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The following article was sourced from a Wikipedia page at the following address: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baggage BAGGAGE/ LUGGAGE Baggage or luggage consists of bags, cases, and containers which hold a traveller's articles during transit. The modern traveller can be expected to have packages containing clothing, toiletries, small possessions, trip necessities, and on the return-trip, souvenirs. For some people, luggage and the style thereof is representative of the owner's wealth. Baggage (not luggage), or baggage train, can also refer to the train of people and goods, both military and of a personal nature, which commonly followed pre-modern armies on campaign. OVERVIEW Luggage has changed over time. Historically the most common types of luggage were chests or trunks made of wood or other heavy materials. These would be shipped by professional movers. Since the Second World War smaller and more lightweight suitcases and bags that can be carried by an individual have become the main form of luggage. With more and more passengers travelling by air the baggage handlers have seen an increase of passengers using the airline transport industry's ATA 300 Specifications for baggage designs acceptable for air transport, including both 'hand luggage' and 'hold luggage'. ETYMOLOGY According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word baggage comes from Old French bagage (from baguer "tie up") or from bagues ("bundles"). It may also be related to the word bag. Also according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word luggage originally meant inconveniently heavy baggage and comes from the verb lug and the suffix -age. TYPES OF LUGGAGE
Trunk - A wooden box, generally much larger than other kinds of luggage. Trunks come in smaller sizes as in the case of footlockers and larger ones called steamers. These days trunks are more commonly used for storage than transportation. Items large enough to require a trunk are now usually shipped in transport cases. Some of the better known trunk makers are Louis Vuitton, Goyard, Moynat, Haskell Brothers, M. M. Secor, Leatheroid,Zecsi, Clinton, Hartmann, Oshkosh, Molloy, Truesdale, and Taylor. Suitcase - A general term that may refer to wheeled or non-wheeled luggage, as well as soft or hard side luggage. Garment bag - A style of luggage that folds over on itself to allow long garments such as suits or dresses to be packed flat to avoid creasing. Garment bags come in both wheeled and non-wheeled models, and are usually one of the largest pieces in any set of luggage Tote - A small bag, usually worn on the shoulder Duffel bag - A barrel-shaped bag, almost exclusively soft side, is well suited to casual travel, with very little organization inside. The spelling "duffle" is also valid. Carpet bag - travel luggage traditionally made from carpets. LUGGAGE FEATURES
Rolling suitcases were invented in 1970, when Bernard D. Sadow applied for a patent that was granted in 1972 as United States patent 3,653,474 for "Rolling Luggage". The patent application cited the increase in air travel, and "baggage handling [having] become perhaps the single biggest difficulty encountered by an air passenger", as background of the invention. Sadow's four-wheeled suitcases, pulled using a loose strap, were later surpassed in popularity by rollaboards, suitcases that feature two wheels and are pulled in an upright position using a long handle, and were invented in 1987 by US pilot Robert Plath. Sadow attributes the late invention of luggage on wheels to a "macho thing" where "men would not accept suitcases with wheels". Others attribute the late invention to "the abundance of luggage porters with carts in the 1960s, the ease of curbside drop-offs at much smaller airports and the heavy iron casters then available." HOLD LUGGAGE Some vehicles have an area specifically for luggage to be held, called the automobile "trunk" in the United States. Items stored in the hold are known as hold luggage. A typical example would be a suitcase. If travelling by coach passengers will often be expected to place their own luggage in the hold, before boarding. Aeroplanes in contrast are loaded by professional baggage handlers. HAND LUGGAGE (CARRY-ON)
Passengers are allowed to carry a limited number of smaller bags with them in the vehicle, these are known as hand luggage (more commonly referred to as carry-on in North America), and contain valuables and items needed during the journey. There is normally storage space provided for hand luggage, either under seating, or in overhead lockers. Trains often have luggage racks at the ends of the carriage near the doors, or above the seats if there are compartments. There are differing views between North America and Europe in relation to the rules concerning the amount of baggage carried on to aircraft. In North America there is considerable debate as to whether passengers carry too many bags on board and that their weight could be a risk to other passengers and flight safety. US airlines are beginning to introduce weight and size restrictions for carry-on baggage. Whereas in Europe, many airlines, especially low-cost airlines, impose what is commonly known as "the one-bag rule". This is a restriction imposed to stop excessive weight on board and airlines claim that this policy allows them to speed the boarding of the aircraft. Airports in Europe have mounted a campaign with the European Commission in an attempt to overturn these hand luggage regulations. They claim that it is affecting their duty-free and other airport retail sales and is reducing their revenues. BAGGAGE CLAIM/RECLAIM In airport terminals, a baggage claim or reclaim area is an area where arriving passengers claim checked-in baggage after disembarking from an airline flight. At most airports and many train stations, baggage is delivered to the traveller on a baggage carousel. LEFT LUGGAGE Left luggage, also luggage storage or bag storage, is a place where one can temporarily store one's luggage so as to not have to carry it. Left luggage is not synonymous with lost luggage. Often at an airport or train station there may be a staffed 'left luggage counter' or simply a coin operated or automated locker system. With higher threats of terrorism all around the globe, this type of public storage is disappearing. Since the terrorism attack in NYC on September 2001, all public luggage storage has been closed. Only a few private companies still offer baggage storage services. LUGGAGE FORWARDING Luggage forwarding, also known as luggage shipping or luggage logistics, is a type of specialty shipping service that has been available for approximately 10 years and has grown in demand, particularly after the September 11, 2001 attacks. The purpose of luggage forwarding is to reduce the hassles of baggage handling commonly experienced by airline passengers at airports. Travelers have the option to call a company to pick up bags at their home or office, then have them delivered to any destination of choice. The process is usually repeated for round-trip traveling. See, for example Luggage Forward, Luggage Free, and LugLess. MILITARY BAGGAGE Baggage can also refer to the train of people and goods, both military and of a personal nature, which commonly followed pre-modern armies on campaign. The baggage was considered a strategic resource and guarded by a rear guard. Its loss was considered to weaken and demoralize an army, leading to rearguard attacks such as that at the Battle of Agincourt. To read more about luggage, please click on the following link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baggage |
Wikipedia: | http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baggage |


text: Welcome to the Task Management Service designed to control and fulfill tasks, performed by WebMoney users. Service algorithm is quite simple - Customer creates a task that should be fulfilled by an Executor and assigns an Inspector who should check the task and confirm its fulfillment. For each task the Customer sets up an award, that an Executor and Inspector receive after its fulfillment. Funds are transferred to the Executor and the Inspector at the moment when they agree to begin work. Funds are transferred under the protection code. Protection Code is sent automatically after the assignment is done and the Inspector confirms its fulfillment.

subset: commoncrawl


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In mid-2006 Airbus undertook a major review of the A350 concept.
Previously, on October/2005, full industrial launch of the A350 program was announced; a derived from the design of the existing A330 with modified wings, new engines and the same fuselage cross-section but in Al-Li.
Airbus faced almost immediate criticism on the A350 project from ILFC, GECAS and Singapore Airlines "Having gone to the trouble of designing a new wing, tail, cockpit" and adding advanced new materials, Airbus "should have gone the whole hog and designed a new fuselage."
On 14/July/2006, during the Farnborough Airshow, Airbus announced that the re designed aircraft would be called A350 XWB (Xtra-Wide-Body).
There was some previous speculation that the revised aircraft would be called the Airbus A370 or A280, with Airbus going as far as accidentally publishing an advert referring to the aircraft as the "A280" on the Financial Times website.
That's because it was reportedly only decided to name the new widebody A350XWB on monday. Untill the evening before the show at Farnborough, the choice was open between staying with the A350 name or rename it A280, and then later call the A320 successor the A180.
In China, the number 8 indicates prosperity, wealth,
success or social status. And numbers 28, 38, as eight means prosperity, twenty
eight equates to 'double prosperity', 38 being one of the luckiest, often
referred to as 'triple prosperity'.
Singapore Airlines reserves flight numbers beginning with
the number 8 to routes in China and Korea. The Air Canada route from Shanghai
to Toronto is Flight AC88. The KLM route from Hong Kong to Amsterdam is Flight


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Discuss the Ubuntu Backports project here. Request updated packages for the current stable version of Ubuntu
Request assistance with Backports packages, or report problems with them
Screen res ?
June 26th, 2006
Use this control to limit the display of threads to those newer than the specified time frame.
Allows you to choose the data by which the thread list will be sorted.
Order threads in...
Note: when sorting by date, 'descending order' will show the newest results first.
Ubuntu Forums Code of Conduct


