fever, bloody stools, or persistent vomiting.
There is no vaccine to prevent traveler's diarrhea. Certain precautions can help reduce (although not completely prevent) your risk:
- Use hand sanitizers or disinfectant wipes before eating.
- Be careful in choosing food and drinks (see below).
- Take 2 tablets of bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto Bismol) 4 times a day (do not use if under 12 years old, allergic to aspirin, or take anticoagulants or methotrexate. Be aware that this medicine causes black stools.)
- Prophylactic (preventive) antibiotics are not usually recommended for travelers.
Food and Beverage Precautions
"Boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it" is an easy way to remember food and water precautions.
To avoid contaminated food:
- Eat hot, well-cooked foods. But do not eat hot foods that have been sitting around for a long time and are now room temperature.
- Do not eat raw fruits and vegetables unless you peel them. Wash all fruits and vegetables in clean water before eating them.
- Do not eat raw leafy vegetables (e.g. lettuce, spinach, or cabbage) because they are hard to clean. It is best to avoid salads.
- Do not eat salsa or other condiments made with raw vegetables.
- Do not eat raw or undercooked meat, fish, or eggs. Hardboiled eggs are safe.
- Do not consume unpasteurized dairy products (milk, cheese, and yogurt).
- Do not buy food from street vendors.
To avoid contaminated water and other drinks:
- Do not use tap water to drink or brush your teeth.
- Do not use ice or other items (popsicles, iced tea, or coffee) made from tap water.
- Choose water or other beverages that are commercially bottled and sealed. Wipe the outside of the bottle or can before consuming.
- Hot beverages (coffee, tea) are safe to drink.
You can make water safe to drink by purifying it. There are several methods:
- Boiling is the simplest method. Boil water for at least 1 minute.
- Use iodine or chlorine tablets.
- Use a device that emits ultraviolet light.
- Handheld water filters can help remove bacteria and parasites but are not effective for viruses.
Antibiotics are effective for treating diarrhea caused by bacteria. You should pack a prescription antibiotic that you can take if you have:
- 3 or more loose stools in an 8-hour period
- 5 or more loose stools in a 24-hour period
Fluroquinolones (ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin) are usually the antibiotics prescribed. (Fluroquinolones are generally not recommended for pregnant women or children under 18. Fluroquinolones may increase the risk for tendinitis and tendon rupture, especially in adults over age 60.) You will take 1 pill every 12 hours until the diarrhea goes away. Most people feel better after 1 or 2 pills. Your health care provider may prescribe an alternative antibiotic (such as azithromycin) if you are traveling in a region that has ciprofloxacin resistance.
For nonprescription medication, you can take loperamide (Immodium) as directed.
To help yourself feel better, you should:
- Drink plenty of (purified) clear fluids. Water or an oral rehydration solution is best.
- Eat small meals every few hours instead of three big meals.
- Eat easily digestible salty foods, such as salted crackers or pretzels.
- Eat foods that are high in potassium, such as bananas.
- Avoid caffeinated beverages.
Fluid Replacement
If diarrhea develops, the most important steps to take are preventing dehydration and replacing lost fluids and electrolytes.
Dehydration can be especially dangerous for children. Rehydration products contain an important balance of sugars and salts. If traveling with children, bring along products such as pre-packaged oral rehydration salts (ORS). These are often sold in health agency pharmacies. A homemade solution can be prepared with ½ tsp salt; 2 tbsp sugar; ½ tsp baking powder; 1 liter (about one quart) of clean water.
In cases of severe dehydration, seek medical assistance.
Other Intestinal Diseases
Other diseases spread by contaminated water and food include:
- Cholera. Is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It causes massive amounts of loose, watery stools ("rice-water stools") and if untreated lead to fatal dehydration. Vaccines for cholera prevention are not available in the United States.
- Typhoid fever. Is caused by the Salmonella typhi bacterium. It is an infection that causes fever and bloody diarrhea. You can get an injected or oral typhoid vaccine to prevent typhoid fever.
- Hepatitis A. Is a viral infection that causes liver disease and can be transmitted through fecal-contaminated food and water. You can receive a vaccine to prevent hepatitis A. [For more information, see Other Infectious Diseases section.]
