text:
Best realtor real estate agent in Sacramento for buying townhouse in Sacramento!
Indeed, the bustling city of Sacramento, in California, one of the most happening cities of the world, is a lovely place to find a dwelling. For people who don't want it to be a single house, town house always makes a great option. Owning a townhouse would be rejoicing for people who cannot want to afford the cost of a single house.
Are you thinking of buying a town house in Sacramento? Well, you have reached the right place. When you think of buying town house Sacramento, here is the best realtor in Sacramento ready to help you with your real estate needs.
Derrick, the Mr Listing Agent in Sacramento, is a trustworthy real estate agent, with years of hands-on experience in the Sacramento area of California. The experience is not limited to real estate alone. Derrick is experienced in lending, insurance and the real estate sector, and has a massive client base. Here is how Derrick, the finest realtor real estate agent in Sacramento can help you with your townhouse buying Sacramento.
Townhouse buying in Sacramento
Before buying townhouse in Sacramento, there are many factors to consider as it is different from buying an ordinary home or condo. It would always advisable to choose a real estate agent who has an expertise in dealing with townhouse property buying and selling, so that the townhouse buying would be a hassle-free experience.
The agent's expertise will be crucial when you want to buy a townhouse. That is why Derrick, the realtor real estate agent comes in, with his expertise in dealing with buying townhouse Sacramento. You can be assured of proper assistance and reliable information when you hire the best realtor in Sacramento.
Before you start the hunt for townhouse property, it is always good to be sure about the location you want the property to be. Then find the best realtor real estate agent in the particular area so that you can get maximum information about the locality. You can also create a list of amenities and facilities you need to have on the town house as well as in the nearby locality to make it the best deal.
When you go to see the town house property make sure you check whether the required amenities are available. Plus always check about the neighbours as you there will be a common wall sharing for both. As the townhouse properties are nearby, it is important whether the neighbours go along with you well.
Another tip to note is that you have to check about the community rules, so that you will not have a reason to worry later. There may be specific rules and common clubs or pools for the community dwellers. It is always to get a better idea of the rules and regulation before buying the townhouse.
However, the major factor lies in deciding about the rates. The real estate agent may help you in understanding the prevailing rates in the market, and thereby you can be better-informed.
If you are a beginner in the home buying process, you may be confused about which one to choose and whether the rates meet the standards in the market. If you are looking for a townhouse in and around Sacramento, it will never be a worrisome process for you, provided you take the right step. In order to make it a hassle-free process, all you need is to give the best realtor real estate agent in Sacramento, Derrick, a call. Here goes the reasons why hiring the service of realtor real estate agent in Sacramento is special.
Introducing Mr Listing Agent
Renowned as one of the most trustworthy realtor real estate agents in Sacramento area, Derrick is undoubtedly the final name for all your property related requirements. He has constructed our unbeatable reputation in real estate market through our dedicated and loyal service for our respected clients.
He is devoted in making the clients the happiest by giving utmost importance to all minute details on each and every property that is dealt with. Moreover, we make it sure you get the value for the single penny you spent on property. That explains the inclusion of hundreds of clients to our list of clientele year after year.
Over the years of committed service, Derrick, the realtor real estate agent have been regarded as the name synonymous with reliability. He assists you in visualising your dream of owning townhouse in the happening city of Sacramento. He stand by the client side on the planning stage to the final level. You will have to analyse the property from different angles to make it the best deal, in which only an expert and experienced realtor real estate agent can help.
The passionate and friendly realtor real estate agent will give you support on all sides related to buying townhouse Sacramento. The expertise of the realtor real estate agent will help you build your desired home. Indeed, you can rely on this realtor real estate agent for all your housing and real estate needs.
Call us right now!
If you are in search of an affordable, reliable, experienced, friendly real estate agent, Derrick make the best choice for buying townhouse Sacramento. You can be assured of quick response, reliable service at affordable rates once you hire the best realtor in Sacramento. The townhouse buying process will be easiest and hassle free when you hire the service of an experienced and friendly real estate agent. It is Derrick's mission to keep the clients happy and satisfied with dedicated and reliable service.
Get in touch with us anytime to know our rates, services, guidance in Sacramentobuying townhouse. Derrick is here to make it the best deal, when it comes to buy foreclosure Sacramento. He would be happy to answer all your doubts related to buying townhouse Sacramento CA. All you need to do is write to us at email@example.com, or give us a call at 916-512-6904 right now to hire any of real estate services.


text:
JP Wallace bio
Occupation: Warehouse associate
Hometown: Oxford, MS
Relationship to case: Victim's boyfriend
Excerpt: "By the first of the year, he was growing tired of Missy's demands on…"
James Peter Wallace was born August 9, 1972, to Robert and Amanda Wallace in Oxford, Mississippi. JP, as he has been called since he was an infant, is the youngest of the Wallace children. His brother Rob was born in 1967, and his sister Heather in 1970.
Robert and Amanda Wallace were strict but loving parents to their trio of children. Robert, a mathematics teacher at Oxford High School, expected his children to respect their elders, maintain discipline in their school and personal habits, and be examples to their peers in all situations, especially at school. Amanda, a children's church choir director and Sunday School teacher, raised her children with strong moral values.
Their eldest son, Rob, thrived in this environment and excelled in school from an early age. He graduated high school at the top of his class, attended Emory University and Emory School of Law in Atlanta, Georgia. He has become known as one of the best young international law attorneys in the Southeast.
Heather Wallace was an introverted child with a remarkable talent for playing musical instruments, including the piano, the flute, the clarinet, and the guitar. She was a good student, but preferred to devote her time to playing music. She attended the University of Mississippi in Oxford, where she majored in Music Education, and now is a popular music teacher at an elementary school in Tupelo, Mississippi.
JP Wallace was always very different from his brother and sister, to his parents' great dismay and disappointment. He was never interested in school and resented the rules he was expected to follow, both at school and at home.
Throughout his academic life, he was a lackluster student with barely passing grades and an atrocious conduct record. In elementary school, JP was frequently sent to the principal's office for picking on other students, talking back to teachers, failing to do his homework, and disrupting class. Each year, JP managed to find new ways of causing trouble to add to his bag of tricks.
By his senior year in high school, his list of offenses included skipping classes, smoking on school grounds, possession of alcohol on school grounds, possession of pornography on school grounds, and defacing school property. He logged countless hours in detention and In-School Suspension, and only managed to graduate because of his father's influence and the school system's unspoken desire to get him out of their hair.
When JP got out of high school, his father informed him that either he had to enroll in a college or vocational school or he had to move out of the family home. JP moved out.
He drifted from one low-paying job to another, spending most of his income on partying and barely making ends meet. Along the way, he started smoking marijuana. He soon discovered he could buy a larger quantity than he needed, keep some for his own personal use, sell the rest, and end up with a profit.
Within a year, he was making enough selling drugs to support himself, but he always had some kind of part-time job so he could keep up appearances when he needed to and to give himself something to do with his time.
In October 2000, JP met Missy Hammond at Proud Larry's bar one night and quickly decided to add her to the succession of women in his life. The two started seeing each other, and JP found he actually liked Missy, in spite of himself. In the past, he got bored quickly and never dated a woman much longer than a month, but he enjoyed Missy's fun-loving side and let his self-imposed, one-month deadline slide by.
But even though the magic had lasted longer than usual for JP, by the first of the year, he was growing tired of Missy's demands on him and his behavior. Their relationship turned ugly on January 5, 2001, when an argument ended with JP's arrest, but the two continued to see each other after that for reasons neither could quite explain.
On January 26, 2001, Missy and JP had another heated argument in front of witnesses, and JP left Missy's house in a rage. He returned a few minutes later, but Missy would not talk to him. When Missy's neighbor, Kevin Travers, came out to confront him, JP decided to abandon his attempt to talk to Missy, rather than risk being arrested again.
JP swears that he hasn't been to Missy Hammond's house since then and that he never saw her again, alive or dead.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Strategists are following the money to schools, corporate cafeterias, and hospitals in hopes of rebuilding local economies and bringing healthy food access—literally in through the back door.
The next time someone points to the need for more farmers' markets as a way to help move local food from a trend to a substantive cultural shift, you might consider telling them about the power of institutional purchasing. It may sound less interesting and, on the surface, it certainly is. (Who doesn't love buying purple carrots to the sound of a didgeridoo?) But bear with us.
You see, public and private institutions spend billions of dollars each year on food. Schools, universities, hospitals, prisons, corporate cafeterias, and senior care facilities share one thing in common—they prepare, cook, and serve thousands of meals every day. Now, a rising national movement wants to persuade these institutions to source a higher percentage of food from regional producers—with an emphasis on farms, fishermen, and and ranches that follow ecologically sound, socially just, and humane practices. It's called institutional food procurement, and, while it might not have quite as much romance as some other elements of today's Good Food Movement, some say this follow-the-money strategy could hold the key to transforming the American food system.
A shift in institutional food buying has the potential for major impacts on not only the local economy, but on food access, according to Amanda Oborne, Vice President of Food and Farms at Ecotrust, an Oregon-based nonprofit that works to advance farm-to-institution initiatives in the Pacific Northwest.
"We put the focus on the buyers with multi-million dollar food procurement budgets because even if they just redirect a couple of percentage points of their budget into the region, that's going to drive change all the way through the [local] supply chain," says Oborne. In one example, chefs at Willamette University in Salem, Oregon can order whole hogs from local producers thanks to an innovative partnerships with a meat distribution company.
For Ecotrust, and other farm-to-institution groups across the nation, the goals are two-fold. First, they aim to sway large institutions with huge food budgets to leverage their purchasing power in support of small and mid-sized regional farmers, ranchers, and fisherman as a way to boost the local economies. And to pivot away from consolidated global distributors like Sysco. A second, and just as important goal, is to open up access to healthy, local, and sustainable food for the populations generally served by public institutions.