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Red Bull Theater will present the American Premiere of a new adaptation of August Strindberg's The Dance of Death by Mike Poulton (Tony Award Nominee for Best Play for Fortune's Fool), directed by Joseph Hardy (Tony Award winner for Best Director for Child's Play), for a strictly limited engagement beginning tonight, April 10th and continuing through May 4th only, at the Lucille Lortel Theater (121 Christopher Street, between Bleecker and Hudson Streets). Opening Night is set for Thursday April 18th.
Joseph Hardy directs a company that features Daniel Davis and Laila Robins. Dance of Death will have set design by Beowulf Borritt, costume design by Alejo Vietti, and sound design by Brandon Wolcott.
On an isolated island, military captain Edgar, and his wife, a former actress, Alice, approach the 25th anniversary of a marriage turned deeply sour. When a jolt from the past arrives in the shape of their younger cousin Gustav, a deadly battle of wills begins. And Edgar is prepared to fight to his very last breath... Strindberg's viciously witty vivisection of a diabolic union blazed the trail for searing modern portraits of marriage like Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? Red Bull Theater brings Strindberg's masterpiece back to life in a savagely comic and bracingly intimate production, courtesy of a new adaptation by Tony nominated playwright Mike Poulton.
Performances of Dance of Death will be Tuesday, Wednesday evenings at 7:30pm, Thursday & Friday evenings at 8pm, Saturdays at 2pm & 8pm, and Sunday matinees at 3pm. Visit www.redbulltheater.com for complete calendar. Benefit Gala Night for Dance of Death will be Sunday, April 14th at 7pm with special guests to be announced. Tickets from $20 may be purchased online at www.redbulltheater.com or by phone at (212) 352-3101.
Mike Poulton began writing for the theatre in 1995. In 2003 his Fortune's Fool directed by Arthur Penn on Broadway received a Tony nomination for Best Play and went on to win seven major awards including the Tony for Best Actor for Alan Bates, and the Tony for Best Featured Actor for Frank Langella. His first two productions were staged the following year at the Chichester Festival Theatre: Uncle Vanya with Derek Jacobi, and Fortune's Fool with Alan Bates. Since then, productions include Schiller's Wallenstein directed by Angus Jackson for Chichester's summer season 2009 and Mary Stuart for Clywd Theatr Cymru directed by Terry Hands; The Lady From The Sea at Birmingham Rep directed by Lucy Bailey; The Cherry Orchard at Clwyd Theatr Cymru directed by Terry Hands; The Canterbury Tales in two parts for the RSC directed by Gregory Doran; The Father at Chichester's Minerva Theatre and Uncle Vanya on Broadway with Derek Jacobi, Roger Rees and Laura Linney. Earlier productions include The Dance of Death and Euripides' Ion at The Mercury Theatre Colchester, Ghosts with Nichola McAuliffe at Plymouth Theatre Royal and St Erkenwald at the RSC - all directed by David Hunt; and Three Sisters with Charles Dance at Birmingham Rep directed by Bill Bryden. In 2005 his adaptation of Schiller's Don Carlos (Crucible, Sheffield and West End) with Derek Jacobi, directed by Michael Grandage won an Olivier Award. In 2001 his adaptation of the York Mystery Plays directed by Gregory Doran was performed for the first time in York Minster. He was commissioned by Horipro to write Anjin - The Shogun And The English Samurai, which opened in December 2009 in Tokyo, followed by a season in Osaka. This has been revived in Japan in December 2012 prior to the run at Sadler's Wells Theatre, London in January/February 2013. In June 2010, his dramatization of Malory's Morte D'arthur commissioned by the RSC and directed by Gregory Doran opened at the Courtyard Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon. His adaptation of The Bacchae was produced at Manchester's Royal Exchange in November 2010. His new version of Schiller's Luise Miller directed by Michael Grandage had a summer season at the Donmar in 2011 and the première of The Syndicate, a translation of Eduardo De Filippo's Il Sindaco del Rione Sanita opened at Chichester in August 2011 followed by a UK tour. His recent version of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya directed by Lucy Bailey for the Print Room sold out both spring and summer seasons in 2012. Work in progress: stage adaptations of Hilary Mantel's Booker Mann Prize-winning novels, Wolf Hall and Bring Up The Bodies; a new play for the RSC and several commissions for Chichester Festival Theatre.
August Strindberg, Sweden's greatest dramatist, was born at Stockholm in 1849. He began writing plays in 1870, and in 1878 had a break-through when his drama, Master Olaf, was produced, and is now said to have inaugurated Sweden's dramatic renaissance. A production of The Father in 1887 established his reputation as one of the most powerful dramatists of Europe. In his plays The Father, Miss Julie (1888), and Creditors (1889), he created naturalistic dramas that built on the accomplishments of Ibsen while rejecting the structure of the "well-made play." Strindberg stretched the boundaries of the art form in new, deeply psychological and radically idiosyncratic ways, in effect creating the first modern expressionistic theater. In 1897 Strindberg established the Intimate Theater at Stockholm, where only his own plays were produced. The Dance of Death was written in 1900 and became a sensation across European stages, such that the author even penned a sequel. Other innovative dramas destined to become classics such as A Dream Play and The Ghost Sonata were also written during this period. A prolific writer who often drew directly on his personal experience for his work, Strindberg's career spanned four decades, during which time he wrote over 60 plays and more than 30 works of fiction, autobiography, history, cultural analysis, and politics. He continued writing until his death in 1912, and his work continues to fascinate artists and audiences worldwide, and inspire contemporary writers. Joseph Hardy most recently directed the American premiere of Nightingale at Los Angeles' Mark Taper Forum, Connecticut's Hartford Stage and in NYC at Manhattan Theatre Club. Nightingale marked his third collaboration with Lynn Redgrave, which began with the TV movie "The Seduction of Miss Leona" and continued with MCC's production of Grace a few seasons ago here at the Lucille Lortel Theater. He also recently directed a revival of David Storey's Home for the Williamstown Theater Festival. Mr. Hardy has worked extensively in theatre, film and television throughout the United States and abroad, from eight years with a Production Company in Paris to acting as Executive Producer for such iconic television programs as "General Hospital" and "Knots Landing," to name a few. A Tony Award winner for Child's Play, Mr. Hardy is also the recipient of two Drama Desk Awards and a Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award. East Coast directing highlights include the original Broadway productions of Gigi and Play It Again, Sam with Woody Allen and Diane Keaton, the revival of Night of the Iguana with Richard Chamberlin and Dorothy McGuire, and the original Off-Broadway production of You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown. He is an associate artist of The Old Globe Theatre in San Diego. Mr. Hardy currently resides in New York and has been an Artistic Associate of Red Bull Theater since 2004, directing dozens of Revelation Readings for the company, including Mike Poulton's version of Schiller's classic Don Carlos. Daniel Davis's 40-year career includes work in regional theatre in the US and Canada, primarily The American Shakespeare Festival, Stratford National Theatre of Canada, Guthrie, Seattle Rep, Actors Theatre of Louisville, Old Globe Theatre, ten seasons with the Williamstown Theatre Festival and six seasons with American Conservatory Theatre in San Francisco. Favorite roles include Garland Wright's production of The Misanthrope (Alceste), the American premiere of David Hare and Howard Brenton's Pravda (Lambert LeRoux) directed by Robert Falls, the world premiere of The Film Society (Jonathan Balton) by Jon Robin Baitz and title roles in Hamlet, Peer Gynt, and Arturo Ui. New York credits include Wrong Mountain (Tony nomination), Talking Heads (Obie and Outer Critics Circle Award), La Cage aux Folles (2004 revival), and for Lincoln Center The Invention of Love and The Frogs. In 1971 he toured with Katharine Hepburn in Coco and toured again in 1982 as Salieri in Amadeus, a role he also played on Broadway. Recent stage work includes the Classic Stage Company's revival of The Cherry Orchard, in which he played Gaev opposite Dianne Wiest and John Turturro. In 2011, he starred in A.R.Gurney's Black Tie at Primary Stages. He has played the title role in King Lear for the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey, Kreon in Medea opposite Annette Bening for the UCLA InterNational Theatre Festival, and with the New York Philharmonic in a concert reading of Stravinsky's L'Histoire du Soldat with Alec Baldwin. He spent six seasons as Niles the Butler on "The Nanny" and has had numerous guest roles on TV, most notably as Professor Moriarty on "Star Trek: The Next Generation". Films include The Prestige, Sydney Pollack's Havana and The Hunt for Red October.Laila Robins' Broadway credits include Heartbreak House, the Tony-nominated play Frozen (Lucille Lortel Nomination), The Herbal Bed and The Real Thing. Off-Broadway: Sorry, The Lady From Dubuque (Outer Critics Circle nom., Richard Seff Award), Sweet and Sad (OBIE and Drama Desk for Best Ensemble), That Hopey Changey Thing, Antony and Cleopatra, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Sore Throats (Lucille Lortel nom.), Tiny Alice, Mrs. Klein (Joseph Jefferson Award and a Helen Hayes Nomination for national tour), The Merchant Of Venice (Calloway Award), That Face. Regional credits include Dangerous Beauty, The Three Sisters (Cincinnati Acclaim Award), and A Streetcar Named Desire (1997 Jefferson Award for Best Actress). Company member of the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey. Film: Side Effects, Concussion, Multiple Sarcasms, The Good Shepherd, Planes, Trains And Automobiles, An Innocent Man, Welcome Home Roxy Carmichael, True Crime. Television: "Person Of Interest," "Blue Bloods," "Damages," "Too Big To Fail," "Bored To Death," "God In America," "In Treatment," "The Sopranos," "Law and Order" trifecta, and the series lead in "Gabriel's Fire" opposite James Earl Jones.
Red Bull Theater, hailed as "the city's gutsiest classical theater" by Time Out New York, is the not-profit Off-Broadway theater company specializing in plays of heightened language, with a unique focus on the Jacobean plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. In the 2012 season, building on its history of Revelation Readings and In The Raw Workshops, the company expanded its production repertoire to include world classics from all eras, starting with Jean Genet's The Maids. Red Bull Theater continues to produce large-scale works from Shakespeare's era and rarely produced classics from across the spectrum as it expands the number of full productions on offer per season, this year featuring a hit fall production of Ben Jonson's Volpone and a spring revival of August Strindberg's modern classic, The Dance of Death. Red Bull Theater embraces the imagination of theatergoers through intimate, imaginative productions of great classic stories.
Acclaimed as "a troupe that lovers of classic theater should put on the must-watch list," by Charles Isherwood in The New York Times, Red Bull Theater has previously staged productions of Shakespeare's Pericles, the anonymous Revenger's Tragedy, Marlowe's Edward the Second, Middleton's Women Beware Women, Webster's The Duchess of Malfi, the Off Broadway premiere of Dekker, Ford & Rowley's Witch of Edmonton, a major Off Broadway revival of Jean Genet's The Maids, and the first Off Broadway revival of Volpone in over 50 years. The New York Times called Pericles "the stuff of dreams," The Revenger's Tragedy "Dynamite!," Edward the Second "fired with excitement," Women Beware Women "exuberant, vividly acted," The Duchess of Malfi "boiling drama," The Witch of Edmonton was hailed by Ben Brantley as "a singular blend of psychological realism, naturalistic detail and lurid, black-magic-shadowed sensationalism" and The Maids as "delectable" and "wonderful" and was nominated as Outstanding Revival by both the Drama League and Lucille Lortel Awards, and Volpone received critical accolades such as "wonderful & appealing" from The New York Times and "triumphant" from Associated Press, among others. All of Red Bull Theater's productions have enjoyed sold-out and often extended Off-Broadway runs.
Now entering its 10th Anniversary in 2013, Red Bull Theater's work has been recognized with multiple Callaway, Drama League, Lucille Lortel, and OBIE Award nominations and Awards.
Red Bull Theater has staged over 100 readings through its ongoing OBIE Award-winning Revelation Readings, named by the Village Voice "Best Play Reading Series," and has developed several new plays of heightened language and classics of the future through its In-the-Raw workshop program. Red Bull Theater reaches out to NYC students of all ages through its Direct Address education programs, teaching drama and literacy utilizing Shakespeare, as well as providing ASL-Interpreted performances and student matinees for all productions, and offering master classes in classical acting for professional development. Post-play "Bull Session" discussions with noted scholars following Sunday matinees of all productions are free and open to the public.


