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JAMB Syllabus For Agricultural Science 2017 | The aim of this Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination syllabus in Agriculture is to prepare the candidates for the Board's examination. It is designed to test their achievement of the course objectives, which are to:
- Stimulate and sustain their interest in Agriculture;
- Acquire basic knowledge and practical skills in Agriculture;
- Acquire the knowledge of interpretation and the use of data;
- Stimulate their ability to make deductions using the acquired knowledge in Agriculture
The syllabus is divided into five sections as given below:
- General Agriculture
- Agronomy
- Animal Production
- Agricultural Economics and Extension
- Agricultural Technology
SECTION A: General Agriculture
|1. Meaning and Scope of Agriculturea. Definition of Agriculture
b. Branches of Agriculture
c. Types of Agriculture i.e subsistence and commercial
|Candidates should be able to:Use the definition of Agriculture in modern terms as it relates to production, processing and marketing.
Differentiate between the various branches of Agriculture.
Differentiate between the various types of Agriculture
|2. Importance of Agriculturei. Provision of raw materials for agro-allied industries
ii. Provision of employment
iii. Development of rural areas, etc
|Candidates should be able to:Relate agro-allied industries to their respective raw materials
relate the various contributions of Agriculture to economic development in West Africa.
|3. Agricultural Ecologya. Ecological zones of West Africa
b. Agricultural products of each ecological zone
|Candidates should be able to:Differentiate between the features of the ecological zones in West Africa.
Classify agricultural products according to each
ecological zone.
Differentiate abiotic from biotic factors affecting
agricultural production.
|4. Geneticsa. First and second laws of Mendel
b. Cell division
c. Terminologies e.g locus, alleles, genotype, dominance
|Candidates should be able to:Apply the first and second laws of Mendel to
Differentiate between the types of cell division.
i. determine the outcome of genetic crossing
involving homozygous and heterozygous
ii. compute simple probability ratios
|5. Farm Inputse.g. planting materials, agrochemicals, etc.
|Candidates should be able to:
classify different types of farm inputs and their uses.
|6. History of Agricultural Development in West Africaa. Agricultural systems e.g. shifting
cultivation, bush fallowing etc.
b. Problems of Agricultural development
e.g. land tenure systems, inadequate
infrastructures, finance for agriculture,
pollution etc.
c. Establishment of national research
institutes e.g. NCRI, IAR, IAR&T, CRIN,
etc. and international research
institutes e.g. IITA, ILRI, ICRISAT,
WARDA etc., leading to increased
application of science to the
development of agriculture.
d. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) e.g. RTEP, FADAMA etc.
e. National agricultural programmes such as OFN, NAFPP, NALDA, Green Revolution, NCRPs, NARP, Project Coordinating Unit (PCU) e.t.c
|Candidates should be able to:Compare various agricultural systems.
Identify the problems and proffer solutions
Give reasons for the establishment of ADPs.
Evaluate the contributions of national agricultural programmes.
|7. Roles of Government and NGOs in Agricultural Developmenta. Development of fiscal policies favourable to agricultural production e.g. import duties, ban on importation, e.t.c.
b. Agricultural laws and reforms e.g Land Use Act.
c. Government programmes aimed at agricultural development e.g. subsidies, credit facilities, e.t.c.
d. Provision of infrastructures e.g. transport systems, communication systems, e.t.c.
e. Contribution of NGOs to agricultural development
|Candidates should be able to:Evaluate the effects of government policies on agricultural development.
Identify agricultural laws and their effect on agricultural production
Compare the various infrastructural facilities provided by government and their uses.
Examine the roles of NGOs in the development of agriculture.
SECTION B: Agronomy
|1. Rocks and Soil formationa. Factors affecting rock weathering and soil formation
b. Physical properties of soil
c. Chemical properties of soil
|Candidates should be able to:Identify major types and properties of rocks and soils; factors and processes of soil formation.
Differentiate between the horizons in a soil profile.
v. Determine the soil pH.
|2. Soil Water and Soil Conservationa. Soil water: its importance, sources, movement, management and conservation.
b. Soil conservation: meaning and importance, causes, effects, prevention and control of leaching, erosion, continuous cropping, burning and oxidation of organic matter.
c. Irrigation and drainage methods
|Candidates should be able to:i. Compare capillary, gravitational and hygroscopic water.
ii. Determine water-holding capacity, wilting points and plant available/unavailable water.
i. Identify the causes of erosion and leaching.
ii. Determine control methods.
i. classify irrigation and drainage systems.
|3. Soil Fertilitya. Macro and micro-nutrients and their roles in plant nutrition: carbon, water and nitrogen cycles
b. The living population of the soil (flora and fauna), and their roles in soil fertility
c. Maintenance of soil fertility
d. Nutrient deficiency symptoms e.g. chlorosis, sickle leaves, stunting, apical necrosis e.t.c.
|Candidates should be able to:i. Classify plant nutrients.
ii. Identify factors affecting their availability.
Examine the roles of soil flora and fauna in maintaining soil fertility.
i. compare the different methods of maintaining
i. Identify the deficiency symptoms and their causes.
|4. Land Preparation and Soil Tillagea. Principles and practices of land preparation and soil tillage
b. Factors affecting choice of tillage methods: Zero tillage, minimum tillage, e.t.c.
|Candidates should be able to:i. compare the different methods of land preparation and soil tillage in relation to different groups of crops.
ii. Give reasons for the advantages and the disadvantages of land preparation and soil tillage.
Give reasons for the choice of tillage methods.
|5. Plant Forms and functionsa. Parts of monocot and dicot crop plants and their functions
b. The anatomy and morphology of the storage organs of common crop plants
|Candidates should be able to:i. identify crop plant parts and their functions.
ii. distinguish between monocot and dicot crop plants
differentiate the various storage organs of crop plants
|6. Growth, Development and Reproductiona. Gametogenesis
b. Pollination
c. Fertilization
d. Embryo formation and development
|Candidates should be able to:Examine the process of gamete formation.
Give reasons for different types of pollination.
Analyse the process of fertilization.
trace the process of embryo formation and development to the formation of seeds and fruits.
|7. Plant Propagation Methodsa. Sexual: the use of seeds, seed viability, viability test, seed rate and seed germination
b. Asexual (vegetative propagation) e.g. cutting, budding, grafting, layering, e.t.c.
c. Nursery and nursery management
|Candidates should be able to:i. Classify crops propagated by sexual methods.
ii. Determine seed viability and seed rate.
iii. Differentiate between types of seed germination.
iv. Examine the conditions for seed germination.
Classify crops into different vegetative propagation methods.
i. Determine appropriate nursery sites, types; their advantages and disadvantages.
ii. apply the techniques of transplanting seedlings
|8. Cropping Systems, Planting Patterns and Plant Densitiesa. Cropping systems: Monocropping, mixed-, multiple-, inter-, relay-, strip- and rotational cropping
b. Planting patterns:
Broadcasting, row spacing and drilling
c. Plant densities: single, double and multiple stands
|Candidates should be able to:i. Compare cropping systems.
ii. Apply different cropping systems to solve problems in agriculture.
Differentiate between the various planting patterns.
i. Examine the various types of plant densities and their effects on crop yield.
|9. Crop HusbandryCommon and scientific names, gross morphology, anatomy of storage organs, methods of propagation, husbandry practices, harvesting, processing and storage, common diseases and pests, economic importance of the following groups of crops.
Group 1: Cereals e.g maize, guinea corn, rice
Group 2: Legumes e.g cowpea, groundnut, soya bean
Group 3: Tubers e.g yam, cassava, sweet potatoes
Group 4: Vegetables and Spices e.g. tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, onion, okro, cabbage,
amaranthus sp.
Group 5: Fruits e.g. citrus, pineapple, pawpaw
Group 6: Beverages e.g. cocoa, kola, coffee
Group 7: Oils e.g. oil palm, coconut, shear butter
Group 8: Latex e.g. para rubber, gum Arabic
Group 9: Fibres e.g. jute, cotton, sisal hemp
Group 10: Sugars e.g. sugarcane, beet
|Candidates should be able to:i. apply the different methods of crop propagation, husbandry, harvesting, processing and storage for each crop.
ii. Identify common diseases and pests and their effects on crop yield.
iii. Determine the economic importance of each of the crops.
iv. Relate their importance to national economic development.
|10. Pasture and Forage Cropsa. Study of gross morphology, methods of propagation and husbandry of common pasture grasses and legumes. Establishment, maintenance, conservation and uses of pastures and forage crops.
b. Study of natural grasslands and their distribution in West Africa
c. Range management
|Candidates should be able to:i. Classify common grasses and legumes used as pastures and forage
ii. Differentiate between pasture and forage crops by their common and scientific names.
iii. Distinguish between the various methods of conserving pastures e.g. hay- and silage-making.
Relate different vegetational zones to their dominant pasture species.
determine range types and utilization of range resources in Nigeria
|11. FloricultureIdentification, establishment, maintenance and uses of ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers
|Candidates should be able to:i. distinguish between common ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers.
ii. determine their uses and maintenance
|12. Weedsa. Gross morphology, methods of reproduction, dispersal and effect of weeds
b. Weed control methods – weeding, mulching, cover cropping, tillage, herbicides and trap cropping
|Candidates should be able to:i. Identify weeds with their common and scientific names.
ii. Classify weeds according to their mode of dispersal.
Apply various weed control methods.
|13. Crop Diseasesa. Identification of disease-causing organisms both in store and in the field.
b. A simple account of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, nematodes and viruses; the nature of the damage, methods of transmission and common methods of control.
c. Side effects of application of preventive and control methods e.g pollution, poisoning and distribution of ecosystem.
|Candidates should be able to:Distinguish between common store and field disease – causing organisms.
i. relate various disease-causing organisms to the damage caused, symptoms and their mode of spread.
ii. Apply appropriate control methods.
Relate each control method to its side effect.
|14. Crop pestsa. General account of pests of agricultural plants both in the field and in the store, their types, importance, principles and methods of prevention and control
b. Life cycles of: biting insects e.g. grasshopper; boring insects e.g. weevils; sucking insects e.g. aphids and cotton strainer.
c. Common pesticides and their side effects
|Candidates should be able to:i. identify the various field and store pests.
ii. Assess their economic importance.
iii. Relate various prevention and control methods to different pests.
i. describe the life cycles of various insects.
ii. Apply the knowledge of the life cycles of insect pests to their prevention and control.
i. differentiate between common pesticides.
ii. Examine their mode of action on pests.
|15. Forest management (Silviculture)a. Importance: Source of wood, pulp, fibre and other forest products
b. Conservation: regulation, exploitation, regeneration, afforestation, agro-forestry and taungya system
|Candidates should be able to:Relate various forest products to their uses.
i. compare different forest conservation methods.
ii. apply the various methods appropriately
|16. Crop improvementMethods of crop improvement e.g. introduction, selection, crossing, quarantine e.t.c.
|Candidates should be able to:i. give reasons for crop improvement.
ii. Distinguish between various methods of crop improvement.