"A local tomato will provide just as much flavor and nutritive value to a low-income kindergartner as it will to a wealthy hedge fund manager," says Nessa Richman, Metrics Project Manager with Farm to Institution New England (FINE). "Institutions … feed hundreds of thousands of economically distressed families and individuals every day."
For the past five years, FINE has worked to connect local food distributors with institutions in the Northeast. Across the six New England states, institutions spend a total of more than $78 million per year on local food and an estimated 3.8 million people eat at institutions served by FINE. The organization has released the first in a series of reports focused on regional food distributors and food hubs—both the opportunities and barriers faced by small and large companies. According to those New England-based distributors FINE surveyed, together they moved over a billion dollars of food in 2012, of which $366 billion was sold to institutions. Nearly 90 percent believed sales of local food to institutions will continue to increase.
The farm-to-institution market holds more power to benefit farmers and fisherman than any other local food market, says Richman.
"When institutions make it a priority to buy local, they can spur unprecedented innovation and investment across the supply chain—and make a significant economic impact," she says.
Scale Matters
Not all local farms are equipped to sell to institutions.
At 30 acres, Stoneboat Farm in Hillsboro, Oregon qualifies as a small farm. Jesse Nichols, who farms the land with his brother, says his business has benefited from partnerships with institutions. Currently, they supply about $5,000 a month in produce to the chefs at Intel Corporation, just five minutes down the road from the farm. Corporate cafeterias on the campus serve thousands of employees each day.
"Having an institutional client like this is really beneficial and makes things much more streamlined for us," says Nichols. "It saves us a bunch of deliveries to smaller accounts and makes a big difference in our workloads."
In the future, Stoneboat Farm would like to move into more institutional partnerships. So far, nascent attempts to connect with school food service programs haven't resulted in much.
"It's been difficult to partner with the larger institutions within the farm-to-school movement because of the sheer volume they need," says Nichols. "You have to think differently to buy local. You have to understand the local climate, be able to expect price and availability fluctuations based on what farmers have available. You have to be flexible. We're not a big distributor that can have cheap prices all of the time."
That's where mid-sized farms enter the picture. According to a new report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists, local purchasing has a huge impact. The study, which centered on Iowa, found that if 25 percent of the 22,000 institutions and "intermediate markets" in the state procured local food, over $800 million annually would be generated for the state's economy. If at least half of these local purchases came from midsized farms, they would support over 4,259 farms and potentially 12,320 jobs.
Oborne, at Ecotrust, agrees with the importance of supporting midsized farms so that they can be "meaningful" partners to hospitals, schools, and other institutional buyers, and provide consistent quantities of food that institutional food service requires
"It's that midscale operation that would be ideally suited to building a strong regional food economy," says Oborne. "They're a little bigger than the farmers' market guys with bigger production, and a little more professional operations. Yet, the whole notion of 'ag-in-the-middle' in our country has been hollowed out."
To that end, Ecotrust is in the process of creating an infrastructure hub in Oregon, where midsized farmers can find support for many aspects of their business, from marketing to business planning.
Logistics—mainly to make it smooth for food service directors at institutions to access to local foods—are another challenge.
"[Food service directors] can't afford the labor to be slicing, dicing, and chopping," says Oborne. "Their docks won't allow for 50 different farmers in their own little vehicles to show up at any given time. They need huge volumes, consistently. Even the ones who are hyper-committed don't really have the bandwidth to deal with these things."
For this reason, Ecotrust helped to launch the Northwest Food Buyers Alliance, a peer-to-peer network of food service directors from all kinds of institutions: schools, hospitals, higher education, assisted living, corrections, and corporate cafes. Members go on farm and institutional kitchen tours, and meet quarterly to share strategies on how to source locally at institutional levels. Oborne calls these early adopters the "real heroes and champions."
Swimming Upstream in a Time of Consolidation
Obviously, if institutional food purchasing is going to shift towards sustainable and local purchasing, more work remains. A report from John Hopkins Center for a Livable Future claims that the "vast purchasing power and educational opportunity provided by institutions for assisting in this transition remains to be tapped."
Why all the untapped potential? According to the report's authors, the concentration of the food service management market has played a significant role. The largest management companies—Compass Group, Aramark, and Sodexo—operate food services in about 45 percent of all North American institutional food service outlets to the tune of $33 billion in revenue. Food distribution is equally consolidated Sysco and US Foods Inc., the two largest "broadline" food distributors, bring in about $65 billion in combined annual revenue, and dominate 75 percent of the national market. In 2015, the Federal Trade Commission filed an administrative complaint complaining that proposed merger between Sysco and U.S. Foods, Inc. would violate anti-trust laws.
At the same time, the movement to reform institutional food procurement has seen measurable success in both the public and private realms. For example, Bon Appétit Management Co., one of Compass Group's subsidiaries (and the company that runs the cafe at Willamette University), requires its chefs to buy at least 20 percent of its meat, vegetables, and other products within a 150-mile radius.
On a related note, Pie Ranch, an organic educational farm in California has begin partnering with private clients including Stanford University and Google to provide local produce for their employee meals. At Google alone that translates to daily meals for around 20,000 employees.
In the first installment of this series, we wrote about the Good Food Purchasing Policy in Los Angeles, where the largest public school district in California became the model for how to implement healthy, sustainable, and value-based procurement and serve over 650,000 meals a day. And the Center for Good Food Purchasing, led by Alexa Delwiche, wants to take the proven rigorous institutional food purchasing policy national.
But that's not where it ends. A number of other schools and other public institutions are working to move the local produce dial. The National Farm to School Network and Healthcare Without Harm have been chipping away at changing institutional food procurement for years. And, last April, Nessa Richman of FINE convened more a dozen farm-to-institution practitioners and advocates from across the country in Washington, D.C. to launch the first national working group around the issue.
"With food system work, we're swimming upstream on so many things, but I think this effort has the potential to make a giant measurable difference in the relatively near term," says Ecotrust's Oborne.
It's certainly worth a try.
Photos by Shawn Linehan. From top: Jesse Nichols of Stoneboat Farm gives the food services directors from Willamette University a tour; Nichols with Andre Uribe, executive chef at Bon Appétit Management Co.'s Willamette University cafe.
Originally published by Civil Eats on August 29, 2016
Leilani Clark is a freelance writer based in Santa Rosa, California. Her work has appeared in The North Bay Bohemian, Made Local,Shareable, Yes, The Orlando Weekly, and The Sacramento News and Review. She is a 2014 California Endowment Health Journalism Fellow through the USC Annenberg School of Communication.


text:
Acute pancreatitis is the most common disease of the pancreas and is caused by a sudden inflammation of the pancreas. Most patients recover without complications. However in 15 to 20 per cent of patients the disease develops to a life-threatening condition. The most common causes of the disease are gallstones and high alcohol consumption, but in a quarter of patients the causes are unknown.
Previous studies based on individual cases have indicated a link between acute pancreatitis and some medicines, such as preparations containing cortisone. Endogenous cortisone derives from an adrenal hormone and is related to stress and the regulation of the circadian rhythm. The most common form in humans is cortisol (or hydrocortisone). Synthetic cortisone is used to treat a number of medical conditions, such as asthma and autoimmune diseases (e.g. rheumatic diseases).
The present study is the first systematic study to demonstrate the relationship between medical cortisone and acute pancreatitis. Six thousand patients diagnosed with acute pancreatitis between 2006 and 2008 were compared with 61,000 healthy controls. The results show that people treated with cortisone in tablet form ran a 70 per cent higher risk of developing acute pancreatitis. This connection was observed after three days' medication, substantiating the evidence that the causal factor was the cortisone rather than the treated disease per se.
"However, there was no observable increase in risk for people who used aerosol cortisone, such as asthma inhalers," says the study's principal author Dr Omid Sadr-Azodi. "But people who start a course of cortisone are recommended to refrain from drinking and smoking, which are risk factors for acute pancreatitis."
Oral glucocorticoid use is associated with an increased risk of acute pancreatitis - a population-based nested case-control study, Omid Sadr-Azodi, Fredrik Mattsson, Tomas Sjöberg Bexelius, Mats Lindblad, Jesper Lagergren & Rickard Ljung, JAMA Internal Medicine, online 25 February 2013.


text:
The South American phorusrhacid bird radiation comprised at least 18 species of small to gigantic terrestrial predators for which there are no close modern analogs. Here we perform functional analyses of the skull of the medium-sized (∼40 kg) patagornithine phorusrhacid Andalgalornis steulleti (upper Miocene–lower Pliocene, Andalgalá Formation, Catamarca, Argentina) to assess its mechanical performance in a comparative context. Based on computed tomographic (CT) scanning and morphological analysis, the skull of Andalgalornis steulleti is interpreted as showing features reflecting loss of intracranial immobility. Discrete anatomical attributes permitting such cranial kinesis are widespread phorusrhacids outgroups, but this is the first clear evidence of loss of cranial kinesis in a gruiform bird and may be among the best documented cases among all birds. This apomorphic loss is interpreted as an adaptation for enhanced craniofacial rigidity, particularly with regard to sagittal loading. We apply a Finite Element approach to a three-dimensional (3D) model of the skull. Based on regression analysis we estimate the bite force of Andalgalornis at the bill tip to be 133 N. Relative to results obtained from Finite Element Analysis of one of its closest living relatives (seriema) and a large predatory bird (eagle), the phorusrhacid's skull shows relatively high stress under lateral loadings, but low stress where force is applied dorsoventrally (sagittally) and in "pullback" simulations. Given the relative weakness of the skull mediolaterally, it seems unlikely that Andalgalornis engaged in potentially risky behaviors that involved subduing large, struggling prey with its beak. We suggest that it either consumed smaller prey that could be killed and consumed more safely (e.g., swallowed whole) or that it used multiple well-targeted sagittal strikes with the beak in a repetitive attack-and-retreat strategy.