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Collective Action and Interest Group Formation
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of collective action and its effect on interest group formation
- Describe free riding and the reasons it occurs
- Discuss ways to overcome collective action problems
In any group project in which you have participated, you may have noticed that a small number of students did the bulk of the work while others did very little. Yet everyone received the same grade. Why do some do all the work, while others do little or none? How is it possible to get people to work when there is a disincentive to do so? This situation is an example of a collective action problem, and it exists in government as well as in public and private organizations. Whether it is Congress trying to pass a budget or an interest group trying to motivate members to contact lawmakers, organizations must overcome collective action problems to be productive. This is especially true of interest groups, whose formation and survival depend on members doing the necessary work to keep the group funded and operating.
Collective action problems exist when people have a disincentive to take action.Mancur Olson, Jr. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Frank R. Baumgartner and Beth L. Leech. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Political Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. In his classic work, The Logic of Collective Action, economist Mancur Olson discussed the conditions under which collective actions problems would exist, and he noted that they were prevalent among organized interests. People tend not to act when the perceived benefit is insufficient to justify the costs associated with engaging in the action. Many citizens may have concerns about the appropriate level of taxation, gun control, or environmental protection, but these concerns are not necessarily strong enough for them to become politically active. In fact, most people take no action on most issues, either because they do not feel strongly enough or because their action will likely have little bearing on whether a given policy is adopted. Thus, there is a disincentive to call your member of Congress, because rarely will a single phone call sway a politician on an issue.
Why do some students elect to do little on a group project? The answer is that they likely prefer to do something else and realize they can receive the same grade as the rest of the group without contributing to the effort. This result is often termed the free rider problem, because some individuals can receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost. When National Public Radio (NPR) engages in a fund-raising effort to help maintain the station, many listeners will not contribute. Since it is unlikely that any one listener's donation will be decisive in whether NPR has adequate funding to continue to operate, most listeners will not contribute to the costs but instead will free ride and continue to receive the benefits of listening.
Collective action problems and free riding occur in many other situations as well. If union membership is optional and all workers will receive a salary increase regardless of whether they make the time and money commitment to join, some workers may free ride. The benefits sought by unions, such as higher wages, collective bargaining rights, and safer working conditions, are often enjoyed by all workers regardless of whether they are members. Therefore, free riders can receive the benefit of the pay increase without helping defray the cost by paying dues, attending meetings or rallies, or joining protests, like that shown in Figure.
If free riding is so prevalent, why are there so many interest groups and why is interest group membership so high in the United States? One reason is that free riding can be overcome in a variety of ways. Olson argued, for instance, that some groups are better able than others to surmount collective action problems.Olson, Jr., The Logic of Collective Action. They can sometimes maintain themselves by obtaining financial support from patrons outside the group.Jack Walker, "The Origin and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 390–406. Groups with financial resources have an advantage in mobilizing in that they can offer incentives or hire a lobbyist. Smaller, well-organized groups also have an advantage. For one thing, opinions within smaller groups may be more similar, making it easier to reach consensus. It is also more difficult for members to free ride in a smaller group. In comparison, larger groups have a greater number of individuals and therefore more viewpoints to consider, making consensus more difficult. It may also be easier to free ride because it is less obvious in a large group when any single person does not contribute. However, if people do not lobby for their own interests, they may find that they are ignored, especially if smaller but more active groups with interests opposed to theirs lobby on behalf of themselves. Even though the United States is a democracy, policy is often made to suit the interests of the few instead of the needs of the many.
Group leaders also play an important role in overcoming collective action problems. For instance, political scientist Robert Salisbury suggests that group leaders will offer incentives to induce activity among individuals.Robert Salisbury, "An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups," Midwest Journal of Political Science 13 (1969): 1–32; Peter B. Clark and James Q. Wilson, "Incentive Systems: A Theory of Organizations," Administration Science Quarterly 6 (1961): 129–166. Some offer material incentives, which are tangible benefits of joining a group. AARP, for example, offers discounts on hotel accommodations and insurance rates for its members, while dues are very low, so they can actually save money by joining. Group leaders may also offer solidary incentives, which provide the benefit of joining with others who have the same concerns or are similar in other ways. Some scholars suggest that people are naturally drawn to others with similar concerns. The NAACP is a civil rights groups concerned with promoting equality and eliminating discrimination based on race, and members may join to associate with others who have dealt with issues of inequality.https://www.naacp.org/ (March 1, 2016).
Similarly, purposive incentives focus on the issues or causes promoted by the group. Someone concerned about protecting individual rights might join a group like the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) because it supports the liberties guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution, even the free expression of unpopular views.https://www.aclu.org/ (March 1, 2016). Members of the ACLU sometimes find the messages of those they defend (including Nazis and the Ku Klux Klan) deplorable, but they argue that the principle of protecting civil liberties is critical to U.S. democracy. In many ways, the organization's stance is analogous to James Madison's defense of factions mentioned earlier in this chapter. A commitment to protecting rights and liberties can serve as an incentive in overcoming collective action problems, because members or potential members care enough about the issues to join or participate. Thus, interest groups and their leadership will use whatever incentives they have at their disposal to overcome collective action problems and mobilize their members.
Finally, sometimes collective action problems are overcome because there is little choice about whether to join an organization. For example, some organizations may require membership in order to participate in a profession. To practice law, individuals may be required to join the American Bar Association or a state bar association. In the past, union membership could be required of workers, particularly in urban areas controlled by political machines consisting of a combination of parties, elected representatives, and interest groups.
Visit the Free Rider Problem for a closer look at free riding as a philosophical problem. Think of a situation you have been in where a collective action problem existed or someone engaged in free riding behavior. Why did the collective action problem or free riding occur? What could have been done to overcome the problem? How will knowledge of these problems affect the way you act in future group settings?
In addition to the factors discussed above that can help overcome collective action problems, external events can sometimes help mobilize groups and potential members. Some scholars argue that disturbance theory can explain why groups mobilize due to an event in the political, economic, or social environment.David Truman. 1951. The Governmental Process. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. For example, in 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, a book exposing the dangers posed by pesticides such as DDT.Rachel Caron. 1962. A Silent Spring. New York: Mariner Books. The book served as a catalyst for individuals worried about the environment and the potential dangers of pesticides. The result was an increase in both the number of environmental interest groups, such as Greenpeace and American Rivers, and the number of members within them.
More recently, several shooting deaths of unarmed young African American men have raised awareness of racial issues in the United States and potential problems in policing practices. In 2014, Ferguson, Missouri, erupted in protests and riots following a decision not to indict Darren Wilson, a white police officer, in the fatal shooting of Michael Brown, who had allegedly been involved in a theft at a local convenience store and ended up in a dispute with the officer."Hundreds of Ferguson Protesters March in Downtown D.C.," http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/Ferguson-Protests-Planned-for-DC-Baltimore-Tuesday-283807831.html (March 1, 2016). The incident mobilized groups representing civil rights, such as the protestors in Figure, as well as others supporting the interests of police officers.
Both the Silent Spring and Ferguson examples demonstrate the idea that people will naturally join groups in response to disturbances. Some mobilization efforts develop more slowly and may require the efforts of group leaders. Sometimes political candidates can push issues to the forefront, which may result in interest group mobilization. The recent focus on immigration, for example, has resulted in the mobilization of those in support of restrictive policies as well as those opposed to them (Figure). Rather than being a single disturbance, debate about immigration policy has ebbed and flowed in recent years, creating what might best be described as a series of minor disturbances. When Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump made controversial statements about immigrants, many rallied both for and against him.Jenna Johnson, "Immigration continues to be Donald Trump's rallying issue," Washington Post, 22 October 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/10/22/immigration-continues-to-be-donald-trumps-rallying-issue/.
Student Activism and Apathy
Student behavior is somewhat paradoxical when it comes to political participation. On one hand, students have been very active on college campuses at various times over the past half-century. Many became politically active in the 1960s as part of the civil rights movement, with some joining campus groups that promoted civil rights, while others supported groups that opposed these rights. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, college campuses were very active in opposition to the Vietnam War. More recently, in 2015, students at the University of Missouri protested against the university system president, who was accused of not taking racial issues at the university seriously. The student protests were supported by civil rights groups like the NAACP, and their efforts culminated in the president's resignation.http://www.news-leader.com/story/news/2015/11/09/springfield-naacp-responds-mu-president-resignation/75473312/ (March 1, 2016).
Yet at the same time, students participate by voting and joining groups at lower rates than members of other age cohorts. Why is it the case that students can play such an important role in facilitating political change in some cases, while at the same time they are typically less active than other demographic groups?
Are there groups on campus that represent issues important to you? If not, find out what you could do to start such a group.
Interest groups often have to contend with disincentives to participate, particularly when individuals realize their participation is not critical to a group's success. People often free ride when they can obtain benefits without contributing to the costs of obtaining these benefits. To overcome these challenges, group leaders may offer incentives to members or potential members to help them mobilize. Groups that are small, wealthy, and/or better organized are sometimes better able to overcome collective action problems. Sometimes external political, social, or economic disturbances result in interest group mobilization.
What type of incentives appeal to someone's concern about a cause?
- solidary incentives
- purposive incentives
- material incentives
- negative incentives
Which of the following is the best example of a solidary benefit?
- joining a group to be with others like you
- joining a group to obtain a monetary benefit
- joining a group because you care about a cause
- joining a group because it is a requirement of your job
What are some ways to overcome collective action problems?
Incentives that help overcome collective action problems include material, solidary, and purposive benefits. These are often offered by group leaders. Sometimes, political, economic, or social disturbances help overcome collective action problems by mobilizing groups.
Why do some groups have an easier time overcoming collective action problems?


