text:
Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies,[a] crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described.
Fly Temporal range: Triassic – Recent
Middle | |
Diptera from different families:
Housefly (Muscidae) (top left)
| |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Superorder: | Panorpida |
(unranked): | Antliophora |
Order: | Diptera Linnaeus, 1758 |
Suborders | |
Flies have a mobile head, with a pair of large compound eyes, and mouthparts designed for piercing and sucking (mosquitoes, black flies and robber flies), or for lapping and sucking in the other groups. Their wing arrangement gives them great maneuverability in flight, and claws and pads on their feet enable them to cling to smooth surfaces. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis; the eggs are often laid on the larval food-source and the larvae, which lack true limbs, develop in a protected environment, often inside their food source. Other species are ovoviviparous, opportunistically depositing hatched or hatching larvae instead of eggs on carrion, dung, decaying material, or open wounds of mammals. The pupa is a tough capsule from which the adult emerges when ready to do so; flies mostly have short lives as adults.
Diptera is one of the major insect orders and of considerable ecological and human importance. Flies are important pollinators, second only to the bees and their Hymenopteran relatives. Flies may have been among the evolutionarily earliest pollinators responsible for early plant pollination. Fruit flies are used as model organisms in research, but less benignly, mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, dengue, West Nile fever, yellow fever, encephalitis, and other infectious diseases; and houseflies, commensal with humans all over the world, spread foodborne illnesses. Flies can be annoyances especially in some parts of the world where they can occur in large numbers, buzzing and settling on the skin or eyes to bite or seek fluids. Larger flies such as tsetse flies and screwworms cause significant economic harm to cattle. Blowfly larvae, known as gentles, and other dipteran larvae, known more generally as maggots, are used as fishing bait, as food for carnivorous animals, and in medicine in debridement, to clean wounds.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Relationships to other insects
Dipterans are holometabolans, insects that undergo radical metamorphosis. They belong to the Mecopterida, alongside the Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Lepidoptera and Trichoptera.[3][4] The possession of a single pair of wings distinguishes most true flies from other insects with "fly" in their names. However, some true flies such as Hippoboscidae (louse flies) have become secondarily wingless.[5][6]
The cladogram represents the current consensus view.[7]
Holometabola |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Relationships between subgroups and families
The first true dipterans known are from the Middle Triassic (around 240 million years ago), and they became widespread during the Middle and Late Triassic.[8] Modern flowering plants did not appear until the Cretaceous (around 140 million years ago), so the original dipterans must have had a different source of nutrition other than nectar. Based on the attraction of many modern fly groups to shiny droplets, it has been suggested that they may have fed on honeydew produced by sap-sucking bugs which were abundant at the time, and dipteran mouthparts are well-adapted to softening and lapping up the crusted residues.[9] The basal clades in the Diptera include the Deuterophlebiidae and the enigmatic Nymphomyiidae.[10] Three episodes of evolutionary radiation are thought to have occurred based on the fossil record. Many new species of lower Diptera developed in the Triassic, about 220 million years ago. Many lower Brachycera appeared in the Jurassic, some 180 million years ago. A third radiation took place among the Schizophora at the start of the Paleogene, 66 million years ago.[10]
The phylogenetic position of Diptera has been controversial. The monophyly of holometabolous insects has long been accepted, with the main orders being established as Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, and it is the relationships between these groups which has caused difficulties. Diptera is widely thought to be a member of Mecopterida, along with Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Trichoptera (caddisflies), Siphonaptera (fleas), Mecoptera (scorpionflies) and possibly Strepsiptera (twisted-wing flies). Diptera has been grouped with Siphonaptera and Mecoptera in the Antliophora, but this has not been confirmed by molecular studies.[11]
Diptera were traditionally broken down into two suborders, Nematocera and Brachycera, distinguished by the differences in antennae. The Nematocera are identified by their elongated bodies and many-segmented, often feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. The Brachycera have rounder bodies and much shorter antennae.[12][13] Subsequent studies have identified the Nematocera as being non-monophyletic with modern phylogenies placing the Brachycera within grades of groups formerly placed in the Nematocera. The construction of a phylogenetic tree has been the subject of ongoing research. The following cladogram is based on the FLYTREE project.[14][15]
Diptera |
- Cal=Calyptratae
- Cyc=Cyclorrhapha
- Ere=Eremoneura
- Mus=Muscomorpha
- Sch=Schizophora
Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in the world apart from Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as house flies, blow flies, mosquitoes, gnats, black flies, midges and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively.[16][17] The suborder Nematocera include generally small, slender insects with long antennae such as mosquitoes, gnats, midges and crane-flies, while the Brachycera includes broader, more robust flies with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic.[18] There are estimated to be a total of about 19,000 species of Diptera in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in the Afrotropical region, 23,000 in the Oriental region and 19,000 in the Australasian region.[19] While most species have restricted distributions, a few like the housefly (Musca domestica) are cosmopolitan.[20] Gauromydas heros (Asiloidea), with a length of up to 7 cm (2.8 in), is generally considered to be the largest fly in the world,[21] while the smallest is Euryplatea nanaknihali, which at 0.4 mm (0.016 in) is smaller than a grain of salt.[22]
Brachycera are ecologically very diverse, with many being predatory at the larval stage and some being parasitic. Animals parasitised include molluscs, woodlice, millipedes, insects, mammals,[19] and amphibians.[23] Flies are the second largest group of pollinators after the Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and relatives). In wet and colder environments flies are significantly more important as pollinators. Compared to bees, they need less food as they do not need to provision their young. Many flowers that bear low nectar and those that have evolved trap pollination depend on flies.[24] It is thought that some of the earliest pollinators of plants may have been flies.[25]
The greatest diversity of gall forming insects are found among the flies, principally in the family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges).[26] Many flies (most importantly in the family Agromyzidae) lay their eggs in the mesophyll tissue of leaves with larvae feeding between the surfaces forming blisters and mines.[27] Some families are mycophagous or fungus feeding. These include the cave dwelling Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) whose larvae are the only diptera with bioluminescence. The Sciaridae are also fungus feeders. Some plants are pollinated by fungus feeding flies that visit fungus infected male flowers.[28]
The larvae of Megaselia scalaris (Phoridae) are almost omnivorous and consume such substances as paint and shoe polish.[29] The Exorista mella (Walker) fly are considered generalists and parasitoids of a variety of hosts.[30] The larvae of the shore flies (Ephydridae) and some Chironomidae survive in extreme environments including glaciers (Diamesa sp., Chironomidae[31]), hot springs, geysers, saline pools, sulphur pools, septic tanks and even crude oil (Helaeomyia petrolei[31]).[19] Adult hoverflies (Syrphidae) are well known for their mimicry and the larvae adopt diverse lifestyles including being inquiline scavengers inside the nests of social insects.[32] Some brachycerans are agricultural pests, some bite animals and humans and suck their blood, and some transmit diseases.[19]
Anatomy and morphology
Flies are adapted for aerial movement and typically have short and streamlined bodies. The first tagma of the fly, the head, bears the eyes, the antennae, and the mouthparts (the labrum, labium, mandible, and maxilla make up the mouthparts). The second tagma, the thorax, bears the wings and contains the flight muscles on the second segment, which is greatly enlarged; the first and third segments have been reduced to collar-like structures, and the third segment bears the halteres, which help to balance the insect during flight. The third tagma is the abdomen consisting of 11 segments, some of which may be fused, and with the 3 hindmost segments modified for reproduction.[33][34] Some Dipterans are mimics and can only be distinguished from their models by very careful inspection. An example of this is Spilomyia longicornis, which is a fly but mimics a vespid wasp.
Flies have a mobile head with a pair of large compound eyes on the sides of the head, and in most species, three small ocelli on the top. The compound eyes may be close together or widely separated, and in some instances are divided into a dorsal region and a ventral region, perhaps to assist in swarming behaviour. The antennae are well-developed but variable, being thread-like, feathery or comb-like in the different families. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking, as in the black flies, mosquitoes and robber flies, and for lapping and sucking as in many other groups.[34] Female horse-flies use knife-like mandibles and maxillae to make a cross-shaped incision in the host's skin and then lap up the blood that flows. The gut includes large diverticulae, allowing the insect to store small quantities of liquid after a meal.[35]
For visual course control, flies' optic flow field is analyzed by a set of motion-sensitive neurons.[36] A subset of these neurons is thought to be involved in using the optic flow to estimate the parameters of self-motion, such as yaw, roll, and sideward translation.[37] Other neurons are thought to be involved in analyzing the content of the visual scene itself, such as separating figures from the ground using motion parallax.[38][39] The H1 neuron is responsible for detecting horizontal motion across the entire visual field of the fly, allowing the fly to generate and guide stabilizing motor corrections midflight with respect to yaw.[40] The ocelli are concerned in the detection of changes in light intensity, enabling the fly to react swiftly to the approach of an object.[41]
Like other insects, flies have chemoreceptors that detect smell and taste, and mechanoreceptors that respond to touch. The third segments of the antennae and the maxillary palps bear the main olfactory receptors, while the gustatory receptors are in the labium, pharynx, feet, wing margins and female genitalia,[42] enabling flies to taste their food by walking on it. The taste receptors in females at the tip of the abdomen receive information on the suitability of a site for ovipositing.[41] Flies that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts, Many blood-sucking flies can detect the raised concentration of carbon dioxide that occurs near large animals.[43] Some tachinid flies (Ormiinae) which are parasitoids of bush crickets, have sound receptors to help them locate their singing hosts.[44]
Diptera have one pair of fore wings on the mesothorax and a pair of halteres, or reduced hind wings, on the metathorax. A further adaptation for flight is the reduction in number of the neural ganglia, and concentration of nerve tissue in the thorax, a feature that is most extreme in the highly derived Muscomorpha infraorder.[35] Some flies such as the ectoparasitic Nycteribiidae and Streblidae are exceptional in having lost their wings and become flightless. The only other order of insects bearing a single pair of true, functional wings, in addition to any form of halteres, are the Strepsiptera. In contrast to the flies, the Strepsiptera bear their halteres on the mesothorax and their flight wings on the metathorax.[45] Each of the fly's six legs has a typical insect structure of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, with the tarsus in most instances being subdivided into five tarsomeres.[34] At the tip of the limb is a pair of claws, and between these are cushion-like structures known as pulvilli which provide adhesion.[46]
The abdomen shows considerable variability among members of the order. It consists of eleven segments in primitive groups and ten segments in more derived groups, the tenth and eleventh segments having fused.[47] The last two or three segments are adapted for reproduction. Each segment is made up of a dorsal and a ventral sclerite, connected by an elastic membrane. In some females, the sclerites are rolled into a flexible, telescopic ovipositor.[34]
Flies are capable of great manoeuvrability during flight due to the presence of the halteres. These act as gyroscopic organs and are rapidly oscillated in time with the wings; they act as a balance and guidance system by providing rapid feedback to the wing-steering muscles, and flies deprived of their halteres are unable to fly. The wings and halteres move in synchrony but the amplitude of each wing beat is independent, allowing the fly to turn sideways.[48] The wings of the fly are attached to two kinds of muscles, those used to power it and another set used for fine control.[49]
Flies tend to fly in a straight line then make a rapid change in direction before continuing on a different straight path. The directional changes are called saccades and typically involve an angle of 90°, being achieved in 50 milliseconds. They are initiated by visual stimuli as the fly observes an object, nerves then activate steering muscles in the thorax that cause a small change in wing stroke which generate sufficient torque to turn. Detecting this within four or five wingbeats, the halteres trigger a counter-turn and the fly heads off in a new direction.[50]
Flies have rapid reflexes that aid their escape from predators but their sustained flight speeds are low. Dolichopodid flies in the genus Condylostylus respond in less than 5 milliseconds to camera flashes by taking flight.[51] In the past, the deer bot fly, Cephenemyia, was claimed to be one of the fastest insects on the basis of an estimate made visually by Charles Townsend in 1927.[52] This claim, of speeds of 600 to 800 miles per hour, was regularly repeated until it was shown to be physically impossible as well as incorrect by Irving Langmuir. Langmuir suggested an estimated speed of 25 miles per hour.[53][54][55]
Although most flies live and fly close to the ground, a few are known to fly at heights and a few like Oscinella (Chloropidae) are known to be dispersed by winds at altitudes of up to 2000 ft and over long distances.[56] Some hover flies like Metasyrphus corollae have been known to undertake long flights in response to aphid population spurts.[57]
Males of fly species such as Cuterebra, many hover flies,[58] bee flies (Bombyliidae)[59] and fruit flies (Tephritidae)[60] maintain territories within which they engage in aerial pursuit to drive away intruding males and other species.[61] While these territories may be held by individual males, some species, such as A. freeborni,[62] form leks with many males aggregating in displays.[60] Some flies maintain an airspace and still others form dense swarms that maintain a stationary location with respect to landmarks. Many flies mate in flight while swarming.[63]
Life cycle and development
Diptera go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult.