Insect-Borne Diseases
The following are some common diseases caused by viruses or parasites transmitted by infected insects.
Malaria is a major health problem in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
Malaria is a serious and potentially life-threatening disease. It is caused by a Plasmodium parasite transmitted through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. There are several types of Plasmodium human malaria; P. falciparum is the most common and deadly type in Africa.
Anopheles mosquitoes acquire the parasites when they bite and feed from the blood of someone infected with malaria. The parasites develop and reproduce inside the mosquito and are then transmitted again when another person is bitten. Malaria can also be transmitted from a pregnant mother to her unborn baby and by blood transfusions.
When a person is infected by Plasmodium, the parasites travel first through the bloodstream to the liver where they mature and multiply, and then enter and infect red blood cells. Symptoms usually develop 7 to 14 days after infection, but can occur up to several months later. Some people experience relapse attacks months or years after infection.
Seek immediate medical attention if you experience symptoms of malaria. A malaria attack lasts 6 to 10 hours and is accompanied by symptoms such as:
- Intense chills followed by fever
- Headache, body aches, and vomiting
- Sweating and fatigue
Anemia (low red blood cell count) and jaundice (yellowing of skin) may also be present. In severe cases, malaria can cause seizure, brain infection, and liver, kidney, or respiratory failure. Severe malaria can be fatal.
If you are traveling to an area where malaria is endemic, you should take a medication to reduce your risk prior to traveling. There are several types of malaria prophylaxis medications. Discuss your options with your doctor. Some of these drugs have substantial side effects or are inappropriate for people with certain current or prior health conditions. Your destination is also a factor -- in some geographic regions, the malaria parasites have become resistant to certain medications.
Malaria prevention drugs include:
- Atovaquone-proguanil (Malarone) is taken as a single daily dose for 3 days. You should begin taking it 1 to 2 days before departure. Side effects are rare.
- Doxycycline is started 1 to 2 days before departure and then taken once daily during travel. You should continue to take it for 4 weeks after returning. This antibiotic drug can increase sun sensitivity so it is important to avoid direct sun exposure and to regularly apply sunscreen.
- Mefloquine (Lariam) is begun at least 2 weeks before departure, taken once week during travel, and continued for 4 weeks after return. Some people experience severe psychiatric symptoms with this drug. It should not be prescribed to people with a history of depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, or psychotic disorders.
- Chloroquine is started 1 to 2 weeks before departure, taken once a week during travel, and continued for 4 weeks after return. Many malaria parasites are resistant to chloroquine so it is only prescribed for areas where resistance is low. This drug can worsen psoriasis.
- Primaquine is started 1 to 2 days before departure, taken daily during travel, and continued for 7 days after return. This drug is only prescribed for regions where malaria caused by P. vivax (not P. falciparum) is common.
Anopheles mosquitoes are most active between dusk and dawn. You should wear long-sleeved shirts and pants, and also protect yourself with an insect repellant that contains 20% to 30% concentration of DEET. During the day, apply sunscreen before applying the insect repellant. Pre-treat your clothing with permethrin. You may also consider bringing a permethrin-treated bed net. Sleeping in an air conditioned or screened environment helps reduce the risk for mosquito exposure.
Malaria can be treated if caught early. Delayed treatment can be fatal. Atovaquone-proguanil is the main drug recommended, though others are also used based on where you travelled when you contracted malaria. Other less effective drugs may be used overseas.
Dengue Fever
Dengue fever, also known as breakbone fever, is a viral infection spread by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito. It causes severe flu-like symptoms including high fever, headache, rash, and deep pain in the joints, muscles, and behind the eyes. There may be mild bleeding from the nose or gums. Symptoms usually develop about a week after infection and last for up to 10 days.
A very small number of dengue fever cases develop into dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), which is a severe form of this infection. DHF begins with dengue fever symptoms but then worsens with severe abdominal pain and bleeding from nose, mouth, and under the skin. A shock-like state can follow.
There are 4 types of dengue viruses (DENV-1 to DENV-4). People who have had dengue fever become immune to the initial virus that infected them, but they are still at risk for contracting the other viruses. If you have had dengue fever and are then subsequently infected with a new dengue virus, you may be at increased risk for DHF.