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I can definitely tell that the rumors chatter started to pick up in the last few days after it was dead for a month. Something is definitely coming – I already started to see the first signs of an imminent announcement (Nikon AF-S 200-400mm f/4G IF-ED VR lens) which could happen as soon as the end of April. The next step will be to get the exact date for the scheduled Nikon press conference.
This is the latest info I got: 3 new Nikon DSLR cameras are in the pipeline. One of them will be an entry level model (probably D4000).
The second camera will have:
- 39 AF points
- it will be 16 MP with 6400 ISO + HI2 position
- 24 fps 1920/1080 video
- it will have an optional (new) MB-D11 grip
I do not have any info on sensor size, exact model name or release date – this could be Nikon's plan for the whole year (2010).
It is interesting to note that the current PRO DSLR line from Nikon has 51 AF points. The Nikon D90 has 11 AF points. The AF of this rumored camera falls in between, which means (if true) it will either be:
- the replacement of the Nikon D90 (DX sensor inside)
- a new product line that will fit between the D90 and the PRO level cameras (I consider the D300s, D700 and D3s to be PRO level)
- Nikon D700 replacement – that means that there will be no ISO improvements and the AF points will drop from 51 to 39 (FX sensor) but you will gain video and 4 extra MP.
FYI: Nikon D90 and D300s have a standard ISO of 3200, the Nikon D700 has a standard ISO of 6400 (same as the rumored camera).
No word on what the third camera will be.
Update: another option could be: the entry level camera is the Nikon D90 replacement (I know the D90 is not really entry level), the 16MP camera is the D300s replacement and the third camera is the Nikon D700 replacement. I was not directly told that the entry level will be the D4000.
[NR] Rumor rating: 75% possibility


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Video Library
The MNN Video LIbrary is no longer being updated. You can still find archived episodes of some MNN programs here, or check MNN's section of Archive.org. New episodes of select MNN shows are also available on MNN's YouTube channel.
Video Library
Imagining and Remembering the Artistry and Virtuosity of Eugene Fodor
This is a profile piece of Eugene Fodor who was a violin virtuoso and a master interpreter of the modern and classical repertoire. He made his solo debut with the Denver Symphony at 10, began touring at the age of 12 and won numerous competitions in his teen years. Gene passed on February 26th 2011...
Imagining Until I'm Free - Fannie Lou Hamer's Enduring Message to America
Jim Vrettos interviews historian Keisha Blain & activist Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove for a conversation about the legacy of Fannie Lou Hamer. Blain has sought to restore Hamer to her proper place in history through her book "Until I'm Free"
Imagining A New People's Party
On today's Radical Imagination we'll take a closer look at the new People's Party, for the people, not the billionaires through a talk between host Jim Vrettos and two prominent leaders in the movement: Mike McCorkle & Nick Brana
Imagining Poor People's Movements Then and Now
Today on the Radical Imagination we have a long needed and long-awaited dialogue between Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove and Frances Fox Piven, moderated by host Jim Vrettos.
Imagining Jewish Philanthropy and America's Political Economy
On this show we'll be exploring the history of American Jewish philanthropy as it tried to balance the interests of democracy with those of capitalism --the interests of the public good vs. the need for capitalism to grow and profit through the market. Host Jim Vrettos receives guest Lila Corwin...
Imagining An End to Poverty and Economic Dependence
In this The Radical Imagination we have 2 of the leading and most original writers and activists in the country who can help us understand the contradictions and alternative visions America is grappling with: Michael Hudson & Jonathan Hartgrove.
Imagining Psychiatry's Continuing Political and Moral Dilemma
Host Jim Vrettos receives returning guest Dr.Bandy X. Lee, who has stirred the wrath of American psychiatry's most powerful corporate voice by blowing the whistle on the American Psychiatric Association's misguided use of the now infamous "Goldwater rule."
Imagining How to End America's Racial Dilemma
We know that children's life chances are overwhelmingly dependent on the income and education of their parents. Over 65 years after the Supreme Court struck down school segregation in Brown v. Board, black children are as segregated from white students as they were in the mid-1970s.
Host Jim...
Imagining Ways to Resist and Transform a Neo-Fascist America
Host Jim Vrettos interviews Michael Isaacson, Researcher of Fascism. The two have a conversation about the influence of fascism in America and how can the people resist and transform this tendency.


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Dear Members of the Kingston Common Council,
We write regarding the zoning amendment request for the Kingstonian project. The Ulster County Planning Board has reviewed the proposed amendment and has determined that, as presented, it is inconsistent with the City's zoning and Comprehensive Plan. If the amendment is to be adopted, the County has required changes, particularly the inclusion of affordable housing. We urge the Council to make the changes the County requires. Affordable housing is a critical need in Kingston, and there is no reason that a project receiving substantial public subsidies should escape the responsibility to supply affordable units.
Ulster County and the City of Kingston have an affordable housing crisis, with 55% of residents county-wide spending over 30% of their income on rent. When the City adopted the Mixed Use Overlay District in 2005, it called for 20% affordable units per project. Kingston's 2025 Comprehensive Plan, adopted in 2016, took the mission city-wide, calling for affordable units in all new residential developments throughout the city. Kingston is the only city in the Mid-Hudson region currently pursuing coverage under New York State's new rent control laws to rein in its spiraling housing costs.
Applying the City's affordable housing requirements to the proposed 131-unit Kingstonian project would bring much needed affordable units to Kingston families. In contrast, allowing construction of a luxury housing development with no affordable units would only worsen the housing crisis by further gentrifying Uptown and Kingston overall.
If the Common Council has determined that every developer in the city should provide affordable units at their own expense, then the heavily-subsidized Kingstonian project cannot be excused from providing the same.
The Ulster County Planning Board warned in its letter that "it is disquieting that there is little disclosure of the public investment needed to bring the project to fruition."
The community is aware of at least $6.8 million in taxpayer-funded grants:
* $3.8 million from Governor Cuomo's Downtown Revitalization Initiative (DRI);
* $2 million has been granted by the Empire State Development Corp;
* A $1 million Restore NY Grant.
Here's what our community remains in the dark about:
* The value of tax breaks through the Ulster County IDA, which may excuse the developer from paying sales and mortgage taxes, as well as portions of its city, county and school taxes;
* The value of all municipal real estate that will be contributed to the project, including Fair Street Extension, which will be eliminated, and the city parking lot parcel on North Front Street;
* The municipal parking revenue that will be lost once the public lot is sold.
* The cost of any infrastructure upgrades the City will undertake to accommodate the project.
* Any other public grants, tax credits, or subsidies the Kingstonian is seeking.
Therefore, we make two requests of the Common Council:
1. Do not amend the zoning map without also making the changes to the text of the zoning that the County requires. In particular, clarify that new multi-family housing must include affordable units.
2. Step up to your fiduciary responsibilities and provide the community with a full accounting of the public subsidies expected by the Kingstonian project. Ensure that all decisions requiring Common Council approval, including discretionary approvals and funding awards, have been identified and included in the SEQRA review.
We look forward to your response.
SIGN THE PETITION: Kingston Common Council must uphold its affordable housing mandate and provide constituents with a full accounting of Kingstonian public funds (via change.org)


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Let's face it: running a small business office can be incredibly expensive, especially when you have to keep the lights on. This is even truer if you have to run servers, computers, and other electronics day in and day out to keep your small business afloat. In addition, if you're like most small businesses, a few dollars here and there can really make the difference for that month, so saving money without having to devote a lot of time to doing so can mean more profit for your company.
There has been a significant increase in the invention and use of technologies that are designed to save power. This means that, without a whole lot of time and effort, you can start saving some cash on your electric bills today.
Motion Sensors
Motion sensing lights have been around for a very long time, but they've seen massive improvements lately. Many motion sensing light systems now also have timers and can control not just the lights, but other systems in a room as well. One of the best ways to save money is to have some things turn off when you leave a room, so installing systems like these ensure that you don't waste energy when you really, really aren't using it. For example, maybe the computer in the room needs to be on, but the printer, lights, and heating unit don't need to be.
Programmable Thermostats
It's midnight and you just realized that, in the dead of winter, you left the furnace on at your office. While it's never a bad thing to have a toasty office first thing in the morning, running the heater at levels that are meant to be comfortable for a human is a complete waste of money and energy. Luckily, programmable thermostats aim to solve this issue by allowing you to control a thermostat remotely from a smartphone or a computer. You can even set the thermostat to turn back up around eight in the morning so by the time you get back in at eight thirty, you don't have to wear a jacket while things warm up and you managed to save money by not running it overnight.
It's All About the Lightbulbs
Do you still have those long, florescent lights in your office? Maybe you even have old-fashioned lamps that take those 60 watt round lightbulbs that, in short, eat up way more than their share of electricity. You can save some serious money and reduce your energy consumption by over 50% if you replace those old lighting solutions with newer ones.
Sometimes you won't even need to replace any lights – just the lightbulbs – so this becomes a fairly low-cost project that can save you tons and tons of money a month. The best part is that the result is immediate.
Educate Your Office Mates
One of the most frugal ways to save money on your lighting bills is to simply educate your workers. While this in itself may not have anything to do with current technology, employees will likely pay more attention if you integrate current technology. Slides are nice, but interactive screens are better. Having a paper-and-pen meeting can help some, but having everyone take notes with the new tablets that the office bought is nicer. Get creative with the technology you have to teach everyone how to be more conscious of their energy use.
While there's no one-shot solution for saving energy, there are several different solutions that, when combined, can make a huge difference in how much you're paying the electric company every month. Don't be afraid to experiment a little with thermostats, sensors, and education, but really – you should install the lightbulbs.