Citation: Degrange FJ, Tambussi CP, Moreno K, Witmer LM, Wroe S (2010) Mechanical Analysis of Feeding Behavior in the Extinct "Terror Bird" Andalgalornis steulleti (Gruiformes: Phorusrhacidae). PLoS ONE 5(8): e11856. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011856
Editor: Samuel T. Turvey, Zoological Society of London, United Kingdom
Received: June 8, 2009; Accepted: June 28, 2010; Published: August 18, 2010
Copyright: © 2010 Degrange et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Funding was provided by Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Grants (DP0666374, DP098785), an Australian Pacific Science Foundation (APSF) and a University of New South Wales Internal Strategic Grant (to S.W.), Agencia Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas PICT 32617 (to C.P.T.), and National Science Foundation (NSF) IBN-0343744 and NSF IBN-0517257 to L.M.W.). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Phorusrhacids were a predominantly South American radiation of gruiform birds known from middle Paleocene to lower Pleistocene deposits [1], [2] and most closely related to seriemas (Cariamidae) among extant birds [3]-[6]. Their often gigantic body sizes, large skulls, and carnivorous lifestyles have resulted in phorusrhacids being popularly termed "terror birds." Andalgalornis steulleti [7], from the upper Miocene–lower Pliocene (≈6 million years ago) of Argentina, was a medium-sized patagornithine phorusrhacid of about 40 kg body mass, 1.4 m height, and 370 mm total skull length. All clades of phorusrhacids (Patagornithinae, Phorusrhacinae, Brontornithinae, Psilopterinae, Mesembriornithinae; [5]) are considered to be flightless ground predators or scavengers and ranged from 0.9 to 3.0 m in height [1], [8]. They are often regarded as apex predators that dominated South American Tertiary environments in the absence of carnivorous placental mammals [1]. However, phorusrhacids were largely contemporaneous with the carnivorous borhyaenid marsupial radiation, which also included some large to gigantic species [9]. To date, hypotheses of feeding ecology in terror birds have been based mostly on the presence of large skulls with hooked beaks and have yet to be supported by appropriate biomechanical studies. Here we perform a biomechanical analysis of the skull of Andalgalornis steulleti (FMNH P14357) in a comparative context, using comparative anatomy and a powerful engineering tool, Finite Element Analysis (FEA), to predict the mechanical behavior of its skull.
Divergent skull morphology and loss of cranial kinesis
The nature of the connections between the skull bones is important to the analysis of mechanical behavior, because these connections influence the relative movement of areas of the skull (i.e., cranial kinesis) [10] and hence the distribution of stress and strain [11], [12]. Holliday and Witmer [10] recently proposed four criteria for inferences of intracranial mobility in extinct taxa. Extant neornithine birds (including seriemas) generally meet all four criteria, and in the vast majority of extant birds part or all of upper bill can be elevated and depressed relative to the braincase, although these movements have been analyzed mechanically in only a few taxa [13], [14], [15]. The fact that phorusrhacids are phylogenetically embedded within Neornithes indicates that they evolved from fully kinetic ancestors. The skull of Andalgalornis, however, shows some features suggesting loss of intracranial immobility. We assessed the detailed morphology of these features in Andalgalornis and some other phorusrhacids using CT scanning, supplementing these findings with observations of other taxa.
A key element of extant avian kinesis is the transformation of bony connections that are immobile in nonavian outgroups into thinned "flexion zones" that permit bending movements [10], [13]–[17]. These flexion zones, satisfying the criterion of "permissive kinematic linkages" [10], typically are found in three locations in extant birds where the bones become strongly dorsoventrally flattened, permitting elevation/depression movements of the upper jaw segment: (1) the craniofacial hinge (within or between the premaxillae, nasals, and frontal), (2) the palatine bones, and (3), the jugal bar. Although the available skull of Andalgalornis (FMNH P14357) is somewhat damaged in the region corresponding to the craniofacial flexion zone of other birds, CT scans reveal that enough structure is preserved to show remarkably thick bone in this region relative to that present in extant seriemas or other kinetic birds. Moreover, the lacrimal bone is fused rostrally with the upper bill (nasal and maxillary bones) and caudally with the frontal bone, effectively spanning and further restricting movement at the craniofacial flexion zone. Likewise, the flexion zone in the palatine bone clearly has been transformed into a rigid structure in that the bone has become thickened and folded into a U-shaped conformation. Finally, the flexion zone in the jugal bar has also been apomorphically transformed into a thickened beam that is mediolaterally elliptical rather than dorsoventrally flattened. The absence of any of these permissive kinematic linkages individually would be enough to limit or prevent kinesis, but the absence of all three clearly reflects enhanced rigidity and no movement of the upper bill relative to the braincase. Additionally, the lacrimal bone bears an expanded descending ramus that is firmly sutured to the jugal bar, further locking these units together (Figure 1, Text S1, Figure S1), rather than being kinematically separated as in birds retaining cranial kinesis. Other phorusrhacids appear to show a mosaic of secondarily akinetic attributes, suggesting that, although they all seem to have had reduced or no kinetic mobility, they vary in the extent to which they have rigidified the former flexion zones. For example, specimens of most of the taxa studied reveal the thickened and folded palatines, but some of the smaller-bodied taxa (e.g., psilopterines) may have retained craniofacial and jugal flexion zones closer to the plesiomorphic condition. But all available evidence suggests that large-bodied taxa, such as other patagornithines (e.g., Andrewsornis, Patagornis) and the truly gigantic phorusrhacines (e.g., Kelenken, Devincenzia), resembled Andalgalornis in transforming all three flexion zones into thickened, reinforced, and immobile junctions.
A, dorsal view, B, ventral view, and C, left lateral view, based on volume rendering of CT scan data. Fossil bone is shown in light brown, and rock matrix and plaster restoration are shown in grey.
Zusi [17] regarded cranial kinesis as a universal feature of all birds, but various birds have been considered as akinetic (e.g., ratites [18], penguins [19], collies [20], toucans [21], hawfinch [22]). This is the first time that akinesis of a gruiform has been reported, and may be among the best documented cases forwarded for any bird based on anatomical grounds. It is likely that more morphological analyses like the present one will reveal more cases of secondarily reduced or lost kinetic ability in other birds.
Bite force
Published in vivo bite force data for birds is largely restricted to Passeriformes [23], [24], a derived clade of generally small-bodied animals. These studies show that bite force is related to skull morphology and geometry, as well as the capacity of contraction of the jaw muscles [23,25,26). In Galápagos finches, beak size and especially head width are strongly correlated with bite force, and head size closely correlates with jaw muscle dimensions [27], [28]. Passeriforms are obviously a poor model for the estimation of bite forces in phorusrhacids, due to differences not only in phylogeny but also in skull size and morphology.
To predict bite force in Andalgalornis, we constructed a regression line (R = 0.8123; R2 = 0.6598; p = 0.0000) using three different data sources: published avian bite force data [23], our own bite force data obtained with a transducer designed to measure forces in vivo, and body mass data [23], [29], [30] (see Materials and Methodbelow and Table S1). Based on regression analysis (Figure S2) including the seriema (50 Newtons) and eagle (50 N), we estimate the bite force of Andalgalornis as 133 N at the bill tip.
Finite element analysis
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is an engineering approach initially developed to predict stress/strain distributions in man-made objects with relatively simple geometry. With advances in computer technology FEA has emerged as a powerful tool in the investigation of mechanical behavior in complex biological structures, its nondestructive nature rendering it of particular value in paleontological studies [31], [32].
The Andalgalornis skull model recorded lower mean brick stress (load per unit area) than either Cariama or Haliaeetus under three extrinsic (i.e., movements of the prey in relation to the head [33]) loads (See Materials and Method and Table 1). We consider it likely that the skull of Andalgalornis could have supported larger bite loads than the one tested in this study (133 N), although validation would be required to firmly establish this. In a comparative context, the mechanical behavior of Andalgalornis differs further in that mean "brick" element stress values (Von Mises, VM) for the lateral shake simulation were four times greater than those recorded for pullback values. The pullback loading generated the least stress in each of the three skulls. In both Cariama and Haliaeetus, mean stresses under lateral-shake and normal bite loadings were similar. For Andalgalornis, however, the lateral-shake loading induced mean brick stresses that were double those generated by the normal bite.
In all three load cases applied to Andalgalornis, three areas concentrated the highest stress: the bill tip (i.e., the hook), the occipital condyle, and the contact between the palatines and pterygoids with the interorbital septum (Figure 2A, B, C). Skull stress was clearly highest under the lateral-shake simulation (Figure 2A). The same is true for Cariama, but, in the case of the eagle, the stress was higher in the normal bite than in the lateral-shake extrinsic load. Moreover, in Andalgalornis, the stress was highest in the ventrolateral rims of the beak (the tomia), the dorsal surface of the nasal bones, the rostral edge of the antorbital fenestra (below the naris), the body of the quadrate bone, in the temporal fossa, and, the lower margin of the zygomatic arch (jugal bar).
(A–C) Andalgalornis steulleti, (D–F) Haliaeetus albicilla and (G–I) Cariama cristata under three loads cases: (A, D, G) lateral shake, (B, E, H) Normal Bite and (C, F, I) Pullback. VM = Von Mises; MPa, mega pascals. White areas indicate VM exceeds the scale maximum (2 MP) at those areas.
Our comparative FE analyses show that the skull of Andalgalornis was best optimized to resist rostrocaudally and dorsoventrally directed loads, but less well-adapted to resist laterally directed loadings. VM stress values obtained for Andalgalornis are consistent with a very high vertical/transverse index of the rostrum. Moreover, as noted above, the plesiomorphically dorsoventrally flattened flexion zones have been transformed into thickened bony connections that are reoriented into more vertically disposed, transversely compressed bars that would resist sagittal loads well but be relatively weak with regard to lateral loads. In birds with a vertical/transverse index of approximately 1.0 (i.e., beaks as wide as high), such as Cariama or Haliaeetus, the skull would be expected to be equally resistant to forces directed laterally and vertically, which is consistent with our results. Likewise, both seriema and eagle retain the dorsoventrally flattened flexion zones required for kinesis.