SECTION C: Animal Production
|1. Forms and classification of major farm animals in West Africaa. Species, breeds and distribution
b. External features of cattle, sheep, goat, pigs, rabbits and poultry
|Candidates should be able to:i. Classify various breeds of farm animals.
ii. Locate where they are found.
Identify their characteristic features.
|2. General terminology in animal productionCommon terms used in animal husbandry, e.g. calving, kidding, castrate, capon, veal, mutton, e.t.c.
|Candidates should be able to:Use various terms in animal husbandry.
|3. Anatomy and physiology of farm animalsa. Functions of tissues and organs of farm animals
b. Animal body systems e.g. digestive (ruminants and non-ruminants), reproductive, respiratory, urinary (excretory) and nervous systems.
|Candidates should be able to:Distinguish between various functions of tissues and organs of farm animals.
Compare different body systems in farm animals.
determine the effects of climate change on farm animals
|4. Reproduction in farm animalsa. Gametogenesis, oestrus cycle, signs of heat and heat periods, secondary sexual characters, gestation periods, parturition and the role of hormones in reproduction.
b. Development, nourishment and birth of the young. Mammary glands and lactation in farm animals.
|Candidates should be able to:i. Give an account of the process of reproduction in farm animals.
ii. Determine the role of hormones in reproduction.
Trace the development in farm animals from fertilization to birth and care of the young.
Trace the process of egg formation and incubation in poultry.
|5. Animal nutritiona. Feed nutrients and functions
b. Feeds and feeding: Simple ration formulation – balanced ration, common pasture/forage crops e.g. guinea grass, elephant grass, giant star grass. Andropogon sp, Calopogonium sp. Hay and silage preparation, different types of rations, namely maintenance ration and production ration.
c. Nutrient deficiencies: Causes and symptoms of malnutrition and their correction in farm animals.
|Candidates should be able to:Identify the various feed nutrients, their sources and functions.
i. Differentiate between the types of animal feeds and their formulation.
ii. Relate the various types of rations to different classes of livestock.
i. Trace symptoms to nutrient deficiencies in farm animals.
|6. Livestock managementHousing, feeding, sanitation and veterinary care of ruminants, pigs, rabbits and poultry under intensive, semi-intensive and extensive systems of management from birth to slaughter.
|Candidates should be able to:Apply the different management practices for farm animals.
|7. Animal Healtha. Animal diseases (pathology)
i. Environmental factors
predisposing animals to diseases; causal organisms, symptoms, transmission and effects.
ii. Preventive and curative methods for diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
b. Parasites (parasitology)
ii. Prevention and control
|Candidates should be able to:i. Identify diseases of farm animals and
causative agents.
ii. Classify livestock diseases based on symptoms and mode of transmission.
iii. Apply appropriate preventive and curative measures against diseases caused by these pathogens.
i. Classify livestock parasites.
ii. Determine their role in disease transmission.
iii. Trace life cycles of parasites from egg to adult stage.
Apply appropriate prevention and control methods against livestock parasites.
|8. Fisheries and Wildlifea. Fish culture systems; Common types of fishes e. g Tilapia, Catfish, etc.
i. Extensive systems: inland and deep sea fishing, lakes and rivers.
ii. Semi-intensive systems: dams
iii. Intensive systems: fish ponds –
Factors to consider in ponds establishment and pond management e.g. pond fertilization, liming and desilting.
b. Fish harvesting and processing methods
iii. Fishery regulations
c. Wildlife management
|Candidates should be able to:i. Identify the common types of fishes in West Africa.
ii. Differentiate between various systems of fish farming in West Africa.
iii. Determine the factors to be considered in intensive fish farming.
i. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of different fish harvesting and processing methods.
i. identify animals found in West African game reserves.
|9. Bee-keeping (Apiculture)a. Meaning and importance of apiculture
b. Types of bees e.g exotic and indigenous bees
c. Methods of bee-keeping e.g traditional and modern bee-keeping
d. Equipment and safety measures in bee-keeping
|Candidates should be able to:relate bee-keeping to economic development
differentiate between various types of bees
classify methods of bee-keeping
identify bee-keeping equipment and their uses
|10. Animal ImprovementMethods of animals improvement e. g. introduction, breeding, quarantine and selection: Breeding systems – inbreeding, line-breeding, cross-breeding, artificial insemination
|Candidates should be able to:i. give reasons for animal improvement.
ii. Differentiate between the various methods of animal improvement.
SECTION D: Agriculture Economics and Extension
|1. Factors of agricultural productiona. Land
i. Types of land ownership in West Africa
b. Labour
c. Capital
d. Management
|Candidates should be able to:
i. understand the meaning of land and state its uses
ii. Identify the various forms of land ownership.
iii. Examine their effects of land ownership on agriculture.
iv. Differentiate between the various features of land and their effects on land use.Differentiate between the types and sources of labour and their effects on agricultural production.
Compare the sources of capital and associated problems.
Determine the function of a farm manager in an agricultural enterprise.
|2. Basic Economic Principlesa. Demand and supply
b. Production function:
|Candidates should be able to:i. relate demand to supply in agricultural production.
ii. Interpret geographical representation of demand and supply.
i. relate input to output.
ii. Deduce economic concepts from graphic representation.
|3. Characteristic Features of Agricultural ProductionSmallness of farm holdings: biological limits of farm production and susceptibility of farm production to climate, seasonality of farm productions, price elasticity in demand and supply of agricultural produce.
|Candidates should be able to:i. Distinguish between the common features of agricultural production and produce.
ii. Compute elasticity of demand and supply.
|4. Labour Managementa. Labour relations: Supervision, etc.
b. Types of labour: Permanent labour etc.
c. National labour laws and regulations
|Candidates should be able to:Identify the various ways of achieving labour efficiency.
Differentiate between the various types and sources of labour.
Apply national labour laws and regulations.
|5. Farm Managementa. Qualities, functions and problems of farm
b. Records and record-keeping: Types and importance of record-keeping – livestock records, profit and loss account book.
c. Stock evaluation:
d. Agricultural insurance:
|Candidates should be able to:Identify the qualities, functions and problems of a
farm manager.
i. Differentiate between the types of farm records.
determine gross and net margins, appreciation, depreciation and salvage value
i. Examine the relevance of agricultural insurance
|6. Marketing of Agricultural Producea. Importance of Marketing.
b. Marketing channels.
c. Characteristic features of agricultural product affecting their marketing
|Candidates should be able to:Evaluate the importance of agricultural marketing
i. classify marketing agents and their functions.
ii. Determine the various ways in which marketing channels pose problems in agricultural production.
Determine the characteristics of agricultural products affecting their marketing.
|7. Agricultural Extensiona. Meaning and importance.
b. The role of Agricultural Development programmes, universities, research institutes and farmers' organizations (Cooperative societies).
c. Extension methods including demonstration plots, use of visual aids, mass media, etc.
d. Problems of agricultural extension in West Africa and possible solutions.
|Candidates should be able to:Identify the importance of agricultural extension.
analyse the roles of government and non-governmental organizations in agricultural extension education.
Differentiate between the various extension methods.
i. Examine the problems of agricultural extension in West Africa.
SECTION E: Agricultural Technology
|1. Farm surveying and farmstead planninga. Meaning and importance
b. Common surveying equipment, their uses and care
c. Common survey methods
d. Principles of farmstead outlay.
|Candidates should be able to:Examine the relevance of farm surveying to agriculture.
Classify common surveying equipment, their uses and care.
Differentiate between the common survey methods.
Apply survey principles to farmstead outlay.
|2. Simple farm tools
|Candidates should be able to:i. Identify simple farm tools.
ii. Use and maintain farm tools.
iii. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of simple farm tools.
|3. Farm machinery and implementsa. Types
i. Machinery e.g. tractor, milking machine etc.
ii. Implements
b. Uses and maintenance of farm machinery and implements
|Candidates should be able to:Identify common farm machinery and implements.
i. Classify farm machinery according to their uses.
ii. Apply appropriate maintenance routines on farm machines and implements.
iii. Operate farm machines and implements.
|4. Mechanization and sources of farm powera. Sources of farm power e. g. animal and machines
b. Advantages and disadvantages of
agricultural mechanization
c. Problems and prospects of mechanized agriculture in West Africa
|Candidates should be able to:Compare the advantages and disadvantages of various sources of farm power and their application.
Distinguish between the advantages and disadvantages of mechanization.
Assess the problems and prospects of mechanized agriculture in West Africa.
|5. Processing and storagea. Processing: traditional and modern methods of food processing e.g. garri, rice and groundnut processing, etc.
b. Storage
|Candidates should be able to:i. Identify the importance of agricultural processing.
ii. Differentiate between the various methods of processing agricultural produce.
i. compare different storage methods.
ii. Apply different storage methods.
|6. Introduction to biotechnologyBasic terms, e.g. tissue and another culture in vitro fertilization and genetic engineering
|Candidates should be able to:i. Use basic terms in biotechnology.
ii. Provide reasons for the importance and application of biotechnology.
|7. Application of ICT in agriculturea. Features of computers
b. Uses of computers in agriculture: disease and weather forecasting, ration formulation, database and simulation studies, etc.
c. Use of communication gadgets e.g mobile phone, internet, etc.
|Candidates should be able to:Identify the various components of a computer.
Use the computer to enhance agricultural practices.
Use communication gadgets to enhance agricultural production.
|8. Introduction to agricultural research and statisticsa. Basic concepts in planning agricultural experiments e.g hypothesis, treatment and control, etc
b. Interpretation of results, e.g. measures of central tendency and experimental errors.
|Candidates should be able to:
use basic concepts in agricultural experiments.i. Draw inferences from experimental results.
ii. Compute simple measures of central tendency.
- Adeniyi, M. O. et al (1999) Countdown to Senior Secondary Certificate Examination Agricultural Science, Ibadan: Evans
- Akinsanmi, A. O. (2000) Junior Secondary Agricultural Science, Uk: Longman.
- Akinsanmi, O. A. (2000) Senior Secondary Agricultural Science, Uk: Longman.
- Anthonio, Q. B. O. (1999) General Agriculture for West Africa, London: George Allen
- Are, L. A. et al (2010) Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School, University Press Plc.
- Egbuna, C. K. et al (2014) Extension Modern Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools (2010), Extension Publication
- Emmanuel C. A. (2003) A Dictionary of Agriculture, Benue: Agitab Publisher Makurdi
- Falusi, A. O. and Adeleye, I. O. A (2000) Agricultural Science for Junior Secondary Schools Books 1- 3, Ibadan: Onibonoje
- Komolafe, M. F., Adegbola, A. A., Are, L. A. and Ashaye, T. I. (2004) Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools 1, 2 and 3, Ibadan: University Press Ltd.
- Philips T. A. (1986) Agricultural Notebook, Lagos: Longman
- STAN (1999) Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools, Lagos: Longman
Download the JAMB Syllabus For Agricultural Science PDF Here;