There is no available vaccine for dengue fever. The best way to reduce your risk is to avoid getting bitten by mosquitoes. Use DEET insect repellant on your skin, and wear permethrin-treated clothing. Unlike the Anopheles and other mosquitoes, the Aedes mosquito feeds primarily in the daytime. It is most active from early morning until dusk.
Treatment for dengue fever is to rest, drink plenty of fluids, and take acetaminophen (Tylenol) pain reliever. Do not take aspirin or other NSAIDs because they may increase bleeding. Treatment for DHF may require intravenous fluids and specialized supportive care.
Yellow Fever
Yellow fever is caused by a flavivirus transmitted by an Aedes or Haemogogus mosquito. The disease can range from mild to severe. Initial symptoms include flu-like symptoms but 15% of cases become severe with jaundice (yellow color), high fever, hemorrhagic bleeding, shock, and organ failure. If left untreated, severe yellow fever can be fatal. Fortunately, yellow fever can be prevented by immunization. Yellow fever vaccine is given as a single dose to the people ages 9 months or more, traveling or living in risk areas. Additional doses may be required in:
- HIV patients
- Travelers who has taken the vaccine 10 years ago
- Women who were pregnant at the time of vaccination
- Laboratory workers who handle the wild- type yellow virus in routine
- People who went under hematopoietic stem cell transplant after last dose of yellow fever vaccine
Chikungunya is caused by a Togaviridae virus transmitted by infected Aedes species mosquitoes. Symptoms usually begin 4 to 8 days after being bitten. The illness begins with fever followed by muscle and joint pain, headache, and rash. Most people recover within a week, but severe joint pain and fatigue can persist for several months. Treatment focuses on relief of symptoms. A person who gets chikungunya is protected from future infections.
There is no vaccine or treatment available for chikungunya. Follow insect protection precautions including wearing DEET insect repellant.
Chikungunya is present in many regions throughout the world, including Africa, Asia, and Indian sub-continent. In 2013, the first Western Hemisphere chikungunya cases were identified in Saint Martin. Since then, chikungunya has become widespread throughout the Caribbean region.
Leishmaniasis is caused by a protozoa parasite transmitted through the bite of various species of sandflies. There are several forms of the disease. Cutaneous leishmaniasis causes skin sores and ulcers. It is more common in parts of Central and South America and the Middle East. Visceral leishmaniasis affects internal organs such as the spleen and liver. It is more common in the Indian subcontinent and East Africa.
Sandflies are most active from dusk to dawn. The best way to prevent leishmaniasis is to avoid going out during these hours. If you do, minimize exposed skin by wearing permethrin-treated long-sleeved clothing and pants. Apply DEET insect repellant to exposed skin.
Viral Encephalitis
Arboviruses (viruses carried by arthropods like mosquitos or ticks) are an important cause of encephalitis worldwide. The predominant types vary from one region to another:
- Western hemisphere -- Eastern and Western equine, La Crosse, Venezuelan, and West Nile
- Australia and New Guinea -- Murray Valley
- Russia and Eastern Europe -- Tick-borne
- Asia and Western Pacific -- Japanese encephalitis
Japanese encephalitis (JE) which can be fatal, has high rates of infection in countries like Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, and Thailand.
Symptoms can range from mild flu-like illness to fever, headache, and vomiting. This infection can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), which can lead to coma and paralysis.
There is a vaccine available to prevent JE. It is approved for children and adults age 2 years and older. The vaccine is recommended for travelers who will be spending more than 1 month in areas where JE is common, or for travelers staying less than 1 month who plan on spending time in rural or agricultural areas.
Zika is caused by an arbovirus transmitted by infected Aedes mosquitoes. Zika infection during pregnancy may cause certain birth defects.
The Zika virus was first identified in Uganda in 1947 and the first large outbreak was reported in Island of Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) in 2007. Outbreaks of Zika virus disease have since been recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.
The CDC recommends that the following groups of people be tested for Zika virus:
- A person with symptoms who has recently traveled to areas with risk of Zika.