In many flies, the larval stage is long and adults may have a short life. Most dipteran larvae develop in protected environments; many are aquatic and others are found in moist places such as carrion, fruit, vegetable matter, fungi and, in the case of parasitic species, inside their hosts. They tend to have thin cuticles and become desiccated if exposed to the air. Apart from the Brachycera, most dipteran larvae have sclerotised head capsules, which may be reduced to remnant mouth hooks; the Brachycera, however, have soft, gelatinized head capsules from which the sclerites are reduced or missing. Many of these larvae retract their heads into their thorax.[34][64] The spiracles in the larva and pupa do not have any internal mechanical closing device.[65]
Some other anatomical distinction exists between the larvae of the Nematocera and the Brachycera. Especially in the Brachycera, little demarcation is seen between the thorax and abdomen, though the demarcation may be visible in many Nematocera, such as mosquitoes; in the Brachycera, the head of the larva is not clearly distinguishable from the rest of the body, and few, if any, sclerites are present. Informally, such brachyceran larvae are called maggots,[66] but the term is not technical and often applied indifferently to fly larvae or insect larvae in general. The eyes and antennae of brachyceran larvae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as cerci. This lack of features is an adaptation to food such as carrion, decaying detritus, or host tissues surrounding endoparasites.[35] Nematoceran larvae generally have well-developed eyes and antennae, while those of Brachyceran larvae are reduced or modified.[67]
Dipteran larvae have no jointed, "true legs",[64] but some dipteran larvae, such as species of Simuliidae, Tabanidae and Vermileonidae, have prolegs adapted to hold onto a substrate in flowing water, host tissues or prey.[68] The majority of dipterans are oviparous and lay batches of eggs, but some species are ovoviviparous, where the larvae starting development inside the eggs before they hatch or viviparous, the larvae hatching and maturing in the body of the mother before being externally deposited. These are found especially in groups that have larvae dependent on food sources that are short-lived or are accessible for brief periods.[69] This is widespread in some families such as the Sarcophagidae. In Hylemya strigosa (Anthomyiidae) the larva moults to the second instar before hatching, and in Termitoxenia (Phoridae) females have incubation pouches, and a full developed third instar larva is deposited by the adult and it almost immediately pupates with no freely feeding larval stage. The tsetse fly (as well as other Glossinidae, Hippoboscidae, Nycteribidae and Streblidae) exhibits adenotrophic viviparity; a single fertilised egg is retained in the oviduct and the developing larva feeds on glandular secretions. When fully grown, the female finds a spot with soft soil and the larva works its way out of the oviduct, buries itself and pupates. Some flies like Lundstroemia parthenogenetica (Chironomidae) reproduce by thelytokous parthenogenesis, and some gall midges have larvae that can produce eggs (paedogenesis).[70][71]
The pupae take various forms. In some groups, particularly the Nematocera, the pupa is intermediate between the larval and adult form; these pupae are described as "obtect", having the future appendages visible as structures that adhere to the pupal body. The outer surface of the pupa may be leathery and bear spines, respiratory features or locomotory paddles. In other groups, described as "coarctate", the appendages are not visible. In these, the outer surface is a puparium, formed from the last larval skin, and the actual pupa is concealed within. When the adult insect is ready to emerge from this tough, desiccation-resistant capsule, it inflates a balloon-like structure on its head, and forces its way out.[34]
The adult stage is usually short, its function is only to mate and lay eggs. The genitalia of male flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects.[72] In some flies, this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others, it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the anus being below the genitals, or, in the case of 360° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut and the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns around to face in the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on his back for his genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects, and much quicker. Flies occur in large populations due to their ability to mate effectively and quickly during the mating season.[35] More primitive groups mates in the air during swarming, but most of the more advanced species with a 360° torsion mate on a substrate.[73]
As ubiquitous insects, dipterans play an important role at various trophic levels both as consumers and as prey. In some groups the larvae complete their development without feeding, and in others the adults do not feed. The larvae can be herbivores, scavengers, decomposers, predators or parasites, with the consumption of decaying organic matter being one of the most prevalent feeding behaviours. The fruit or detritus is consumed along with the associated micro-organisms, a sieve-like filter in the pharynx being used to concentrate the particles, while flesh-eating larvae have mouth-hooks to help shred their food. The larvae of some groups feed on or in the living tissues of plants and fungi, and some of these are serious pests of agricultural crops. Some aquatic larvae consume the films of algae that form underwater on rocks and plants. Many of the parasitoid larvae grow inside and eventually kill other arthropods, while parasitic larvae may attack vertebrate hosts.[34]
Whereas many dipteran larvae are aquatic or live in enclosed terrestrial locations, the majority of adults live above ground and are capable of flight. Predominantly they feed on nectar or plant or animal exudates, such as honeydew, for which their lapping mouthparts are adapted. Some flies have functional mandibles that may be used for biting. The flies that feed on vertebrate blood have sharp stylets that pierce the skin, with some species having anticoagulant saliva that is regurgitated before absorbing the blood that flows; in this process, certain diseases can be transmitted. The bot flies (Oestridae) have evolved to parasitize mammals. Many species complete their life cycle inside the bodies of their hosts.[74] The larvae of a few fly groups (Agromyzidae, Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae) are capable of inducing plant galls. Some dipteran larvae are leaf-miners. The larvae of many brachyceran families are predaceous. In many dipteran groups, swarming is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects gathering in certain locations; these insects are mostly males, and the swarm may serve the purpose of making their location more visible to females.[34]
Most adult diptera have their mouthparts modified to sponge up fluid. The adults of many species of flies (e.g. Anthomyia sp., Steganopsis melanogaster) that feed on liquid food will regurgitate fluid in a behaviour termed as "bubbling" which has been thought to help the insects evaporate water and concentrate food[75] or possibly to cool by evaporation.[76] Some adult diptera are known for kleptoparasitism such as members of the Sarcophagidae. The miltogramminae are known as "satellite flies" for their habit of following wasps and stealing their stung prey or laying their eggs into them. Phorids, milichids and the genus Bengalia are known to steal food carried by ants.[77] Adults of Ephydra hians forage underwater, and have special hydrophobic hairs that trap a bubble of air that lets them breathe underwater.[78]
Anti-predator adaptations
Flies are eaten by other animals at all stages of their development. The eggs and larvae are parasitised by other insects and are eaten by many creatures, some of which specialise in feeding on flies but most of which consume them as part of a mixed diet. Birds, bats, frogs, lizards, dragonflies and spiders are among the predators of flies.[79] Many flies have evolved mimetic resemblances that aid their protection. Batesian mimicry is widespread with many hoverflies resembling bees and wasps,[80][81] ants[82] and some species of tephritid fruit fly resembling spiders.[83] Some species of hoverfly are myrmecophilous—their young live and grow within the nests of ants. They are protected from the ants by imitating chemical odours given by ant colony members.[84] Bombyliid bee flies such as Bombylius major are short-bodied, round, furry, and distinctly bee-like as they visit flowers for nectar, and are likely also Batesian mimics of bees.[85]
In contrast, Drosophila subobscura, a species of fly in the genus Drosophila, lacks a category of hemocytes that are present in other studied species of Drosophila, leading to an inability to defend against parasitic attacks, a form of innate immunodeficiency.[86]
Human interaction and cultural depictions
Flies play a variety of symbolic roles in different cultures. These include both positive and negative roles in religion. In the traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being.[87][88][89] In Christian demonology, Beelzebub is a demonic fly, the "Lord of the Flies", and a god of the Philistines.[90][91][92]
Flies have appeared in literature since ancient Sumer.[93] In a Sumerian poem, a fly helps the goddess Inanna when her husband Dumuzid is being chased by galla demons.[93] In the Mesopotamian versions of the flood myth, the dead corpses floating on the waters are compared to flies.[93] Later, the gods are said to swarm "like flies" around the hero Utnapishtim's offering.[93] Flies appear on Old Babylonian seals as symbols of Nergal, the god of death.[93] Fly-shaped lapis lazuli beads were often worn in ancient Mesopotamia, along with other kinds of fly-jewellery.[93]
In Ancient Egypt, flies appear in amulets and as a military award for bravery and tenacity, due to the fact that they always come back when swatted at. It is thought that flies may have also been associated with the departing spirit of the dead, as they are often found near dead bodies. In modern Egypt, a similar belief persists in some areas to not swat at shiny green flies, as they may be carrying the soul of a recently deceased person.[94]
In a little-known Greek myth, a very chatty and talkative maiden named Myia (meaning "fly") enraged the moon-goddess Selene by attempting to seduce her lover, the sleeping Endymion, and was thus turned by the angry goddess into a fly, who now always deprives people of their sleep in memory of her past life.[95][96] In Prometheus Bound, which is attributed to the Athenian tragic playwright Aeschylus, a gadfly sent by Zeus's wife Hera pursues and torments his mistress Io, who has been transformed into a cow and is watched constantly by the hundred eyes of the herdsman Argus:[97][98] "Io: Ah! Hah! Again the prick, the stab of gadfly-sting! O earth, earth, hide, the hollow shape—Argus—that evil thing—the hundred-eyed."[98] William Shakespeare, inspired by Aeschylus, has Tom o'Bedlam in King Lear, "Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o'er bog and quagmire", driven mad by the constant pursuit.[98] In Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare similarly likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly.[99] More recently, in 1962 the biologist Vincent Dethier wrote To Know a Fly, introducing the general reader to the behaviour and physiology of the fly.[100]
