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St. Peter's Basilica
|Papal Basilica of St. Peter
Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano (Italian)
Basilica Sancti Petri (Latin)
|Basic information
|Vatican City
|Roman Catholic
|Year consecrated
|Ecclesiastical or organizational status
|Major basilica
|Official website (Italian)
|Architectural description
|Donato Bramante
Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
|Architectural style
|Renaissance and Baroque
|18 April 1506
|18 November 1626
|730 feet (220 m)
|500 feet (150 m)
|Height (max)
|452 feet (138 m)
|Dome dia. (outer)
|137.7 feet (42.0 m)
|Dome dia. (inner)
|136.1 feet (41.5 m)
St. Peter's Basilica (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri; Italian: Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano) is a Late Renaissance church located withinVatican City.
Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's is the most renowned work ofRenaissance architecture[1] and remains one of the largest churches in the world.[2] While it is neither the mother church of the Roman Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, St. Peter's is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic sites. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world"[3] and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom".[1]
By Roman Catholic tradition, the basilica is the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, also according to tradition, the first Bishop of Rome and therefore first in the line of the papal succession. Tradition and some historical evidence hold that Saint Peter's tomb is directly below the altar of the basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peter's since the Early Christian period. There has been a church on this site since the time of Constantine. Construction of the present basilica, replacing the Old St. Peter's Basilica of the 4th century, began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626.[4]
St. Peter's is famous as a place of pilgrimage, for its liturgical functions. Because of its location in the Vatican, the Pope presides at a number of services throughout the year, drawing audiences of 15,000 to over 80,000 people, either within the Vatican Basilica, or in St. Peter's Square.[5]St. Peter's has many strong historical associations, with the Early Christian church, the papacy, the Counter-reformation and with numerous artists, most significantly Michelangelo. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age.[6] St. Peter's is one of the four churches of Rome that hold the rank of Major Basilica. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral as it is not the seat of a bishop; the cathedra of the Bishop of Rome is located in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.
- 1 Overview
- 2 Status
- 3 History3.1 Saint Peter's burial site
- 3.2 Old St. Peter's Basilica
- 3.3 The plan to rebuild
- 3.4 Financing with indulgences
- 4 Architecture4.1 Successive plans
- 4.2 Michelangelo's contribution
- 4.3 Dome – successive and final designs4.3.1 Bramante and Sangallo, 1506 and 1513
- 4.3.2 Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta, 1547 and 1585
- 4.3.3 Completion
- 4.3.4 Discovery of Michelangelo draft
- 4.4 The change of plan4.4.1 Maderno's façade
- 4.4.2 Narthex and portals
- 4.4.3 Maderno's nave
- 4.5 Influence on church architecture
- 5 Bernini's furnishings
- 5.1 Pope Urban VIII and Bernini5.1.1 Baldacchino and niches
- 5.1.2 Cathedra Petri and Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament
- 6 St. Peter's Piazza
- 7 Treasures7.1 Tombs and relics
- 7.2 Artworks7.2.1 The towers and narthex
- 7.2.2 The nave
- 7.2.3 North aisle
- 7.2.4 South aisle
- 8 Archpriests since 1053
- 9 Specifications
- 10 See also
- 11 Notes
- 12 References
- 13 External links
St. Peter's Basilica from ponte Umberto I, onRiver Tiber. The iconic dome dominates the skyline of Rome.
St. Peter's is a church in the Renaissance style located in Rome west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrian's Mausoleum. Its central domedominates the skyline of Rome. The basilica is approached via St. Peter's Square, a forecourt in two sections, both surrounded by tall colonnades. The first space is oval and the second trapezoid. The facade of the basilica, with a giant order of columns, stretches across the end of the square and is approached by steps on which stand two 5.55 metres (18.2 ft) statues of the 1st century apostles to Rome, Saints Peter and Paul.[7][8]
The basilica is cruciform in shape, with an elongated nave in the Latin cross form but the early designs were for a centrally planned structure and this is still in evidence in the architecture. The central space is dominated both externally and internally by one of the largest domes in the world. The entrance is through anarthex, or entrance hall, which stretches across the building. One of the decorated bronze doors leading from the narthex is the Holy Door, only opened inHoly Years.[7]
The interior is of vast dimensions when compared with other churches.[4] One author wrote: "Only gradually does it dawn upon us – as we watch people draw near to this or that monument, strangely they appear to shrink; they are, of course, dwarfed by the scale of everything in the building. This in its turn overwhelms us."[9]
The apse with St. Peter's Cathedra supported by four Doctors of the Church
The nave which leads to the central dome is in three bays, with piers supporting a barrel-vault, the highest of any church. The nave is framed by wide aisles which have a number of chapels off them. There are also chapels surrounding the dome. Moving around the basilica in a clockwise direction they are: The Baptistery, the Chapel of the Presentation of the Virgin, the larger Choir Chapel, the Clementine Chapel with the altar of St Gregory, the Sacristy Entrance, the left transept with altars to the Crucifixion of St Peter, St Joseph and St Thomas, the altar of the Sacred Heart, the Chapel of the Madonna of Colonna, the altar of St. Peter and the Paralytic, the apse with St. Peter'sCathedra, the altar of St. Peter raising Tabitha, the altar of the Archangel Michael, the altar of the Navicella, the right transept with altars of St Erasmus, Saints Processo and Martiniano, and St Wenceslas, the altar of St Basil, the Gregorian Chapel with the altar of the Madonna of Succour, the larger Chapel of the Holy Sacrament, the Chapel of St Sebastian and the Chapel of the Pietà.[7] At the heart of the basilica, beneath the high altar, is the Confessio or Chapel of the Confession, in reference to the confession of faith by St. Peter, which led to his martyrdom. Two curving marble staircases lead to this underground chapel at the level of the Constantinian church and immediately above the burial place of Saint Peter.
The entire interior of St. Peter's is lavishly decorated with marble, reliefs, architectural sculpture and gilding. The basilica contains a large number of tombs of popes and other notable people, many of which are considered outstanding artworks. There are also a number of sculptures in niches and chapels, includingMichelangelo's Pietà. The central feature is a baldachin, or canopy over the Papal Altar, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sanctuary culminates in a sculptural ensemble, also by Bernini, and containing the symbolic Chair of Saint Peter.
One observer wrote: "St Peter's Basilica is the reason why Rome is still the center of the civilized world. For religious, historical, and architectural reasons it by itself justifies a journey to Rome, and its interior offers a palimpsest of artistic styles at their best…"[10]
The American philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson described St. Peter's as "an ornament of the earth … the sublime of the beautiful."[11]
Panorama of St. Peter's Square
Pope Benedict XVI after celebrating Mass in St. Peter's
St. Peter's Basilica is one of four Papal Basilicas or Major Basilicas of Rome[12] the others being the Basilica of St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls. It is the most prominent building in the Vatican City. Its dome is a dominant feature of the skyline of Rome. Probably the largest church inChristendom,[2] it covers an area of 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres). One of the holiest sites of Christianity in the Catholic Tradition, it is traditionally the burial site of its titular Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to Catholic Tradition, also the first Bishop of Antioch and later first Bishop of Rome, the first Pope. Although the New Testament does not mention Peter's martyrdom in Rome, Catholic tradition, based on the writings of the Fathers of the Church,[clarification needed] holds that his tomb is below the baldachin and altar; for this reason, many Popes have, from the early years of the Church, been buried there. Construction of the current basilica, over the old Constantinian basilica, began on 18 April 1506. At length on 18 November 1626, Pope Urban VIII solemnly dedicated the church.[4]
St. Peter's Basilica is neither the Pope's official seat nor first in rank among the Major Basilicas of Rome. This honour is held by the Pope's cathedral, theArchbasilica of St. John Lateran which is the mother church of all churches and parishes in communion with the Roman Catholic Church. However, St. Peter's is most certainly the Pope's principal church, as most Papal ceremonies take place there due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican City walls. The "Chair of Saint Peter" or cathedra, an ancient chair sometimes presumed to have been used by Saint Peter himself, but which was a gift fromCharles the Bald and used by various popes, symbolises the continuing line of apostolic succession from Saint Peter to the present pope. It occupies an elevated position in the apse, supported symbolically by the Doctors of the Church, and enlightened symbolically by the Holy Spirit.[13]
Saint Peter's burial site
Crepuscular rays are regularly seen in St. Peter's Basilica at certain times each day.
After the crucifixion of Jesus in the second quarter of the 1st century AD, it is recorded in the Biblical book of the Acts of the Apostles that one of his twelve disciples, Simon known as Saint Peter, a fisherman from Galilee, took a leadership position among Jesus' followers and was of great importance in the founding of the Christian Church. The name Peter is "Petrus" in Latin and "Petros" in Greek, deriving from "petra" which means "stone" or "rock" in Greek.