- Pregnant women with or without symptoms who have recently visited areas with risk of Zika.
Zika infections are asymptomatic in many cases. When present, symptoms of Zika may resemble other arbovirus infections, such as dengue, and include:
- Mild fever
- Conjunctivitis
- Skin rash
- Muscle and joint pain
- Headache
- Malaise
No specific treatment exists for Zika infection. Zika infection in pregnant women can cause fetal brain defects such as microcephaly, as well as miscarriage and stillbirth. Zika infection has also been linked to Guillain-Barré syndrome in risk areas. There is no vaccine available for Zika.
CDC recommends that pregnant women not visit areas with a current outbreak of Zika. If traveling to risk areas is unavoidable, they should take steps to avoid mosquito bites and sexual transmission during and after the trip. Travelers who are planning to conceive should wait for at least 2 months (women) to 3 months (men) after the last possible exposure (if asymptomatic) or after diagnosis or the first symptoms (if symptomatic), and should practice safe sex in the meantime.
All travelers to risk areas for Zika should avoid mosquito bites for 3 weeks after returning, to prevent the spread of Zika to mosquitoes that could spread the virus to other people.
Respiratory Viruses
Respiratory viruses range from the common cold to more serious infections. All travelers should take general precautions to protect themselves from respiratory viruses. Tips for prevention include:
- Get up to date with all your immunizations, including the seasonal flu vaccine.
- Wash hands frequently with soap and water or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
- Clean and disinfected commonly touched surfaces and objects.
- Avoid close personal contact and sharing eating and drinking utensils or other personal items with infected people.
Avian (Bird) Influenza
Avian influenza, commonly called bird flu, is caused by avian (bird) types of the influenza A virus. Influenza viruses are commonly found in wild birds, especially water fowl, and can also cause outbreaks in domestic poultry such as chickens, ducks, and geese.
Most of the time, avian flu stays contained within bird populations. However, some of the viruses that cause disease in birds can mutate and spread to humans. In particular, two avian influenza viruses -- H5N1 and H7N9 -- have caused outbreaks in people.
The first case of avian influenza A (H5N1) in humans was reported in Hong Kong in 1997. The outbreak was linked to infected chickens. The virus reemerged in 2003 and since then there have been human cases in countries in Asia, Africa, the Pacific, Europe, and the Middle East (particularly Egypt). In 2013, human infection with a second avian influenza A virus (H7N9) was reported in China. Both types of viruses can cause serious and fatal illness. The disease causes flu-like symptom but can develop into pneumonia and severe respiratory distress.
Most cases of transmission involved people who came into direct contact with infected birds. In their current form, avian influenza viruses do not easily spread from person to person. However, if the viruses continue to mutate, more cases of human transmission of avian flu may occur, which would increase the possibility of a global outbreak (pandemic).
The CDC recommends that people traveling to avian influenza-affected countries:
- Avoid live bird markets and other places where birds, especially poultry, are raised or kept.
- Do not eat raw or undercooked poultry meat, eggs, or blood.
- Do not touch infected birds.
- Wash your hands frequently during travel.
- Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
- If you develop flu symptoms, wear a face mask and seek medical attention.
Contact your health care provider if you develop any symptoms of fever, cough, sore throat, or breathing problems within 10 days of returning home. Be sure to inform your provider about your recent trip.
In May 2017, the fifth and largest to date epidemic of H7N9 has been reported from China. However, due to the current low risk assessment, neither the WHO nor the CDC have issued any travel restrictions.
There is currently an available vaccine for preventing H5N1. (The United States government is stockpiling this vaccine in the event that cases of human-to-human transmission increase.) There is no vaccine for H7N9.
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is an emerging viral infection that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012. Since then, MERS has been reported throughout countries around the Arabian Peninsula.
MERS is caused by a coronavirus, the same family of viruses responsible for many other respiratory infections including the common cold and SARS. MERS comes on suddenly, with symptoms that include fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Other symptoms include flu-like illness, nausea, and vomiting. This disease can be fatal.