Musca depicta ("painted fly" in Latin) is a depiction of a fly as an inconspicuous element of various paintings. This feature was widespread in 15th and 16th centuries paintings and its presence may be explained by various reasons.[101]
Flies appear in popular culture in concepts such as fly-on-the-wall documentary-making in film and television production. The metaphoric name suggests that events are seen candidly, as a fly might see them.[102] Flies have inspired the design of miniature flying robots.[103] Steven Spielberg's 1993 film Jurassic Park relied on the idea that DNA could be preserved in the stomach contents of a blood-sucking fly fossilised in amber, though the mechanism has been discounted by scientists.[104]
Economic importance
Dipterans are an important group of insects and have a considerable impact on the environment. Some leaf-miner flies (Agromyzidae), fruit flies (Tephritidae and Drosophilidae) and gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) are pests of agricultural crops; others such as tsetse flies, screwworm and botflies (Oestridae) attack livestock, causing wounds, spreading disease, and creating significant economic harm. See article: Parasitic flies of domestic animals. A few can even cause myiasis in humans. Still others such as mosquitoes (Culicidae), blackflies (Simuliidae) and drain flies (Psychodidae) impact human health, acting as vectors of major tropical diseases. Among these, Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria, filariasis, and arboviruses; Aedes aegypti mosquitoes carry dengue fever and the Zika virus; blackflies carry river blindness; sand flies carry leishmaniasis. Other dipterans are a nuisance to humans, especially when present in large numbers; these include houseflies, which contaminate food and spread food-borne illnesses; the biting midges and sandflies (Ceratopogonidae) and the houseflies and stable flies (Muscidae).[34] In tropical regions, eye flies (Chloropidae) which visit the eye in search of fluids can be a nuisance in some seasons.[105]
Many dipterans serve roles that are useful to humans. Houseflies, blowflies and fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) are scavengers and aid in decomposition. Robber flies (Asilidae), tachinids (Tachinidae) and dagger flies and balloon flies (Empididae) are predators and parasitoids of other insects, helping to control a variety of pests. Many dipterans such as bee flies (Bombyliidae) and hoverflies (Syrphidae) are pollinators of crop plants.[34]
Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, has long been used as a model organism in research because of the ease with which it can be bred and reared in the laboratory, its small genome, and the fact that many of its genes have counterparts in higher eukaryotes. A large number of genetic studies have been undertaken based on this species; these have had a profound impact on the study of gene expression, gene regulatory mechanisms and mutation. Other studies have investigated physiology, microbial pathogenesis and development among other research topics.[106] The studies on dipteran relationships by Willi Hennig helped in the development of cladistics, techniques that he applied to morphological characters but now adapted for use with molecular sequences in phylogenetics.[107]
Maggots found on corpses are useful to forensic entomologists. Maggot species can be identified by their anatomical features and by matching their DNA. Maggots of different species of flies visit corpses and carcases at fairly well-defined times after the death of the victim, and so do their predators, such as beetles in the family Histeridae. Thus, the presence or absence of particular species provides evidence for the time since death, and sometimes other details such as the place of death, when species are confined to particular habitats such as woodland.[108]
Some species of maggots such as blowfly larvae (gentles) and bluebottle larvae (casters) are bred commercially; they are sold as bait in angling, and as food for carnivorous animals (kept as pets, in zoos, or for research) such as some mammals,[109] fishes, reptiles, and birds. It has been suggested that fly larvae could be used at a large scale as food for farmed chickens, pigs, and fish. However, consumers are opposed to the inclusion of insects in their food, and the use of insects in animal feed remains illegal in areas such as the European Union.[110][111]
Fly larvae can be used as a biomedical tool for wound care and treatment. Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is the use of blow fly larvae to remove the dead tissue from wounds, most commonly being amputations. Historically, this has been used for centuries, both intentional and unintentional, on battlefields and in early hospital settings.[112] Removing the dead tissue promotes cell growth and healthy wound healing. The larvae also have biochemical properties such as antibacterial activity found in their secretions as they feed.[113] These medicinal maggots are a safe and effective treatment for chronic wounds.[114]
The Sardinian cheese casu marzu is exposed to flies known as cheese skippers such as Piophila casei, members of the family Piophilidae.[115] The digestive activities of the fly larvae soften the cheese and modify the aroma as part of the process of maturation. At one time European Union authorities banned sale of the cheese and it was becoming hard to find,[116] but the ban has been lifted on the grounds that the cheese is a traditional local product made by traditional methods.[117]
Flies are a health hazard and are attracted to toilets because of their smell. The New Scientist magazine suggested a trap for these flies. A pipe acting as a chimney was fitted to the toilet which let in some light to attract these flies up to the end of this pipe where a gauze covering prevented escape to the air outside so that they were trapped and died. Toilets are generally dark inside particularly if the door is closed.
- ^ Some authors draw a distinction in writing the common names of insects. True flies are in their view best written as two words, such as crane fly, robber fly, bee fly, moth fly, and fruit fly. In contrast, common names of non-dipteran insects that have "fly" in their names are written as one word, e.g. butterfly, stonefly, dragonfly, scorpionfly, sawfly, caddisfly, whitefly.[1] In practice, however, this is a comparatively new convention; especially in older books, names like "saw fly" and "caddis fly", or hyphenated forms such as house-fly and dragon-fly are widely used.[2] Exceptions to this rule occur, such as the hoverfly, which is a true fly, and the Spanish fly, a type of blister beetle.
- ^ "Order Diptera: Flies". BugGuide. Iowa State University. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
- ^ Comstock, John Henry (1949). An Introduction to Entomology. Comstock Publishing. p. 773.
- ^ Peters, Ralph S.; Meusemann, Karen; Petersen, Malte; Mayer, Christoph; Wilbrandt, Jeanne; Ziesmann, Tanja; et al. (2014). "The evolutionary history of holometabolous insects inferred from transcriptome-based phylogeny and comprehensive morphological data". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14 (1): 52. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-52. PMC 4000048. PMID 24646345.
- ^ "Taxon: Superorder Antliophora". The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- ^ Hutson, A. M. (1984). Diptera: Keds, flat-flies & bat-flies (Hippoboscidae & Nycteribiidae). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects. Vol. 10 pt 7. Royal Entomological Society of London. p. 84.
- ^ Mayhew, Peter J. (2007). "Why are there so many insect species? Perspectives from fossils and phylogenies". Biological Reviews. 82 (3): 425–454. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00018.x. PMID 17624962. S2CID 9356614.
- ^ Kjer, Karl M.; Simon, Chris; Yavorskaya, Margarita & Beutel, Rolf G. (2016). "Progress, pitfalls and parallel universes: a history of insect phylogenetics". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 13 (121): 121. doi:10.1098/rsif.2016.0363. PMC 5014063. PMID 27558853.
- ^ Blagoderov, V. A.; Lukashevich, E. D.; Mostovski, M. B. (2002). "Order Diptera Linné, 1758. The true flies". In Rasnitsyn, A. P.; Quicke, D. L. J. (eds.). History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4020-0026-3.
- ^ Downes, William L. Jr.; Dahlem, Gregory A. (1987). "Keys to the Evolution of Diptera: Role of Homoptera". Environmental Entomology. 16 (4): 847–854. doi:10.1093/ee/16.4.847.
- ^ a b Wiegmann, B. M.; Trautwein, M. D.; Winkler, I. S.; Barr, N. B.; Kim, J.-W.; Lambkin, C.; Bertone, M. A.; Cassel, B. K.; et al. (2011). "Episodic radiations in the fly tree of life". PNAS. 108 (14): 5690–5695. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5690W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1012675108. PMC 3078341. PMID 21402926.
- ^ Wiegmann, Brian; Yeates, David K. (2012). The Evolutionary Biology of Flies. Columbia University Press. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-0-231-50170-5.
- ^ B.B. Rohdendorf. 1964. Trans. Inst. Paleont., Acad. Sci. USSR, Moscow, v. 100
- ^ Wiegmann, Brian M.; Yeates, David K. (29 November 2007). "Diptera True Flies". Tree of Life. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
- ^ Yeates, David K.; Meier, Rudolf; Wiegmann, Brian. "Phylogeny of True Flies (Diptera): A 250 Million Year Old Success Story in Terrestrial Diversification". Flytree. Illinois Natural History Survey. Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
- ^ Yeates, David K.; Weigmann, Brian M; Courtney, Greg W.; Meier, Rudolf; Lambkins, Christine; Pape, Thomas (2007). "Phylogeny and systematics of Diptera: Two decades of progress and prospects". Zootaxa. 1668: 565–590. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.27.
- ^ Pape, Thomas; Bickel, Daniel John; Meier, Rudolf (2009). Diptera Diversity: Status, Challenges and Tools. BRILL. p. 13. ISBN 978-90-04-14897-0.
- ^ Yeates, D. K.; Wiegmann, B. M. (1999). "Congruence and controversy: toward a higher-level phylogeny of diptera". Annual Review of Entomology. 44: 397–428. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.44.1.397. PMID 15012378.
- ^ Wiegmann, Brian M.; Yeates, David K. (2007). "Diptera: True flies". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
- ^ a b c d Pape, Thomas; Beuk, Paul; Pont, Adrian Charles; Shatalkin, Anatole I.; Ozerov, Andrey L.; Woźnica, Andrzej J.; Merz, Bernhard; Bystrowski, Cezary; Raper, Chris; Bergström, Christer; Kehlmaier, Christian; Clements, David K.; Greathead, David; Kameneva, Elena Petrovna; Nartshuk, Emilia; Petersen, Frederik T.; Weber, Gisela; Bächli, Gerhard; Geller-Grimm, Fritz; Van de Weyer, Guy; Tschorsnig, Hans-Peter; de Jong, Herman; van Zuijlen, Jan-Willem; Vaňhara, Jaromír; Roháček, Jindřich; Ziegler, Joachim; Majer, József; Hůrka, Karel; Holston, Kevin; Rognes, Knut; Greve-Jensen, Lita; Munari, Lorenzo; de Meyer, Marc; Pollet, Marc; Speight, Martin C. D.; Ebejer, Martin John; Martinez, Michel; Carles-Tolrá, Miguel; Földvári, Mihály; Chvála, Milan; Barták, Miroslav; Evenhuis, Neal L.; Chandler, Peter J.; Cerretti, Pierfilippo; Meier, Rudolf; Rozkosny, Rudolf; Prescher, Sabine; Gaimari, Stephen D.; Zatwarnicki, Tadeusz; Zeegers, Theo; Dikow, Torsten; Korneyev, Valery A.; Richter, Vera Andreevna; Michelsen, Verner; Tanasijtshuk, Vitali N.; Mathis, Wayne N.; Hubenov, Zdravko; de Jong, Yde (2015). "Fauna Europaea: Diptera – Brachycera". Biodiversity Data Journal. 3 (3): e4187. doi:10.3897/BDJ.3.e4187. PMC 4339814. PMID 25733962.