It is believed by a long tradition that Peter, after a ministry of about thirty years, travelled to Rome and met his martyrdom there in the year 64 AD during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. His execution was one of the many martyrdoms of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. According to Origen, Peter was crucified head downwards, by his own request because he considered himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.[14] The crucifixion took place near an ancient Egyptian obelisk in the Circus of Nero.[15] The obelisk now stands in Saint Peter's Square and is revered as a "witness" to Peter's death. It is one of several ancientObelisks of Rome.[16]
According to tradition, Peter's remains were buried just outside the Circus, on the Mons Vaticanus across the Via Cornelia from the Circus, less than 150 metres (490 ft) from his place of death. The Via Cornelia (which may have been known by another name to the ancient Romans) was a road which ran east-to-west along the north wall of the Circus on land now covered by the southern portions of the Basilica and Saint Peter's Square. Peter's grave was initially marked simply by a red rock, symbolic of his name.[citation needed] A shrine was built on this site some years later. Almost three hundred years later, Old St. Peter's Basilica was constructed over this site.[15]
In 1939, in the reign of Pope Pius XII, 10 years of archaeological research began, under the crypt of the basilica, an area inaccessible since the 9th century. Indeed, the area now covered by the Vatican City had been a cemetery for some years before the Circus of Nero was built. It was a burial ground for the numerous executions in the Circus and contained many Christian burials, perhaps because for many years after the burial of Saint Peter many Christians chose to be buried near him. The excavations revealed the remains of shrines of different periods at different levels, from Clement VIII (1594) to Callixtus II (1123) and Gregory I (590–604), built over an aedicula containing fragments of bones that were folded in a tissue with gold decorations, tinted with the precious murex purple. Although it could not be determined with certainty that the bones were those of Peter, the rare vestments suggested a burial of great importance. On 23 December 1950, in his pre-Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced the discovery of Saint Peter's tomb.[17]
A conjectural view of the Old St. Peter's Basilica by H. W. Brewer, 1891
Old St. Peter's Basilica
Old St. Peter's Basilica was the fourth-century church begun by the Emperor Constantine between 319 and 333 AD.[18] It was of typical basilical Latin Crossform with an apsidal end at the chancel, a wide nave and two aisles on either side. It was over 103.6 metres (340 ft) long, and the entrance was preceded by a large colonnaded atrium. This church had been built over the small shrine believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. It contained a very large number of burials and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century. Like all of the earliest churches in Rome, both this church and its successor had the entrance to the east and the apse at the west end of the building.[19] Since the construction of the current basilica, the name Old St. Peter's Basilica has been used for its predecessor to distinguish the two buildings.[20]
The plan to rebuild
By the end of the 15th century, having been neglected during the period of the Avignon Papacy, the old basilica was in bad repair. It appears that the first pope to consider rebuilding, or at least making radical changes was Pope Nicholas V (1447–55). He commissioned work on the old building from Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino and also got Rossellino to design a plan for an entirely new basilica, or an extreme modification of the old. His reign was frustrated by political problems and when he died, little had been achieved.[15] He had, however, ordered the demolition of the Colosseum and by the time of his death, 2,522 cartloads of stone had been transported for use in the new building.[15][21]
Pope Julius II planned far more for St Peter's than Nicholas V's program of repair or modification. Julius was at that time planning his own tomb, which was to be designed and adorned with sculpture byMichelangelo and placed within St Peter's.[22] In 1505 Julius made a decision to demolish the ancient basilica and replace it with a monumental structure to house his enormous tomb and "aggrandize himself in the popular imagination".[6] A competition was held, and a number of the designs have survived at the Uffizi Gallery. A succession of popes and architects followed in the next 120 years, their combined efforts resulting in the present building. The scheme begun by Julius II continued through the reigns of Leo X (1513–1521), Hadrian VI (1522–1523). Clement VII (1523–1534), Paul III (1534–1549), Julius III(1550–1555), Marcellus II (1555), Paul IV (1555–1559), Pius IV (1559–1565), Pius V (saint) (1565–1572), Gregory XIII (1572–1585), Sixtus V (1585–1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV (1590–1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII (1592–1605), Leo XI (1605), Paul V (1605–1621), Gregory XV (1621–1623), Urban VIII (1623–1644) and Innocent X (1644–1655).
Financing with indulgences
One method employed to finance the building of St. Peter's Basilica was the granting of indulgences in return for contributions. A major promoter of this method of fund-raising was Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, who had to clear debts owed to the Roman Curia by contributing to the rebuilding program. To facilitate this, he appointed the German Dominican preacher Johann Tetzel, whose salesmanship provoked a scandal.[23]
A German Augustinian priest, Martin Luther, wrote to Archbishop Albrecht arguing against this "selling of indulgences". He also included his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences", which came to be known as The 95 Theses.[24] This became a factor in starting the Reformation, the birth of Protestantism.
Successive plans
Bramante's plan
Raphael's plan
Michelangelo's plan, extended with Maderno's nave and facade
Pope Julius' scheme for the grandest building in Christendom[6] was the subject of a competition for which a number of entries remain intact in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. It was the design of Donato Bramante that was selected, and for which the foundation stone was laid in 1506. This plan was in the form of an enormous Greek Cross with a dome inspired by that of the huge circular Roman temple, the Pantheon.[6] The main difference between Bramante's design and that of the Pantheon is that where the dome of the Pantheon is supported by a continuous wall, that of the new basilica was to be supported only on four large piers. This feature was maintained in the ultimate design. Bramante's dome was to be surmounted by a lantern with its own small dome but otherwise very similar in form to the Early Renaissance lantern of Florence Cathedraldesigned for Brunelleschi's dome by Michelozzo.[25]
Bramante had envisioned that the central dome be surrounded by four lower domes at the diagonal axes. The equal chancel, nave and transept arms were each to be of two bays ending in an apse. At each corner of the building was to stand a tower, so that the overall plan was square, with the apses projecting at the cardinal points. Each apse had two large radial buttresses, which squared off its semi-circular shape.[26]
When Pope Julius died in 1513, Bramante was replaced with Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Sangallo and Fra Giocondo both died in 1515, Bramante himself having died the previous year. The main change in Raphael's plan is the nave of five bays, with a row of complex apsidal chapels off the aisles on either side. Raphael's plan for the chancel and transepts made the squareness of the exterior walls more definite by reducing the size of the towers, and the semi-circular apses more clearly defined by encircling each with an ambulatory.[27]
In 1520 Raphael also died, aged 37, and his successor Baldassare Peruzzi maintained changes that Raphael had proposed to the internal arrangement of the three main apses, but otherwise reverted to the Greek Cross plan and other features of Bramante.[28] This plan did not go ahead because of various difficulties of both Church and state. In 1527 Rome was sacked and plundered by Emperor Charles V. Peruzzi died in 1536 without his plan being realized.[6]
At this point Antonio da Sangallo the Younger submitted a plan which combines features of Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante in its design and extends the building into a short nave with a wide façade and portico of dynamic projection. His proposal for the dome was much more elaborate of both structure and decoration than that of Bramante and included ribs on the exterior. Like Bramante, Sangallo proposed that the dome be surmounted by a lantern which he redesigned to a larger and much more elaborate form.[29] Sangallo's main practical contribution was to strengthen Bramante's piers which had begun to crack.[15]
On 1 January 1547 in the reign of Pope Paul III, Michelangelo, then in his seventies, succeeded Sangallo the Younger as "Capomaestro", the superintendent of the building program at St Peter's.[30] He is to be regarded as the principal designer of a large part of the building as it stands today, and as bringing the construction to a point where it could be carried through. He did not take on the job with pleasure; it was forced upon him by Pope Paul, frustrated at the death of his chosen candidate, Giulio Romano and the refusal of Jacopo Sansovino to leave Venice. Michelangelo wrote "I undertake this only for the love of God and in honour of the Apostle." He insisted that he should be given a free hand to achieve the ultimate aim by whatever means he saw fit.[15]
Michelangelo's contribution
Michelangelo took over a building site at which four piers, enormous beyond any constructed since ancient Roman times, were rising behind the remaining nave of the old basilica. He also inherited the numerous schemes designed and redesigned by some of the greatest architectural and engineering minds of the 16th century. There were certain common elements in these schemes. They all called for a dome to equal that engineered by Brunelleschi a century earlier and which has since dominated the skyline of Renaissance Florence, and they all called for a strongly symmetrical plan of either Greek Cross form, like the iconic St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, or of a Latin Cross with the transepts of identical form to the chancel, as at Florence Cathedral.