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The big question people keeping asking me since it happened is this " Was it really necessary to fire Ian Tootill for the comments in the caption above?"
In reflection and hindsight no it wasn't and I goofed.
Read that again please: I goofed.
The media is relentless and I should have handled them better. I learned and I will next time.
What I should have said to all concerned was this: Ian was merely asking a question and the intent of that question was blown out of proportion. If you don't like what he said ( I am not a fan of invoking the H word) then don't vote for him.
Instead in the heat of the moment I canned him. Wrong decision. I let him down and the party.
He went through this whole period with class supporting the party all the way. He is a nice guy.
The next question to be asked of me was/is yes but you were pretty quick to fire the candidate who had the personal problem you know the one alleged to be drinking and driving.
Actually I was right to do that but not necessarily for the reason you think.
He was terminated not just for those allegations but because he never bothered to check in and tell me there was a problem. In fact,to this day I have never heard from him. He just disappeared.
So,I ask how can you tell the world that you are going to be a responsible government if one of your own candidates won't even pick up the phone and tell you he screwed up? You can't and he was done.
Next you fired Mischa Popoff didn't you? Yes and he took no bull from that. He shouldn't have either because I goofed there too!
The comments that he made, although I disagreed with what he said, were already fit to print in a Kelowna Daily newspaper. If they were good enough for that family newspaper to run than they should have been good enough for me.
Okay but you fired one more didn't you, you know that guy that referred to the premier and the Madam Justice as a bitch.
I did and if that was all he said I could have dealt with it. But of course it wasn't.
You see further down the list on the same Twitter account where those two things were said were some terribly nasty things that both invoked the "H' word and made a mockery of the Picton case.
They were inexcusable and while I have no doubt not representative of the character of the person who said them, I could not stand behind them, nor could I allow the party too either.
So you were right on two and wrong on two, why bother with the explanation?
The answer would be two fold namely that Tootill and Popoff deserve an apology from the guy that led the campaign and fired them . This is my way of doing that.
Secondly and perhaps more importantly ( especially in Tootill's case) their name needs to get cleaned up on the internet.
If my SEO works out than Ian Tootill is a nice guy will replace some of the crap about him getting fired.
He deserves as much!


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I'm not posting anymore, but all the recipes are here (for better or for worse) for reference.
Thursday, April 24, 2014
Tofu Chops
Sorry for the radio silence, kids, it's been a busy one lately. The good news is that my Benjamin Franklin manuscript has been approved and is moving into production. The bad news is that I still have a ton of other things to do before my sabbatical ends and I go back to work. Ha. I developed this recipe after someone posted on the Facebook page about whether or not I had a vegan pork chop recipe. I did not. This is something like that. Tofu Shake n' Bake, I guess. The secret is brining the tofu, and picking a tofu that is not too firm or too soft. Too firm will make for a dry chop, too soft will make them mushy. In any event, these chops taste great with a huge side of homemade applesauce.
- 1 pkg firm or extra firm tofu, cut into 12 slices (or more)
- 2 cups cold water
- 1 tsp garlic powder
- 2 tsp onion powder
- 2 tsp smoked or seasoned salt
- 1 tbsp light soy sauce
- 1 tbsp sugar
- 1 3/4 cup panko bread crumbs
- 1/2 tsp garlic powder
- 2 tsp onion powder
- 1 tsp sage
- 1 tsp paprika
- 1 tsp thyme
- 1/2 tsp salt
- 1/2 tsp ground fennel
- 1/4 tsp nutmeg
- freshly ground pepper
- 1 tbsp all purpose flour
- 2 tbsp oil
Dipping Liquid
- 1 cup plain soy milk
- 1 tsp yellow mustard
- 1/2 tsp lemon juice
- few splashes of hot sauce
1. Mix together all the ingredients for the brine. Pour into a freezer bag. Add sliced tofu and let it brine for 2 hours in the fridge.
2. When tofu is done brining, remove it from the fridge. Preheat oven to 400 degrees. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.
3. Mix together all of the ingredients for the breading in a large bowl. Place about 1/3 of it in another large bowl.
4. Mix together all of the ingredients for the dipping liquid.
5. Dip a slice of the tofu in the dipping liquid, then toss it in the bowl with the smaller amount of breading to coat. Place on the prepared baking sheet. Repeat with remaining tofu. Add a few more panko crumbs in if needed. Use one hand for dipping (wet), the other for breading (dry). That way you won't muck up your breading and get it all over your fingers.
6. Carefully re-dip the breaded slices in the dipping liquid then toss in the remaining breading to coat.
7. Bake for 20 mins, flipping the tofu after 10 mins.


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Allergy Friendly Friday 8/19/11
Allergy Friendly Friday
The highlight of the past week has been seeing new bloggers appear here at Allergy Friendly Friday, and visiting your sites. I am thrilled to be introduced to all these new blogs! I really encourage you all to click through the links as much as possible, because you'll find a lot of people doing really cutting edge work in their kitchens (and on their farms!). I lived on a small organic farm until I was 10, and it formed my predelection, at a young age, for fresh produce above all else. I later went to a farm school in Putney, Vermont where the students all worked the farm. It was the single most important part of my teens, and is certainly the source of my work ethic today. See the pic above of students at Putney, collecting fresh eggs. My father still has a small farm in Western Massachussets, and I hope that even our brief visits there are helping to give my sons an appreciation for farm to table foods. Kudos to you all who are farming your own food. Your kids will thank you! (more…)