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United Kingdom – Leicester
An experienced Senior Cost Manager is required for an established consultancy based in Leicester working on various Industrial projects over the Midlands. 85% of their projects are industrial with some other mixed-use projects residential/commercial schemes on their books.
The ideal candidate must be qualified, with D&B experience, undertaken the Contract Admin role. Ideally, with Industrial background, but any experience in the commercial or retail sectors would be useful.
Consultancy/ Client facing experience in a permanent role is a must! MRICS or MCIOB preferred with genuine progression available for the right candidate.
- Experience working within a consultancy
- PQS/Quantity Surveyor practice background
- Chartered Status with the MRICS, or MCIOB
- Good understanding of contracts
- Extensive Industrial Project Experience.
- Experience working in a consultancy environment and delivering for clients on projects over £10mil
- You must possess leadership skills and the ability to support junior members of staff
- You will hold a good level of confidence to take charge of projects and see them through
- Project experience within industrial projects is essential

subset: commoncrawl


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Commercial lot zoned C3-1 in prime location on State Route 89. Great visibility from both State Route 89 and Highway 71. Originally developed for a restaurant, but can be any commercial enterprise desiring high visibility that fits C3-1 zoning. Owners have invested over $75,000 in improvements including private access road, commercial water line with city water, commercial septic tank, soil and perk tests and a land survey. Underground electric and phone are on the lot. Access road named Cafe Juction begins at the power pole in lumber yard and has been approved by county and ADOT. Take advantage of the complete infrastructure. Bring your building plans and go into business quickly!
009 - Wickenburg Unified District
West USA Realty.
Information Deemed Reliable But Not Guaranteed. All information should be verified by the recipient and none is guaranteed as accurate by ARMLS. ARMLS Logo indicates that a property listed by a real estate brokerage other than Launch Real Estate LLC. Copyright 2020 Arizona Regional Multiple Listing Service, Inc. All rights reserved.
Listing information last updated on April 3rd, 2020 at 6:33pm MST.


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Broccoli Content is a podcast production company trying to make a change Interviewed in London, November 2019 Renay; "I worked … More
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Middlesbrough has a thriving retail sector encompassing independent traders and major high street and luxury brands. Retailers have the potential to attract circa 800,000 people, and the sector currently turns over more than £257 million per annum.
There are four large shopping centres encompassing 1.15m square metres, a fully pedestrianised retail core, and specialised shopping streets like Baker Street and Bedford Street, which are focused on Middlesbrough's celebrated independent scene. All are centrally located and easily accessible by car and public transport, providing the highest quality shopping experience between York and Durham.
Consumer Powerhouse
Middlesbrough's consumer sector is one of the best performing in the UK, ahead of nearby cities and those up and down the UK. In the 2018 UK Consumer Powerhouse report (Irwin Mitchell and Centre for Economics and Business Research), using a series of measures comparing the fortunes of more than 40 cities, Middlesbrough's vibrant and diverse city centre economy stands out as one of the star performers. Read the full Consumer Powerhouse story.
City Centre Strategy
The City Centre Strategy for Middlesbrough is focused on enabling the growth of a balanced, sustainable and vibrant economy. Retail plays a critical role in the function and appeal of the city centre, along with a diverse range of experiences to enhance vibrancy, and a well-considered offer to drive additional footfall by day and by night. Read the full City Centre Strategy.