Even though the work had progressed only a little in 40 years, Michelangelo did not simply dismiss the ideas of the previous architects. He drew on them in developing a grand vision. Above all, Michelangelo recognized the essential quality of Bramante's original design. He reverted to the Greek Cross and, as Helen Gardner expresses it: "Without destroying the centralising features of Bramante's plan, Michelangelo, with a few strokes of the pen converted its snowflake complexity into massive, cohesive unity."[31]
As it stands today, St. Peter's has been extended with a nave by Carlo Maderno. It is the chancel end (the ecclesiastical "Eastern end") with its huge centrally placed dome that is the work of Michelangelo. Because of its location within the Vatican State and because the projection of the nave screens the dome from sight when the building is approached from the square in front of it, the work of Michelangelo is best appreciated from a distance. What becomes apparent is that the architect has greatly reduced the clearly defined geometric forms of Bramante's plan of a square with square projections, and also of Raphael's plan of a square with semi-circular projections.[32] Michelangelo has blurred the definition of the geometry by making the external masonry of massive proportions and filling in every corner with a small vestry or stairwell. The effect created is of a continuous wall-surface that is folded or fractured at different angles, but lacks the right-angles which usually define change of direction at the corners of a building. This exterior is surrounded by a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever-changing angles of the wall's surface. Above them the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the whole building in a state of compression.[33]
Dome – successive and final designs
Bramante's dome
The dome of St. Peter's rises to a total height of 136.57 metres (448.1 ft) from the floor of the basilica to the top of the external cross. It is the tallest dome in the world.[34] Its internal diameter is 41.47 metres (136.1 ft), slightly smaller than two of the three other huge domes that preceded it, those of the Pantheon of Ancient Rome, 43.3 metres (142 ft), and Florence Cathedral of the Early Renaissance, 44 metres (144 ft). It has a greater diameter by approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) than Constantinople's Hagia Sophiachurch, completed in 537. It was to the domes of the Pantheon and Florence duomo that the architects of St. Peter's looked for solutions as to how to go about building what was conceived, from the outset, as the greatest dome of Christendom.
Bramante and Sangallo, 1506 and 1513
The dome of the Pantheon stands on a circular wall with no entrances or windows except a single door. The whole building is as high as it is wide. Its dome is constructed in a single shell of concrete, made light by the inclusion of a large amount of the volcanic stones tuff and pumice. The inner surface of the dome is deeply coffered which has the effect of creating both vertical and horizontal ribs, while lightening the overall load. At the summit is an ocular opening 8 metres (26 ft) across which provides light to the interior.[6]
Bramante's plan for the dome of St. Peter's (1506) follows that of the Pantheon very closely, and like that of the Pantheon, was designed to be constructed in tufa concrete for which he had rediscovered a formula. With the exception of the lantern that surmounts it, the profile is very similar, except that in this case the supporting wall becomes adrum raised high above ground level on four massive piers. The solid wall, as used at the Pantheon, is lightened at St. Peter's by Bramante piercing it with windows and encircling it with a peristyle.
Sangallo's design
In the case of Florence Cathedral, the desired visual appearance of the pointed dome existed for many years before Brunelleschi made its construction feasible.[35] Its double-shell construction of bricks locked together in herringbone pattern (re-introduced from Byzantine architecture), and the gentle upward slope of its eight stone ribs made it possible for the construction to take place without the massive wooden formwork necessary to construct hemispherical arches. While its appearance, with the exception of the details of the lantern, is entirely Gothic, its engineering was highly innovative, and the product of a mind that had studied the huge vaults and remaining dome of Ancient Rome.[25]
Sangallo's plan (1513), of which a large wooden model still exists, looks to both these predecessors. He realised the value of both the coffering at the Pantheon and the outer stone ribs at Florence Cathedral. He strengthened and extended the peristyle of Bramante into a series of arched and ordered openings around the base, with a second such arcade set back in a tier above the first. In his hands, the rather delicate form of the lantern, based closely on that in Florence, became a massive structure, surrounded by a projecting base, a peristyle and surmounted by a spire of conic form.[29] According to James Lees-Milne the design was "too eclectic, too pernickety and too tasteless to have been a success".[15]
Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta, 1547 and 1585
St. Peter's Basilica from Castel Sant'Angeloshowing the dome rising behind Maderno's facade.
Michelangelo redesigned the dome in 1547, taking into account all that had gone before. His dome, like that of Florence, is constructed of two shells of brick, the outer one having 16 stone ribs, twice the number at Florence but far fewer than in Sangallo's design. As with the designs of Bramante and Sangallo, the dome is raised from the piers on a drum. The encircling peristyle of Bramante and the arcade of Sangallo are reduced to 16 pairs of Corinthian columns, each of 15 metres (49 ft) high which stand proud of the building, connected by an arch. Visually they appear to buttress each of the ribs, but structurally they are probably quite redundant. The reason for this is that the dome is ovoid in shape, rising steeply as does the dome of Florence Cathedral, and therefore exerting less outward thrust than does a hemispherical dome, such as that of the Pantheon, which, although it is not buttressed, is countered by the downward thrust of heavy masonry which extends above the circling wall.[6][15]
The ovoid profile of the dome has been the subject of much speculation and scholarship over the past century. Michelangelo died in 1564, leaving the drum of the dome complete, and Bramante's piers much bulkier than originally designed, each 18 metres (59 ft) across. Following his death, the work continued under his assistant Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola with Giorgio Vasari appointed by Pope Pius V as a watchdog to make sure that Michelangelo's plans were carried out exactly. Despite Vignola's knowledge of Michelangelo's intentions, little happened in this period. In 1585 the energetic Pope Sixtus appointed Giacomo della Porta who was to be assisted by Domenico Fontana. The five-year reign of Sixtus was to see the building advance at a great rate.[15]
The engraving by Stefan du Pérac was published in 1569, five years after the death of Michelangelo
Michelangelo left a few drawings, including an early drawing of the dome, and some drawings of details. There were also detailed engravings published in 1569 by Stefan du Pérac who claimed that they were the master's final solution. Michelangelo, like Sangallo before him, also left a large wooden model. Giacomo della Porta subsequently altered this model in several ways, in keeping with changes that he made to the design. Most of these changes were of a cosmetic nature, such as the adding of lion's masks over the swags on the drum in honour of Pope Sixtus and adding a circlet of finials around the spire at the top of the lantern, as proposed by Sangallo. The major change that was made to the model, either by della Porta, or Michelangelo himself before his death, was to raise the outer dome higher above the inner one.[15]
A drawing by Michelangelo indicates that his early intentions were towards an ovoid dome, rather than a hemispherical one.[31] In an engraving in Galasso Alghisi' treatise (1563), the dome may be represented as ovoid, but the perspective is ambiguous.[36] Stefan du Pérac's engraving (1569) shows a hemispherical dome, but this was perhaps an inaccuracy of the engraver. The profile of the wooden model is more ovoid than that of the engravings, but less so than the finished product. It has been suggested that Michelangelo on his death bed reverted to the more pointed shape. However Lees-Milne cites Giacomo della Porta as taking full responsibility for the change and as indicating to Pope Sixtus that Michelangelo was lacking in the scientific understanding of which he himself was capable.[15]
Helen Gardner suggests that Michelangelo made the change to the hemispherical dome of lower profile in order to establish a balance between the dynamic vertical elements of the encircling giant order of pilasters and a more static and reposeful dome. Gardner also comments "The sculpturing of architecture [by Michelangelo]… here extends itself up from the ground through the attic stories and moves on into the drum and dome, the whole building being pulled together into a unity from base to summit."[31]
It is this sense of the building being sculptured, unified and "pulled together" by the encircling band of the deep cornice that led Eneide Mignacca to conclude that the ovoid profile, seen now in the end product, was an essential part of Michelangelo's first (and last) concept. The sculptor/architect has, figuratively speaking, taken all the previous designs in hand and compressed their contours as if the building were a lump of clay. The dome must appear to thrust upwards because of the apparent pressure created by flattening the building's angles and restraining its projections.[33] If this explanation is the correct one, then the profile of the dome is not merely a structural solution, as perceived by Giacomo della Porta; it is part of the integrated design solution that is about visual tension and compression. In one sense, Michelangelo's dome may appear to look backward to the Gothic profile of Florence Cathedral and ignore the Classicism of the Renaissance, but on the other hand, perhaps more than any other building of the 16th century, it prefigures the architecture of the Baroque.[33]
Giacomo della Porta and Fontana brought the dome to completion in 1590, the last year of the reign of Sixtus V. His successor, Gregory XIV, saw Fontana complete the lantern and had an inscription to the honour of Sixtus V placed around its inner opening. The next pope, Clement VIII, had the cross raised into place, an event which took all day, and was accompanied by the ringing of the bells of all the city's churches. In the arms of the cross are set two lead caskets, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a relic of St. Andrew and the other containing medallions of the Holy Lamb.[15]
In the mid-18th century, cracks appeared in the dome, so four iron chains were installed between the two shells to bind it, like the rings that keep a barrel from bursting. As many as ten chains have been installed at various times, the earliest possibly planned by Michelangelo himself as a precaution, as Brunelleschi did at Florence Cathedral.