- ^ Marquez, J. G.; Krafsur, E. S. (1 July 2002). "Gene Flow Among Geographically Diverse Housefly Populations (Musca domestica L.): A Worldwide Survey of Mitochondrial Diversity". Journal of Heredity. 93 (4): 254–259. doi:10.1093/jhered/93.4.254. PMID 12407211.
- ^ Owen, James (10 December 2015). "World's Biggest Fly Faces Two New Challengers". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 13 December 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
- ^ Welsh, Jennifer (2 July 2012). "World's Tiniest Fly May Decapitate Ants, Live in Their Heads". Livescience. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
- ^ Strijbosch, H. (1980). "Mortality in a population of Bufo bufo resulting from the fly Lucilia bufonivora". Oecologia. 45 (2): 285–286. Bibcode:1980Oecol..45..285S. doi:10.1007/BF00346472. PMID 28309542. S2CID 32817424.
- ^ Ssymank, Axel; Kearns, C. A.; Pape, Thomas; Thompson, F. Christian (1 April 2008). "Pollinating Flies (Diptera): A major contribution to plant diversity and agricultural production". Biodiversity. 9 (1–2): 86–89. doi:10.1080/14888386.2008.9712892. S2CID 39619017.
- ^ Labandeira, Conrad C. (3 April 1998). "How Old Is the Flower and the Fly?". Science. 280 (5360): 57–59. doi:10.1126/science.280.5360.57. hdl:10088/5966. S2CID 19305979.
- ^ Price, Peter W. (2005). "Adaptive radiation of gall-inducing insects". Basic and Applied Ecology. 6 (5): 413–421. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2005.07.002.
- ^ Scheffer, Sonja J.; Winkler, Isaac S.; Wiegmann, Brian M. (2007). "Phylogenetic relationships within the leaf-mining flies (Diptera: Agromyzidae) inferred from sequence data from multiple genes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 42 (3): 756–75. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.12.018. PMID 17291785.
- ^ Sakai, Shoko; Kato, Makoto; Nagamasu, Hidetoshi (2000). "Artocarpus (Moraceae)-Gall Midge Pollination Mutualism Mediated by a Male-Flower Parasitic Fungus". American Journal of Botany. 87 (3): 440–445. doi:10.2307/2656640. hdl:10088/12159. JSTOR 2656640. PMID 10719005.
- ^ Disney, R.H.L. (2007). "Natural History of the Scuttle Fly, Megaselia scalaris". Annual Review of Entomology. 53: 39–60. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093415. PMID 17622197.
- ^ Stireman, John O. (1 September 2002). "Learning in the Generalist Tachinid Parasitoid Exorista Mella Walker (Diptera: Tachinidae)". Journal of Insect Behavior. 15 (5): 689–706. doi:10.1023/A:1020752024329. ISSN 1572-8889. S2CID 36686371.
- ^ a b Foote, B A (1995). "Biology of Shore Flies". Annual Review of Entomology. 40: 417–442. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.002221.
- ^ Gullan, P.J.; Cranston, P.S. (2009). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-4051-4457-5.
- ^ Dickinson, Michael H. (1999). "Haltere–mediated equilibrium reflexes of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 354 (1385): 903–916. doi:10.1098/rstb.1999.0442. PMC 1692594. PMID 10382224.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. (2009). Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. pp. 284–297. ISBN 978-0-08-092090-0.
- ^ a b c d Hoell, H. V.; Doyen, J. T.; Purcell, A. H. (1998). Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 493–499. ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4.
- ^ Haag, Juergen; Borst, Alexander (2002). "Dendro-dendritic interactions between motion-sensitive large-field neurons in the fly". The Journal of Neuroscience. 22 (8): 3227–33. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-08-03227.2002. PMC 6757520. PMID 11943823.
- ^ Hausen, Klaus; Egelhaaf, Martin (1989). "Neural Mechanisms of Visual Course Control in Insects". In Stavenga, Doekele Gerben; Hardie, Roger Clayton (eds.). Facets of Vision. pp. 391–424. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-74082-4_18. ISBN 978-3-642-74084-8.
- ^ Egelhaaf, Martin (1985). "On the neuronal basis of figure-ground discrimination by relative motion in the visual system of the fly". Biological Cybernetics. 52 (3): 195–209. doi:10.1007/BF00339948. S2CID 227306897.
- ^ Kimmerle, Bernd; Egelhaaf, Martin (2000). "Performance of fly visual interneurons during object fixation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 20 (16): 6256–66. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-16-06256.2000. PMC 6772600. PMID 10934276.
- ^ Eckert, Hendrik (1980). "Functional properties of the H1-neurone in the third optic Ganglion of the Blowfly, Phaenicia". Journal of Comparative Physiology. 135 (1): 29–39. doi:10.1007/BF00660179. S2CID 26541123.
- ^ a b Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. pp. 735–736. ISBN 978-81-315-0104-7.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Stocker, Reinhard F. (2005). "The organization of the chemosensory system in Drosophila melanogaster: a review". Cell and Tissue Research. 275 (1): 3–26. doi:10.1007/BF00305372. PMID 8118845. S2CID 23210046.
- ^ Zhu, Junwei J.; Zhang, Qing-he; Taylor, David B.; Friesen, Kristina A. (1 September 2016). "Visual and olfactory enhancement of stable fly trapping". Pest Management Science. 72 (9): 1765–1771. doi:10.1002/ps.4207. PMID 26662853.
- ^ Lakes-Harlan, Reinhard; Jacobs, Kirsten; Allen, Geoff R. (2007). "Comparison of auditory sense organs in parasitoid Tachinidae (Diptera) hosted by Tettigoniidae (Orthoptera) and homologous structures in a non-hearing Phoridae (Diptera)". Zoomorphology. 126 (4): 229–243. doi:10.1007/s00435-007-0043-3. S2CID 46359462.
- ^ "Strepsiptera: Stylops". Insects and their Allies. CSIRO. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
- ^ Langer, Mattias G.; Ruppersberg, J. Peter; Gorb, Stanislav N. (2004). "Adhesion Forces Measured at the Level of a Terminal Plate of the Fly's Seta". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 271 (1554): 2209–2215. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2850. JSTOR 4142949. PMC 1691860. PMID 15539345.
- ^ Gibb, Timothy J.; Oseto, Christian (2010). Arthropod Collection and Identification: Laboratory and Field Techniques. Academic Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-08-091925-6.
- ^ Deora, Tanvi; Singh, Amit Kumar; Sane, Sanjay P. (3 February 2015). "Biomechanical basis of wing and haltere coordination in flies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (5): 1481–1486. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.1481D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1412279112. PMC 4321282. PMID 25605915.
- ^ Dickinson, Michael H; Tu, Michael S (1 March 1997). "The function of dipteran flight muscle". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology. 116 (3): 223–238. doi:10.1016/S0300-9629(96)00162-4.
- ^ Dickinson, Michael H. (2005). "The initiation and control of rapid flight maneuvers in fruit flies". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 45 (2): 274–281. doi:10.1093/icb/45.2.274. PMID 21676771. S2CID 7306151.
- ^ Sourakov, Andrei (2011). "Faster than a flash: The fastest visual startle reflex response is found in a long-legged fly, Condylostylus sp. (Dolichopodidae)". Florida Entomologist. 94 (2): 367–369. doi:10.1653/024.094.0240. S2CID 86502767.
- ^ Townsend, Charles H.T. (1927). "On the Cephenemyia mechanism and the Daylight-Day circuit of the Earth by flight". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 35 (3): 245–252. JSTOR 25004207.
- ^ Langmuir, Irving (1938). "The speed of the deer fly". Science. 87 (2254): 233–234. Bibcode:1938Sci....87..233L. doi:10.1126/science.87.2254.233. PMID 17770404.
- ^ Townsend, Charles H.T. (1939). "Speed of Cephenemyia". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 47 (1): 43–46. JSTOR 25004791.
- ^ Berenbaum, M. (1999). "Getting Up to Speed". American Entomologist. 45: 4–5. doi:10.1093/ae/45.1.4.
- ^ Johnson, C.G.; Taylor, L.R.; T.R.E. Southwood (1962). "High altitude migration of Oscinella frit L. (Diptera: Chloropidae)". Journal of Animal Ecology. 31 (2): 373–383. doi:10.2307/2148. JSTOR 2148.
- ^ Svensson, BO G.; Janzon, Lars-ÅKE (1984). "Why does the hoverfly Metasyrphus corollae migrate?". Ecological Entomology. 9 (3): 329–335. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1984.tb00856.x. S2CID 83629356.
- ^ Wellington, W. G.; Fitzpatrick, Sheila M. (2012). "Territoriality in the Drone Fly, Eristalis tenax (Diptera: Syrphidae)". The Canadian Entomologist. 113 (8): 695–704. doi:10.4039/Ent113695-8. S2CID 86181761.
- ^ Dodson, Gary; Yeates, David (1990). "The mating system of a bee fly (Diptera: Bombyliidae). II. Factors affecting male territorial and mating success". Journal of Insect Behavior. 3 (5): 619–636. doi:10.1007/BF01052332. S2CID 25061334.
- ^ a b Becerril-Morales, Felipe; Macías-Ordóñez, Rogelio (2009). "Territorial contests within and between two species of flies (Diptera: Richardiidae) in the wild". Behaviour. 146 (2): 245–262. doi:10.1163/156853909X410766.
- ^ Alcock, John; Schaefer, John E. (1983). "Hilltop territoriality in a Sonoran desert bot fly (Diptera: Cuterebridae)". Animal Behaviour. 31 (2): 518. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(83)80074-8. S2CID 53180240.
- ^ Yuval, B.; Bouskila, A. (1 March 1993). "Temporal dynamics of mating and predation in mosquito swarms". Oecologia. 95 (1): 65–69. Bibcode:1993Oecol..95...65Y. doi:10.1007/BF00649508. ISSN 1432-1939. PMID 28313313. S2CID 22921039.