The loss of cranial kinesis in Andalgalornis and other large-bodied phorusrhacids is a remarkable derived character, but the interpretation of this loss is complicated by persistent uncertainties about the functional role of cranial kinesis [10], [34]. Recent FE studies have revealed that the soft tissues within sutures may function as shock absorbers, acting to lower potentially damaging tensile stress and that loss of kinesis enhances skull rigidity and robusticity, but potentially at the cost of local increases in strains [11], [12], [35]. Thus, we consider it probable that the high stresses recorded in the interorbital septum in our FE model of Andalgalornis are artifactual, because the model did not incorporate sutures between the palatines, pterygoids, and the septum. This region may act as a stress releaser, compensating at least in part for loss of the kinetic system.
A carnivorous lifestyle for phorusrhacids has been widely assumed [1], [3], [5], [36], but more detailed hypotheses of predatory behavior have never been adequately tested. Previous reconstruction and biomechanical analysis of the jaw adductor musculature of Andalgalornis [37] shows that the jaw apparatus is optimized for strength at the expense of speed, and again, our discovery of loss of cranial kinesis is consistent with increased skull rigidity. Any adaptation that results in increased stiffness of the jaw apparatus, such as transformation of mobile flexion zones into rigid struts, will result in some increase in maximum theoretical bite force [31], [38]. On the other hand, there may be complex trade-offs between safety factors, the presence or absence of kinesis, and the bone and muscle masses required to achieve any given performance limits. For example, a stiffer and more brittle structure (as in akinesis) may result in higher yield points and some reduction in the muscle mass required to achieve a given bite force, but it may also limit the response time available to modify behavior and avoid catastrophic failure where an organism bites into unexpectedly resistant materials [31]. Regarding the loss of cranial kinesis, a net consequence might be that more bone or bone of greater density (i.e., greater bone mass), might be needed to maintain effective safety margins. In clearly akinetic phorusrhacids such as patagornithines and phorusrhacines, the requisite increased bone mass was presumably tolerated because their large body masses precluded flight and hence the premium on ultra-light structures. Future FE based analyses could aid in the quantification of such interrelated factors.
Because most carnivorous birds use the hook on the tip of their beak to hold and kill the prey (e.g. falcons [39]), all bite loads were applied at the beak tip in our FE models. The functional significance of a 133 N bite force for a 40 kg bird is difficult to interpret because of the paucity of comparative bite-force data. The recording of actual bite forces from living birds is restricted to a few passeriforms, and there are no comparable extant carnivorous bipeds. Certainly for its size, our estimate of bite force in Andalgalornis is relatively weak compared to predictions generated for anterior bites in carnivorous mammals. For example, the 7.1 kg jaguarondi, Felis yagouaroundi, bites at 127 N [40], the fox Pseudalopex griseus (5.9 kg) bites at 131 N, and the mustelid Lutra longicauda (7.8 kg) bites at 129 N [41]. This is at least in part explained by the comparatively longer distance between the bite point and the jaw joint (outlever) in the terror bird. However, we also note that mean VM stress computed in our modeling of Andalgalornis is much lower than that calculated for Cariama or Haliaeetus. This may indicate safety factors are unusually high in Andalgalornis or that our predicted bite force for the phorusrhacid is an underestimate, but differences in size between the specimens makes these questions difficult to evaluate. Moreover, our modeling does not attempt to simulate the influence of jaw head flexor muscles, which may act to amplify total recorded bite forces [32].
Alvarenga and Höfling [5] suggested that the beak morphology of phorusrhacids allowed them to hunt in regions with high vegetation and to catch small animals hiding under stones or fallen tree trunks. Additionally, biomechanical analyses of locomotor capabilities [42], [43] suggest that speed and maneuverability in a phorusrhacid of the size and proportions of Andalgalornis would be comparable to those of an ostrich. Our biomechanical analyses reveal that if Andalgalornis used its beak in the dispatch of relatively large prey, then it must have been applied with considerable precision in order to avoid sustaining high lateral loads. We suggest that Andalgalornis consumed relatively small prey (i.e., smaller than itself) that could be killed and consumed more safely. If Andalgalornis did take large prey, then it most likely applied multiple well-targeted strikes in a repetitive attack-and-retreat strategy. Restraining struggling prey with their feet also was potentially an option, despite the absence of sharp talons.
Materials and Methods
CT scanning
The skulls of the patagornithines Andalgalornis steulleti ( = A. ferox [44]; FMNH P14357) and Andrewsornis abbotti (FMNH P13417) and of the psilopterine Psilopterus lemoinei (FMNH P13257) were scanned at O'Bleness Memorial Hospital in Athens, Ohio, using a General Electric (GE) LightSpeed Ultra Multislice CT scanner equipped with the Extended Hounsfield option. Specimens were scanned helically at a slice thickness of 625 µm, 120 kV, and 200–300 mA. Moreover, another skull of Psilopterus lemoinei (AMNH 9257) and a skull of the extant red-legged seriema (Cariama cristata, FMNH 105635) were scanned at the Ohio University MicroCT Scanning Facility (OUμCT) on a GE eXplore Locus MicroCT Scanner at a slice thicknesses of 92 µm and 45 µm, 80 kV, and 500 µA. Data were output from the scanner in DICOM format and then imported into 4.1.2 (Mercury-TGS, Chelmsford, MA) for viewing, analysis, and visualization. The CT scan data were analyzed to assess the internal architecture of bony regions relevant to assessments of cranial kinesis, which were supplemented with gross observation of the skulls of these specimens and others.
Body mass estimation
The body mass estimate of 40 kg for Andalgalornis was made following previously published methodology [45] and submersion of scale plastic models [43, unpublished data].
Bite force
Bite force data were obtained in vivo from captive birds: an adult Cariama cristata at the Zoological Garden of La Plata, Argentina, and an adult black-chested eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus) from the Horco Molle Reserve, Argentina. G. melanoleucus is similar in size to H. albicilla, and its bite force was used as a proxy in the FEA of H. albicilla. For each animal, multiple bites at the bill tip were recorded with the transducer, and we use the maximum bite force in the analysis. The safety standards related to health, hygienic, and dietary plans were followed for the proper management of wildlife, issued by the application and enforcement authority (Dirección de Fauna of Ministerio de Asuntos Agrarios of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) within the framework of the Provincial Law Decree 12.238/98 and 2308/01. Measurements followed a protocol made in conjunction with the authorities of the establishment which involved measurements taken in the morning before the daily intake, no admission to the environments in which birds are housed and, in all cases, with the assistance of the zookeeper for each animal.
Finite element analysis
Finite element analysis (FEA) has emerged as a powerful tool in the prediction of biomechanical behavior among both extant and extinct animals [38], [46]-[52]. The protocols implemented in the present study largely follow recently developed methodologies [31], [38], [51], [52].
Homogeneous models (assuming constant material properties throughout) were constructed using the CT data for Andalgalornis (FMNH P14357) with segmentation performed using Mimics (v. 11.01) software (see Figure 3A). A similar procedure was used for the red-legged seriema (Cariama cristata, FMNH 105635) and the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla, from the University of Austin Digital Morphology Web site: http://www.digimorph.org). Cariama cristata was chosen for comparison because of its close phylogenetic relationships with phorusrhacids and Haliaeetus albicilla because of its predatory lifestyle.
(A) Solid model and (B) 1080137 brick homogeneous finite element model.
Solid meshing was performed with Strand7 Finite Element software (v. 2.3) (Figure 3B). Models were assembled using 3D low-order four-noded tetrahedral "brick" elements (tet4). In the original surface mesh, maximum and minimum triangle edge lengths were kept at a 1∶3 ratio (0.1 geometric error) to minimize differences between triangle dimensions, which can lead to major discrepancies in brick element size in the final solid and introduce artifacts. Brick elements were assigned a single set of material properties as applied in previous studies [31], [32], (Young's modulus of Elasticity [Y] = 27.0 GPa; Poisson's ratio = 0.4; density = 2.19085 T/mm3).
Models were restrained to prevent free body motion. Point constraints (restricted to single nodes) can produce pronounced artifacts and inaccurate results [48]. For each loading we have applied more realistic constraints by positioning them within frameworks of rigid links at the occipital condyle as well as at the tip of the beak to more broadly distribute forces in accordance with previously published methods [32]. Statistical analyses were performed using a customized program written in RGUI (by K. Moreno).
Two kinds of load cases were arranged and solved: simulation of muscle forces generated by the jaw adductors and head flexors (intrinsic) and simulation of prey movement relative to the predator, or movement by the predator relative to the prey(extrinsic). To study biomechanical performance, we simulated dispatch (killing) forces: rostrocaudal ("pullback"), as well as dorsoventral and lateral shaking. To perform the simulations, we applied the bite force (intrinsic) obtained for each taxon as a load to the distal end of the premaxillary bone (i.e., the hook), with the occipital condyle fixed. Muscles themselves were not reconstructed. Relative mechanical performance was assessed on the basis of mean Von Mises stress for the skull, as well as visual output from the post-processing software.
It is important to note that in the absence of validation our results can only be considered in a comparative context, and, because the models are homogeneous, our approach addresses the influence of geometry, but not differences in the distribution of material properties. Thus, while our results provide insight into the influence of different geometries on the distribution of stress in a relative sense, such findings cannot be considered as absolute performance values [31], [32].
The three taxa considered in this study span a considerable range of cranial dimensions and this raises the issue of scaling. Bite forces have effectively been scaled on the basis of regression and these same forces have been applied as extrinsic forces. In comparative linear-static analyses such as those performed here, scaling will influence the absolute magnitudes of recorded stresses, but not how they are distributed. For example, scaling will not affect interpretations of whether the cranium of Andalgalornis is relatively better or less well-adapted to resist lateral vs dorsoventrally directed forces (the ratios will remain the same). Thus, our interpretations are based on proportional rather than absolute differences in mean stress values and distributions.