Around the inside of the dome is written, in letters 2 metres (6.6 ft) high:
(…you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church. … I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven… Vulgate, Matthew 16:18–19.)
Beneath the lantern is the inscription:
(To the glory of St Peter; Sixtus V, pope, in the year 1590 and the fifth year of his pontificate.)
Discovery of Michelangelo draft
On 7 December 2007, a fragment of a red chalk drawing of a section of the dome of Saint Peter's, almost certainly by the hand of Michelangelo was discovered in the Vatican archives.[37] The drawing shows a small precisely drafted section of the plan of the entabulature above two of the radial columns of the cupola drum. Michelangelo is known to have destroyed thousands of his drawings before his death.[38] The rare survival of this example is probably due to its fragmentary state and the fact that detailed mathematical calculations had been made over the top of the drawing.[37]
The nave looking towards the entrance
The change of plan
On 18 February 1606, under Pope Paul V, the dismantling of the remaining parts of the Constantinian basilica began.[15] The marble cross that had been set at the top of the pediment by Pope Sylvester and the Emperor Constantine was lowered to the ground. The timbers were salvaged for the roof of the Borghese Palace and two rare black marble columns, the largest of their kind, were carefully stored and later used in the narthex. The tombs of various popes were opened, treasures removed and plans made for reinterment in the new basilica.[15]
The Pope had appointed Carlo Maderno in 1602. He was a nephew of Domenico Fontana and had demonstrated himself as a dynamic architect. Maderno's idea was to ring Michelangelo's building with chapels, but the Pope was hesitant about deviating from the master's plan, even though he had been dead for forty years. The Fabbrica or building committee, a group drawn from various nationalities and generally despised by the Curia who viewed the basilica as belonging to Rome rather than Christendom, were in a quandary as to how the building should proceed. One of the matters that influenced their thinking was the Counter-Reformation which increasingly associated a Greek Cross plan with paganism and saw the Latin Cross as truly symbolic of Christianity.[15]
Another influence on the thinking of both the Fabbrica and the Curia was a certain guilt at the demolition of the ancient building. The ground on which it and its various associated chapels, vestries and sacristies had stood for so long was hallowed. The only solution was to build a nave that encompassed the whole space. In 1607 a committee of ten architects was called together, and a decision was made to extend Michelangelo's building into a nave. Maderno's plans for both the nave and the façade were accepted. The building began on 7 May 1607, and proceeded at a great rate, with an army of 700 labourers being employed. The following year, the façade was begun, in December 1614 the final touches were added to the stucco decoration of the vault and early in 1615 the partition wall between the two sections was pulled down. All the rubble was carted away, and the nave was ready for use by Palm Sunday.[15]
Maderno's façade, with the statues of Sts Peter (left) & Paul (right) flanking the entrance stairs
Maderno's façade
The façade designed by Maderno, is 114.69 metres (376.3 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.4 ft) high and is built of travertine stone, with a giant order of Corinthian columns and a central pediment rising in front of a tall attic surmounted by thirteen statues: Christ flanked by eleven of the Apostles (except Peter, whose statue is left of the stairs) and John the Baptist. [39] The inscription below the cornice on the 1 metre (3.3 ft) tall frieze reads:
(In honour of the Prince of Apostles, Paul V Borghese, a Roman, Supreme Pontiff, in the year 1612, the seventh of his pontificate)
The façade is often cited as the least satisfactory part of the design of St. Peter's. The reasons for this, according to James Lees-Milne, are that it was not given enough consideration by the Pope and committee because of the desire to get the building completed quickly, coupled with the fact that Maderno was hesitant to deviate from the pattern set by Michelangelo at the other end of the building. Lees-Milne describes the problems of the façade as being too broad for its height, too cramped in its details and too heavy in the attic storey. The breadth is caused by modifying the plan to have towers on either side. These towers were never executed above the line of the facade because it was discovered that the ground was not sufficiently stable to bear the weight. One effect of the façade and lengthened nave is to screen the view of the dome, so that the building, from the front, has no vertical feature, except from a distance.[15]
The narthex
Narthex and portals
Behind the façade of St. Peter's stretches a long portico or "narthex" such as was occasionally found in Italian Romanesque churches. This is the part of Maderno's design with which he was most satisfied. Its long barrel vault is decorated with ornate stucco and gilt, and successfully illuminated by small windows between pendentives, while the ornate marble floor is beamed with light reflected in from the piazza. At each end of the narthex is a theatrical space framed by ionic columns and within each is set a statue, an equestrian figure of Charlemagne by Cornacchini (18th century) in the south end and Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) in the north end.
Five portals, of which three are framed by huge salvaged antique columns, lead into the basilica. The central portal has a bronze door created by Antonio Averulino in 1455 for the old basilica and somewhat enlarged to fit the new space.
Maderno's nave
Maderno's nave, looking towards the chancel
To the single bay of Michelangelo's Greek Cross, Maderno added a further three bays. He made the dimensions slightly different to Michelangelo's bay, thus defining where the two architectural works meet. Maderno also tilted the axis of the nave slightly. This was not by accident, as suggested by his critics. An ancient Egyptian obelisk had been erected in the square outside, but had not been quite aligned with Michelangelo's building, so Maderno compensated, in order that it should, at least, align with the Basilica's facade.[15]
The nave has huge paired pilasters, in keeping with Michelangelo's work. The size of the interior is so "stupendously large" that it is hard to get a sense of scale within the building.[15][40] The four cherubs who flutter against the first piers of the nave, carrying between them two Holy Water basins, appear of quite normal cherubic size, until approached. Then it becomes apparent that each one is over 2 metres high and that real children cannot reach the basins unless they scramble up the marble draperies. The aisles each have two smaller chapels and a larger rectangular chapel, the Chapel of the Sacrament and the Choir Chapel. These are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco, gilt, sculpture and mosaic. Remarkably, there are very few paintings, although some, such as Raphael's "Sistine Madonna" have been reproduced in mosaic. The most precious painting is a small icon of the Madonna, removed from the old basilica.[15]
Maderno's last work at St. Peter's was to design a crypt-like space or "Confessio" under the dome, where the Cardinals and other privileged persons could descend in order to be nearer the burial place of the apostle. Its marble steps are remnants of the old basilica and around its balustrade are 95 bronze lamps.
Influence on church architecture
The design of St. Peter's Basilica, and in particular its dome, has greatly influenced church architecture in Western Christendom. Within Rome, the huge domed church of Sant'Andrea della Valle was designed by Giacomo della Porta before the completion of St Peter's, and subsequently worked on by Carlo Maderno. This was followed by the domes of San Carlo ai Catinari, Sant'Agnese in Agone and many others. Christopher Wren's dome at St Paul's Cathedral in London, the domes of Karlskirche in Vienna, St Nicholas Church, Prague and the Pantheon, Paris all pay homage to St Peter's. The 19th- and early 20th-century architectural revivals brought about the building of a great number of churches that imitate elements of St Peter's to a greater or lesser degree, including St. Mary of the Angels in Chicago,St. Josaphat's Basilica in Milwaukee, Immaculate Heart of Mary in Pittsburgh and Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral in Montreal, which replicates many aspects of St Peter's on a smaller scale. Post-Modernism has seen free adaptations of St Peter's in the Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń, and the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro.
Bernini's furnishings
View of the interior shows the transept arms to right and left, and the chancel beyond the baldacchino.
Pope Urban VIII and Bernini
As a young boy Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) visited St. Peter's with the painter Annibale Carracci and stated his wish to build "a mighty throne for the apostle". His wish came true. As a young man, in 1626, he received the patronage of Pope Urban VIII and worked on the embellishment of the Basilica for 50 years. Appointed as Maderno's successor in 1629, he was to become regarded as the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroqueperiod. Bernini's works at St. Peter's include the baldacchino, the Chapel of the Sacrament, the plan for the niches and loggias in the piers of the dome and the chair of St. Peter.[15][31]
Baldacchino and niches
Bernini's first work at St. Peter's was to design the baldacchino, a pavilion-like structure 30 metres (98 ft) tall and claimed to be the largest piece of bronze in the world, which stands beneath the dome and above the altar. Its design is based on the ciborium, of which there are many in the churches of Rome, serving to create a sort of holy space above and around the table on which the Sacrament is laid for the Eucharist and emphasizing the significance of this ritual. These ciboria are generally of white marble, with inlaid coloured stone. Bernini's concept was for something very different. He took his inspiration in part from the baldachin or canopy carried above the head of the pope in processions, and in part from eight ancient columns that had formed part of a screen in the old basilica. Their twisted barley-sugar shape had a special significance as they were modelled on those of the Temple of Jerusalem and donated by the Emperor Constantine. Based on these columns, Bernini created four huge columns of bronze, twisted and decorated with laurel leaves and bees, which were the emblem of Pope Urban.