- ^ Downes, J. A. (1969). "The swarming and mating flight of Diptera". Annual Review of Entomology. 14: 271–298. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.14.010169.001415.
- ^ a b Gullan, P.J.; Cranston, P.S. (2005). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 499–505. ISBN 978-1-4051-4457-5.
- ^ Manual of Nearctic Diptera
- ^ Brown, Lesley (1993). The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles. Clarendon. ISBN 978-0-19-861271-1.
- ^ Lancaster, Jill; Downes, Barbara J. (2013). Aquatic Entomology. Oxford University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-19-957321-9.
- ^ Chapman, R. F. (1998). The Insects; Structure & Function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57890-5.
- ^ Meier, Rudolf; Kotrba, Marion; Ferrar, Paul (August 1999). "Ovoviviparity and viviparity in the Diptera". Biological Reviews. 74 (3): 199–258. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00186.x. S2CID 86129322.
- ^ Mcmahon, Dino P.; Hayward, Alexander (April 2016). "Why grow up? A perspective on insect strategies to avoid metamorphosis". Ecological Entomology. 41 (5): 505–515. doi:10.1111/een.12313. S2CID 86908583.
- ^ Gillott, Cedric (2005). Entomology (3 ed.). Springer. pp. 614–615.
- ^ "Crampton, G. The TemporalAbdominal Structures of Male Diptera". Archived from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- ^ Sex with a twist in the tail: The common-or-garden housefly
- ^ Papavero, N. (1977). The World Oestridae (Diptera), Mammals and Continental Drift. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1306-2. ISBN 978-94-010-1308-6. S2CID 43307061.
- ^ Hendrichs, J.; Cooley, S. S.; Prokopy, R. J. (1992). "Post-feeding bubbling behaviour in fluid-feeding Diptera: concentration of crop contents by oral evaporation of excess water". Physiological Entomology. 17 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3032.1992.tb01193.x. S2CID 86705683.
- ^ Gomes, Guilherme; Köberle, Roland; Von Zuben, Claudio J.; Andrade, Denis V. (2018). "Droplet bubbling evaporatively cools a blowfly". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 5464. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.5464G. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23670-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5908842. PMID 29674725.
- ^ Marshall, S.A.; Kirk-Spriggs, A.H. (2017). "Natural history of Diptera". In Kirk-Spriggs, A.H.; Sinclair, B.J. (eds.). Manual of Afrotropical Diptera. Volume 1. Introductory chapters and keys to Diptera families. Suricata 4. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute. pp. 135–152.
- ^ van Breug, Floris; Dickinson, Michael H. (2017). "Superhydrophobic diving flies ( Ephydra hians ) and the hypersaline waters of Mono Lake". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (51): 13483–13488. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11413483V. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714874114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5754803. PMID 29158381.
- ^ Collins, Robert (2004). What eats flies for dinner?. Shortland Mimosa. ISBN 978-0-7327-3471-8.
- ^ Gilbert, Francis (2004). The evolution of imperfect mimicry in hoverflies (PDF). CABI. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
- ^ Rashed, A.; Khan, M. I.; Dawson, J. W.; Yack, J. E.; Sherratt, T. N. (2008). "Do hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) sound like the Hymenoptera they morphologically resemble?". Behavioral Ecology. 20 (2): 396–402. doi:10.1093/beheco/arn148.
- ^ Pie, Marcio R.; Del-Claro, Kleber (2002). "Male-male agonistic behavior and ant-mimicry in a Neotropical richardiid (Diptera: Richardiidae)". Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment. 37: 19–22. doi:10.1076/snfe.22.214.171.1244. S2CID 84201196.
- ^ Whitman, D. W.; Orsak, L.; Greene, E. (1988). "Spider mimicry in fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae): Further experiments on the deterrence of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) by Zonosemata vittigera (Coquillett)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 81 (3): 532–536. doi:10.1093/aesa/81.3.532.
- ^ Akre, Roger D.; Garnett, William B.; Zack, Richard S. (1990). "Ant hosts of Microdon (Diptera: Syrphidae) in the Pacific Northwest". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 63 (1): 175–178. JSTOR 25085158.
- ^ Godfray, H. C. J. (1994). Parasitoids: Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology. Princeton University Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-691-00047-3.
- ^ Eslin, Patrice; Doury, Géraldine (2006). "The fly Drosophila subobscura: A natural case of innate immunity deficiency". Developmental & Comparative Immunology. 30 (11): 977–983. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2006.02.007. PMID 16620975.
- ^ Wyman, Leland Clifton (1983). "Navajo Ceremonial System" (PDF). Handbook of North American Indians. p. 539. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
Nearly every element in the universe may be thus personalized, and even the least of these such as tiny Chipmunk and those little insect helpers and mentors of deity and man in the myths, Big Fly (Dǫ'soh) and Ripener (Corn Beetle) Girl ('Anilt'ánii 'At'ééd) (Wyman and Bailey 1964:29–30, 51, 137–144), are as necessary for the harmonious balance of the universe as is the great Sun.
- ^ Leland Clifton Wyman; Flora L. Bailey (1964). Navaho Indian Ethnoentomology. Anthropology Series. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 9780826301109. LCCN 64024356.
- ^ "Native American Fly Mythology". Native Languages of the Americas website.
- ^ "Βεελζεβούλ, ὁ indecl. (v.l. Βεελζεβούβ and Βεεζεβούλ W-S. §5, 31, cp. 27 n. 56) Beelzebul, orig. a Philistine deity; the name בַּעַל זְבוּב means Baal (lord) of the flies (4 Km 1:2, 6; Sym. transcribes βεελζεβούβ; Vulgate Beelzebub; TestSol freq. Βεελζεβούλ,-βουέλ).", Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.) (173). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ "1. According to 2 Kgs 1:2–6 the name of the Philistine god of Ekron was Lord of the Flies (Heb. ba'al zeaûḇ), from whom Israel's King Ahaziah requested an oracle.", Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990–). Vol. 1: Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament (211). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.
- ^ "For etymological reasons, Baal Zebub must be considered a Semitic god; he is taken over by the Philistine Ekronites and incorporated into their local cult.", Herrmann, "Baal Zebub", in Toorn, K., Becking, B., & Horst, P. W. (1999). Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible DDD (2nd extensively rev. ed.) (154). Leiden; Boston; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brill; Eerdmans.
- ^ a b c d e f Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. The British Museum Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8.
- ^ Haynes, Dawn. The Symbolism and Significance of the Butterfly in Ancient Egypt (PDF).
- ^ Forbes Irving, Paul M. C. (1990). Metamorphosis in Greek Myths. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 315. ISBN 0-19-814730-9.
- ^ Lucian; C. D. N. Costa (2005). Lucian: Selected Dialogues. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-925867-3.
- ^ Belfiore, Elizabeth S. (2000). Murder among Friends: Violation of Philia in Greek Tragedy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-513149-9.
- ^ a b c Stagman, Myron (11 August 2010). Shakespeare's Greek Drama Secret. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 205–208. ISBN 978-1-4438-2466-8.
- ^ Walker, John Lewis (2002). Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition: An Annotated Bibliography, 1961–1991. Taylor & Francis. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-8240-6697-0.
- ^ Dethier, Vincent G. (1962). To Know a Fly. San Francisco: Holden-Day.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Insects, p. 242
- ^ "Fly on the Wall". British Film Institute. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
- ^ Ma, Kevin Y.; Chirarattananon, Pakpong; Fuller, Sawyer B.; Wood, Robert J. (3 May 2013). "Controlled flight of a biologically inspired, insect-scale robot". Science. 340 (6132): 603–607. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..603M. doi:10.1126/science.1231806. PMID 23641114. S2CID 21912409.
- ^ Gray, Richard (12 September 2013). "Jurassic Park ruled out – dinosaur DNA could not survive in amber". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
- ^ Mulla, Mir S.; Chansang, Uruyakorn (2007). "Pestiferous nature, resting sites, aggregation, and host-seeking behavior of the eye fly Siphunculina funicola (Diptera: Chloropidae) in Thailand". Journal of Vector Ecology. 32 (2): 292–301. doi:10.3376/1081-1710(2007)32[292:pnrsaa]2.0.co;2. PMID 18260520. S2CID 28636403.
- ^ "Why use the fly in research?". YourGenome. 19 June 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
- ^ Ashlock, P. D. (1974). "The Uses of Cladistics". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 5 (1): 81–99. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000501.
- ^ Joseph, Isaac; Mathew, Deepu G.; Sathyan, Pradeesh; Vargheese, Geetha (2011). "The use of insects in forensic investigations: An overview on the scope of forensic entomology". Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences. 3 (2): 89–91. doi:10.4103/0975-1475.92154. PMC 3296382. PMID 22408328.
- ^ Ogunleye, R. F.; Edward, J. B. (2005). "Roasted maggots (Dipteran larvae) as a dietary protein source for laboratory animals". African Journal of Applied Zoology and Environmental Biology. 7: 140–143.
- ^ Fleming, Nic (4 June 2014). "How insects could feed the food industry of tomorrow". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
- ^ "Why are insects not allowed in animal feed?" (PDF). All About Feed. August 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
- ^ Stegman, Sylvia; Steenvoorde, Pascal (2011). "Maggot debridement therapy". Proceedings of the Netherlands Entomological Society Meeting. 22: 61–66.
- ^ Diaz-Roa, A.; Gaona, M. A.; Segura, N. A.; Suárez, D.; Patarroyo, M.A.; Bello, F. J. (August 2014). "Sarconesiopsis magellanica (Diptera: Calliphoridae) excretions and secretions have potent antibacterial activity". Acta Tropica. 136: 37–43. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.04.018. PMID 24754920.
- ^ Gilead, L.; Mumcuoglu, K. Y.; Ingber, A. (16 August 2013). "The use of maggot debridement therapy in the treatment of chronic wounds in hospitalised and ambulatory patients". Journal of Wound Care. 21 (2): 78–85. doi:10.12968/jowc.2012.21.2.78. PMID 22584527.
- ^ Berenbaum, May (2007). "A mite unappetizing" (PDF). American Entomologist. 53 (3): 132–133. doi:10.1093/ae/53.3.132. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2010.
- ^ Colangelo, Matt (9 October 2015). "A Desperate Search for Casu Marzu, Sardinia's Illegal Maggot Cheese". Food and Wine. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
- ^ Brones, Anna (15 April 2013). "Illegal food: step away from the cheese, ma'am". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
Further reading
- Blagoderov, V.A., Lukashevich, E.D. & Mostovski, M.B. (2002)). "Order Diptera". In: Rasnitsyn, A.P. and Quicke, D.L.J. The History of Insects, Kluwer pp.–227–240.
- Colless, D.H. & McAlpine, D.K. (1991). Diptera (flies), pp. 717–786. In: The Division of Entomology. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra (spons.), The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press.