MERS may have originated as a disease in camels, which then spread to humans. The reported cases have involved close contact human-to-human transmission in people who were living with or caring for an infected person. Treatment focuses on symptom relief. There is no preventive vaccine or specific treatment available for MERS. You should follow general precautions for avoiding exposure to respiratory viruses.
The World Health Organization (WHO) advises travelers to the Arabian Peninsula who have high-risk health conditions (diabetes, chronic lung disease, and weakened immune systems) to avoid contact with camels.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a respiratory illness caused by the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). SARS manifests as a severe pneumonia that may lead to respiratory failure and death. The infection is spread through droplets released when an infected person coughs or sneezes. A global outbreak of SARS occurred in 2003, which started in China and spread to other countries in Asia, Europe and the Americas. No new cases of SARS have been reported since 2004.
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
SARS-associated coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), previously also called 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is a newly identified coronavirus responsible for an outbreak of coronavirus disease (called COVID-19) that started in December 2019 in Wuhan City, China. Infection with SARS-CoV-2 causes a respiratory illness that may range from no or mild symptoms to respiratory failure and death. COVID-19 is thought to spread from person to person through infected droplets.
Symptoms of COVID-19 occur within 2 to 14 days from exposure and include fever, coughing, and shortness of breath. It appears that the risk for more severe COVID-19 is higher in people who are older or who have chronic health problems. There is currently no vaccine to prevent COVID-19.
The best way to prevent this infection is to avoid exposure the virus, including by avoiding traveling to known locations of outbreaks. The CDC currently recommends that people do not travel to China, and that travelers from China be tested and isolated for up to 14 days. This is a rapidly evolving situation. For the most up to date information about COVID-19, you can visit the following websites:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) - www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html
World Health Organization website. Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) - www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019
Other Infectious Diseases
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver. Viral forms of hepatitis are caused by hepatitis viruses:
- Hepatitis A can be transmitted through contaminated food and water or through coming into direct contact with someone infected with the virus.
- Hepatitis B is transmitted through blood or other bodily fluids such as semen (sexual activity).
- Hepatitis C is transmitted through blood.
- Hepatitis E is transmitted through contaminated water.
Before you travel, you should receive a vaccine to prevent hepatitis A and hepatitis B. (There are no vaccines for the other hepatitis viruses.)
Hepatitis A and E viruses are shed in feces. Contamination of food and water is common in regions that have poor sanitation. You can protect yourself by exercising caution in selecting food and beverage, and practicing good hygiene.
Hepatitis B and C can be spread through engaging in unsafe sex; having medical procedures with unsterilized instruments; or having blood transfusions if blood is not screened. Travelers to developing regions should also avoid having tattoos or acupuncture.
Symptoms of hepatitis can appear weeks after infection. They can range from mild to severe and include fever, nausea, fatigue, loss of appetite, and jaundice (yellowing of skin). Some people have no symptoms. Hepatitis A is an acute disease that usually clears up on its own. Hepatitis B, C, and E can have both acute and chronic forms. Chronic hepatitis poses risks for liver damage (cirrhosis) and cancer over time.
Skin Infections
People who visit tropical regions are at risk for a number of skin disorders, including infections from parasites or fungi. Bacterial infections can also develop from insect bites or abrasions. Antibacterial and anti-fungal medication can help treat these infections. If you notice any skin problems after you return from your trip, contact your health care provider.
Cleanliness is essential for preventing skin infections. Wash regularly with soap and water. To prevent fungal infections, which thrive in damp, warm climates, be sure to dry skin thoroughly. Take special care to clean and keep dry certain skin areas where infections are most likely to occur. They include creases in the skin, the armpits, the groin, buttocks, and areas between the toes. Use talcum powder in these areas. Keep socks dry.
A bad sunburn that blisters can also increase the risk for infection. To avoid sunburn:
- Wear sunscreen SPF 30 or higher. Apply sunscreen before applying insect repellant.
- Stay in the shade between 10am and 4pm when the sun's rays are strongest.
- Wear light, cotton clothing to cover exposed skin, a wide-brimmed hat, and sunglasses.
- If you do get a sunburn, apply a cool, wet towel to the burn. If there are blisters, apply dry bandages. Cortisone creams can help reduce inflammation. Do not apply petroleum jelly, which can block pores and increase the risk for infection.