The altar with Bernini's baldacchino
The baldacchino is surmounted not with an architectural pediment, like most baldacchini, but with curved Baroque brackets supporting a draped canopy, like the brocade canopies carried in processions above precious iconic images. In this case, the draped canopy is of bronze, and all the details, including the olive leaves, bees, and the portrait heads of Urban's niece in childbirth and her newborn son, are picked out in gold leaf. The baldacchino stands as a vast free-standing sculptural object, central to and framed by the largest space within the building. It is so large that the visual effect is to create a link between the enormous dome which appears to float above it, and the congregation at floor level of the basilica. It is penetrated visually from every direction, and is visually linked to the Cathedra Petri in the apse behind it and to the four piers containing large statues that are at each diagonal.[15][31]
As part of the scheme for the central space of the church, Bernini had the huge piers, begun by Bramante and completed by Michelangelo, hollowed out into niches, and had staircases made inside them, leading to four balconies. There was much dismay from those who thought that the dome might fall, but it did not. On the balconies Bernini created showcases, framed by the eight ancient twisted columns, to display the four most precious relics of the basilica: the spear of Longinus, said to have pierced the side of Christ, the veil of Veronica, with the miraculous image of the face of Christ, a fragment of the True Crossdiscovered in Jerusalem by Constantine's mother, Helena, and a relic of St. Andrew, the brother of St. Peter. In each of the niches that surround the central space of the basilica was placed a huge statue of the saint associated with the relic above. Only St. Longinus is the work of Bernini.[15] (See below)
Bernini's "Cathedra Petri" and "Gloria"
Cathedra Petri and Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament
Bernini then turned his attention to another precious relic, the so-called Cathedra Petri or "throne of St. Peter" a chair which was often claimed to have been used by the apostle, but appears to date from the 12th century. As the chair itself was fast deteriorating and was no longer serviceable, Pope Alexander VII determined to enshrine it in suitable splendour as the object upon which the line of successors to Peter was based. Bernini created a large bronze throne in which it was housed, raised high on four looping supports held effortlessly by massive bronze statues of four Doctors of the Church, Saints Ambrose andAugustine representing the Latin Church and Athanasius and John Chrysostom, the Greek Church. The four figures are dynamic with sweeping robes and expressions of adoration and ecstasy. Behind and above the Cathedra, a blaze of light comes in through a window of yellow alabaster, illuminating, at its centre, the Dove of the Holy Spirit. The elderly painter, Andrea Sacchi, had urged Bernini to make the figures large, so that they would be seen well from the central portal of the nave. The chair was enshrined in its new home with great celebration of 16 January 1666.[15][31]
Bernini's final work for St. Peter's, undertaken in 1676, was the decoration of the Chapel of the Sacrament.[41] To hold the sacramental Host, he designed a miniature version in gilt bronze of Bramante's Tempietto, the little chapel that marks the place of the death of St. Peter. On either side is an angel, one gazing in rapt adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 in his 82nd year.[15]
St. Peter's Piazza
Two fountains form the axis of the piazza.
To the east of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro, (St. Peter's Square). The present arrangement, constructed between 1656 and 1667, is the Baroque inspiration of Bernini who inherited a location already occupied by an Egyptian obelisk of the 13th century BC, which was centrally placed, (with some contrivance) to Maderno's facade. The obelisk, known as "The Witness", at 25.5 metres (84 ft) and a total height, including base and the cross on top, of 40 metres (130 ft), is the second largest standing obelisk, and the only one to remain standing since its removal from Egypt and re-erection at the Circus of Nero in 37 AD, where it is thought to have stood witness to the crucifixion of St Peter.[42] Its removal to its present location by order of Pope Sixtus V and engineered by Domenico Fontana on 28 September 1586, was an operation fraught with difficulties and nearly ending in disaster when the ropes holding the obelisk began to smoke from the friction. Fortunately this problem was noticed by a sailor, and for his swift intervention, his village was granted the privilege of providing the palms that are used at the basilica each Palm Sunday.[15]
The other object in the old square with which Bernini had to contend was a large fountain designed by Maderno in 1613 and set to one side of the obelisk, making a line parallel with the façade. Bernini's plan uses this horizontal axis as a major feature of his unique, spatially dynamic and highly symbolic design. The most obvious solutions were either a rectangular piazza of vast proportions so that the obelisk stood centrally and the fountain (and a matching companion) could be included, or a trapezoid piazza which fanned out from the façade of the basilica like that in front of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. The problems of the square plan are that the necessary width to include the fountain would entail the demolition of numerous buildings, including some of the Vatican, and would minimise the effect of the facade. The trapezoid plan, on the other hand, would maximise the apparent width of the façade, which was already perceived as a fault of the design.[31]
View of Rome from the Dome of St. Peter's Basilica
Bernini's ingenious solution was to create a piazza in two sections. That part which is nearest the basilica is trapezoid, but rather than fanning out from the façade, it narrows. This gives the effect of countering the visual perspective. It means that from the second part of the piazza, the building looks nearer than it is, the breadth of the façade is minimized and its height appears greater in proportion to its width. The second section of the piazza is a huge elliptical circus which gently slopes downwards to the obelisk at its centre. The two distinct areas are framed by a colonnade formed by doubled pairs of columns supporting an entabulature of the simple Tuscan Order.
The part of the colonnade that is around the ellipse does not entirely encircle it, but reaches out in two arcs, symbolic of the arms of "the Roman Catholic Church reaching out to welcome its communicants".[31] The obelisk and Maderno's fountain mark the widest axis of the ellipse. Bernini balanced the scheme with another fountain in 1675. The approach to the square used to be through a jumble of old buildings, which added an element of surprise to the vista that opened up upon passing through the colonnade. Nowadays a long wide street, the Via della Conciliazione, built by Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaties, leads from the River Tiber to the piazza and gives distant views of St. Peter's as the visitor approaches.[15]
Bernini's transformation of the site is entirely Baroque in concept. Where Bramante and Michelangelo conceived a building that stood in "self-sufficient isolation", Bernini made the whole complex "expansively relate to its environment".[31] Banister Fletcher says "No other city has afforded such a wide-swept approach to its cathedral church, no other architect could have conceived a design of greater nobility…(it is) the greatest of all atriums before the greatest of all churches of Christendom."[6]
Air vents for the crypt in St. Peter's Basilica
Tombs and relics
There are over 100 tombs within St. Peter's Basilica (extant to various extents), many located in the Vatican grotto, beneath the Basilica. These include 91 popes, St. Ignatius of Antioch, Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, and the composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Exiled Catholic British royalty James Francis Edward Stuartand his two sons, Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, are buried here, having been granted asylum by Pope Clement XI. Also buried here are Maria Clementina Sobieska, wife of James Francis Edward Stuart, Queen Christina of Sweden, who abdicated her throne in order to convert to Catholicism, and Countess Matilda of Tuscany, supporter of the Papacy during the Investiture Controversy. The most recent interment was Pope John Paul II, on 8 April 2005. Beneath, near the crypt, is the recently discovered vaulted fourth-century "Tomb of the Julii". (See below for some descriptions of tombs)
The towers and narthex
- In the towers to either side of the facade are two clocks. The clock on the left has been operated electrically since 1931. Its oldest bell dates from 1288.
- One of the most important treasures of the basilica is a mosaic set above the central external door. Called the "Navicella", it is based on a design by Giotto (early 14th century) and represents a ship symbolising the Christian Church.[7] The mosaic is mostly a 17th-century copy of Giotto's original.
- At each end of the narthex is an equestrian figure, to the north Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) and to the south Charlemagne by Cornacchini (18th century).[7]
- Of the five portals from the narthex to the interior, three contain notable doors. The central portal has the Renaissance bronze door by Antonio Averulino (called Filarete) (1455), enlarged to fit the new space. The southern door, the "Door of the Dead", was designed by 20th-century sculptor Giacomo Manzù and includes a portrait of Pope John XXIII kneeling before the crucified figure of St. Peter.
- The northernmost door is the "Holy Door" which, by tradition, is walled-up with bricks, and opened only for holy years such as the Jubilee year by the Pope. The present door is bronze and was designed by Vico Consorti in 1950. Above it are inscriptions commemorating the opening of the door: PAVLVS V PONT MAX ANNO XIII and GREGORIVS XIII PONT MAX. Recent commemorative plaques read:
Paul VI, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed the holy door of this patriarchal Vatican basilica in the jubilee year of 1975.
John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed again the holy door closed and set apart by Paul VI in 1976 in the jubilee year of human redemption 1983-4.
John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, again opened and closed the holy door in the year of the great jubilee, from the incarnation of the Lord 2000–2001.