Supporting Information
Figure S1.
Skull of Andalgalornis steulleti (FMNH P1435). Left lateral view (volume rendering of CT scan data) with slice planes (A-B) displaying the hollow beak cavity.
Figure S2.
Log bite force in birds plotted against log body mass. Passeriforms in blue (dark blue: Estrildidae, sky blue: Fringillidae), Rheidae in green, Accipitridae in red, Cathartidae in rose and Cariamidae in black. See Table S1 for raw data.
Table S1.
Bite force and body mass table.
For assistance with CT scanning, 3D visualization, and data management, we thank Heather Rockhold (O'Bleness Memorial Hospital, Athens, Ohio), Ryan Ridgely (Ohio University MicroCT Facility and Witmer Lab, Athens, Ohio), the Ohio Supercomputer Center (Columbus, Ohio), and Marcelo Kaufman, Miriam Risso, Nicolas Nissan, Sebastian Salvarregui, Nevenka Klinar and Daniel Cagnolo (Investigaciones Médicas, Buenos Aires). For loan of specimens for CT scanning we thank the Field Museum of Natural History (Chicago), the American Museum of Natural History (New York City), Robert M. Chandler (Georgia College and State University), and Museo de La Plata (Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata).
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: FJD CPT KM SW. Performed the experiments: FJD CPT. Analyzed the data: FJD KM SW. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LMW SW. Wrote the paper: FJD CPT KM LMW SW.
- 1.
Tambussi CP, Noriega JI (1996) Summary of the Avian Fossil Record from Southern South America. In: Arratia G, editor. Contributions of the southern south America to vertebrate paleontology, Müncher Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen. pp. 245–264.
- 2. Tambussi C, Ubilla M, Perea D (1999) The youngest large carnassial bird (Phorusrhacidae, Phorusrhacinae) from South America (Pliocene-Early Pleistocene of Uruguay). J Vert Paleontol 19: 404–406.
- 3. Andrews C (1899) On the extinct birds of Patagonia. Trans Zool Soc London 15: 55–86.
- 4. Livezey BC (1998) A phylogenetic analysis of the Gruiformes (Aves) based on morphological characters, with an emphasis on the rails (Rallidae). Tran R Soc London 353: 2077–2151.
- 5. Alvarenga HMF, Höfling E (2003) Systematic revision of the Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes). Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia 43 (4): 55–91.
- 6. Mayr G (2002) A new specimen of Salmila robusta (Aves: Gruiformes: Salmilidae n. fam.) from the Middle Eocene of Messel. Paläontologische Zeitschrift 76 (2): 305–316.
- 7. Kraglievich L (1931) Contribución al conocimiento de las aves fósiles de la época araucoentrerriana. Physis 10: 304–315.
- 8. Chiappe LM, Bertelli S (2006) Skull morphology of giant terror birds. Nature 443: 929.
- 9. Wroe S, Argot C, Dickman C (2004) On the rarity of big fierce carnivores and primacy of isolation and area: tracking large mammalian carnivore diversity on two isolated continents. Proc R Soc London B 271: 1203–1211.
- 10. Holiday CM, Witmer LM (2008) Cranial kinesis in dinosaurs: intracranial joints, protractor muscles, and their significance for cranial evolution and function in diapsids. J Ver Paleontol 28 (4): 1073–1088.
- 11. Rayfield EJ (2005) Using finite-element analysis to investigate suture morphology: a case study using large carnivorous dinosaurs. Anat Rec 283A: 349–365.
- 12. Moazen M, Curtis N, O'Higgins P, Jones MEH, Evans SE, et al. (2009) Assessment of the role of sutures in a lizard skull: a computer modelling study. Proc R Soc B 276: 39–46.
- 13. Bout RG, Zweers GA (2001) The role of cranial kinesis in birds. Comp Biochem Physiol A 131(1): 197–205.
- 14. Gussekloo WS, Bout RG (2005) Cranial kinesis in palaeognathus birds. J Exp Biol 208: 3409–3419.
- 15. Gussekloo WS, Vosselman MG, Bout RG (2001) Three-dimensional kinematics of skeletal elements in avian prokinetic and rhynchokinetic skulls determined by roentgen stereophotogrammetry. J Exp Biol 204: 1735–1744.
- 16.
Baumel JJ, Raikow RJ (1993) Arthrologia. In: Baumel J, King A, Breazile J, Evans H, Vanden Berge J, editors. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club. pp. 133–187.
- 17.
Zusi RL (1993) Patterns of diversity in the Avian Skull. In: Hanken J, Hall BK, editors. The Skull. Volume 2: Patterns of structural and systematic diversity. University of Chicago Press. pp. 391–437.
- 18. McDowell S (1948) The bony palate of birds: Part I the Palaeognathae. Auk 65 (4): 520–549.
- 19. Reid J (1835) Anatomical description of the Patagonian penguin. Proc Zool Soc London 3: 132–148.
- 20. Schoonees J (1963) Some aspects of the cranial morphology of Colius indicus. Annale Universiteit van Stellenbosch 38, 7 (7): 215–246.
- 21. Höfling E, Gasc JP (1984) Biomécanique du crâne et du bec chez Ramphastos (Ramphastidae, Aves). Gegenbaurs morphologisches Jahrbuch 130 (2): 235–262.
- 22. Sims SW (1955) The morphology f the head of the hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes). Bull Brit Museum, Zool 2 (13): 371–393.
- 23. van der Meij MAA, Bout RG (2004) Scaling of jaw muscle size and maximal bite force in finches. J Exp Biol 207: 2745–2753.
- 24. van der Meij MAA, Bout RG (2006) Seed husking time and maximal bite forces in finches. J Exp Biol 209: 3329–3335.
- 25. Herrel A, Podos J, Huber SK, Hendry AP (2005a) Bite performance and morphology in a population of Darwin's finches: implications for the evolution of beak shape. Funct Ecol 19: 43–48.
- 26. Herrel A, Podos J, Huber SK, Hendry AP (2005b) Evolution of bite force in Darwin's finches: a key role for head width. J Evol Biol18: 669–675.
- 27. Herrel A, Van Damme R, Vanhooydonck B, De Vree F (2001) The implications of bite performance for diet in two species of lacertid lizards. Can J Zool 79: 662–670.
- 28. Herrel A, O'Reilly JC, Richmond AM (2002) Evolution of bite force in turtles. J Evol Biol 15: 1083–1094.
- 29. Jimenez J, Jaksic F (1990) Historia natural del águila Geranoaetus melanoleucus: una revisión. El Hornero 13: 97–110.
- 30. Abourachid A, Höfling E, Renous S (2005) Walking kinematics parameters in some paleognathous and neognathous neotropical birds. Ornitología Neotropical 16: 471–479.
- 31. Wroe S, Moreno K, Clausen PD, McHenry CR (2007) High-resolution computer simulation of hominid cranial mechanics. The Anatomical Record 290: 1248–1255.
- 32. McHenry CR, Wroe S, Clausen PD, Moreno K, Cunningham E (2007) Super-modeled sabercat, predatory behaviour in Smilodon fatalis revealed by high-resolution 3-D computer simulation. PNAS 104: 16010–16015.
- 33. Preuschoft H, Witzel U (2002) Biomechanical investigations on the skulls of reptiles and mammals. Senckenbergiana Lethaea 82 (1): 207–222.
- 34.
Metzger K (2002) Cranial kinesis in lepidosaurs: skulls in motion. In: Aerts P, D'Août K, Herrel A, Van Damme R, editors. Topics in Functional and Ecological Vertebrate Morphology. Shaker Publishing, Maastricht. pp. 15–46.
- 35. Moazen M, Curtis N, O'Higgins P, Evans SE, Fagan MJ (2009) Biomechanical assessment of evolutionary changes in the lepidosaurian skull. PNAS 106: 8273–8277.
- 36.
Sinclair W, Farr M (1932) Aves of the Santa Cruz beds. In: Scott W, editor. Reports of the Princeton University expeditions to Patagonia (1896–1899). Princeton University. pp. 157–191.
- 37.
Degrange FJ (2008) M. adductor mandibulae externus of Andalgalornis steulleti (Aves, Phorusrhacidae): Reconstruction and biomechanics (in Spanish). III Congreso Latinoamericano de Paleontología de Vertebrados, Simposio Morfología y Adaptación en Aves: Nuevas Herramientas y Conceptos: 76.
- 38. Wroe S, Huber DR, Lowry M, McHenry C, Moreno K, et al. (2008) Three-dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite? J Zool 276: 336–342.
- 39. Sustaita D (2008) Musculoskeletal underpinnings to differences in killing behavior between North American Accipiters (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) and Falcons (Falconidae). J Morphol 269: 283–301.
- 40. Wroe S, McHenry C, Thomason J (2005) Bite club: comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behaviour in fossil taxa. Proc Biol Sci 272: 619–625.
- 41. Christiansen P, Wroe S (2007) Bite forces and evolutionary adaptations to feeding ecology in carnivores. Ecology 88 (2): 347–358.
- 42. Blanco RE, Jones WW (2005) Terror birds on the run: A mechanical model to estimate its maximum running speed. Proc R Soc B 272: 1769–1773.
- 43. Tambussi CP (1997) Some biomechanical aspects of the phorusrhacid locomotion (Aves, Gruiformes) (in Spanish). Ameghiniana 34 (4): 541.
- 44. Patterson B, Kraglievich L (1960) Sistemática y nomenclatura de las aves fororracoideas del Plioceno Argentino. Publicación del Museo Municipal Ciencias Naturales y Tradicionales de Mar del Plata 1: 1–51.
- 45. Campbell KE, Marcus L (1992) The relationship of hindlimb bone dimensions to body weight in birds. In: Campbell KE editors. Papers in avian paleontology honoring Pierce Brodkorb. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Science Series 36: 395–412.
- 46. Rayfield EJ (2004) Cranial mechanics and feeding in Tyrannosaurus rex. Proc R Soc London B 271: 1451–1459.