Ebola is a severe and deadly disease caused by a virus. There are several species of Ebola viruses.
Ebola was previously called Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Viral hemorrhagic fevers damage the vascular system. The cause of death is not due to bleeding but to shock and multi-organ failure. Other hemorrhagic fevers include Lassa and Marburg viruses.
These diseases circulate in animal populations. Scientists think that Ebola may have originated in bat or primate (apes and monkey) populations. Outbreaks occur when a person comes into contact with an infected animal. The disease is then transmitted among people through contact with an infected human.
If a person recovers from Ebola, they may still harbor the virus in immune-privileged sites such as testicles, the inside of the eye, and the central nervous system. Relapse-symptomatic illness in recovered people is rare but may occur in the event of replication of the virus in a specific site.
In 2014 to 2016, the largest recorded Ebola outbreak occurred in West Africa. The countries of Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia were principally affected. Past outbreaks have occurred in other African countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, and Uganda.
In 2019, the first FDA-approved vaccine for the prevention of Ebola in adults became available. Other vaccines are in different phases of testing. Rapid and portable testing methods for Ebola have also been recently developed.
The CDC advises that people who are traveling to an Ebola-affected area should:
- Practice strict hygiene including regularly washing hands with soap and water, or using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
- Avoid contact with blood and bodily fluids. Do not handle items that may have come into contact with an infected person's blood or fluids.
- Avoid contact with bats and monkeys. Do not consume "bushmeat" (meat prepared from these or other wild animals).
- After you return, monitor your health for 21 days. If you experience symptoms of Ebola, seek medical assistance. Ebola symptoms include fever, severe headache, muscle and abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding or bruising. A person is only contagious while they are symptomatic.
- National Center for Infectious Diseases Travelers' Health -- wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel
- World Health Organization -- www.who.int
- U.S. Department of State -- travel.state.gov/content/travel.html
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Chikungunya virus. www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/index.html. Updated September 19, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Choosing a drug to prevent malaria. www.cdc.gov/malaria/travelers/drugs.html. Updated November 15, 2018. Accessed November 11, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Clinical update interim CDC guidance for travel to and from countries affected by the new polio vaccine requirements. wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/news-announcements/polio-guidance-new-requirements. Updated December 11, 2019. Accessed January 5, 2020.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease). www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola. Updated November 5, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Information on avian flu. www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/index.htm. Updated March 21, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS): Information for healthcare providers. www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/mers/hcp.html. Updated August 2, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Need travel vaccines? Plan ahead. wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/travel-vaccines. Updated October 11, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Zika travel information. wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/zika-information. Updated October 21, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019.
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Review Date: 1/9/2020
Reviewed By: Jatin M. Vyas, MD, PhD, Assistant Professor in Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Assistant in Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. Editorial update on 02-13-20. Editorial update on 02-19-20.


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at OUR NEW SPACE at 9. W. Hastings
in Vancouver on the ground floor of The Beacon Hotel (near Pigeon Park and the Survivors' Totem Pole, near the Army & Navy)
Learn to use a 3d printer + block printing
Take selfies.
Carve lino blocks.
Combine 3d printing + letterpress to make semiphotographic images.
Open to queer, questioning, bisexual, lesbian, gay, trans*, two-spirit, nonbinary, gender non-conforming, intersex, asexual, & pansexual youth aged 15-30 .
Optional: bring a low-res selfie, smart phone, or camera. None are required! Webcams and materials are provided. Let us know if you plan to come by emailing email@example.com or calling 604-670-3424 or just drop-in. Attend as many or as few as you please.
The workshops will take place certain wednesdays and thursdays and are totally free. Snacks are provided.
The next workshop is Thursday, Dec 14, 5 to 8 pm at WePress Community Art Space , 9 West Hastings Street. There might be more in the new year – stay tuned for news!
These workshops take place on the unceded territories of the xʷməθkwəy̓əm (Musqueam), Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish) and Səl̓ílwətaʔ/ Selilwitulh (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations. This project is supported by a Creative Spark Vancouver grant disbursed by Artstarts in Schools and funded by the City of Vancouver.