- Hennig, Willi. "Diptera (Zweifluger)". Handb. Zool. Berl. 4 (2) (31):1–337. General introduction with key to World Families (in German).
- Oldroyd, Harold (1965). The Natural History of Flies. W. W. Norton.
- Séguy, Eugène (1924–1953). Diptera: recueil d'etudes biologiques et systematiques sur les Dipteres du Globe (Collection of biological and systematic studies on Diptera of the World). 11 vols. Part of Encyclopedie Entomologique, Serie B II: Diptera.
- Séguy, Eugène (1950). La Biologie des Dipteres.
- Thompson, F. Christian. "Sources for the Biosystematic Database of World Diptera (Flies)" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture, Systematic Entomology Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2015.
External links
- The Systema Dipterorum Database site
- The Diptera.info portal with galleries and discussion forums
- FLYTREE – dipteran phylogeny. Archived 13 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
- The Dipterists Forum – The Society for the study of flies
- BugGuide
- The World Catalog of Fossil Diptera
- The Tree of Life Project


text:
A minimum 50% deposit or credit card is required to secure a reservation, unless other arrangements have been made. For groups of 12 or more payment is due in full 48 days prior to your trip. After making your reservation, confirmation will be sent out with any additional information you may request. Last minute inquiries are welcome, please give us a call and we will do our best to accommodate you! We accept cash, checks, Visa, MasterCard and Discover. Prices are subject to change without notice.
You may cancel your trip 30 days prior to the trip date for a full refund. Cancellations made 29 to 3 days prior to your scheduled trip will result in a $25.00 reservation fee, and a $100.00 per person fee for extended excursions. The balance will promptly be credited back to your credit card. Or, if you would like to reschedule your trip for later in the season, we will work with you to do this and apply the deposit amount to your new trip. We do not offer any refunds after your trip has been rescheduled. Sorry, but no refunds for cancellations made 48 hours or less from the trip date. If you schedule a trip for a group of 20 or more, you may finalize the number of people in your group a week before your trip without penalty. As always, we want to make sure you are happy, and will always work with you to achieve this.
We reserve the right to cancel any excursions due to unsafe water conditions, poor weather, and other circumstances beyond our control. If a trip is cancelled, you may choose to reschedule or we will promptly refund your deposit/payment in full.
Cancellation for schools: You may cancel your enrollment 14 days prior to the date for a full refund with a $50.00 filling and holding fee. Cancellations made 13 to 6 days prior to your scheduled trip will result in a none refund of deposit, any balance will be returned promptly. Sorry, but no refunds for cancellations made within five days of the start of the course.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Yashwant Ford
- Ford India
- Plot No G9
Ahmednagar - 414111 -
- Closed for the day
- Service
When you travel alone, you discover a bit of yourself with each journey you undertake. When you travel with others, you learn a whole new perspective and feel the family wali feeling. The #FordEcoSport families have been going on adventures to discover more and experience weekend getaways together. Presenting some glimpses of their recent journeys. #DiscoverMoreInYou #FordEcoSport #DiscoverMoreInYou
Our latest campaign, #DiscoverMoreInYou is receiving some heart-warming responses. The series of three thought-provoking TVCs have started some much-needed conversations all over the internet. #DiscoverMoreInYou
Thank you for all the love that is coming our way for our latest campaign. At Ford, we have always believed in discovering more and are encouraging our customers to do so too. Here is what Adgully had to say about it:http://bit.ly/32fQo9V#DiscoverMoreInYou. #DiscoverMoreInYou
Fantastic Freestyle, Sporty EcoSport or Extraordinary Endeavour? This #SocialMediaDay, pick an Emoji to show love for your favourite Ford UV. #DiscoverMoreInYou #SocialMediaDay #DiscoverMoreInYou
Long hours of driving is unavoidable for work or travel, and can sometimes keep you on the edge. However, there are practices you can adopt to relieve muscle tension, body stress and remain calm on every journey. #DiscoverMoreInYou and head over to our blog for yoga asanas that will get you moving while you're on the move:http://bit.ly/2xdVpRH #InternationalYogaDay #DiscoverMoreInYou #InternationalYogaDay
The journey to #DiscoverMoreInYou often gets fueled by being free-spirited to challenge conventions and do what you really believe in. Watch the story of a family on their path to discovery, with a Ford Freestyle steers them safely in the right direction. #DiscoverMoreInYou
#DiscoverMoreInYou is all about the intent... to not follow the crowd & make a difference. At Ford, we make a difference with our range of SUVs & in doing so, empower our customers to do the same to the world around them. We are bringing to your one such journey of discovery in a #FordSUV. Watch and tell us what you think. #DiscoverMoreInYou #FordSUV
Oftentimes, unpleasant and unexpected turns in life help #DiscoverMoreInYou and in that moment, you become a better version of yourself. The young men in this video faced a situation that led them to a personal discovery. Find out what they encountered. Know more here: https://ford.to/2QOda3d #DiscoverMoreInYou


text:
SACRAMENTO, Calif. (AP) — About a dozen workers began picketing at a Hostess Brands plant in Sacramento honoring a bakers' union strike at the bankrupt company's plants across the country.
The picket line formed on Sunday, two days after the walkout began when the maker of Twinkies, Wonder Bread and Ding Dongs imposed a contract that would cut wages by 8 percent. The Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers International Union said the contract would also cut benefits by 27 to 32 percent.
The Sacramento Bee reports (http://sacb.ee/RNQrAX) that Hostess employs nearly 300 workers in Sacramento and about 1,850 in California.
The Texas-based company has struggled in recent years with two bankruptcy filings. It warned last week that a widespread strike could lead to layoffs of most of its 18,300-member workforce.


text:
NAX963HD / NAX973HD Wallpapers
Do you own a NAX963HD? Do you want to change the wallpaper of the interface?
Clarion introduces a new interactive way of choosing, downloading and installing your favorite wallpaper for your NAX963HD interface, from this website to your sytem.
To do so, follow the downloadable tutorial !


text:
"We are proud of Egypt's glorious judiciary system."
Field Marshal Abdelfattah Sisi, leader of Egypt's Military Coup
The Nuremberg Trials (in Nuremberg, Germany)
Charges: Wars of Aggression, War Crimes, Crimes against Humanity.
Number of Victims Declared by the Prosecution at Trial: At least 40 million in Europe alone.
Judges (4): British, American, French, Soviet
Trial Period: November 20, 1945 – October 1, 1946 (316 days)
Number of Court Sessions: 38 full days
Number of People Accused: 23 (Over 200 Nazi leaders were later tried at Nuremberg.)
Number of Accused Convicted: 20
Number of Accused Condemned to Death: 12
The Minya Trials (in el-Minya, Egypt)
Charges: Storming a police station, killing a police officer, rioting, and mass protests in el-Minya (75 miles south of Cairo) in the aftermath of the massacres at Raba'a Al-Adawiyya Mosque and Al-Nahdha Square in Cairo on August 14, 2013, that killed over 1,000 protesters by the army and security officers.
Number of Victims Declared by the Prosecution at Trial: 1 (A police officer.)
Judges (3): Led by presiding judge Said Youssef Sabri.
[Sabri is the same judge that acquitted all officials and police officers accused of killing about two-dozen protesters in the Bani Swaif region in Upper Egypt during the 18 revolutionary days after the January 25, 2011 mass protests.]
Trial Period: March 22-24, 2014 (2 days)
Number of Court Sessions: 2 (totaling 100 minutes)
[The first session on Mar. 22 lasted for 45 minutes where the indictment was officially presented. The second session was on Mar. 24, where the accused were sentenced. It lasted less than one hour.]
Number of People Accused: 545
Number of the Accused Identified as Members of the MB: 122
Number of the Accused Not Identified as Members of the MB: 423
Number of Pages of Police Investigations turned over by the Prosecution to the Judge and Defense Teams on the first day of trial on Mar. 22: Over 14,000.
Number of Government Witnesses Heard by the Judges: 1
(A police officer was the only government witness to offer testimony at trial but was not allowed to be cross-examined.)
Number of Defendants Attending the Trial: 128
Number of Defendants Arraigned by the Presiding Judge: 51
(The remaining 77 were at trial with the other defendants in a cage but were not even acknowledged by the presiding judge.)
Number of Defense Lawyers for all defendants allowed to Attend the Trial by the Presiding Judge: Less than three dozen (many others not allowed)
Number of Witnesses Offered by the Defense Teams: Hundreds
Number of Defense Witnesses Allowed by the Presiding Judge to Testify: None
Number of the Accused Condemned to Death: 529 (including all the defendants attending the trial)
Number of the Accused Condemned to Death but Identified by Defense Lawyers as already Dead before the August Protests: At least 3
Number of the Accused Condemned to Death but Identified by Defense Lawyers as Being Outside Egypt during the August Protests: At least 5
Number of the Accused Condemned to Death but Identified by Defense Lawyers as Minors during the August Protests (it's unconstitutional to sentence a minor to death in Egypt): At least 2
But what have been the reactions over the death sentences?
(Note the weak reaction and lack of condemnation or outrage by the US and EU.)
Egypt's Ministry of Foreign Affairs: The death sentences were "only the first verdict in the trial process…It was reached after careful study of the case."
Marie Harf, a State Department spokeswoman: "It simply does not seem possible that a fair review of evidence and testimony, consistent with international standards, could be accomplished. [I]t's an important relationship [with Egypt]…so we don't want to completely cut off the relationship…"
Catherine Ashton, Foreign Policy Chief of the European Union: "It was with utmost concern that I learnt that the court in Minya in southern Egypt sentenced 529 Muslim Brotherhood supporters to death. Notwithstanding the serious nature of the crimes for which they were convicted, capital punishment can never be justified."
Sarah Leah Whitson, Middle East Director at Human Rights Watch: "It's shocking even amid Egypt's deep political repression that a court has sentenced 529 people to death without giving them any meaningful opportunity to defend themselves. The Minya court failed to carry out its most fundamental duty to assess the individual guilt of each defendant, violating the most basic fair trial right. These death sentences should be immediately quashed."
Hassiba Hadj Sahraoui, Deputy Middle East and North Africa Program Director at Amnesty International: "This is the largest single batch of simultaneous death sentences we've seen in recent years, not just in Egypt but anywhere in the world. Egypt's courts are quick to punish Mohamed Morsi's supporters but ignore gross human rights violations by the security forces. While thousands of Morsi's supporters languish in jail, there has not been an adequate investigation into the deaths of hundreds of protesters. Just one police officer is facing a prison sentence, for the deaths of 37 detainees."
Sahraoui was referring to the deliberate killing of 37 anti-coup protesters while in government's custody last August. They were arrested after the Raba'a massacre and were left in handcuffs and shackles for six hours under 110 heat (43) inside a prison vehicle that could only hold twenty people. When they started to shout in protest, the prisoners were gassed by police officers and their corpses burned. After 11 officers were put on trial earlier this month for this massacre, 10 were either acquitted or received suspended sentences.