- 47. Rayfield EJ, Norman DB, Horner CC, Horner JR, Smith PM, et al. (2001) Cranial design and function in a large theropod dinosaur. Nature 409: 1033–1037.
- 48. Richmond BG, Wright BW, Grosse L, Dechow PC, Ross CF, et al. (2005) Finite element analysis in functional morphology. Anat Rec A 283: 259–274.
- 49. Tizzard A, Horesh L, Yerworth RJ, Holder DS, Bayford RH (2005) Generating accurate finite element meshes for the forward model of the human head in EIT. Physiol Meas 26: 251–253.
- 50. McHenry CR, Clausen PD, Daniel WJT, Meers MB, Pendharkar A (2006) The biomechanics of the rostrum in crocodilians: a comparative analysis using finite element modelling. Anat Rec 288: 827–849.
- 51. Wroe S (2008) Cranial mechanics compared in extinct marsupial and extant African lions using a finite-element approach. J Zool 274: 332–339.
- 52. Moreno K, Wroe S, Clausen PD, McHenry CR, D'Amore DC, et al. (2008) Cranial performance in the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) as revealed by high-resolution 3-D finite element analysis. J Anat 212: 736–746.


text:
To see this, we first have to see the reason of existence of real-world profit oriented corporations. I mean why does someone join a corporation instead of starting his own small business? The answer is not "specialization" as "miner and hauler join up to get minerals out of the ground and transported to the refinery". Specialization is handled by the market. The miner could hire the hauler for a fee or the hauler could buy the minerals in the mine and sell for higher in the refinery. That not only doesn't need them to be in a fixed group but it's actually counter-productive as one of them is always limited by the other (the miner could mine more but the hauler can't move more). There is no such limitation if you buy services in the free market.
Corporations have two real purposes. The first is concentration of resources. You can't just open a mine in the middle of the nowhere if you are a miner with all skills and equipment to mine. There are no roads, electricity and you can't hire services in the middle of the forest, neither for your business (no truckers or repairman available) nor for your personal existence (no food to buy). A corporation has the size to build the infrastructure, hire services and have enough main-line members (miners in a mining corporation) to share the costs (one miner can't keep a coffee shop alive, thousands can). In MMOs such concentration is not needed because infrastructure exists everywhere and the world is very small. In most MMOs you can instant-travel, but even in the "realistic" EVE Online you can get to a market hub in an hour with a freighter to get anything you need. The only reason for EVE to stock a market is the warzone where you can't just move around in a freighter. In highsec no amount of miners could make a shop alive that sells crystals, ships and such. If it's not profitable as a free business, it's even less profitable as an in-corp service.
Now we get to the nastier purpose: exploitation. Marx was right, production creates surplus value and it's distributed between workers and capital owners very unequally. However his followers failed to create a productive alternative, the socialist economy based on common ownership created poverty. How can he be right and yet his solution wrong? Because exploitation isn't a problem in the system, it's the purpose. The reason for it is the dumbness and laziness of most people. They fail to properly utilize their assets, so if they are left on their own devices, they make very inefficient production. The perfect example is the guy with the credit card loan. Everyone knows that credit card loans are very expensive and they aren't big enough to be used on big, productive purchases. Everyone with a credit card loan is making a dumb mistake just because he can't wait to buy something that he probably doesn't need anyway until he can afford it.
The purpose of both corporations and government is to protect the morons and slackers from themselves, taking away their freedom and force them to do something productive. Since the worker is perpetually broke and lacks perspective, his best option is to just do as told and settle with a little part of the surplus value. Similarly he is forced to pay tax and various mandatory insurances to protect himself from his inability to save the same money for his elderly age and his medical cost. Of course both kind of management have costs and the managers also take as much as they can, so the worker/taxpayer ends up much worse than he would if he would manage the resources himself, hence the name exploitation.
What Marx and his followers failed to notice is that the exploited workers are unlike to themselves (Marx had university degree unlike the blue collars he fought for) and unable to manage themselves. With as much simplification as possible, capitalism is like a pig farm. The pigs are controlled, locked in and finally slain. Yet the pigs are still much better off than wild boars, have much better health and much less stress and even higher life expectancy despite the "finally slain" part. Would the pigs be liberated from the farm, most of them would starve to death soon since one acre of properly handled farmland creates much more biomass than an acre of grazing land or foraging forest, but the pigs can't operate a farm and limited to grazing and foraging.
Such exploiting corporations cannot exist in most games as the game developers take on the task and create quest givers as "business owners" . They hire the player and pay him for a simple task. This is done exactly because most of them would fail to act for themselves. Theoretically EVE Online could be a great place for exploitive corporations where the smart businessmen creates hourly paid jobs to dumb players who wouldn't have to bother about production methods or save money to buy tools, just do as told and get paid.
I see lot of EVE miners working in an obviously suboptimal way (if you have no Orca boost, you are doing it wrong, if you warp to the station with the barge instead of filling an Orca or Freighter, you are doing it wrong…), so they – like the pigs – could benefit from being exploited. Even if 90% of the extra yield coming from the boosts and the no warps would go to the capitalist, they would still be better off. Such systems would be great content creators and places for new players to start and get involved.
Yet in EVE there aren't any successful highsec business corporations besides Red Frog and clones, but they are much rather Franchise systems than real corps, every pilot does the job alone, just share the marketing. The reason of the lack of industrial corporations is the wardec and awox systems. The costs of protecting your corporation simply cannot be gained from exploiting dumb and lazy players. You are better off mining with your own alts in an NPC corp out of sight than getting employees and exploiting them. The income coming from one extra casual miner working for you is much less than the risk he poses as awoxer and the attention he can get for a wardeccer.
I think neither the ability to shoot corpmates nor the highsec wardecs give nothing to EVE but take a lot away. They take away the creation of corporations where a content creating businessmen keep lot of dumb, average players busy. Now everyone has to create his content, and most are unable to. Why do wardecs and awox give nothing to the game? Exactly because there is no one left to wardec or awox: there are no real corporations to attack, you can only find some idiots who formed a dysfunctional social corp where they do nothing but chat. They will simply stay docked for a week and their impoverished state means that an awoxer or wardeccer will have much less kills than a suicide ganker. Before you'd ask, I point out the fundamental difference between wardec/awox and suicide ganking. The first can be avoided by simply not being in a real player corp, while the second affects everyone regardless of corp status. Removing wardecs/awoxes wouldn't make EVE safer or "less harsh" as any somewhat competent player is already completely safe from them. They are only affecting newbie players who don't know that EVE isn't WoW, where being in a guild have benefits or at worst neutral. I think only corps who own space assets should be open to wardecs so players wouldn't be worse off just for being in a group. This would allow experienced players to mesh with newbies and dumb players, exploit them financially while teaching them some basic stuff.
Another soul saved from the tankless gank-food state:


text:
The opening Sūrah of the Qur'ān is generally regarded as consisting of seven verses. There is, however, disagreement on whether the basmalah is part of the sūrah and is to be counted as one of the seven verses (for details, see Abū 'Abdu Allāh Muhammad Al-Qurtubī, Al-Jami li-Akham al-Qur'ān, 20 vol. in 10 [Tehran reprint of Egyptian edition], 1:114-115). For our purposes, the sūrah, when the basmalah is left out, consists of six verses. A close study of these six verses reveals that they are, in several ways, marked by harmony of point and counterpoint. The harmony is noticeable not only on the plane of thought, but also in respect of the structure and mood of the poem.
The sūrah is divisible into two main parts, the first consisting of verse 1-3, the second, of verses 5-6, with verse 4 being the intermediary or link verse, as will be explained below. In order to facilitate reference to the text, the sūrah is reproduced below in transliteration.
1. Al-hamdu li llāhi rabbi'l-'ālamīn
2. Al-Rahmāni r-īm
3. Māliki yawmi d-dīn
4. Iyyāka na'budu wa iyyāka nasta'īn
5. Ihdina s-sirāta'l-mustaqīm
6. Sirāta'illadhīna an' amta 'alayhim, ghayri'l-maghdūbi 'alayhim wa-la d-dāllīn
1. Nominal and Verbal Sentences. The first three verses make up a nominal sentence (Jumlah Ismiyyah), whereas the last two verses are a verbal sentence (Jumlah Fi'liyyah). The fourth verse, which is in between these two sets, partakes of the qualities of both types of sentences and may be called, in grammatical terms, Jumaltun Dhātu Wajhayn (literally: 'two-faced sentence'). Structurally speaking, this sentence facilitates the transition from the nominal to the verbal sentence (note that it begins with the noun-equivalent pronoun Iyyāka, which links it with the nominal sentence made up of the first three verses, and ends with the verbs Na'budu and Nasta'īn, which connects it with the verbal sentence made up of the last two verses. In the following paragraphs, we shall refer to the first three verses as Part 1 and to the last two verses as Part 2. As for the intermediary verse 4, it stands independently, though for certain practical purposes it may be included in Part 2.
Grammatically, the nominal sentence signifies Dawām ('permanence' – or, in philosophical language: 'being'), whereas the verbal sentence signifies Hudūth ('happening' – philosophically: 'becoming'). Part 1 describes the Divinity, the nominal sentence indicating the Dawām, or eternality, of His Being and Attributes. Part 2 (inclusive of verse 4) describes man's prayer to that God for help, the verbal sentence indicating, within a historical context of Part 1, man's call to God and, implicitly, the Divine response to that call.
2. Thought and Action. In Part 1 man reflects on the universe and breaks out in praise of an All-Compassionate God. In Part 2 he seeks help from this All-Compassionate God. In other words, perception and understanding lead to action and movement. Part 1 of the sūrah represents the realm of contemplation, Part 2, the realm of action, the two being interconnected: in Part 1 man reflects, in Part 2 he is moved to action – by that reflection.