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West Point Sport
Plenty of space in this stylish home for guests and entertaining. The lower level has a wet bar for game day, an indoor fitness center for the kiddos, plenty of dining space on Holidays . . . basically everything you'd want and need! Private Owner's Suite with walk-through to laundry. Located on a corner lot, within walking distance from the community clubhouse, pool, and playground.
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You might have noticed there have been far fewer posts recently than in the past here. I've changed my posting schedule to post on Tuesdays and Thursdays, rather than four times a week. Why? It comes down to choosing an appropriate posting schedule for your blog and what sort of information should inform your decision.
What Matters in a Blog Posting Schedule
- Consistency of Schedule
Your goal is to have loyal readers who are addicted to your posts and can't wait for the next hit come publishing time. Why should you expect readers to religiously check your website if you're not giving them a reason? You should choose a schedule you can stick to every single week, no matter what.
- Consistency of Quality
Posting for the sake of posting is another problem. It's Monday, you publish on Mondays, you have nothing to say. You publish anyway. It's not helping you achieve your goal of making something your audience is addicted to reading!
The problem is a catch-22. You must post with the same schedule and quality every time—but it can be hard to do that.
Why I Reduced My Posting Schedule
My goal is to provide actionable blogging tips that help my audience improve their overall online presence on a reliable schedule. I've always posted on a M-W-F schedule for all the blogs I've maintained over the years, both for clients and myself, so I figured doing the same here would be fine. I later decided to add in a weekly Vlog on Thursdays. I was posting four times a week and spending at least 10-12 hours each week on creating that content.
I spent huge amounts of time ensuring content was up to my standards. Each post took a great deal of time. But there are only so many hours in a day, and I found myself struggling to fit my own content in with that of my clients. It meant a lot of late nights and sometimes less billable hours than my goals.
Analyzing my numbers showed another problem. My content wasn't getting the attention I required for the investment of time I made.
I decided that my posting schedule wasn't reliably bringing in the attention I wanted and I needed to work harder on promoting my posts and blog. But I had no time to do that!
Scaling back my posting schedule was the only option to turn my blog into a success.
What I'm Doing with a Less Intense Posting Schedule
Instead of spending 10-12 hours producing content each week, I'm spending about 3-4 hours. On top of that, I've increased time spent getting links back to my content and website by writing articles for other websites and building stronger relationships with other bloggers for 2-3 hours each week.
Think about it:
- 10-12 hours for Google organic search and limited social shares
- 5-7 hours for Google search, referrals, and increased social shares
Which would you pick?
Instead of posting four times a week, I'm posting twice a week, writing one article for another blog, and starting conversations with other bloggers that build social influence using less time. Talk about a better strategy!
The Secret of Blog Post Schedule Success
You're probably wondering "How does that work? How is she still not scrambling to post reliably?"
The biggest secret to creating high quality content on a regular schedule is doing it in advance.
The more time to you have to step back from your content, the more relaxed you can be about perfecting it, the better your content will be. My biggest secret is writing posts at least a week in advance. This gives you a great buffer for those times when you just can't write something amazing. Because, really, no one can be awesome all the time, right? So plan in wiggle room!
How to choose your blogging schedule:
- Take a look at what you're doing now and the results you're seeing. Does Analytics justify the time investment?
- If you analytics are missing the mark, figure out why. Is your content not up to par? You'll notice this with a low on-page time on number of pages per visit. Are you not doing enough to promote it? Your analytics show your traffic isn't coming from consistent sources or only comes from one or two places. How can you fix your blog's problem?
- Make a plan to correct the issue. If you're having trouble creating great content regularly or need more time to promote it than you could dedicate to it now because of your posting schedule, change how you spend your time.
- Try it for size and see how it works. Give it a few weeks and analyze the changes in your numbers. Did it make a positive impact? Did you numbers drop? Why? Should you continue with your new schedule?
How often do you post on your blog? Do you feel you're consistent in schedule, content quality, and promotion? Tell me in the comments!


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Posts tagged with event-photography
Amber's Sweet 16 in Jackson NJ12 Jan 2019
Amber's Sweet 16 in Jackson, NJ was fun and sweet. Great family and great kids having a blast! www.AestheteStudios.com
Julie + Bob (Oct-2014)02 Feb 2015
Julie and Bob's wedding was one of the weekends I had weddings Fri, Sat and Sun. Exciting to be so sought after a wedding photographer Julie's parent had come out from Illinois with this amazing vintage car that Julie loves…well everybody loves. The car was trailered out from IL…was only…


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College of Fine Arts and Communication
The College of Fine Arts and Communication seeks to be Arkansas's preeminent provider of undergraduate education in the arts as well as to offer excellent graduate programs in selected disciplines. The college's primary mission is the preparation of the next generation of artists, educators, and communicators.
国产中文字幕乱码免费_五月天堂五-2018国产天天弄谢-未成18不能看的视频To this end, it provides quality aesthetic experiences and thereby contributes to a deeper appreciation of the human experience. The college is also dedicated to providing public artistic and educational opportunities which enhance and expand the cultural lives of all Arkansans.
Please click here to contribute to the College of Fine Arts and Communication via the UCA Foundation.
国产中文字幕乱码免费_五月天堂五-2018国产天天弄谢-未成18不能看的视频The College of Fine Arts and Communication offers undergraduate and graduate programs of exceptional quality in selected disciplines. The college's primary mission is to prepare the next generation of artists, communicators, and scholars not only to participate in their various disciplines, but to provide leadership in their fields. The college comprises the Departments of Art; Film, Theatre, & Creative Writing; Music; and School of Communication, as well as the Reynolds Performance Hall. The many disciplines within the college share a dedication to both rigorous studio practice and scholarly achievement.
Through its communication venues such as broadcasts, conferences, exhibits, live performances, publications, readings, recitals and screenings, the college shares its artistic achievements and communication expertise with the general public.
国产中文字幕乱码免费_五月天堂五-2018国产天天弄谢-未成18不能看的视频To accomplish its mission over time and under changing conditions, the college:
Creates a learning community that is dedicated to the artistic, communicative, and personal development of the individual and that prizes the artist's voice and vision.
Delivers curricula that blend the best of past knowledge with the most provocative of current theory in order to prepare students to contribute to the development of the arts, media and education.
Maintains a quality faculty that demonstrates excellence both in the classroom and in creative/scholarly pursuits.
Provides optimal facilities and resources to support a dynamic learning environment.
Presents–as an extension of its teaching mission–public performances, educational initiatives, and special programs that address the cultural and education needs of all Arkansans.
University of Central Arkansas
College of Fine Arts and Communication
McCastlain Hall, Suite 110
201 Donaghey Avenue
Conway, AR 72035-0001
(501) 450-3293


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Timeless Trend of Bob Hairstyles with Bangs
Bob hairstyles with bangs make the women look attractive whether she dyes her hair or not. This is made by many actresses in their movies as hairstylists cut short bob hairs with the varied length of bangs in front.
It gave woman gorgeous and pretty look and made her feel like a celebrity.There is such a thing as a right hairstyle, and having this particular right hairstyle is a prime substance for working women. For the reason that, along with the swift and fast urban life, there is no more extra time given for maintaining a do.
In bob hairstyles with bangs, the face of a woman is clearly identical and seems to be more charming. In this hairstyle, even rounded face woman looks prettier as bangs in front make a new look of her face. Bob hairstyles make a person young and energetic as one will look fresh.
This bang is sometimes lengthy up to the length of eyes. Bangs are newly added in this style as eyes look more prominent in this. It is better to wear lens or those women having good eyes should prefer to have this cut with bangs in front makes her more attractive.
bob hairstyles with bangs makes a person look young
Sometimes Bob's hairs are made so closely and tightly to each other as hairs look like having more volume while bangs in front are long in length which makes the good combination. The main advantage of bob hairstyles with bangs is that a woman will look younger in it.
while lines on her forehead are hidden in front hairs that do not make any doubt about the age of the woman. But it has been advised to many women having long nosed that bob hairstyles with bangs will not suit them because her nose will be more prominent in such style so if any woman wants to make this style, she should better go for the shorter length of bangs. Read also: 40 Hottest Bob Haircuts for Fine Hair in 2017
Sometimes bob hairstyles with bangs look more appealing when the fringes are made inside pose, but better to take advice first from any hairstylist that which type of bangs will be suitable for your face.A woman who wants to cut his hair to a certain short level so she should better select this style.
In this New Year, Bob hairstyles are in the revolution as they are easy to maintain. Sometimes curly hair with this style also looks new and change, but it gives the new look to those women having straight hair. Even sometimes they look well without bangs.