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Tired of Apple Maggots Eating Your Apples?
Apple maggots emerge depending upon the number of days with a temperature above 10°C, in June to July and lay their eggs in the apples. The eggs then produce white to cream maggots which cause brown tunnels in the flesh of the apple. The adults are black flies, 6 mm long with yellow legs and a zigzag band across their wings. They over winter in the soil as pupae, approximately 1 to 6 inches below the surface, and emerge the next spring to contine the cycle.
To control the apple maggot one should clean fallen apples from beneath the tree at least once a week, which will decrease the population, and thesource of nutrients. One can but apply maggot traps, or make them yourself. To do so, paint a Styrofoam ball red and apply Tanglefoot to it once a week, removing the old Tangle foot. For a dwarf tree one needs 1 trap, and for large trees 4 to 8 traps are required. One can also root drench with diazinon early in the spring to eliminate the pupae in the soil. You could also spray the fruit as they are set, using carbaryl (Sevin). Do not spray with carbaryl within seven days of harvest of the fruit. In our experience, the flies emerge throughout the summer. The apple decoys can also be used to indicate fly activity. Start treatment when flies are found in excess of two per red sticky ball trap per week. Continue as long as flies are found.
By Dr. Paton and Vicki East


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Monthly Archives: June 2015
Jason Hine on feeling the pain of the world
https://www.facebook.com/groups/30282864810/permalink/10153124827924811/ A post of Jason's to the Facebook page for The Work That Reconnects (Joanna Macy). The writer feels a personal resonance with this, and it is also a theme that comes up in therapy sessions/other contexts. As Rogers identified … Continue reading
Posted in actualizing tendency, anger, awakening, Carl Rogers, compassion, consciousness, cultural questions, Disconnection, ecological issues, emotions, empathy, empowerment, ethics, grief, growth, human condition, immanence, interconnection & belonging, internal locus of evaluation, Jason Hine, kindness & compassion, loss, love, meaning, natural world, non-conforming, non-directive counselling, organismic experiencing, Palace Gate Counselling Service, paradigm shift, perception, person centred, political, power and powerlessness, presence, reality, relationship, resilience, sadness & pain, self, spirituality, therapeutic growth, therapeutic relationship, vulnerability, working with clients Tagged actualising, actualizing, affordable counselling exeter, anger, belonging, Carl Rogers, climate change, community, compassion, connectedness, connection, consciousness, counselling exeter, counsellor Exeter, counsellors Exeter, de-separation, despair, destruction of community, destruction of the earth, difficult feelings, difficult feelings in therapy, ecological issues, ego, egoic self, embodiment, empathy, experiencing difficult feeling, grief, higher consciousness, hopelessness, humanity, interconnection, interdependence, intimate connection with life, Jason Hine, Joanna Macy, Krishnamurti, low cost counselling exeter, pain, Palace Gate Counselling Service, Palace Gate Counselling Service Exeter, paradigm shift, pathologising grief, pathologising pain, pathologizing grief, pathologizing pain, perceptions of reality, person centred counselling exeter, processing pain, purpose of therapy, rage, re-membering, reclamation, resilience, sacred, sadness, self-improvement, separation, sick society, spirituality, transformation, web of life, Work that Reconnects, www.palacegatecounselling.org.uk Leave a comment
Peter Goblen 'Now'
'NOW It is only this, no draft not final manuscript survives with which to speculate, for I have burned them. No edition has a date, I distinguish no printings, number and sign no copies so what you hold, collector, Will … Continue reading
Posted in consciousness, human condition, mindfulness, poetry, presence, spirituality Tagged affordable counselling exeter, consciousness, counselling exeter, counsellor Exeter, counsellors Exeter, human condition, low cost counselling exeter, mindfulness, Now, Palace Gate Counselling Service, Palace Gate Counselling Service Exeter, person centred counselling exeter, Peter Goblen, presence, present moment, spirituality, www.palacegatecounselling.org.uk Leave a comment
James Bugental on the unique, changing nature of therapeutic relationship
'The ideal therapeutic relationship is continually evolving and changing. It is not a way of being together, which is established early in the participants' relation and remains unchanged; instead it is constantly changing as the work progresses and as the … Continue reading
Posted in creativity, diversity, encounter, ethics, internal locus of evaluation, James Bugental, therapeutic relationship, values & principles, working with clients Tagged affordable counselling exeter, counselling exeter, counsellor Exeter, counsellors Exeter, encounter, ethics in counselling, ethics in psychotherapy, ethics in therapy, existential counselling, Existential Psychotherapy, existential therapy, humanistic counselling, humanistic psychotherapy, humanistic therapy, James Bugental, low cost counselling exeter, Palace Gate Counselling Service, Palace Gate Counselling Service Exeter, person centred counselling exeter, pproach, Psychotherapy and Process, therapeutic growth, therapeutic presence, therapeutic process, therapeutic relationship, working with clients in therapy, www.palacegatecounselling.org.uk Leave a comment
Thomas Merton on the Dawn Chorus
'For the birds there is not a time that they tell, but the "point vierge", the virgin point between darkness and light, between non-being and being. You can tell yourself the time by their waking, if you are experienced. But … Continue reading
Posted in consciousness, human condition, natural world, organismic experiencing, perception, presence, Thomas Merton Tagged affordable counselling exeter, Conjectures of a Guilty Bystander, consciousness, counselling exeter, counsellor Exeter, counsellors Exeter, existential meaning, low cost counselling exeter, natural world, organismic, Palace Gate Counselling Service, Palace Gate Counselling Service Exeter, perception, person centred counselling exeter, presence, Thomas Merton, wisdom of natural world, www.palacegatecounselling.org.uk Leave a comment


text: Chris's Corner - April 12, 2017 - GATEWAY STORMFEST IS BACK! Apr 25, 2017 13:36:59 GMT -6 Select PostDeselect PostLink to PostMemberGive GiftBack to Top Post by Chris Higgins on Apr 25, 2017 13:36:59 GMT -6 I think SPC is a bit too far west and not far enough east with their outlook IMO. But that is more an observation than criticism at this point and is probably more in line with splitting hairs.I also HATE the tiny enhanced they have in KS and OK today. Not just because I'm not a fan of enhanced...but because the convective outlook is intended to be a regional to synoptic scale outlook product...not hyper local. Such a small area should be handled simply with a slight IMO. They/we are not that good.


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I don't know to what particular specie belongs this ant, but looking at this older post of a wasp's jaw it's easy to understand that both ants and wasps belong to the same Superfamily: the Vespoidea from the order Hymenoptera.
Monday, December 24, 2007
Thursday, December 6, 2007
La Mola and Montserrat in one image
This picture from Montserrat's monastery comes from the combination of the two pictures you can find below. To get it I used a photoshop gradient mask to softly transition from one image to the other. This allows me to preserve the best exposed areas from both images.
Posted by treehugger at 11:22 PM 12 comments:
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Delivery hours
- Mon - Sun 11:00 AM - 9:00 PM, 11:00 AM - 9:00 PM
435 Abbott St, V6B 2L2 Vancouver
All Signature Works include romaine lettuce, cucumber, sweet onion & green onion.
Marinated ahi tuna, salmon, Poke.M Classic Sauce, crab meat, avocado, jalapeno, edamame, seaweed salad, pickled beets, carrot, grape tomato, kimchi, sesame seed & crispy garlic.
Marinated ahi tuna, albacore tuna, creamy wasabi, basil sauce, crab meat, pineapple, seaweed salad, sprouts, pickled beets, masago, jalapeno, sweet corn, radish coins sesame seeds & crispy onions.
Marinated albacore tuna tataki, spicy tuna, umami sauce, spicy seaweed salad, edamame, sprouts, masago, ginger, sweet corn, chili flake, sesame seed, mango, wasabi peas.
Salmon, spicy salmon, citrus ponzu sauce, crab meat, sprouts, pickled beets, kimchi, ginger, wasabi, grape tomato, radish coins, furikate.
Sock-Eye salmon, black garlic, sweet chili sauce, seaweed salad, jalapeno, edamame, sprouts, tamago, pickled beets, carrot, lemon, black olive & shredded nori.
Octopus, scallop, spicy mayo, crab meat, edamame, pickled beets, carrot, masago, ginger, black olive, lemon, chili flake & crispy garlic.
Tofu, kale, Japanese sesame sauce, jalapeno, edamame, sprouts, pickled beets, kimchi, carrot, ginger, grape tomato, avocado & crispy onion.
Poke your way!
1 Protein
2 Proteins
3 Proteins
435 Abbott St, V6B 2L2 Vancouver