Meanwhile another mass trial against those opposing the military coup, including senior MB leaders, will open today in the same Minya court before the same presiding judge, with 683 defendants facing similar charges.
While the military coup regime flexes its muscles and shows contempt for any notion of justice or human rights, the world is looking the other way. For many governments it's back to business as usual with authoritarian regimes. President Barack Obama is rewarding King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia with a state visit this week.
Long gone are the days when Obama declared in 2009 in Cairo that "the ability to speak your mind and have a say in how you are governed; confidence in the rule of law and the equal administration of justice; government that is transparent and doesn't steal from the people; the freedom to live as you choose are not just American ideas, [but] they are human rights, and that is why we will support them everywhere." Given his administration's timid response to the gross human rights violations in Egypt and its open support for authoritarian regimes such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE, which have bankrolled Egypt's military coup, President Obama's words now ring hollow.
Esam Al-Amin is the author of The Arab Awakening Unveiled: Understanding Transformations and Revolutions in the Middle East. He can be contacted at firstname.lastname@example.com.


text:
"Instead of complaining that computers contain toxic materials, just stop eating computers! Computers are not intended for human consumption!"
"Oh, wait, no, it's alright... it was just some Greenpeace protesters."
Greenpeace is an terrorist organization originally created to honour Mother Nature's kingdom and prevent mankind from destroying it. Nowadays, however, it just pisses everyone off. It's ultimate aim is to safeguard the Earth's ever decreasing natural resources, in the form of animals and untainted natural flora, through the complete and utter annihilation of the human race. Failing this, human societal progress must be stalled as much as possible. Going back to nature and jumping around naked eating bananas is simply not enough; the nuclear option is the only option they will consider. It is rumored that Greenpeace members do so much treehugging that they have now created their own hybrid species between trees and humans, known as Trumans. The average Greenpeace member tend to be gay, or French. There are Argentines who join in, but they think that they are in the Navy. They also think that Fray Bentos is a part of Colon in Argentina.
In 1972, the fledgling Greenpeace group, having emerged blinking into the world, attempted its very first act of terrorism not even a year after it was founded, in which they attempted to gain nuclear weapons being tested by the French in French Polynesia. Recently unclassified reports of the operation from SDECE state that the Greenpeace members acted like normal protesters up until their attack on the military facility in which the nuclear weapons were kept. Only through the swift intervention of the SDECE Special Attack unit were the brutal warriors of Nature stopped from enacting a nuclear holocaust on the human race. The only good thing ever done by the French was the sinking of the Greenpeace junk called the Rainbowed Warrior
"Oui, it was horrible! They fought like bears, moved like tigers, shreaked like monkeys, it was terrifying, even before they brought out the guns. If it hadn't been for the fact they ran out of ammo, I don't know what would have happened"
The French government, seeing as they could barely stop the Greenpeace warriors even with their elite troops, swiftly scrapped their nuclear program in the area. Greenpeace, seeing that there was no chance of gaining the weapons using brute force, claimed that they had been attempting to stop the testing of the nuclear weapons in the area.
In the past Greenpeace has raised media attention over a large variety of really really heavy issues including but not limited to:
- Nuclear proliferation, life started with a big bang, will it end the same way?
- Protesting the rampant Moby Dick-like incidences
- Depriving everyone of the benefits of Global Warming such as increased arable land.
- Sustainable energy, and other obvious solutions.
- Growing endangered species list; only a few trillion animals left to kill!
Greenpeace are mainly concentrated on:
- Speeding the process of Nuclear War, so they can annoy larger, more mutated animals
- Making any animal's life an absolute and utter misery
- Holding a world record for the 'Most Un-ecofriendly organization'.
- Ultimately dictating the world, making everyone run cars on Whale blood and animal poo.
Basically, most Greenpeace rallies usually involve yelling at those damned "corporations" because what they've done to the environment, and frankly, if you've gone to a Greenpeace rally, you are either Argentine, or more likely you just killed yourself. What, you may ask, does this accomplish? Well, let's ask those damned corporations, sitting up there in their chairs with their cans of aerosol, polluting and whatnot. Usually rallies last a whole 2-3 hours before the ralliers get tired of being hit with garbage and booed, which occurs more often that you can imagine (12 times). Greenpeace talks have also been noted to be of a different language, of which usual humans with IQ of over 50 will not be able to understand, while those falling below the mark do. Hence, it has been made impossible for everyone to get the tree-huggers message. An Albanian scientist recently discovered that members of greenpeace actually originated from the far woods of the Amazon, wearing leaves for shoes and eat grass to stay alive.
Notable Advertising Campaigns[edit]
Greenpeace are known for holding very odd advertising campaigns. Their most notable campaign was 'Save The Polar Bears Or We'll Kill Em' All'. This campaign included some hippies on weed attempting to poison all polar bears unless they got a certain amount of followers. This failed epically, mainly due to the fact that all Greenpeace activists/Dick Heads attempted to get high on the poison themselves.


text: Red Velvet Smoothie Bowl Recipe 05 February 2021 Lifes-Abundance Recipes (0) When was the last time you ate cake for breakfast? If you normally try to eat healthy, the answer is probably never. Well, thanks to our Red Velvet Smoothie Bowl, you can now have your cake and eat healthy too! Ok, so it's not exactly cake, but it tastes just like a creamy slice sans the red dye, sugar and calories. It's also a thousand times easier to make than baking an actual cake and you can lick the bowl because it's vegan. This smoothie bowl is not only beautiful but it's full of nutrient dense ingredients, a few of which you may not prefer to eat on their own, but you'd never even know they're blended in here, like cauliflower and beets. Just one serving of our Red Velvet Smoothie Bowl boosts your diet with: Cauliflower is very low in calories yet extremely high in vitamins, including 77% of the RDI of Vitamin C, 20% of the RDI of Vitamin K and 11% of the RDI of Vitamin B6. It's also full of fiber and a great source of antioxidants. Beets also contain many important vitamins including folate, manganese, and potassium but they also contain pigments called betalains, which research shows may contain a number of anti-inflammatory properties. Beets are high in sugar, but luckily a small amount packs a nutritious punch. Raspberries are an antioxidant powerhouse containing 50% of the minimum daily target for vitamin C and a healthy dose of manganese, vitamin K, vitamin E, B vitamins, magnesium, copper, iron, and potassium. Plus they have less sugar than almost every other fruit and are full of fiber. Bananas are most touted to be full of potassium, and while they do have 9% of the daily RDI, they also contain 33% of the RDI of Vitamin B6, 14% of Manganese and 11% of Vitamin C. They are also rich in pectin, a type of fiber that can help moderate blood sugar. Cacao powder is full of naturally occurring antioxidants called Polyphenols that are packed with health benefits such as reduced inflammation, better circulation, improved cholesterol, and lower blood pressure. If all those health benefits don't get you excited, remember the aforementioned comparison to tasting like a slice of Red Velvet Cake. We're sure you're going to love it. Share your smoothie pics on social and tag us at @lifesabundance #lifesabundance - we can't wait to see your creations. Serving size: 1 Ingredients 1 frozen banana ⅔ cup frozen cauliflower ⅓ cup frozen raspberries 1/3 cup honey or maple syrup ⅓ cup frozen beets 2 tsp Life's Abundance Plant Based Vanilla Protein Powder 1 tsp. Cacao powder ⅓ cup water Toppings of choice: We used chia seeds, bee pollen (leave off for vegan bowls), plain plant yogurt, cacao nibs, freeze dried raspberries, and sesame seeds. Instructions Blend ingredients from top to bottom and add your favorite toppings Enjoy! If you found this interesting, check out these related stories: World's Best Dairy Free Cheesecake Sweet Potato Protein Bread Recipe Red Velvet Smoothie Bowl Recipe When you think of red velvet, you're probably imagining a delicious, creamy cake. What's better than that? A sweet smoothie bowl that tastes just like it, but is filled with tons of health benefits. Tweet


text:
There are said new sightings, by lots of people on GLP, of a new said comet, which is said to be coming towards Earth. Do you have any information, on this phenomenon and if so, could you share an information stop, at GLP with some of us, on this new information, please?
What would happen if the Earth, backing up from Planet X which is coming at Earth in a virtual head-on orbit, reversed orbit?
How does the common man, given this confusing situation, sort out the
truth of the matter? Fortunately, we have comets! When discovered, their
orbits ascertained and computed, comets C/2001 Q4 and C/2002 T7 were
declared to arrive at perihelion in May, 2004, and certainly not
visible naked eye prior to that time, if ever! So what is it the common
man is seeing, in droves, in the sky just after sunset! It moved, has a
tail, and is in their face astonishing them! Comets come early, because
the orbit of Earth has backed into them. Comets orbit the Sun
in the same counterclockwise motion that the planets assume in their
orbits. Thus, the May perihelion dates assumed an Earth running ahead
of the comets, the comets needing this time to catch up to the Earth in
her orbit. Earth stopped, reversed, and the dates have arrived early!
How early?
Assume a halted and reversed orbit, so that by the reports on Feb 3 this
has occurred for 6 weeks. Assume the comets not affected by Planet X, as
they are too tiny to invoke the Repulsion Force of gravity. They rush
forward, Earth rushes back, 6 weeks for them, 6 weeks backwards for the
Earth, a total of 3 months. Does this not compute, on Feb 3, to a May
date? Here, for man, dazed in the disinformation as the only fare given to
him, a way to determine for himself the truth of the matter.
Earth has halted, and reversed, because her bully brother Planet X is
coming at her!
- I took this pictures in Cascavel, Parana South Brazil on Feb 3 at 8:00 PM (summertime). At the time the sun still in the horizon (bottom photo) but I could saw this star, then I shot these 3 photos, the light from it was so strong I could saw even in day light. Its light was stronger than moon or any planets or stars at the moment. We observe this object is already in the solar system because his mass is visible, its not a point of light. We could see its ethereal mass. Another detail. we have observed in the telescope or in the photographic camera (1000mm) his movement in the sky was 60% faster than any star, moon or planet. I took a chronometer to take the time, these start took 2.50 minutes to cross the photographic frame (pentaprism).
- Sergio
- Spaceweather News for Feb. 15, 2004
- Comet C/2002 T7 (LINEAR) is approaching Earth and brightening every day. It´s not yet a naked-eye object, but the 7th-magnitude fuzzball is easy to see through backyard telescopes. The comet lies not far from brilliant Venus in the western sky after sunset. For the next three months, the comet will continue to brighten as it nears Earth. May 19th is the date of closest approach (0.27 AU). At that time C/2002 T7 might glow brighter than a 1st magnitude star--easily seen with the unaided eye.