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Statistics/Numerical Methods/Numerical Comparison of Statistical Software
editStatistical computations require extra accuracy and are open to errors such as truncation and cancellation error. These errors occur as a result of binary representation and finite precision and may cause inaccurate results. In this work we are going to discuss the accuracy of statistical software, different tests and methods available for measuring the accuracy and the comparison of different packages.
Accuracy of Software
editAccuracy can be defined as the correctness of the results. When a statistical software package is used, it is assumed that the results are correct in order to comment on these results. However, it must be accepted that computers have some limitations. The main problem is that the available precision typically provided by computer systems is limited. It is clear that statistical software can not deliver such accurate results, which exceed these limitations. However statistical software should recognize its limits and give clear indication that these limits are reached. We have two types of precision generally used today:
- Single precision
- Double precision
Binary Representation and Finite Precision
editBinary representation and finite precision cause inaccuracy NIKHIL. Computers don't have real numbers -- we represent them with a finite approximation.
Example: Assume that we want to represent 0.1 in single precision floating point. The result will be as follows:
0.1 = .00011001100110011001100110 = 0.99999964 (McCullough,1998)
It is clear that we can only approximate to 0.1 in binary form. This problem grows, if we try to subtract two large numbers which differ only in the lowest precision digits. For instance 100000.1-100000 = .09375
With single precision floating point we can only represent 24 significant binary digits, in other words 6-7 decimal digits. In double precision it is possible to represent 53 significant binary digits equivalent to 15-17 significant decimal digits. Limitations of binary representation create five distinct numerical ranges, which cause loss of accuracy:
- negative overflow
- negative underflow
- zero
- positive underflow
- positive overflow
Overflow means that values have grown too large for the representation. Underflow means that operands are so small and so close to zero that the result must be set to zero. Single and double precision representations have different ranges.
Results of Binary Representation
editThese limitations cause different errors in different situations:
- Cancellation errors result from subtracting two nearly equal numbers.
- Accumulation errors are successive rounding errors in a series of calculations summed up to a total error. In this type of error it is possible that only the rightmost digits of the result are affected or that the result has no single accurate digits.
- Another result of binary representation and finite precision is that two formulas which are algebraically equivalent may not be equivalent numerically. For instance:
The first formula adds the numbers in ascending order, whereas the second adds them in descending order. In the first formula the smallest numbers are reached at the very end of the computation, so that these numbers are all lost to rounding error. The error is 650 times greater than the second.(McCullough,1998)
- Truncation errors are approximation errors which result from the limitations of binary representation.
The difference between the true value of sin(x) and the result achieved by summing up finite number of terms is the truncation error. (McCullough,1998)
- Algorithmic errors are another source of inaccuracies. There can be different ways of calculating a quantity and these different methods may vary in accuracy. For example according to Sawitzki (1994) in a single precision environment using the following formula in order to calculate variance :
Measuring Accuracy
editDue to limits of computers some problems occur in calculating statistical values. We need a measure which shows us the degree of accuracy of a computed value. This measurement is based on the difference between the computed value (q) and the real value (c). An often used measure is Log Relative Error or LRE (the number of the correct significant digits)(McCullough,1998)
- q should be close to c (by less than 2 digits). If they are not, set LRE to zero
- If LRE is greater than number of the digits in c, set LRE to number of the digits in c.
- If LRE is less than unity, set it to zero.
Testing Statistical Software
editIn this part we are going to discuss two different tests which aim to measure the accuracy of the software: Wilkinson Test (Wilkinson, 1985) and NIST StRD Benchmarks.
Wilkinson's Statistic Quiz
editThe Wilkinson dataset "NASTY" which is employed in Wilkinson's Statistic Quiz is a dataset created by Leland Wilkinson (1985). This dataset consists of different variables such as "Zero" which contains only zeros, "Miss" with all missing values, etc. NASTY is a reasonable dataset in the sense of values it contains. For instance the values of "Big" in "NASTY" are less than U.S. Population, and "Tiny" is comparable to many values in engineering. On the other hand the exercises of the "Statistic Quiz" are not meant to be reasonable. These tests are designed to check some specific problems in statistical computing. Wilkinson's Statistics Quiz is an entry level test.
NIST StRD Benchmarks
editThese benchmarks consist of different datasets designed by National Institute of Standards and Technology with different levels of difficulty. The purpose is to test the accuracy of statistical software with regard to different topics in statistics and different levels of difficulty. In the webpage of "Statistical Reference Datasets" Project there are five groups of datasets:
- Analysis of Variance
- Linear Regression
- Markov Chain Monte Carlo
- Nonlinear Regression
- Univariate Summary Statistics
In all groups of benchmarks there are three different types of datasets: Lower level difficulty datasets, average level difficulty datasets and higher level difficulty datasets. By using these datasets we are going to explore whether the statistical software deliver accurate results to 15 digits for some statistical computations.
There are 11 datasets provided by NIST among which there are six datasets with lower level difficulty, two datasets with average level difficulty and one with higher level difficulty. Certified values to 15 digits for each dataset are provided for the mean (μ), the standard deviation (σ), and the first-order autocorrelation coefficient (ρ).
In the group of ANOVA-datasets there are 11 datasets with levels of difficulty, four lower, four average and three higher. For each dataset certified values to 15 digits are provided for between treatment degrees of freedom, within treatment degrees of freedom, sums of squares, mean squares, the F-statistic, the , and the residual standard deviation. Since most of the certified values are used in calculating the F-statistic, only its LRE will be compared to the results from statistical software packages.
For testing the linear regression results of statistical software NIST provides 11 datasets with levels of difficulty two lower, two average and seven higher. For each dataset we have the certified values to 15 digits for coefficient estimates, standard errors of coefficients, the residual standard deviation, , the analysis of variance for linear regression table, which includes the residual sum of squares. LREs for the least accurate coefficients , standard errors and Residual sum of squares will be compared. In nonlinear regression dataset group there are 27 datasets designed by NIST with difficulty eight lower, eleven average and eight higher. For each dataset we have certified values to 11 digits provided by NIST for coefficient estimates, standard errors of coefficients, the residual sum of squares, the residual standard deviation, and the degrees of freedom.
In the case of calculation of nonlinear regression we apply curve fitting method. In this method we need starting values in order to initialize each variable in the equation. Then we generate the curve and calculate the convergence criterion (e.g. sum of squares). Then we adjust the variables to make the curve closer to the data points. There are several algorithms for adjusting the variables:
- The method of Marquardt and Levenberg
- The method of linear descent
- The method of Gauss-Newton
One of these methods is applied repeatedly, until the difference in the convergence criterion is smaller than the convergence tolerance.
NIST provides also two sets of starting values: Start I (values far from solution), Start II (values close to solution). Having Start II as initial values makes it easier to reach an accurate solution. Therefore Start I solutions will be preferred.
Other important settings are as follows:
- the convergence tolerance (ex. 1E-6)
- the method of solution (ex. Gauss Newton or Levenberg Marquardt)
- the convergence criterion (ex. residual sum of squares (RSS) or square of the maximum of the parameter differences)
We can also choose between numerical and analytic derivatives.
Testing Examples
editTesting Software Package: SAS, SPSS and S-Plus
editIn this part we are going to discuss the test results of three statistical software packages applied by M.D. McCullough. In McCullough's work SAS 6.12, SPSS 7.5 and S-Plus 4.0 are tested and compared in respect to certified LRE values provided by NIST. Comparison will be handled according to the following parts:
- Univariate Statistics
- Linear Regression
- Nonlinear Regression
Univariate Statistics
editAll values calculated in SAS seem to be more or less accurate. For the dataset NumAcc1 p-value can not be calculated because of the insufficient number of observations. Calculating standard deviation for datasets NumAcc3 (average difficulty) and NumAcc 4 (high difficulty) seems to stress SAS.
All values calculated for mean and standard deviation seem to be more or less accurate. For the dataset NumAcc1 p-value can not be calculated because of the insufficient number of observations. Calculating the standard deviation for datasets NumAcc3 and -4 seems to stress SPSS, as well. For p-values SPSS represents results with only 3 decimal digits which understates the accuracy of the first p-value and overstates the last.
All values calculated for mean and standard deviation seem to be more or less accurate. S-Plus also hs problems in calculating the standard deviation for datasets NumAcc3 and -4. S-Plus shows poor performance in calculating the p-values.
Analysis of Variance
- SAS can solve only the ANOVA problems of lower level difficulty.
- F-Statistics for datasets of average or higher difficulty can be calculated with very poor performance and zero digit accuracy.
- SPSS can display accurate results for datasets with lower level difficulty, like SAS.
- Performance of SPSS in calculating ANOVA is poor.
- For dataset "AtmWtAg" SPSS displays no F-Statistic which seems more logical instead of displaying zero accurate results.
- S-Plus handles ANOVA problem better than other software packages.
- Even for higher difficulty datasets S-Plus can display more accurate results than the others. But still results for datasets with high difficulty are not accurate enough.
- S-Plus can solve the average difficulty problems with sufficient accuracy.
Linear Regression
editSAS delivers no solution for dataset Filip which is a ten degree polynomial. Apart from Filip, SAS displays more or less accurate results. But the performance seems to decrease for higher difficulty datasets, especially in calculating coefficients.
SPSS has also Problems with "Filip" which is a 10 degree polynomial. Many packages fail to compute values for it. Like SAS, SPSS delivers lower accuracy for high level datasets.
S-Plus is the only package which delivers a result for dataset "Filip". The accuracy of the result for Filip seems not to be poor but average. Even for higher difficulty datasets S-Plus can calculate more accurate results than other software packages. Only coefficients for datasets "Wrampler4" and "-5" are under the average accuracy.
Nonlinear Regression
editFor the nonlinear regression, two setting combinations are tested for each software package, because different settings make a difference in the results. As we can see in the table in SAS preferred combination produce better results than the default combination. In this table results produced using the default combination are in parentheses. Because 11 digits are provided for certified values by NIST, we are looking for LRE values of 11.
Preferred combination :
- Method:Gauss-Newton
- Criterion: PARAM
- Tolerance: 1E-6
Also in SPSS the preferred combination shows a better performance than default options. All problems are solved with initial values "start I" whereas in SAS higher level datasets are solved with Start II values.
Preffered Combination:
- Method:Levenberg-Marquardt
- Criterion:PARAM
- Tolerance: 1E-12
As we can see in the table, the preferred combination is also better in S-Plus than default the combination. All problems except "MGH10" are solved with initial values "start I". We may say that S-Plus showed better performance than other software in calculating nonlinear regression.
Preferred Combination:
- Method:Gauss-Newton
- Criterion:RSS
- Tolerance: 1E-6
Results of the Comparison
editAll packages delivered accurate results for mean and standard deviation in univariate statistics. There are no big differences between the tested statistical software packages. In ANOVA calculations SAS and SPSS can not pass the average difficulty problems, whereas S-Plus delivered more accurate results than others. But for high difficulty datasets it also produced poor results. Regarding linear regression problems, all packages seem to be reliable. If we examine the results for all software packages, we can say that the success in calculating the results for nonlinear regression greatly depends on the chosen options.
Other important results are as follows:
- S-Plus solved from Start II one time.
- SPSS never used Start II as initial values, but once produced zero accurate digits.
- SAS used Start II three times and produced zero accurate digits each time.
Comparison of different versions of SPSS
editIn this part we are going to compare an old version with a new version of SPSS in order to see whether the problems in older version are solved in the new one. In this part we compared SPSS version 7.5 with SPSS version 12.0. LRE values for version 7.5 are taken from an article by B.D. McCullough (see references). We also applied these tests to version 12.0 and calculated regarding LRE values. We chose one dataset from each difficulty groups and applied univariate statistics, ANOVA and linear regression in version 12.0. The source for the datasets is NIST Statistical Reference Datasets Archive. Then we computed LRE values for each dataset by using the certified values provided by NIST in order to compare the two versions of SPSS.
Univariate Statistics
editDifficulty: Low
Our first dataset is PiDigits with lower level difficulty which is designed by NIST in order to detect the deficiencies in calculating univariate statistical values.
Certified Values for PiDigits are as follows:
- Sample Mean : 4.53480000000000
- Sample Standard Deviation : 2.86733906028871
As we can see in the table 13 the results from SPSS 12.0 match the certified values provided by NIST. Therefore our LREs for mean and standard deviation are : 15, : 15. In version 7.5 LRE values were : 14.7, : 15. (McCullough,1998)
Difficulty: Average
Second dataset is NumAcc3 with average difficulty from NIST datasets for univariate statistics. Certified Values for NumAcc3 are as follows:
- Sample Mean : 1000000.2
- Sample Standard Deviation : 0.1
In the table 14 we can see that calculated mean value is the same with the certified value by NIST. Therefore our LREs for mean is : 15. However the standard deviation value differs from the certified value. So the calculation of LRE for standard deviation is as follows:
LREs for SPSS v 7.5 were : 15, : 9.5. (McCullough,1998)
Difficulty: High
Last dataset in univariate statistics is NumAcc4 with high level of difficulty. Certified Values for NumAcc4 are as follows:
- Sample Mean : 10000000.2
- Sample Standard Deviation : 0.1
Also for this dataset we do not have any problems with computed mean value. Therefore LRE is : 15. However the standard deviation value does not match to the certified one. So we should calculate the LRE for standard deviation as follows:
: -log10 |0,10000000056078-0,1|/|0,1| = 8.3
LREs for SPSS v 7.5 were : 15, : 8.3 (McCullough,1998)
For this part of our test we can say that there is no difference between two versions of SPSS. For average and high difficulty datasets delivered standard deviation results have still an average accuracy.
Analysis of Variance
editDifficulty: Low
The dataset which we used for testing SPSS 12.0 regarding lower difficulty level problems is SiRstv. Certified F Statistic for SiRstv is 1.18046237440255E+00
- LRE : : -log10 | 1,18046237440224- 1,18046237440255|/ |1,18046237440255| = 12,58
- LRE for SPSS v 7.5 : : 9,6 (McCullough, 1998)
Difficulty: Average
Our dataset for average difficulty problems is AtmWtAg . Certified F statistic value for AtmWtAg is 1.59467335677930E+01.
- LREs : : -log10 | 15,9467336134506- 15,9467335677930|/| 15,9467335677930| = 8,5
- LREs for SPSS v 7.5 : : miss
Difficulty: High
We used the dataset SmnLsg07 in order to test high level difficulty problems. Certified F value for SmnLsg07 is 2.10000000000000E+01
- LREs : : -log10 | 21,0381922055595 - 21|/| 21| = 2,7
- LREs for SPSS v 7.5 : : 0
ANOVA results computed in version 12.0 are better than those calculated in version 7.5. However the accuracy degrees are still too low.
Linear Regression
editDifficulty: Low
Our lower level difficulty dataset is Norris for linear regression. Certified values for Norris are as follows:
- Sample Residual Sum of Squares : 26.6173985294224
- LREs : : 9,9 : 12,3 : 10,2
- LREs for SPSS v 7.5 : : 9,9 , : 12,3 , : 10,2 (McCullough, 1998)
Difficulty: Average
We used the dataset NoInt1 in order to test the performance in average difficulty dataset. Regression model is as follows:
y = B1*x + e
Certified Values for NoInt1 :
- Sample Residual Sum of Squares : 127,272727272727
- Coefficient estimate : 2.07438016528926, standard deviation : 0.16528925619834E-0(www.itl.nist.gov)
- LREs: :12,8 : 15 : 12,9
- LREs for SPSS v. 7.5 : : 12,8 , : 14,7 , : 12,5 (McCullough, 1998)
Difficulty: High
Our high level difficulty dataset is Longley designed by NIST.
- Model: y =B0+B1*x1 + B2*x2 + B3*x3 + B4*x4 + B5*x5 + B6*x6 +e
- LREs :
- : -log10 |836424,055505842-836424,055505915|/ |836424,055505915| = 13,1
- : 15
- : -log10 | 0,16528925619836E-01 – 0,16528925619834E-01|/ |0,16528925619834E-01| = 12,9
- LREs for SPSS v. 7.5 : : 12,8 , : 14,7 , : 12,5 (McCullough, 1998)
As we conclude from the computed LREs, there is no big difference between the results of two versions for linear regression.
editBy applying these test we try to find out whether the software are reliable and deliver accurate results or not. However based on the results we can say that different software packages deliver different results for same the problem which can lead us to wrong interpretations for statistical research questions.
In specific we can that SAS, SPSS and S-Plus can solve the linear regression problems better in comparision to ANOVA Problems. All three of them deliver poor results for F statistic calculation.
From the results of comparison two different versions of SPSS we can conclude that the difference between the accuracy of the results delivered by SPSS v.12 and v.7.5 is not great considering the difference between the version numbers. On the other hand SPSS v.12 can handle the ANOVA Problems much better than old version. However it has still problems in higher difficulty problems.
edit- McCullough, B.D. 1998, 'Assessing The Reliability of Ststistical Software: Part I',The American Statistician, Vol.52, No.4, pp.358-366.
- McCullough, B.D. 1999, 'Assessing The Reliability of Ststistical Software: Part II', The American Statistician, Vol.53, No.2, pp.149-159
- Sawitzki, G. 1994, 'Testing Numerical Reliability of Data Analysis Systems', Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, Vol.18, No.2, pp.269-286
- Wilkinson, L. 1993, 'Practical Guidelines for Testing Statistical Software' in 25th Conference on Statistical Computing at Schloss Reisenburg, ed. P. Dirschedl& R. Ostermnann, Physica Verlag
- National Institute of Standards and Technology. (1 September 2000). The Statistical Reference Datasets: Archives, [Online], Available from: <http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/strd/general/dataarchive.html> [10 November 2005].