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What happens to the erc20 tokens when the main net launches?
Do you have to manually swap them?
What happens to the erc20 tokens when the main net launches?
Do you have to manually swap them?
Interesting development. I presume each exchange will need to implement a way to withdraw the ERC20 tokens?
I think 613 is a bit unrealistic. The crypocurrency world is maturing, and there a lot of serious startups doing great work. Qtum will be sharing this space with Ardor, Antshares, maybe Tezos etc. They're all great projects and will be doing really great things, but they'll all own a little piece of the pie. I think investors should still be happy if they make less than 10000% return.
Can I create a token on the Qtum platform, in the same way as I can on Ethereum?
Yes, I have to say I'm happy with Bizhongchou, good service.
@daadog I emailed then a few days ago to ask when they think they may have an English page version. They got back really quickly and did they would have an english version very soon.
Same here. Going to hold for a long time. Still, getting 2FA set up would be good. And transferring to my own wallet in September is a must! I'll just need to learn Chinese :-)


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Grinnell Area Garden Club
Community / Social Associations
Call (641) 236-4592Directions
Get directions to thisWebsite
location on Google Maps.
location on Google Maps.
Open websiteShare
in new tab.
in new tab.
Share this business
on social media.
on social media.
The primary mission of the Grinnell Area Garden Club is to enrich and educate its members in the field of gardening and plants. To this end the club will enable interested plant growers to meet and discuss topics of interest. Further, there will be a variety of programs presented over the course of the year specific to the interests of the members.


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An application that will help you become a more efficient hunter and fisherman. The application will inform you on the best/good hunting and fishing times of the day, information that will maximize your chances of success. The application uses sun and moon rise and set times, moon's position (based on your position) and other information in order to give you the perfect time for you to try your hunter/fisherman skills.</p>
This app requires access to:


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Influencer marketing has grown massively over the last couple of years, allowing brands to reach new audiences and increase awareness.
Because of this, the cost of influencer marketing has increased dramatically in the past few years. Recent research has found that if a user has three to seven million followers on Instagram they can charge around £50,000 for a single post.
This along with a good strategy means that a more considered approach to measurement is required to really make the most out of influencer marketing. Below are a few of the things to consider when measuring the success of influencer campaigns.
Engagement has been viewed as the number one goal for influencer marketing for some time now, but this metric isn't as trustworthy as it was once perceived. Technology such as Instapods have been found to be able to fake engagement, making the metric very unreliable.
Along with this, a recent study by Markerly found that the size of an audience does not necessarily correspond to more engagement. In fact, it was found that those with fewer than 1,000 follows had a higher rate of engagement than those with over 1,000 or 10,000.
This means that brands need to be more analytical and considerate when it comes to engagement. Instead of focusing on metrics that would have been used in the past such as clicks or likes, it's a good idea to take a broader view of the depth of engagement, such as with equity.
A good example of a brand that takes a more meaningful approach to its influencer strategy is Glossier. They chose real-life customers to use as influencers, rather than high-profile personalities. This is a brilliant strategy as it allows people to see that the brand places greater value on things like long-term advocacy rather than short-term engagement.
Goals and KPI's
It can be easy when looking into influencers to go for the talent with a perceived high profile rather than any other factors, such as authenticity or alignment with values. But this isn't the right thing to do. Instead, even before liaising with selected influencers, it's important to outline what the outcome of a future campaign should be.
There is still no current standardised framework in place for measuring ROI within the industry. The focus is now more on brand awareness and loyalty rather than conversions and sales. To combat this, setting out specific KPI's from the get-go and ensuring that everyone involved has a clear understanding of what they are trying to achieve and why is a good idea.
Direct Impact
As influencers are used more, brands are hoping to see an increase in the long-term benefits of their most valued collaborations. Rakuten Marketing found in a recent study that 47% of marketers would pay more for an influencer if they could see the impact they were having across the consumer purchasing journey.
Instagram now allows marketers to do this, offering shoppable posts for businesses where brands can make specific items featured in influencer posts directly available to buy through Shopify. This, in turn, provides marketers with a clearer picture of user behaviour after seeing an influencer post.
With this, sales can be compared on a campaign-by-campaign basis, meaning marketers have a greater insight into how much impact marketers are having on an audience.


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Photo by Todd Lester.
Homewood senior quarterback Pate Owen (18) will start under center after backing up Larkin Williams the last two seasons.
Ben Berguson hasn't been around many high school quarterbacks with an arm as strong as Pate Owen's. The Homewood High School senior can wind up and launch a football 70 yards down field.
"He can sling it," said Berguson, the Patriots head coach.
This fall, Owen's arm will be on display for all to see. After waiting in the wings the past couple of seasons, he has secured Homewood's starting job.
And he couldn't be more excited.
"I know it's a big position," said Owen, sporting a sweat-soaked T-shirt after a summer practice. "A lot of great people have come through. It's just awesome to be the person, but also have the team behind you that will help you. Hopefully we can win some games this year, for sure."
Owen has played quarterback since eighth grade and backed up Larkin Williams, a three year varsity starter, the last two seasons. Williams' graduation this past spring opened the door for Owen. He said he will aim to emulate his predecessor's leadership.
"He really cared about other people and tried to help them," Owen said. "He could have been focused on himself, but he knew helping other people could help the team in the future."
Owen, who stands 6 feet, 4 inches and weighs 210 pounds, knows a thing or two about helping the team.
Last summer, he volunteered to switch positions from quarterback to tight end/fullback. Tre Roberson had emerged as Homewood's top alternative to Williams, and Owen told his coaches that he wanted to contribute in any way he could — even if it required leaving the spot he loved.
"A lot of kids want to stay in position no matter what," Berguson said, "and Pate was like, 'Hey, I want to do whatever it takes to help the football team.'"
Photo by Jimmy Mitchell.
Homewood vs Vestavia Hills Football
Owen willingly switched positions last fall before reassuming quarterback duties.
Roberson transferred to Thompson before the season began, elevating Owen to second on the depth chart. But he didn't abandon his other role after the turn of events. Owen stuck with tight end and played there throughout the season.
"I think it made him a tougher player because he had a lot more contact than he normally would playing quarterback," Berguson said, "and it also taught him a lot about how important spacing is as a receiver."
Owen wound up starting one game under center last fall when Williams went down with an injury. In the Patriots' regular-season finale, he completed 10-of-21 passes for 81 yards, one touchdown and three interceptions in leading Homewood to a 31-21 victory over Paul Bryant.
Berguson has seen his quarterback make strides since then. He always knew that Owen could throw the deep ball, but his short and intermediate passing game lacked finesse.
No more.
"He's got a really nice touch on the football right now," Berguson said. "A year ago, he probably threw it too hard."
Berguson also has noticed an improvement in Owen's decision making, as evidenced by the quickness with which he now releases the ball. He's flashed his developing skills at offseason practices and summer 7-on-7 competitions.
"It's been good for my confidence for sure," Owen said, "just to go out there and try to get better every day."
Owen will have a few dangerous wide receivers to target this fall, including Trae Ausmer and Len Irvine. Ausmer, also a senior, broke out last season and caught 62 passes for more than 700 yards.
"You can throw a screen to him, and he can take it 90 yards for a touchdown," Owen said. "He'll be a big weapon ... and we'll be counting on him to do big things, for sure."
The Patriots will be counting on Owen as well, whether it's getting the ball to his receivers or making plays with his feet. Although his arm is his best asset, he also is capable of doing damage on the ground.
"He runs really well downhill," Berguson said, citing Owen's stature. "Just through developing that toughness last year, we'll end up having a lot of quarterback-designed runs."
Photo by Layton Dudley.
Homewood Football
Owen has one of the strongest arms his coach has ever seen and can throw the ball close to 70 yards.
Owen has been offered by Birmingham-Southern and said he will consider playing college football. Berguson could see him ending up in the Ivy League or at a smaller school with high academic standards. Owen is a strong student who has completed multiple Advanced Placement courses.
"I think a lot of his future with football will come down to how he performs his senior year," Berguson said.
Owen plans to savor every minute of it. He grew up attending Homewood football games and envisioned one day taking the field as the Patriots starting quarterback.
When he does, he'll remember a piece of advice that Williams passed on.
"He told me, 'Every time you go out there, just take it in, because this is it. There's nothing like high school football,'" Owen said.