3. God-Man Interaction. According to this sūrah, man needs Divine help and ought to seek it. On the other hand, God is not unconcerned with man's affairs, but intervenes in history by furnishing the help man needs. God and man thus interact, and the interaction is reflected in the structure of the sūrah. Part 1 states how God relates to the world in general (note especially the phrase Rabb al-'ālamīn) and to man in particular (the notion of judgement, stated in Māliki yawmi d-dīn, clearly indicates this), whereas Part 2 states how man ought to relate to his Creator-Lord. Each verse in the first set has a counterpart in the other. Thus:
Verse 1 speaks of God's Rububiyyah (providence), and verse 4 speaks of the homage that is due to God from man for guidance, this guidance being, as the Qur'ān explains in many places, a manifestation of God's mercy.
Verse 3 speaks of God's being the Master of the Day of Judgement, and verse 6 speaks of God's adjudging, on that day, of human beings as righteous or wicked.
4. Temporal and non-Temporal. As noted already, verses 1-3 are, grammatically, one sentence. This sentence, being nominal, has no tense – it represents non-temporality. If we leave verse 5 aside for the moment, the last two verses, 5-6, also make up a single sentence, which, being verbal, has tense – thus representing temporality. The difference is perhaps a symbolic representation, first, of the difference between the Divine realm, which is unconstrained by time, and the human realm, which is time-bound; and, secondly, of the God-man interaction (see above): God, who is beyond time and is infinite (verses 1-3), intervenes in the world of man, who is finite and time-bound. Verse 4, which links up the two sets of verses, is thus a declaration by the finite human being to submit to the Infinite, and also a prayer for the non-temporal to enter into the world of the temporal. But, even though verses 5-6 make up a verbal sentence, the verb used, Ihdi (guide) is imperative, which, being non-declarative (Inshā'), implies that the guidance sought – and, hopefully, provided – is free from the limitations of time and is relevant to all ages.
5. Perception and Conception. The data reflected on in Part 1 are primarily sensory in character: the evidence of God's providence and mercy is found everywhere in the physical universe. The Straight Path of Part 2, as also the recompense, is primarily conceptual in nature. A transition or development from the material and physical to the conceptual and spiritual thus takes place in the sūrah.
6. Emotion and Cognition. Part 1 is emotive: man, upon reflecting on the universe and his own situation, cannot help exclaiming how providential, compassionate, and just God is. Part 2, on the other hand, represents, first, a recognition of the fact that Divine providence, compassion, and justice demand in return submission from man, and, second, a translation of that understanding into a prayer for guidance so that submission may take a proper form. The affective element is not entirely absent from Part 2, though the cognitive and discursive elements predominate. In Part 1, on the other hand, the reflective aspect is not completely missing – in fact it is reflection that leads man to make the exclamatory pronouncement – but reflection is in the background, exclamation in the foreground.
7. Initiative and Response. Part 1 represents the initiative taken by God: being provident, merciful, and just, He showers his blessings on man. Part 2 represents the response made by man: he submits to God. From another point of view, this human response is also an initiative: man makes a conscious decision to worship God and mould his life in accordance with His decrees. To this initiative, the response of God, one can infer from the second half of the last verse (Sirāta'lladhīna an' amta 'alayhim, ghayri'l-maghdūbi 'alayhim wa-la d-dāllīn), would be that he would bless those who follow the Straight Path and punish those who go astray and earn His wrath.
8. Privilege and Responsibility. Part 1 speaks of the privileges man enjoys in this world. Part 2 speaks of the responsibilities entailed by those privileges. The sūrah indicates that there is, or ought to be, a causal connection between the blessings man receives and the gratitude he shows, or ought to show.
9. Dunyā and Ākhirah. While both Part 1 and Part 2 make reference to this world (Dunyā) and (Ākhirah) both, the primary focus in Part 1 is on the Dunyā (it is in the context of the Dunyā that man reflects on this universe), in Part 2, on the Ākhirah (it is in the context of the Ākhirah that salvation is sought). At the same time, Part 1 (God as Master of the Day of Judgement [verse 3]) refers to the Hereafter in explicit terms, whereas Part 2 (salvation and condemnation earned on the basis, respectively, of good and evil actions performed in this world) makes a definite, if implicit, to this world as the 'abode of action' (Dāru'l-'amal). Another point, ancillary to the discussion of the Ākhirah, is that Part 1 (see verse 3) refers to the Day of Recompense in general terms, whereas Part 2 (see verses 5-6) speaks of recompense in the more specific terms of reward and punishment.
10. Individual and Society. Since the mood of Part 1 is predominantly exclamatory, the speaker in it, in all probability, arguably represents humanity); overwhelmed by the blessedness of the state of his existence, the speaker proclaims the praises of the Lord. On the other hand, the speaker in Part 2 is man as a member of society: man's commitment to serve God, as also his prayer for guidance, is made as a member of a collectivity, hence the use of plural forms in this part: we serve God and we seek His help; guide us in the Straight Path.


text:
For the purpose of sponsored programs at TUC and CSUN, the term "Stipend" is used to describe a payment to a CSUN Student or to a Non-CSUN Student for class participation and/or general support as aid in the pursuit of their studies.
Sponsoring agencies and faculty commonly use the terms "Stipend" or Participant Support" to describe this student financial assistance. Federal and State tax regulations do not define the term 'stipend' but use the terms 'scholarship' and 'fellowship':
A scholarship generally is an amount paid for the benefit of a student at an educational institution to aid in the pursuit of studies. The student may be in either a graduate or an undergraduate program.
A fellowship grant generally is an amount paid for the benefit of an individual to aid in the pursuit of study or research.
Note: The term "stipend" is sometimes misused to describe minor payments for services. However, these payments constitute an employer relationship and are considered taxable wages.
The amount awarded by the stipend, either in total or incrementally, is not performance-based and generally cannot be adjusted or suspended by the PI as a result of performance.
However, stipends may have accompanying terms and conditions and the stipend may be gradually adjusted or completely suspended by the PI if those terms and conditions are not met. Terms and conditions may include enrollment in a particular degree program, participation in program activities, or maintaining a minimum Grade Point Average. Any such terms and conditions will generally be stipulated in the award agreement issued by the sponsor; it is the PI's responsibility to convey such stipend terms and conditions/stipulations to the student/stipend recipient.
A stipend payment can only be used for training and educational purposes related to a sponsored program. A stipend cannot be used to pay an individual for work or services performed, or as incentive pay.
In some instances the stipend recipient may be required to attend certain classes or perform certain activities, as a condition of receiving the stipend. These can still be considered stipends and not considered services (wages), as long as the (educational) benefit of the activities lays clearly with the recipient and the paying institution does not derive any benefit from the activities.
No 'Quid Pro Quo':
Stipends cannot be paid for any services rendered. Any amount paid for a service rendered is considered a "wage" under the IRS regulations and must therefore be processed and taxed as a salary or wage. This includes payment for teaching, research or other services rendered as a condition for receiving the scholarship or tuition reduction. These payments are considered compensation even if the services are a condition of receiving the grant or are required of all candidates for the degree.
It is the responsibility of the Principal Investigator to ensure that the payment requested constitutes a true 'stipend' payment and is not a taxable fee for service.
Stipends are requested through the Principal Investigator or authorized signer, approved by TUC's Financial Services and Sponsored Programs departments, processed through TUC's Financial Services Department and reported to CSUN Financial Aid.
a) Request Form
Payments of stipends are requested by completing the Check Request Form, attaching the required supporting documentation and sending them to The University Corporation.
b) Required Supporting Documentation
- Payment requests for stipends require the following supporting documentation to be submitted with the Check Request:
Stipends to CSUN Students
- Copy of the student's CSUN I.D. card
Proof of Enrollment at CSUN via one of the following:- CSUN 'Sims' query advisement report
- Class schedule from the CSUN web service portal
- Class schedule from the self-service study list
Citizenship/Residency Statement
Stipends to Non-CSUN Students
Stipends to Students at the Tseng College of Extended Learning
- Same as CSUN Students
- (Note: Students of the Tseng College of Extended Learning are considered regular CSUN students. Depending on the program they are enrolled in, only few of the student's financial aid may be affected by the reporting of stipends. As a consequence, The University Corporation will report all stipends of Extended Learning students to the CSUN Financial Aid Office.)
Stipends to Minors
- Parental Informed Consent, Waiver & Release
W-9 form
Citizenship/Residency statement
Statement of Participation
c) Approval TUC-Financial Services
TUC's Financial Services Dept. approves the payment request based on the completeness and correctness of the Check Request form and the supporting documentation.
d) Approval TUC-SP
TUC's Sponsored Programs Dept. approves the payment request based on the allowability of the expenses, the timeframe of expenses within the project period and the availability of funds in the budget,
e) Processing TUC-Financial Services
TUC's Financial Services Dept. processes the payment request and generates the checks to the recipients.
f) Distribution of Stipend Checks to Recipients
In order to prevent fraud, stipend checks are generally distributed directly to the recipients, only. Stipend checks are held at TUC's front desk for pick-up. Recipients must come to The University Corporation, identify themselves with a government issued ID and sign for the receipt of the check. If explicitly requested by the Principal Investigator, stipend checks may be mailed to the recipients.
In a few exceptional circumstances, Principal Investigators or their designees may pick up the checks at The University Corporation and deliver them to the recipients directly. The University Corporation will then provide the Principal Investigator with the checks and a sign-off sheet. Before handing the check to the recipient, it is the responsibility of the Principal Investigator to verify the identity of the recipient via a government issued ID and have the recipient sign the sign-off sheet. The completed sign-off sheet must be returned to The University Corporation. The Principal Investigator assumes full responsibility that the checks are delivered to the recipients of the stipends.
g) Reporting to CSUN Financial Aid
On a monthly basis, TUC Financial Services Dept. will report stipend payments made to CSUN Students to the CSUN Financial Aid Dept. CSUN Financial Aid will then determine, if the stipend payments will impact students financial aid.
h) Reporting to IRS
The University Corporation will report any stipend payments made to Non-CSUN students as taxable income on form 1099-MISC.
i) Stipends to Non-Resident Aliens
Depending on their country of origin, their visa type and their length of stay, non-resident aliens may be subject to tax withholding and tax reporting. Prior to any payments, all non-resident aliens must complete a 'Glacier' tax assessment at TUC to determine their tax status. TUC may report a form 1042S to the IRS for these payments.