text:
Palin responds to Media Matters by telling Beck: "I stand with you, Glenn"
Written by Media Matters Staff
From the October 28 edition of Premiere Radio Networks' The Glenn Beck Program:
David Brock and Michael Keegan call for Sarah Palin to "Refudiate" Glenn Beck
Palin enables Beck's extreme rhetoric
Beck compares MMFA to "the smelly kid in the third grade", says MSNBC is "barely a network anymore"
BECK: We have Sarah Palin coming on in just a few minutes, just to respond to the gauntlet thrown down by Media Matters on I think a cable access program last night. And it is an amazing thing because this is somebody taking care of you and having to protect you every step of the way.
Of course you can't, you're not smart enough to figure things out on your own. So George Soros, and Media Matters, and the Tides Foundation, and all of them are here to help you. Because you're a danger. You're a danger to the country. Bring Sarah up. Is Sarah on the phone? Hi Sarah, how are you?
PALIN: Hey, good morning Glenn. How are you?
BECK: Good, where are you?
PALIN: I am at my kitchen table in Wasilla.
BECK: I don't know how you travel. I mean, it's crazy the amount of travel that you do.
PALIN: How do I travel, yes. Airplanes.
BECK: Okay, I don't think you need-- Okay, really. All of a sudden, Bill Maher, talking down to me. Okay. Sarah, I want you to hear this. This is the head of Media Matters, and I just -- I want to give you the opportunity to distance yourself. Here it is. No, here it is.
BROCK: Basically, Beck, Beck's a radical. He either can't or won't control himself, even after he loses a hundred advertisers, so you can't go there. Murdoch was asked at a shareholder's conference a couple weeks ago about Beck, shareholder concerns about Beck, he said he doesn't agree with everything that goes on the Fox News Channel, but he's standing with Beck. Ailes recruited Beck to do this. He's standing with Beck.
So that leaves you with sponsors. So People For [the American Way] has backed up a Tides Foundation call with Media Matters called Drop Fox to ask for advertisers to take responsibility for this rhetoric. I was recently told by a member of the Murdoch family that if you could effect the bottom line, you might get attention by the News Corp. board.
But the truth is, we can't wait for that, so Sarah Palin, right now, in our view, needs to step up. She needs to step up because she's a leader of the Republican Party, of the conservative movement, she's a Tea Party favorite. She is the one person in this country, right now, today, who in the national interest, just in the moment, to put partisanship aside, could pull this country back from the precipice of another Oklahoma City. And that's what a real leader does, that's what we're asking.
BECK: Sarah? As the leader now, of the GOP, as a Tea Party favorite, as somebody that they don't always agree with, but they respect, as a real leader: It's time. It's time to make choice.
PALIN: Well these silly and ironic men. This is ironic, that they're the same folks that are insisting that, you know, that I should be ignored because I am the irrelevant hockey mom--
BECK: No, no, no, no, no, you are, as an American citizen, for the national interest, you are the only one that can do this.
GRAY: That can stop him.
BECK: That can stop me.
GRAY: You've got to stop him, Sarah.
PALIN: Okay, okay, so Glenn. From my kitchen table in Wasilla, here's the deal.
BECK: Yeah.
PALIN: Now, we know, Glenn, you're up against one of the richest and self-suggested most powerful men in the world--
BECK: Spooky dude.
PALIN: George Soros, right?
BECK: Spooky dude.
PALIN: Yeah. The extreme left-wing king is, with many, many minions, that's what he is.
BECK: Yes.
PALIN: So, you know, when I speak of your love of our Founding Fathers, and how you are helping to educate Americans about respecting our nation's history so that we don't lose what makes America exceptional, and the far, far left mouthpieces, they're twisting and perverting that message. No, what I do, I go back to what Abraham Lincoln said about standing with anybody who stands right. You stand with him when he stands right, you part with him when he goes wrong. I stand with you Glenn.
BECK: No, no, you've got to stop. You're the only one. You're like Obi-Wan Kenobi. Sarah Palin, you're our only hope.
PALIN: Yeah.
BECK: Did you ever think you'd see the day, Sarah, when Media Matters would be calling you the only hope for America? I mean, that's incredible. It's sad. We were deciding-- We were trying to decide if it was laughable or kind of sad, pathetic, kind of like that smelly kid in third grade that everyone looked around and looked at and went, "That's kind of sad."
PALIN: Yeah, it's a little bit of both, I think. I see more humor it in though, and it shows, though, how pathetic their argument is that they would be that desperate as to reach out to me to say, you know, that you need to stop Glenn Beck, you know, you need to stop what they perceive as incitement to violence. Glenn, you know I abhor violence. I know you do. Hating war, hating civil war, and praying for peace, and wanting peace and freedom for our kids in a civil society. That is the mission here, is explaining to Americans what the threats are to our peace and to our opportunities and to our freedoms in America.
BECK: Yeah.
PALIN: That is what I see you doing, and that is why I support what you are doing.
BECK: Sarah, I can't tell you how disappointed I am in you. I really - I thought you were going to take this moment to lead. I really did. But now, now Sarah -- and I want you to understand this -- now Media Matters is going to come out against you and they're not going to like you anymore. They like you so much, but now they're going to have to isolate you too. Oh boy.
PALIN: Yeah because here's the [inaudible] They were on my side.
BECK: They've been on your side. It's like the -- it's like that abortion doctor said on TV the other day. Women only have abortions because they care about motherhood. They're only destroying you or trying to destroy you because they love you so much.
PALIN: There we go with the Orwellian -- up is down, twisted around
BECK: Two plus two equals six.
PALIN: There you go and I'm the idiot. Yeah.
GRAY: Sarah, if you change your mind, we have David Brock's number over at Media Matters. He's waiting for phone call -
BECK: He doesn't have a lot to do.