text:
|Re: How Come www Has Number as in http://www31.website.com?
|John Levine (firstname.lastname@example.com)
29 Sep 2005 04:13:00 -0000
In article <firstname.lastname@example.com> you write:
> How come I saw some web site has some number after www, how can they do
> i.e. http://www31.website.com, http://www52.website.com
It's just a name, which can be anything the site owner wants. The www
When you see sites named wwwNN, that invariably means that they have a
|Post Followup Article
|Use your browser's quoting feature to quote article into reply
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GTA Briefing Session Spring 2019-20
Welcome to the GTA Community in Spring 2019-20
GTA Briefing Session is organized for the participation of all new RPgs.
This briefing session is offered to all new RPgs to welcome them to their new roles as Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTAs). The briefing session aims for you to be familiarized with your GTA roles at HKUST, meet your graduate Teaching Assistant Coordinators (TACs), and understand the course requirements and arrangement of the course PDEV 6800 Introduction to Teaching and Learning in Higher Education.
Date: 22 January 2020 (Wednesday)
Time: 10:00am - 11:30pm
Venue: Lecture Theatre E
* Full attendance is expected, and students are not required to register for the session. Participating RPgs shall report for attendance at the 5 minutes before the scheduled time.
- 16279 reads


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To learn more about MIEPA, click here Return to MIEPA's Home Page
Alina L. Walker, a Kyrgyzstan native who currently [Spring 2002] lives in Berkeley, has completed a study of her home country government's economic policies as compared to the MIEPA list of policies as outlined above. The study on Kyrgyzstan is shown below. The ratings herein are based on the following rating scale:
5.0 Perfect Facilitation of Wealth Creation
4.0 Midway between Perfect and Neutral
3.0 Neutral Effect on Wealth Creation
2.0 Midway between Neutral and Obstructionist
1.0 Perfectly Obstructionist to Wealth Creation
[Rating scale copyright Mike P. McKeever, 1996. Used herein with permission]
To read a disclaimer about the analysis in this file, scroll to the bottom of the file.
Return to MIEPA's Home Page
Comparison of Kyrgyzstan's economic policies to MIEPA criteria as prepared by native student of Kyrgyzstan, Mrs. Alina L. Walker, studying in the US in the Spring of 2002.
RATING SUMMARY POLICY NUMBER RAW SCORE ADJUSTED SCORE POSSIBLE PERCENTAGE 1 1.0 3.0 15.0 20 % 2 3.0 9.0 15.0 60 3 1.0 3.0 15.0 20 4 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 5 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 6 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 7 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 8 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 9 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 10 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 11 2.0 6.0 15.0 40 12 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 13 3.0 6.0 10.0 60 14 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 15 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 16 3.0 6.0 10.0 60 17 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 18 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 19 4.0 8.0 10.0 80 20 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 21 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 22 4.0 8.0 10.0 80 23 2.0 8.0 10.0 80 24 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 25 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 26 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 27 1.0 2.0 10.0 20 28 2.0 4.0 10.0 40 29 1.0 1.0 5.0 20 30 2.0 2.0 5.0 40 31 1.0 1.0 5.0 20 32 2.0 2.0 5.0 40 33 3.0 3.0 5.0 60 34 1.0 1.0 5.0 20 TOTAL 65.0 145.0 375.0 38.7% ===== ====== ===== =====Return to MIEPA's Home Page
1. Freedom from internal control 1.0
Like many socio-economic variables inherited from Soviet time s, in Kyrgyzstan there is a tremendous emphasis placed on controlling citizen's mobility, thoughts and attitudes. Such control applies to every citizen of the country -- from a bus driver to journalists and even presidential candidates. Every citizen of Kyrgyzstan is required by law to have a registered place of residency called propiska. A Propiska is stamped permanently in one's passport. Every time a person changes the address he is required to reregister with the local authorities. A local valid propiska is one of the main requirements to qualify for a job. Every citizen is also required to carry his passport everywhere he goes and can randomly be stopped on the street and asked for documents.
During presidential elections in 2000, President Askar Akaev's victory raises a lot of questions. One of the facts is that 90% of Kyrgyz television stations and 70% of print media were devoted to Akaev's campaign making it very difficult for other candidates to get their message across. One of the most popular candidates was arrested right before the elections and shortly after. Kyrgyzstan, which was considered one of the most committed to market economics and multi-party democracy now is responsible for arbitrary arrests and a crackdown on the independent media.
Storing the rot. From The Economist print edition May 2nd, 2002
And the winner is… from the Economist print Edition Nov 2nd, 2000
Personal experience
2. Freedom of speech 3.0
Most of the official state control over the media, present during Soviet times, was officially abolished shortly after Kyrgyzstan's Declaration of Independence in 1991. Very little legislation has been passed since then to govern the activities of the media. The legislation that does exist is generally vaguely worded, duplicative and unenforceable. This lack of clear guidelines has led to a protracted struggle to define the rights and responsibility of the media. For a little less that a decade Kyrgyz Press was considered relatively independent compared to others former Soviet Central Asian Republics. But hopes for a continued improvement in press freedom in Kyrgyzstan were dashed in 2000 by the government's repeated attempts to prevent the media from reporting freely on the presidential elections
Sources: The Economist print edition. February 15, 2001
www.freemedia.at/wpfr/kyrgyzstan.html date of access 2/2/02
3. Effective, fair police force 1.0
In the current situation, the police force of Kyrgyzstan is neither effective nor fair. The Police forces of Kyrgyzstan are very corrupt despite all the efforts from the government to reform them. If you own a business, you start with finding the right person in the police who will protect you, or be your "krysha" for a certain pay. No business can operate without krysha and business owners find it easier to regularly pay one person or constantly worry about what might happen to your property tomorrow. Unlawful actions of police officers can be seen on smaller scale as well. About every third traffic stop usually end with a bribe.
There is a saying "What can not be bought for money can be bought for a lot of money". If certainly applies to Kyrgyz judicial system. The judicial system is in such chaos -- it is a revolving door for those with money -- after committing a crime, they are back out on the street in a very short time.
The reason for such poor condition of the police force is first of all financial. The combination of extremely poor pay in law enforcement and the great opportunity to extort money from those willing to pay is essentially too good to pass up.
Source: Personal observation
4. Private property 2.0
There is a philosophical difference between western and traditionally soviet points of view on private property. In the "soviet" mind set the land should belong to the Government who has better idea how to take care of it. In addition, the traditional nomadic culture of Kyrgyzstan adds to the ignorance of the importance of private property. The traditional Kyrgyz people feel more attached to the land in a bigger sense rather than to a single plot of land designated as private property. Therefore developing the new system to administer private property is not a high priority for Kyrgyzstan. The protection of property rights is now just developing.
Despite extensive privatization of housing and significant progress in privatization of enterprises, real estate markets in urban areas remain underdeveloped. This largely reflects the weak macro-economic situation in the country, but is made worse by inappropriate and complicated transaction procedures, lack of supporting institutional infrastructure, and in many cases lack of clarity of title.
Foreign and domestic private entities may own business enterprises and engage in a broad range of commercial activities. Foreign entities are expressly forbidden from owning land (although renting/leasing of land is usually allowed).
People of Kyrgyzstan generally do not understand the concept of intellectual property. Pirate copying is widely spread -- for profit as much as out of ignorance.
U.S. Department of State FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Kyrgyzstan
Personal observation
5. Commercial banks 2.0
Banking system of Kyrgyzstan is weak and undercapitalized. There are currently 23 operating banks with 151 branches. Real interest rates are high and long-term credit is unavailable. Most banks earn profit primarily from foreign exchange operations and trading of treasury bills. People of Kyrgyzstan do not have much trust in Kyrgyz banks for there were many cases in the past of banks simply disappearing. Therefore very few people maintain personal accounts with bank with the majority keeping their cash under the mattress.