Women having curly or wavy hairs can make them by cutting the tips of the hairs from the bottom to give a stylish look as the hairs will be curved and rounded.Bob hairstyles with bangs are nowadays very much popular in beauty parlors for those women even having their rectangular or heart shaped face.
different bob hairstyles with bangs
The banged up Bob is one of angled bob styles which contains some straight across bang which transforms your regular angled bob style into spectacular style. If you are just looking for the new look, or just want to add a new thing which is different to the current look, give bangs a try.
You must ask the stylist first to give you some rocking straight bangs. Do not try to achieve this style at your home. Trust me you will just regret doing so. Use the paddle brush and blow dryer to smooth bangs after washing the hair.
Flatiron is also required to smooth out the bangs.Bob hairstyles with bangs have been popular for many years.
Are you bold enough to chop off your long tresses for the much-adored pixie alternative? If the idea gives you goosebumps and you start picturing yourself in the bold and confident short hair, then you really should book an appointment with expert beauty professionals as soon as possible.
Yes, you will need their help. Maintaining short hair is not as easy as it seems. It, in fact, requires more styling and frequent visits to the salon to get it right. The style owes its popularity mostly to the bold celebrities who recently chopped off their long strands of mermaid tresses for the easy-to-carry and easy-to-maintain pixie styles.
If you are in, then the following short hairstyles can simply blow your minds. But, but, but, make sure to consult your favorite beauty professionals before you chop your tresses off:
Swept Back short hairstyle
Do you have a round face with dense hair? Okay, now are you ready to let go of it and choose a short and bold alternative? Well then, this hairstyle is just for you. To explain in brief, the swept back style keeps the hair near your temples long enough to be swept back with a medium round brush. The sides the chopped off which creates a distinct look. You feel confident, stylish and ready to attract eyeballs when you are out on the streets. However, you need to style it often to keep the long strands dripping on your face.
Choppy Bob
If you are looking low maintenance, cute, short hair, then the layered choppy bob will be perfect for you. It looks beautiful on girls who tend to have less volume. Being easy to maintain, this haircut seems to be a favorite of many.
However, if you are looking for something unique and out of the ordinary, you can go for blunt ends in your otherwise simple choppy bob to give out an essence of confidence and personality.
Pixie cuts
Pixie cuts have been popular with common people as well as celebrities since time immemorial. If you love to adorn a pixie hairstyle, consult an experienced hair stylist to choose the right one for you. Only the expert beauty professionals can help you decide whether it will be the standard asymmetrical pixie, wavy, spiky or the latest red hot flaming layered pixie for a gorgeous look. These types of hairstyles will cause a lot of distraction as one they will poke in your eyes, and aside from that, if you often touch your hair it will also distract those who are around you.


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Do you have bullnose or edge pieces to finish off the edge of a backsplash?
asked by Lianne on April 5, 2020
Sort: Most Helpful first |Newest first |Oldest first
No, we do not carry Bull-nose tile. Our tile have finished edges and there is no need to do edge pieces with them.
The Wholesalers USA Team answered on February 16, 2016


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Meet Our Staff
Tom Bush Law Group is proud to serve you. Our staff is composed of the best legal professionals in the industry, to include paralegals, administrative and legal assistants who work hard to see your case come to a conclusion.
Kristin Wright
Born in Jonesboro, Arkansas, Kristin has a Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice Administration from Mount Olive College. Kristin serves as paralegal to Mr. Bush with Tom Bush Law Group.
Alisha Rome Plaza
Alisha is native of Texas with years of experience. She is paralegal to Ms. Hamrick and Ms. Wright with Tom Bush Law Group.
Kayla Martin
Executive Assistant to Tom Bush
Kayla grew up down the road in Clover, South Carolina. She serves as Executive Assistance to Mr. Bush with Tom Bush Law Group.
Maria M. Garcia
Maria works diligently as a receptionist for the Tom Bush Law Group. She is fluent in Spanish and enjoys gardening in her spare time.


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Colossal announced that some new DLC is set to arrive for Cities: Skylines in the form of Natural Disasters. The new content will be available starting November 29th for $14.99, and will allow gamers to naturally discover disasters that can wreck havoc on a town, or the disasters can be triggered just like in the old SimCity games.
The game sold like crazy when it came out last year in early 2015. It was hailed as the game that the 2013 reboot of SimCity should have been. It didn't have tiny city restrictions or always-on DRM to completely destroy the immersion and playability of the city simulation process. Collosal's Cities: Skylines delivered what EA couldn't.
Anyway, after a year of success, the developers are still pumping out new content for the game, this time in the form of the Natural Disasters DLC. They speak briefly about it in the developer diary below.
The DLC is designed to offer players new challenges as they expand and grow their cities. There will be a new rescue emergency services that players can put to use when tornadoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, fires, meteor storms and lightning strikes come down from the heavens or out from the earth and split your city in half like the 2016 election split America in half.
The disasters will happen organically while you play if you have the feature turned on, or you can activate them yourself just to give the game a little extra oomph.
It's a pretty cool update because they have things like shelters for disasters, deep space radars to help give the player a heads-up when their town is about to turn into a 1998 Michael Bay film.
The emergency squads available after a disaster hits are available to rescue trapped citizens, put out fires or deconstruct danger zones. You can also use the emergency units to help redirect traffic when things get hectic.
But it's not all about the destruction!
The Natural Disasters DLC will also come with new quick-switch options for the in-game radio stations so you can listen to different tunes while you clean up catastrophic events that would rock The Rock from San Andreas.
You can look for the new DLC to drop on November 29th for $14.99. Need more info? Hit up the game's official website.


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Dental care. Beautiful healthy teeth. Teeth whitening. Toothpaste and brushing
Nice healthy teeth forever home leaving and dental visits
Nice teeth - now it is a indispensable attribute for a successful modern man. To your teeth longer stay fine and healthy learn How to look for them. Dental care is made up of two components: a permanent home maintenance and regular visits to a dental office...
Periodontitis. Symptoms, causes and prevention of periodontal disease: how to cure
Every morning, going to the mirror, you admire her beautiful smile. But what to do when it is not? If you did notice that a condition of your gums is not perfect, so it may be able to cope with a developing periodontitis independently. What are a causes of periodontal disease and however to prevent its occurrence?...
Resembling articles:
Facials and masks moisturizing
Masks and skin care fall
Face care of the 35 years.
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Aspire K1 Tank
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The Aspire K2 tank is a great glassomizer tank. It uses the same bvc coils as the ET-S, ET, CE5, CE5-S, K1 which makes it suitable for those wantin...View full details
The K3 Tank from Aspire creates a great replica of a cigarette draw. The K3 Tank produces a satisfying amount of vapour for a smoker and is a great...View full details
Aspire Nautilus 2S Tank is the latest in the Nautilus 2 tank series, a sleek, curvy design equipped with a 0.4ohm BVC coil for direct to lung vapin...View full details
The Quad-Flex Survival Kit is a 4-in-1 atomizer. An RDTA that can be converted, very quickly, into an RDA, or a Squonking RDA or a clearomizer, nam...View full details
Introducing the Tigon tank, an easy to use 'child safe' compact tank from Aspire. It comes in four stylish colour finishes, Stainless Steel, Blue, ...View full details
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I highlighted some of the challenges North American refiners face in an earlier post with tight oil from shale formations. Emerson's Michelle Weimert has Hydrocarbon Processing article, Leverage diagnostics to keep production running smoothly, which looks at the role of temperature measurement diagnostics can play in reliable refinery operations. The article opens: The continuing trend […]
Update: See a recorded version of the Cooling Tower webinar. Reliability of plant assets and process operations remains near the top of every manufacturer's list of concerns. According to the ARC Advisory Group: The global process industries lose $20 billion, or 5% annual production, due to unscheduled downtime and poor quality. ARC estimates that almost […]
We're entering that time of year where draft presentations have been developed and submitted to the Emerson Exchange organizers. The 2011 event will be held October 24-28 in Nashville, Tennessee USA. A few weeks ago, I caught up with Emerson's Pete Sharpe who leads our industry applications team and I asked him about his presentation […]
At the upcoming Meridium conference, May 2-6 in Roanoke, Virginia USA, three Emerson presenters will be on the agenda: Stuart Harris, Augie Di Giovanni, and Mike Boudreaux. The AMS Suite: Asset Performance Management software is built upon Meridium's APM enterprise software. The software enables plant personnel to access integrated information from multiple sources, view real-time […]
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Room 3 – Double
Room 3 is a well appointed double room with a bath-shower ensuite, decorated using the latest Zoffany wallpaper.
Furthermore, the rooms at One Holyrood B&B were individually designed with quality, character and comfort as a priority.
One Holyrood's B&B accommodation is spread out over three floors of this Grade II listed building. Finally, as a result of even having undergone a total restoration, the building maintains its charm and architectural integrity.