The material contained herein is for informational purposes only and does not constitute tax advice. Stipend recipients should consult with their own tax advisor or attorney with regard to their personal tax situation.
Responsibility to Determine Taxability
It is the recipient's responsibility to determine whether a stipend in whole or in part must be included as gross income under the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Code section 117. The University Corporation will, but is legally not responsible to report any scholarship, fellowship, grant or stipend on Form 1099-MISC.
A scholarship, fellowship, or stipend, in all or part may be taxable, even if the recipient did not receive a W-2 or 1099-MISC form.
Generally the entire amount is taxable if the recipient is not a candidate for a degree.
- Qualified Educational Expenses
- If the recipient is a candidate for a degree, he/she generally can exclude from income that part of the stipend used for:
- tuition
- fees required for enrollment
- books, supplies and equipment required for courses
- other expenses required for enrollment or attendance
- Non-Qualified Expenses
- The recipient cannot exclude from income any part of the stipend not required by the institution and used for other purposes, such as:
- housing
- meals
- living allowances
- non-required supplies (computers, etc)
- travel
- clerical assistance
Services vs. Stipends
Exemptions from income does not apply to any amount which represents payment for teaching, research or other services rendered as a condition for receiving the scholarship or tuition reduction. Any payment for services are considered compensation and are not excludable from gross income under Section 117.
This rule applies even if the services are a condition of receiving the grant or are required of all candidates for the degree.
In some instances the stipend recipient may be required to attend certain classes or perform certain activities, as a condition of receiving the stipend. These are not considered services, as long as the (educational) benefit of the activities lays clearly with the recipient and the paying institution does not derive any benefit from the activities.
Reporting to IRS
The University Corporation will report any non-exempt stipends to you as taxable wage on Form W-2 (if you are an employee of the Corporation) or on form 1099-MISC (if you are not an employee of the Corporation)
Taxation of Non-Resident Aliens
The above requirements and exclusion pertain equally to U.S. citizens, resident aliens and non-resident aliens. However, the tax reporting requirements for non-resident aliens may be different. The unqualified portion is subject to withholding and reporting for nonresident aliens (unless a tax treaty benefit is available). Any direct payments for stipends to non-resident aliens are subject to withholding and reporting.
Stipends to Non-CSUN Students
Stipends to non-CSUN students will be reported on IRS form 1099-MISC
Stipends to Minors
Stipends to minors will be reported on IRS form 1099-MISC
Questions / Tax Advice
If you have any questions regarding the taxable portion you will need to consult a tax professional, as The University Corporation cannot extend tax advice.
Further Tax Information
For additional information please refer to IRS Publication 970, Tax Benefits for Education, section 1.


text:
What it's REALY like to be a millionaire. Is this something you have ever thought about? Many people have an idealized notion of what it means to be a millionaire.
Just because someone is a millionaire, that doesn't necessarily mean that their lifestyle aligns with their bank account.… [Read more...] about What It's REALLY Like To Be A Millionaire


text:
Stem Cell Treatment
What is stem cell therapy?
Stem cell therapy is a form of regenerative medicine that utilizes the body's natural healing mechanism to treat various conditions.
Stem cells are being used in regenerative medicine to renew and repair diseased or damaged tissues, and have shown promising results in treatments of various orthopedic, cardiovascular, neuromuscular and autoimmune conditions.
Schedule An Appointment
Stem cells are present in all of us acting like a repair system for the body including the shoulder, hip, and knee. However, with increased age sometimes the necessary amounts of stem cells are not present at the injured area. The goal of stem cell therapy is to amplify the natural repair system of the patient's body by increasing the numbers of stem cells at injury sites.
How can stem cell therapy be used to treat orthopedic conditions?
Use of Stem Cells in Orthopedics
The unique self-regeneration and differentiating ability of embryonic stem cells can be used in regenerative medicine. These stem cells can be derived from eggs collected during IVF procedures with informed consent from the patient. However, many questions have been raised on the ethics of destroying a potential human life for the treatment of another.
Adult stem cells can be harvested from many areas in the body. These include adipose tissue (fat), bone marrow and peripheral blood. The mesenchymal stem cell is the most commonly harvested. These have the ability to turn into cells that form the musculoskeletal system such as tendons, ligaments, and articular cartilage. To obtain stem cells from the bone marrow, a needle is inserted into the iliac crest of the pelvic bone to extract the stem cells.
Currently, stem cell therapy is used to treat various degenerative conditions of the shoulder, knees, hips, and spine. Stem cells are also being used in the treatment of various soft tissue (muscle, ligaments and tendons) as well as bone-related injuries.
Who is a Good Candidate for a Stem Cell Procedure?
You may be a good candidate for stem cell therapy if you have been suffering from joint pain and want to improve your quality of life while avoiding complications related to invasive surgical procedures.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of stem cell therapy?
- Stem cell therapy is a relatively simple procedure that avoids the complications associated with invasive surgical procedures.
- As stem cell therapy uses the cells derived from your own body it reduces the chances of an immune rejection.
- There is a general lack of data about the long-term effects of stem cell therapy as it is a newer procedure and represents a newer form of treatment.
What are the risks and complications of stem cell therapy?
Risks and complications
Stem cell therapy is generally considered a safe procedure with minimal complications, however, as with any medical procedure, complications can occur.
Some risks factors related to stem cell therapy include infection as bacteria, viruses or other pathogens that can cause disease may be introduced during the preparation process.
The procedure to either remove or inject the cells also has the risk of introducing an infection to the damaged tissue into which they are injected. Rarely, an immune reaction may occur from injected stem cells.


text:
FAIRFIELD, Conn. — Sacred Heart University in Fairfield is mourning the passing Sunday of a 20-year-old junior from Clark, N.J., who died days after taking part in a pancake-eating contest on campus.
Caitlin Nelson, who was studying social work and was a member of Kappa Delta sorority, was rushed to St. Vincent's Medical Center on Thursday evening after a "medical event during a Greek Life event," SHU said in a statement.
"She passed away ... and is now with her father, who was a victim of the 9-11 attacks," SHU President John J. Petillo said in an email to parents Sunday.
Related story: Family of stricken student donating her organs
Sunday night's Mass at SHU's Chapel of the Holy Spirit was dedicated to Nelson and attended by thousands of students, faculty and staff—many of whom stood outside the Chapel during the service, SHU said in a statement.
The service was followed by an impromptu candlelight vigil as community members consoled one another and offered prayers for her and her family and friends.
The SHU flag has been lowered to half-staff in her memory.
Nelson was taking part in a pancake-eating contest Thursday night at the college when she apparently choked, police said.
RELATED STORY: Sacred Heart Student Dies After Choking In Pancake-Eating Contest
She had eaten four or five pancakes in the contest, held at a Greek Life dinner on the University Commons, when she began to shake and collapsed, according to police.
She spit out pancake but was still choking, witnesses told police. A nursing student began CPR, while others attempted to use the Heimlich maneuver and began pulling food from her throat, police said.
Nelson also had food allergies, police said.
She taken to St. Vincent's Medical Center and later transferred to Columbia University Medical Center, where she died Sunday, police said.
She was 5 when her father, James Nelson, 40, died in the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attack on the World Trade Center. A Port Authority police officer, he was evacuating people from the 27th-floor of the Twin Towers when it collapsed.
He had also rescued people after 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center bombing, braving the black smoke despite his asthma.
Caitlin Nelson was a volunteer with the Resiliency Center of Newtown and vice president of Kappa Delta. She had a certification in Youth Mental Health First Aid, according to her LinkIn profile.
Caitlin Nelson and her sister, Anne, worked at Resiliency Center with survivors of the Sandy Hook School shooting as they struggled through their losses, according to TapInto.net.
"It's about positive change. It's about healing and helping. It's about paying it forward," Caitlin Nelson told TapInto.net last year.
She was also involved America's Camp, an annual retreat designed to help the 9/11 children cope with their losses, TapInto.net said.
"The entire Sacred Heart community is sending their sympathy and prayers to Caitlin's family and friends," Petillo said in his email.
"No parent should ever have to receive news like this. I ask for your prayers for Caitlin's mother, family and friends."
Counseling services have been provided, in particular for her sorority sisters. The Chapel will remain open with staff from campus ministry on hand, he said.
The SHU Facebook page — which posted a photo and a "We.Are.SHU" message — was filled with words of love and support for the student and her family.
"Heartfelt sympathy to Caitlin's family & our SHU family. May her memory be eternal," said one Facebook post.
"May God Bless all those who are touched by this sad and tragic loss especially Caitlin's family and her sorority sisters. God Bless Sacred Heart University," said another post on Facebook.
"So sad and sorry for the loss of this beautiful angel...May she RIP with her dad and all the angels...Give her family comfort and support....Prayers and Love," another post said.
Click here to read the TapInto.net story.
Click here to follow Daily Voice Fairfield and receive free news updates.


text:
The human paradox: From customer centricity to life centricity
In brief
of consumers think that paradoxical behaviors are both human and acceptable.
"Stop hiding behind focus groups and marketing hype, and speak to people with an honest voice."
of consumers wish companies would respond faster to meet their changing needs.
of executives think their customers are changing faster than their businesses can keep up.
Life forces causing relentless instability
of consumers say external factors such as inflation, social movements and climate change are impacting their lives more than in the past.
of consumers say their priorities keep changing as a result of everything going on in the world.
"I've been through challenging situations and made bold decisions that turned out to be right. Now, I feel more confident in myself—and more empowered."
"I'm following my own rules, listening to my own voice of reason and living the way I want."