Banking laws in Kyrgyzstan do not overtly discriminate against foreign banks, which are afforded the same treatment as Kyrgyz banks. However, the structure of banking regulations place significant disadvantage of banks that do not meet the National Bank of Kyrgyzstan's requirement for minimum capital.
U.S. Department of State FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Kyrgyzstan
Personal observation
6. Communications system 2.0
Inadequacy of Kyrgyzstan's communication system is the result of it's being low priority for Soviet authorities to develop such infrastructure. In 1994 Kyrgyzstan received a loan for US $8 million to upgrade its telecommunication services, especially in the mountainous areas.
Telephones - main lines in use: 351,000 (1997)
Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
Telephone system: general assessment: poorly developed; about 100,000 unsatisfied applications for household telephones
domestic: principally microwave radio relay; one cellular provider, probably limited to Bishkek region
international: connections with other CIS countries by landline or microwave radio relay and with other countries by leased connections with Moscow international gateway switch and by satellite; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik and 1 Intelsat; connected internationally by the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic line
Radio broadcast stations: AM 12 (plus 10 repeater stations), FM 14, short-wave 2 (1998)
Radios: 520,000 (1997)
Television broadcast stations: NA (repeater stations throughout the country relay programs from Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkey) (1997)
Televisions: 210,000 (1997)
Internet country code: .kg
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
Internet users: 10,000 (2000)
CIA - The World Factbook 2001 - Kyrgyzstan
Area handbook series. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies. First edition 1997
7. Transportation 2.0
All of the means of transportation in Kyrgyzstan were built during Soviet times and have not received proper attention since the 1980s. Highways and airport runways (except for Bishkek airport that is being totally rebuild by the antiterrorism coalition) desperately need repairs which for the lack of financing is happening very slowly.
Railways: Total: 370 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
broad gauge: 370 km 1.520-m gauge (1990)
Highways: Total: 18,500 km (including 140 km of expressways)
paved: 16,854 km (these roads are said to be hard-surfaced, and include, in addition to conventionally paved roads, some that are surfaced with gravel or other coarse aggregate, making them trafficable in all weather)
unpaved: 1,646 km (these roads are made of unstabilized earth and are difficult to negotiate in wet weather) (1996)
Waterways: 600 km (1990)
Pipelines: Natural gas 200 km
Ports and harbors: Balykchy (Ysyk-Kol or Rybach'ye)
Airports: 50 (2000 est.)
Airports - with paved runways: Total: 4
Airports - with unpaved runways: Total: 46
CIA - The World Fact book 2001 - Kyrgyzstan
Area handbook series. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies. First edition 1997
8. Education 2.0
After declaring its independence, Kyrgyzstan continued the legacy of Soviet-era education system the main idea of which was to educate all of its citizens. General education in Kyrgyzstan is financed from district budgets, and the college prep and higher education programs are financed by the national budget. State sponsored education is made available for those with qualifying academic record. Admissions policies are skewed towards applicants of Kyrgyz ethnic descend putting Russian applicants at an extreme disadvantage. In the past decade a few private universities arisen. Typically the tuition of these private institutions is out of reach of average family.
But even though the education is available to most, the quality of it is low. One of the most prevailing reasons is low pay for instructors. Teachers educated during soviet times usually have the knowledge but lack motivation to effectively impart that knowledge to their students. Currently there is a bran-drain where brightest people are trying to leave the country.
Area handbook series. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies. First edition 1997
Personal experience
9. Social Mobility 2.0
Prior to 1991, when Kyrgyzstan became an independent state, social mobility was relatively high. Any qualified candidate, regardless of social and economic status, was able to work his way up, both in education and in work. The factor of being promoted because of close relationship with a "right" person existed, but Soviet Government tried hard to create equal opportunity atmosphere in the country. After becoming independent, Kyrgyz institutions started to pay closer attention to one's ethnicity and family connections. It became much harder for a person of Russian decent get into a prestigious school or get a desirable position at work.
Personal experience
10. Freedom from outside control 2.0
Kyrgyzstan has been an independent country since 1991 and during the past eleven years was free from direct outside control. However, Kyrgyzstan's economic and political situation is such that the country strongly depends on help from the outsiders such as Russia, Turkey, US and other western countries. Such dependency suggests that Kyrgyzstan has to take into consideration these countries opinions in making their decisions (regarding both internal and external matters). Sometimes Kyrgyzstan gets into a particularly awkward position when it has satisfy opposite desires of two beneficiaries.
Central Asian News Digest http://www.centrasia.ru date accessed March 31st, 2002
Personal observation
11. Foreign currency transactions 2.0
Since most kyrgyz citizens do not have a great faith in kyrgyz currency som, it is common among people to keep one's saving in a safe place at home in US dollars. There are a lot licensed shops that do foreign currency exchange so buying and selling dollars is not a problem for people. But the State Law requires all the transactions within the country to be maid in Kyrgyz soms and that law is being enforced. One can still use foreign currency to obtain goods at a market but such activity can cause some trouble.
Personal Experience
12. Border Control 2.0
In 1994 Kyrgyzstan signed an agreement permitting border troops of The Russian Army to take over the task of guarding Kyrgyzstan's border with China. Any Chinese citizen entering Kyrgyzstan is required to have an entry visa which makes control over the border easier. Kyrgyzstan's borders with Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were not guarded but the recent events and the war against terrorism measures to strengthen the border have been taken. Border with Kazakhstan is the friendliest border of all. Not every car traveling from Kazakhstan to Kyrgyzstan gets stopped and checked therefore there isn't much control over who and what is getting in and out of the country.
Kyrgyzstan's biggest border problem is drug trafficking. Opium, illegally grown in Kyrgyzstan, through an emerging distribution chain moves to Moscow, then to Poland, from where it is transferred to Europe and the United States. Only about 20 percent of the drug trafficking is being intercepted within the country and at the borders.
Area handbook series. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies. First edition 1997
13. Currency 3.0
In May 1993, two years after Kyrgyzstan's Declaration of Independence, Kyrgyz currency som was introduced. In the first couple years of its existence som was more stable than currencies of other Central Asian republics. But lately the currency has lost its stability. In 1998 the exchange rate was 18 soms to 1 US Dollar. As of March 28, 2002 the exchange rate was US $1 to 48 soms. Som has more symbolic than economic value. It is still possible to pay for goods and services in Kyrgyzstan in US dollars, in fact people prefer to get dollars rather than soms whenever they can.
History of Kyrgyzstan. Manas Publishers, 1998
Personal experience
14. Cultural, language homogeneity 2.0
In 1993 the population of Kyrgyzstan was estimated of 4.46 million, of whom 56.5 percent were ethnic Kyrgyz, 18.8 percent were Russians, 12.9 percent were Uzbeks, 2.1 percent were Ukranians, and 1.0 percent were Germans. The rest of the population, which is about 8.7 percent, was composed of about 80 other nationalities. Religious affiliations of the country are mostly Sunni Muslim with Christian minority.
Russians, the second largest ethnic group in Kyrgyzstan and Kyrgyz, even though sharing not much in common in their language and culture, co-existed peacefully since 1936, when Kyrgyzstan became Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic. Nevertheless, racial preference has been present at least in Bishkek and all over Kyrgyzstan to a lesser degree towards ethnic Kyrgyz. They are given first choice in a very competitive job market. This fact I believe does not increase country's strength in the world economy.
In 1990 the Uzbeks, almost the entire population of which (about 552,000) live in the southern part of the country were involved in violent clashes with Kyrgyz as deep-seated interracial problems surfaced with the relaxation of Soviet rule. The potential for another ethnic conflict is ever present.
Sources: The encyclopedia of World Geography, Barns & Noble, Inc. 2000
http:/lcweb2.loc.gov date of access 1/31/02
15. Political Effectiveness 2.0
There are so many examples that can be talked about when one is trying to figure out how effective Kyrgyzstan's politics are. But doe to the current situation in the world, one example especially draws attention.