text:
Rolta IT-OT Fusion
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Business, Functional and IT Leaders in various sectors have long adopted, collaborated, and invested in Information and Operational Technologies albeit as independent strategic decisions. Rapid evolution of technology convergence is the guiding principle shaping our times. Early generations of equipment for controlling systems were mechanical or electromechanical and were a physical part of the equipment. In later generations, complex electronic and software systems evolved, but still as an inseparable part of the equipment.
The discipline of supporting automated equipment has been changing radically, and OT systems are rapidly becoming more volatile and more connected.There is a pressing need to link such Operational Technologies (OT) to traditional Information Technology (IT) systems (e.g. ERP, MRP, Scheduling Systems, etc.) as well as to other related Spatial and Engineering systems.
It is important to securely deploy and manage OT devices and technologies in integrated continuum with IT Management Policies, Processes, and Methodologies across the industry and organizational value chains.
Rolta IT-OT Fusion provides an integration middleware between Operational Technology (OT) and Information Technology (IT) which helps in meeting the required operational excellence for asset intensive organizations. The solution comprises of various components from the iPerspective product suite such as Asset Junction, Data Bridge/RAS and Rolta Statistical Analyzer to fulfill different objectives of the organization through IT-OT integration. Asset Junction helps to store the plant hierarchical model which includes the relation between plant, area, unit, assets and tags. Data Bridge and RAS are data integration applications that extract voluminous data from disparate systems and make it available for further analysis.
An important step in the IT/OT integration journey is to establish common and consistent semantics within the enterprise and build on that to achieve true integration. Rolta's IP solution platform focuses on planning, building, and managing the next-generation solutions – featuring extremely innovative Information interoperability, IT/OT Integration's, GIS, Mobility, Social, Cloud, Big Data Analytics and Security technologies for driving Business Excellence.
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• System monitoring and proactive actions leading to an improvement in process utilization
• Speed with Security, to enhance global operations with secure remote access
• Agility with efficiency, to shift capacities and meet new demands
• Better decisions, lower risks and shortened project timelines


text:
In the late '60s, when Domino guitars were fading away, tube amplifiers were out of vogue. Old technology, man! Cool bands played through solidstate amps that delivered lots of clean power with none of that awful tube distortion. Cool bands played through Standels and tuck-and-rolled Kustoms. Entire bands were run through a single 350-watt Mosrite monster.
Coming out of the late-'60s affection for transistors was the Acoustic Control Corporation, which specialized in what were, for the times, pretty advanced solidstate amps. However, in '72, Acoustic introduced its one and only guitar and bass design, the Acoustic Black Widow, which represented a fascinating foray into the world of guitar manufacturing.
The Acoustic Black Widows were particularly interesting because they really went in the face of trends of the times. Black Widows were likely designed in the U.S., but the majority were built in Japan (though Semie Moseley said he built the final 200). The Black Widow shown here is Japanese, and I have personally held a Black Widow guitar with slightly different features and a feel that is unmistakably Mosrite. What made these so curious was that, while most American importers and manufacturers were rushing headlong toward the copy syndrome, the Acoustic Black Widows were unique, designed with certain technological objectives in mind.
Guitars and basses were equal double-cutaway solidbodies looking like an enlarged Les Paul Junior. Cutaway horns were flared, the wide lower bout was oval-shaped. Bodies were black-lacquered maple, with a German carve around the edges. The black-finished maple neck was bolted on, with a wide, triple-bound center-peaked headstock that was kind of a cross between a Kay and a Gibson. The logo was all lower case. The neck had a zero fret followed by two octaves of frets in a rosewood fingerboard on the guitar, 20 frets on the bass. Position markers were mini-dots. Strings passed over a fine-tune bridge to a large tailblock placed further back, designed to increase sustain. These were not instruments for the timid. The guitar had a whopping 27″ scale, while the bass logged in at 31." The guitar had two humbuckers with chrome sides and a black plastic insert, with 12 poles, a three-way select, and two volume and two tone controls. The bass had one humbucker with eight poles in the center position, with volume and tone. Jack was front-mounted, and they came with a plush-lined hardshell case. The guitar was equipped with Grover Rotomatic tuners, while the bass came with Grover bass tuners. By '74, the bass tuners had been changed to Schallers. Knobs were brushed aluminum. The most striking feature of the Black Widows was a red leather pad on the back of the guitar, attached with snap-on fasteners, stitched with a "black widow" pattern.
Toward the end of the run, the Black Widow guitar got an endorsement from jazz fusion great Larry Coryell, the only big name player to align himself with these guitars.
The Black Widows exhibit a surprising quality for their time, far in advance of comparable Japanese guitars. The pickups were fairly high-output for the time, hovering around seven ohms resistance. While they look unprepossessing, when you pick one up you feel in the presence of a solid guitar worthy of respect. The guitar and bass were still offered in the '74 Acoustic catalog, but disappeared by '75 as the copy era finally triumphed. Acoustic would continue to make amplifiers, but would never return to the guitar business. Acoustic Black Widows were not produced in enormous quantities, so they are relatively rare, but they turn up with some regularity if you keep your eyes open, mostly because few people pay attention to them. Expect to pay much more for a Moseley version, if the seller knows what he's got. Most folks don't know what they are, and they shouldn't cost you a fortune, even though they represent an interesting punctuation point in American guitar history.
Front of a Ca. 1973 Japanese Acoustic Black Widow Guitar.
This article originally appeared in VG's Jul '98 issue. All copyrights are by the author and Vintage Guitar magazine. Unauthorized replication or use is strictly prohibited.


text:
Watch your P,s and Q's
Posted by RRC on June 22, 2007
In Reply to: Watch your P,s and Q's posted by Bob on June 22, 2007
: : Interesting. I had to comment on your "Watch your P,s and Q's". I worked for a printer back in the early 70's that still used lead type when he did business cards. He was in his 80's at that time. Here's the way he told it to me. Before the migration West, lead type cases were divided into 3 compartments each of the same size. Each compartment was divided into 35 smaller boxes 7X5. All the letters of the Alphabet were in proper order and there was the same number of letters in each space. An apprentice type setter could just go through the alphabet to find the letter he was looking for. When printers started making their way West weight was a huge factor in what they could take on the wagons or have shipped by sea. So the California job case was invented. The Left and Center compartments were rearranged to make the best use of the type that could be carried and the number of letters in each box was determined by how often they were used in the English language. Most often used "E" to less often used "Z" and the sizes of the boxes were made to fit each letter better. This put the letters out of order alphabetically and made it much harder to find certain letters. Fonts became known as "E" fonts. A font that wasn't called for much could be ordered as a 12-e font meaning there were 12 e's and the rest of the letters were by the number they would be used. Probably only one "Z" a couple of "F's" and so on. More often used fonts, like Times Roman for example, would be ordered in larger 50-e fonts. As the type was set into the pica stick b's and d's were used often enough that an apprentice would figure their place in the case fairly quickly, but p's were used less often, and q's might not get used much at all. Since the face on the letters was reversed, the p's and q's, when used, were the letters most often mistaken for each other. Hope you like this. I would love to see it put onto your site.
: It's a good story, but parts of it are, let's say, fanciful. Allowing more room in the case for the more frequent letters (e t o a I n s r d l u) is centuries old.
Here's a diagram of the layout a California job case members.aol.com/ alembicprs/cjbcase.htm
While the p's and q's are easily mistaken for each other, they are quite far apart. I would think it would be fairly easy to remember that the q's were the ones in the bottom corner. The long part of your story is nearly an "un-explanation" as you're telling of a development that makes this origin less likely instead of more likely.
- Watch your Ps and Qs R. Berg 22/June/07
- Oops Bob 22/June/07


text:
Roofing is an important part of your house construction or your home improvement tasks, you know that you should invest not only money but time and planning into your new roof and that some research and extra information would not hurt.
The Moncton roofing market has a lot to offer the consumer today, there are many different kinds of roofing solutions, from different materials and with varying costs attached to the materials and the work.
A roofing solution that has incredible increase in popularity in the last few years is metal roofing, the main reason for this shift from the more traditional materials used for roofing in the past, such as asphalt, is that metal is stronger and more durable then the products used to provide roofing for houses some years ago. The name of the game here is safety and cost effectiveness, and metal roofing has both benefits for its users.
Because of its durability the metal roof can withstand the dangers of extreme weather conditions, rain and hail, snow and strong winds are the main concern of a home owner as he considers the cost of his new roof, there is also the protection from fire which is as important as the protection form the elements. The level of protection that the metal roofing provides is similar to those of the traditional roofing solutions.
The other cause for the raising popularity of the metal roofing is the huge choice home owners have in color, the metal roof looks good, and since it is going to be used for years it is important that you like what you see, the variety of colors to choose from is huge compared to the very limited traditional roofing shingles market. This choice in color will provide your house the special look that you are looking for and will allow you to combine more daring design concepts into your new home.
The cost of metal roofing is usually considerably higher than the cost of the more traditional roofing solutions, the experts say that this is compensated by high durability and a very low probably of any need to replace the roof in a normal life time, while most traditional roofs could be replaced every fifteen to twenty years, the metal roofing can last more than 60 years and serve the house and your family with pride.
Once you make up your mind and you know what kind of roof you are interested in you should look for a contractor and research the warranties issues for the roof you are about to install. Since metal roofing has become popular you should not have a big problem finding a roofing contractor that knows his way around metal roofs, in fact a lot of the contractors today know how to deal with all the roofing solutions in the market.
It is highly recommended that you research these issues before you make you final decision and that you ask experts for help and advice before buying material or closing a deal, this is a very competitive market and you will be surprised at the differences in price and quality.