- Feb 15 NASA Report:
- Explanation: A newly discovered comet may outshine most stars in the sky by May. Designated Comet C/2002 T7 (LINEAR), the comet was discovered in 2002 October by project LINEAR. Many reports already place the comet as brighter than magnitude 7, meaning that it can now be seen with binoculars. Reports also indicate the comet already has a visible tail nearly the length of a full Moon. Since predicting the future brightness of comets is a very tricky business, there remains the possibility that T7 might never become visible to the unaided eye. Alternatively, another comet, C/2001 Q4 (NEAT), may also reach naked eye visibility at nearly the same time, making 2004 April and May two of the busiest bright-comet months in centuries. Comet T7 can be seen on the above right on January 20, while an airplane trail is visible on the left.
- As 2003 came to a close, several predictions were offered as to how bright the comet would become during May of 2004. ... perihelion in late April, 2004'
- The potential for a bright comet show for the spring of 2004 is based on an improved orbit that places the new comet NEAT's closest point to the Sun, or perihelion, at a distance of 89.4 million miles (143.9 million kilometers) on May 15, 2004.


text:
A short while ago, when the sun was still high in the sky and the temperatures comfortable, we set off for the beach somewhere near Kijkduin. The wind from the east was fierce and large numbers of jelly fish were blown ashore. During our walk we came upon some heavily guarded castles and even some pirates. We watched the sailing boats conquer the waves, see the fishermen throw their lines and families enjoy the sand and the water. I sincerely hope we will get a few more of those glorious beach days before the autumn sets in!
Have a great Wednesday!
Lieve groet, Madelief x


text:
Hunt House Days Solo for Alto Sax and Piano
$ 6.95
Hunt House Days is a solo for Alto Sax and Piano from the collection Scenes from the Cape. This collection is dedicated to my brother, Jerry Nelson, who was a musician and puppeteer with the Muppets.
This MRNS Music Digital Download will include the alto sax and piano parts, a SmartMusic accompaniment file, an MP3 of the piano accompaniment, plus a brief description of the solo.
Audio recordings of the trumpet solo version are available on the MRNS Music Channel on YouTube.
Description: Before moving to Truro, my brother stayed at fellow Muppet performer Richard Hunt's house on the cape. A lot of jamming took place there, which led me to write this blues-oriented solo. In an effort to teach swing style, I start it in 12/8 time then switch to 4/4 swing near the end. This solo is catchy and fun!


text:
Super Turmeric
Super Turmeric
Our Platinum Turmeric blend contains various forms of turmeric, glucosamine, Boswellia extract(frankincense), piperine, and several other highly beneficial natural extracts to keep you at your best.
Natural extracts have been used for centuries in Ayurvedic medicine to remedy illnesses. We harness and advance these natural extracts in modern times for optimal bioavailability and effectiveness.
Ingredients: Turmeric Root Powder, Glucosamine Sulfate 2KCI, Turmeric 95% Curcuminoids, Ginger Root Extract, Chondroitin Sulfate, Boswellia Extract, MSM, BioPerine®, Quercetin Dihydrate, L-Methionine, Bromelain, Cellulose (vegetable capsule), Rice Flour.
Contains: Shellfish (Crab, Lobster, and Crawfish).
Manufacturer Country: USA
Product Amount: 60 caps
Gross Weight: 0.25lb (113g)
Suggested Use: Take two (2) capsules once a day as a dietary supplement. For best results, take 20-30 min before a meal or as directed by your healthcare professional.
Caution: Consult a physician before use if you have any medical conditions. Glucosamine is derived from shellfish. People allergic to shellfish should not consume this product.
Warning: Keep out of reach of children. Do not use if the safety seal is damaged or missing. Store in a cool, dry place.
The Food and Drug Administration has not evaluated these statements. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.


text:
Strawberry was probably due for a makeover-- what 30-something girl couldn't use a haircut and a new outfit? I must admit that these new dolls are super cute, but I'm not sure why they were redesigned. Was there a Revolt-by-3-year-old incident I didn't hear about?
Were the makers just keeping their products current and growing with thier clients, or succumbing to the sexy-little-girl epidemic (most obviously illustrated by Halloween costumes)? What do you think?


text:
I Guds namn, Den Barmhärtigaste, Den Nådigaste
The Psalms
Proclaim, "Believe in it, or do not believe in it." Those who possess knowledge from the previous scriptures, when it is recited to them, they fall down to their chins, prostrating. [17:107]
We have revealed to you this scripture, and those whom we blessed with the previous scripture will believe in it. Also, some of your people will believe in it. Indeed, those who disregard our revelations are the real disbelievers. [29:47]
… Did they not make a covenant to uphold the scripture, and not to say about GOD except the truth? Did they not study the scripture?… (7:169) We are told in many places in the Quran that we should study the previous scripture. We cannot have knowledge of something unless we read it and study it. We know absolutely that the Quran is the final scripture, that it is complete and fully detailed, and that it supercedes all previous scripture. What we revealed to you in this scripture is the truth, consummating all previous scriptures. God is fully Cognizant of His servants, Seer. (35:31) Therefore, if any discrepancies occur between the Bible and the Quran we know that the Quran is the truth. But we also know that the Bible is based on the truth, that it contains God's word, and that it is full of beautiful passages. None more beautiful that the Psalms. God truly blessed David when he gave him the Psalms, and He tells us that in the Quran. Your Lord is the best knower of everyone in the heavens and the earth. In accordance with this knowledge, we preferred some prophets over others. For example, we gave David the Psalms. (17:55) (also 4:163) Most of the Psalms are short, 5-20 verses, but a few are quite long. All are beautiful in their praise of God. Some are very well known, such as the 23rd Psalm: The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil; for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies; thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over. Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.* The traditional number of Psalms is placed at 150, but it is recognized that over the centuries some Psalms were broken into two or more separate ones while two or more originally independent songs were made into a single Psalm. Therefore, it's easy to imagine that the original number of Psalms, given by God to David, was perhaps a total divisible by 19. Since we know that the Psalms come from God it's not surprising that much contained therein is similar to the Quran. Even the titles of the Psalms remind us of the basic tenets of the one true religion: True Happiness (1), Joyful Confidence in God (4), Prayer for Guidance and Help (25), Security under God's Protection (91), The Greatness and Goodness of the True God (115), and several which mention Trust in God (3, 27, 56, 146, et. al.). I'd like to offer a few interesting comparisons: Psalm 7, verse 2: O Lord, my God, in you I take refuge; save me from all my pursuers and rescue me. Quran 113:1-5: Say, "I seek refuge in the Lord of daybreak. From the evils among His creations. From the evils of darkness as it falls. From the evils of the troublemakers. From the evils of the envious when they envy." (also sura 114, 7:200, 11:47, 23:97-8 and many others) Psalm 33, verses 8-12: Let all the earth fear the Lord; let all who dwell in the world revere him. For he spoke, and it was made; he commanded, and it stood forth. The Lord brings to naught the plans of nations; he foils the designs of peoples. But the plan of the Lord stands forever; the design of his heart, through all generations. Quran 8:30: The disbelievers plot and scheme to neutralize you, or kill you, or banish you. However, they plot and scheme, but so does God. And God is the best schemer. Quran 2:117: The Initiator of the heavens and the earth: to have anything done, He simply says to it, "Be," and it is. Psalm 49, entitled The Vanity of Worldly Riches, verses 7-10: They trust in their wealth; the abundance of their riches is their boast. Yet in no way can a man redeem himself, or pay his own ransom to God; Too high is the price to redeem one's life; he would never have enough to remain alive always and not see destruction. Quran 5:36: Certainly, those who disbelieved, if they possessed everything on earth, even twice as much, and offered it as ransom to spare them the retribution on the Day of Resurrection, it would not be accepted from them, they have incurred a painful retribution. (also 3:91, 6:70, 57:15, 70:10-14) Quran 3:77: As for those who trade away God's covenant, and their obligations for a cheap price, they receive no share in the Hereafter. God will not speak to them, nor look at them, on the Day of Resurrection, nor will He purify them. They have incurred a painful retribution. Quran 57:20: Know that this worldly life is no more than play and games, and boasting among you, and hoarding of money and children….This worldly life is no more than a temporary illusion. (also 2:212, 11:15, 29:64 and many others) Psalm 115, verses 4-7: Their idols are silver and gold, the handiwork of men. They have mouths but speak not; they have eyes but see not; they have ears but hear not; they have noses but smell not; they have hands but feel not; they have feet but walk not; they utter no sound from their throat. Quran 37:91-96: He then turned on their idols, saying, "Would you like to eat? Why do you not speak?" He then destroyed them. They went to him in a great rage. He said, "How can you worship what you carve? When God has created you, and everything you make!" (the same story in 21:52-67, including the people admitting "You know full well that these cannot speak.") Quran 21:105 We have decreed in the Psalms, as well as in other scriptures, that the earth shall be inherited by My righteous worshipers. Indeed, it does say this in the Psalms, such as 37:29 The just shall possess the land and dwell in it forever. In Psalm 136 every other line is: for his mercy endures forever. Verses 4-9: Who alone does great wonders, Who made the heavens in wisdom, Who spread out the earth upon the waters, Who made the great lights, The sun to rule over the day, The moon and the stars to rule over the night, We have a similar narration in sura 55 where almost every other line is: Which of your Lord's marvels can you deny? Verses 17-21: Lord of the two easts and the two wests. Which of your Lord's marvels can you deny? He separates the two seas where they meet. Which of your Lord's marvels can you deny? A barrier is placed between them, to prevent them from transgressing. Which of your Lord's marvels can you deny? There is also one interesting Psalm that seems to be coded. Psalm 119 has 22 sections of eight verses each. Each section is headed by a letter of the Hebrew alphabet and each verse within that section begins with that letter. I wish there were room to quote more Psalms. They are quite beautiful. I encourage everyone to take the opportunity to study God's revelations. Here are the first and the last of the Psalms. Psalm 1: True Happiness Happy the man who follows not the counsel of the wicked Nor walks in the way of sinners, nor sits in the company of the insolent, But delights in the law of the Lord and meditates on his law day and night. He is like a tree planted near running water, That yields its fruit in due season and whose leaves never fade. [Whatever he does, prospers.] Not so the wicked, not so; they are like chaff which the wind drives away. Therefore in judgment the wicked shall not stand, nor shall sinners, in the assembly of the just. For the Lord watches over the way of the just, but the way of the wicked vanishes. Psalm 150: Final Doxology with Full Orchestra Alleluia. Praise the Lord in his sanctuary, Praise him in the firmament of his strength. Praise him for his mighty deeds, Praise him for his sovereign majesty. Praise him with the blast of the trumpet, Praise him with lyre and harp, Praise him with timbrel and dance, Praise him with strings and pipe. Praise him with sounding cymbals, Praise him with clanging cymbals. Let everything that has breath praise the Lord! Alleluia. |