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O'Neill Wetsuits
Jack O'Neill is the Californian entrepreneur and surf enthusiast responsible for the creation of leading surf brand O'Neill. Jack O'Neill used his passion for surf to create a piece of pioneering technology designed to beat Mother Nature, the world's first neoprene wetsuit.
Originally designed to allow Jack to stay in the freezing waters of the Northern Californian coasts for longer allowing him to enjoy more surf the creation has revolutionised surfing and opened up surfing location that were once unbearable.
It is no surprise that O'Neill wetsuits are one of the brands best selling products, as the original inventor you can expect O'Neill wetsuits to offer the best in quality and durability. O'Neil wetsuits come in a range of sizes and styles for men, women and children.
Ladies O'Neill wetsuits range from the basic O'Neill WMS Epic perfect for a first time wetsuit through New Psyco2 the ideal accompaniment to any intermediate surf enthusiast. For those who prefer shorti O'Neill wetsuits there are some fabulous gems on offer. The O'Neill WMS Reactor Spring gives you a dose of performance and an exceptional price or the O'Neill WMS Bahia s/s Spring combines hardcore technology with ultra savvy style.
For children O'Neill produce a fantastic array of summer, winter and shorti wetsuits in sizes 4 to 16 with a range of colour detailing.
O'Neill's men's summer wetsuits are some of the best on the market with a fantastic range to suit all abilities and needs. Starting at just £69.99 the O'Neill Reactor 3/2 Conv is from the highly technical warm water series and utilises O'Neil's exclusive FluidFlex technology in the shoulder and upper arm. Mid range is the O'Neill Gooru GBS 2/3 Full a lightweight and streamlined suit built with UltraFlex DS with great attention to detail.
Top of the men's range by miles is the O'Neill Psyco-2 Zen Zip 3/2 FSW described as the evolution of insanity the new Psyco offers superior flexibility and fit. A new x-type firewall combined with double fluid seems weld keeps you warm, dry and loose.
There is no doubt it pays to pick the best wetsuit and O'Neil are the original neoprene wetsuit manufacturer, a brand you can trust and one that won't let you down.
Take a look at the full range of O'Neill wetsuits available from Shore including the new and fantastic Psyco-2 Zen.


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The Process of Developing an Operational Plan for an Organisation
There are several important key areas to consider when developing an operation plan and all of them must be consideredRead more
There are several important key areas to consider when developing an operation plan and all of them must be consideredRead more
There are three main types of interdependences in an organisational structure: pooled, sequential and reciprocal (shared). Pooled interdependence is definedRead more
Risk Analyses in Operational Planning Risk analysis is assessing the probability of something going wrong, whilst at the same timeRead more
If we are certain of an outcome we may make an instant decision, based on our prior experience, expertise andRead more
Step One: Brainstorm Costs and Benefits Initially, you need to look at a project and outline all of the associatedRead more
Operational planning is the process of planning strategic goals and objectives to tactical goals and objectives. It describes milestones, conditionsRead more
Through developing a learning and innovation culture a business will aim to encourage employees and managers to think 'outside ofRead more
Professional Networks Throughout my career I have needed to build various professional networks, and these networks have been vital inRead more
Assigned Leadership An assigned leader is a person who uses their position within an organisation (such as a job titleRead more
It is generally accepted that there are 5 levels of leadership. These are (in ascending order): Position – People whoRead more


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Data replication copies data, metadata, and files from staging to either the development or production instance.
Data replication functions at two levels: global replication, which includes configuration information and data that applies to your entire organization, and site replication, which includes data belonging to one or more specified sites (such as product and catalog data, XML-based content components, and image files). When you create a new PIG, you must run a full global replication to each target instance before running any site replications to it.
After the initial global replication, you can configure which data is included in subsequent replications by selecting specific replication tasks, and can combine global and site-level data in a single process. Review the tasks to understand the granularity at which different types of data are replicated. For example, you can replicate a single catalog, but you can't replicate only a specific product. Partial data replication is useful in cases such as the following.
When you replicate data, the data you select replaces the corresponding data on the target instance. For example, your staging and development instances both include catalogs A, B, and C. On your staging instance, you update catalog B, delete catalog C, and add catalog D. When you replicate catalogs from staging to development, on your development instance catalog A is unaffected, catalog B is updated, catalog C is deleted, and catalog D is added.
You can't replicate the following data. Instead, create or import it in development and production instances.
Data replication is a two-step process. First, data is transferred from staging to the target instance, then it is published on the target instance. You can run both steps as a single replication process, or run them separately. Running them separately can help you identify the source of failures that might occur.
There are four types of data replication processes.
|Replication Type
|The selected data on the source instance is transferred to the target instance, but does not replace or affect the current data on the target. You must then run a replication process of type Publishing to update the target instance data.
|Transfer & Publishing
|The selected data on the source instance is replicated to the target instance and immediately replaces the existing data.
|This process is available only after a successful Transfer
process. Publishing replaces the existing data on the target instance with the
previously transferred data. The replication tasks in the Publishing process must
exactly match the tasks in the Transfer process. You cannot transfer data and then
publish only some of it. If any of the transferred data no longer exists on the
target, then the replication process fails.
Note: You must disable incremental indexing when you run a Publishing replication process.
|This process is available only after a successful Transfer & Publishing or Publishing replication process. It reverts the target instance to the data that existed there before the last replication process.


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By: Henry J. Fromage (Four Beers) –
I was sold on Mary Queen of Scots from the first trailer. Two of last year's Best Actress contenders in Saoirse Ronan and Margot Robbie facing off in the true story of the power struggle and personal relationship between Queen Elizabeth of England and Queen Mary of Scotland? What's not to love?
Can't miss.
Mary Queen of Scots is about the return of Queen Mary, formerly of France until her young husband passed away, to Scotland, where she also has a royal claim (as well as England's own throne upon which Elizabeth sits). As she maneuvers to secure her power, she finds that Elizabeth's reluctance to take a husband may be the wisest course for a young queen in the 1500s.
A Toast
This is Saoirse Ronan's film, and she runs with it. Her Mary commands the screen- strong-willed, often to a fault, but compassionate and girlish as befits her easy to forget youth. A survivor that has seen too much but who still has some of the girl left to her. Robbie is also strong in the material she was given, delivering a more tentative, fearful portrayal of Elizabeth than we're used to seeing. Finally, you can't find fault in the sumptuous costuming or intriguing, lived-in set design nor John Mathieson's sweeping cinematography or Max Richter's classical score. A very handsomely produced film all around.
Beer Two
There are two ahistorical touches that will jump out at you. First, it won't be long before you take note of some anachronistic diversity in the casting choices, which bothered me at first (there's almost a checklist in play- one of everything, please!), but which I have to give some respect to the director, Josie Rourke's reasoning: "Just so you know, I'm not doing to direct an all-white period drama. That's not something I'm going to do."
Y'all love Hamilton, right?
The second, the face to face showdown between Mary and Elizabeth, would have been a highlight of the film if it had been set up correctly (more on that later).
It's the less-obvious historical embellishments that end up hurting the film most, however. Essentially everything that gets sexy and bi-curious about the film is total bunk, and the true history of Mary's relationship to her asshole second husband is far, far sadder and her relationship to her third far, far more soapily interesting. Neither truth, nor the fact that Mary's religion was more asset than liability in her quest for the crown, fits the storyline of Mary as feminist martyr, however, so it's discarded.
Beer Three
That reading of the intent of this telling of the story belies the strangely unfeminist roles these strong women ultimately fit, however. The agency that Mary displays is largely spent making short-sighted decisions in fits of passion, and Elizabeth gets almost none at all. She spends the far smaller amount of screentime than you'd expect from the trailers that she has largely moping about how much prettier and more fertile Mary is and making flower art. Seriously.
I mean, besides that and establishing the bedrock of four centuries of English supremacy, she wasn't good for much I guess.
Beer Four
The eagle-eyed among you may have noticed how my expectations in the introduction don't quite match the plot description. My biggest issue is that this film's not at all what we were sold. Between the above historical liberties and the sidelining of Queen Elizabeth what we're left with is a film where Queen Mary discovers the 1500s are a pretty shitty place for a woman ruler to survive. Well, either that or the true lesson of the film- best not to make door-slamming threats when speaking from a position of weakness. Because seriously, that's pretty much her entire downfall.
Mary Queen of Scots is a very modern, very stageplay interpretation of a interesting history that may have been better presented in the film's own trailers.
Mary Queen of Scots (2018) Drinking Game
Take a Drink: for each of the United Colors of Benetton (fun game, make a checklist before the movie starts)
Take a Drink: every time a man proves a treacherous cad
Take a Drink: every time Queen Elizabeth mopes or waffles or cries
Take a Drink: every time Queen Mary does something rash
Do a Shot: every time that backfires on her spectacularly