Kyrgyzstan was one of the first Central Asian countries to welcome American and ally's troops to its land, which really upset Russia. This agreement brought Kyrgyzstan over US $4 million which could greatly benefit the country. Also Kyrgyz Government hoped that if the country takes an active part in US led war on terrorism, America will close it's eyes on huge violations of human right in Kyrgyzstan. Now it's becoming apparent that even though Kyrgyzstan is a useful ally in the war, principles are still principles, and is Kyrgyz government mistreats its citizens, it has to be brought up by the western community. Realizing that having such witnesses in their back yard, Kyrgyz Government is now trying to make friends with Russia again and using mass media to get rid of (or at least minimize) the foreigner's presence in the country.
Central Asian News Digest http://www.centrasia.ru date accessed March 31st, 2002
16. Institutional Stability 3.0
Kyrgyzstan as a country is just a decade old, so it's institutional stability is very relative. Nevertheless, the facts indicate such stability. Country's President Askar Akaev, for better of for worth, has been leading the country untiringly for ten years. Political parties represented in the government stayed pretty much the same over the years as well. Most of country's enterprises that were privatized are still ran by the government, so for them nothing has really changed. But such stability does not greatly benefit the economy -- most areas could use some changes and some money as well.
Personal opinion
17. Honest Government 1.0
Government is not a standalone institution but rather a reflection of the society at large. During this transitional time for Kyrgyzstan, where the resources are extremely scarce, the only way to survive is to take what's ava ilable. Their unique position as Government members allows for greater "taking" opportunity. During Soviet times the fear of being caught and prosecuted was bigger then the desire to add to one's financial stability, but now everybody knows that if you don't take what's there, somebody else will, and that's just the way it is. It is hard to be honest when your family is hungry, but once the family is fed, the habit of taking does not go away. Unless extreme measures are taken, Kyrgyzstan's prosperity seems like a very unlikely possibility.
Not only politicians, but police, post office employees and tax collectors are viewed as corrupt and uncaring. Post office staff and other local officials are responsible for distributing pensions and other social assistance benefits are described in local papers as corrupt and disdainful of poor people.
Personal experience
18. Common Laws 1.0
Kyrgyzstan, as most of the countries of the world, has a set of laws designed to protect every citizen of the state. In practice, however, only the "worthy" ones are being protected. How effective and common the laws are depends on how many and what kind of right people one knows. Laws on paper clearly state one thing, but it can turn out that they mean something totally different. With widespread corruption in legal system the quality of legal help one can get very often depends on how much one is willing to pay -- to the lawyer himself or to judges as bribes. One's case may never even make it to court but disappear along with hundreds of others in official's desks.
According to recent statistics, over 12,000 people arrested in Kyrgyzstan in 2000, almost 6,000 were later released. So they were ether arrested illegally, or let go illegally. Murderers, mobs and other "high paid" felons are not being prosecuted, but those who commit petty crimes (stealing materials worth 600 som) are making the countrie's statistics on arrests and convictions look better by being sent to jail (which by the way costs the taxpayers thousands more than stolen 600 som).
Newspaper Delo N, #14 April 17, 2002
Personal experience
19. Central Bank 4.0
The financial sector of Kyrgyzstan consists of the National Bank of Kyrgyzstan (NBK), three large commercial, nine small commercial banks and the Savings Bank (SB). The system emerged from the institutions that operated under the previous regime. The laws that currently govern the banking system were passed in June 1991, and consist of the "Law on State Bank" and the "Law on Banks and Banking. In February 1992, the State Bank was replaced by NBK, which inherited the legal rights and responsibilities of the
State Bank and acts as the central bank of the Republic.
NBK is responsible for all monetary affairs and the banking sector, acts as the fiscal agent of the Government, and manages relations with other CIS and foreign central banks. It extends credit to the commercial banks, holds their reserves, and provides clearing services for interbank transactions. Even though The National Bank is not ran by the Government, Bank's five board members and the Chairman are nominated by the recommendation of the country's President. Kyrgyz National Bank is still dependant on the Government.
Vecherny Bishkek Print Edition, January 15, 2001
20. Domestic budget management 1.0
It seems like there is one thing that members of Kyrgyz Government agree upon. That is that a new Mercedes Benz is a sure indicator of success. The big question is how to obtain such a thing for many members of the government. This question troubles citizens of the country when they observe the wealth displayed by some in the government, when the numbers scream that the country is in financial trouble. Overall budget deficit including grants in 1999 was -2.5% of GDP.
The Kyrgyz economy has earned more than $4.5 million in landing fees and through selling fuel and food to the U.S. troops military at Manas airport, 30 kilometers (19 miles) from the Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek. These money are still to be spent.
International Monetary Fund, Government Finance Statistics Yearbook and data files, and World Bank and OECD GDP estimates.
21. Government debt 1.0
Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Kyrgyz Republic has accumulated a large portfolio of external liabilities, which as of the end of 1998 totaled an estimated US$1.5 billion or 96 percent of GDP. Servicing this debt has been difficult but, until recently, manageable partly due to a number of short-term debt rollovers granted by Russia and Turkey. Debt service levels have so far been relatively low given a large amount of concessional external financing that came with long grace periods. The debt service burden, however, is expected to surge substantially in 2000-2005, when practically all non-concessional debt (equivalent to 50 percent of the total) will need to be repaid and grace periods for concessional loans end. It was estimated by the World Bank that budget debt service to revenue ratio to be in the 40-50 percent range after the year 2000.
At current deficit levels there is little doubt that Kyrgyzstan's debt is developing in an explosive way, without or with rescheduling. The debt-output ratio quadrupled in the period 1993-98, to reach a very high level of around 96 percent in 1998.
Document of The World Bank Report No. 20644-KG Kyrgyz Republic Fiscal Sustainability Study June 2000
22. Economic statistics 4.0
Understanding the importance and mutual benefits of the cooperation between providers of statistical information and its users, on May 22, 2001 the government of Kyrgyzstan founded the Statistical Society of Kyrgyz Republic. The Society is a non-profit non-government organization operated by the Kyrgyz and international specialists in areas of statistics and economics. The goal of this Society is to help state statistical institution in improving the databases and increasing their professional potential. A lot of effort is being put into working with colleges and universities, revising textbooks using all the information available.
The Government's policy on statistical information is to make sure that the data presented is correct, verifiable and available to everybody inside and outside the country. A lot of work is being is being done towards establishing and strengthening the relationships with foreign statistical agencies.
Sources: The official site of Kyrgyz Government www.gov.kg
23. Protection of public health and safety 2.0
During Soviet times Kyrgyzstan belonged to one state-wide health system that insured an adequate free health care for every citizen of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzsnat's post-Soviet financial crisis has significantly reduced government's financial support of such health system.
The current funding crisis has precipitated a series of changes that impact on all levels of the health system, many of which have reduced the quality of the service provided and seek to undermine both the health workers' and general public's confidence in the system. It has been noted that the population's health seeking behavior has changed in the last few years with people visiting health facilities less often, later in the illness, or not at all. The health system is collapsing due to lack of drugs and supplies, particularly at the primary health care level. In the current situation most patients must provide bedding, food, drugs and syringes for themselves and cover the costs of transport. This collapse is further exacerbated by the use of outmoded treatment regimes, which often include polypharmacy and long periods of unnecessary hospitalization.
One of the biggest health problems in Kyrgyzstan is tuberculosis. The number of cases is steadily growing -- from 15,032 cases per 100,000 population in 1998 to 17,780 cases per 100,000 in 2000. Ongoing tuberculosis prevention campaign is not bringing noticeable results partly due to lack of finances.
Document of The World Bank Report No. 15181-KG STAFF APPRAISAL REPORT KYRGYZ REPUBLIC HEALTH SECTOR REFORM PROJECT APRIL 22. 1996
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1996/04/22/000009265_3961022110355/Rendered/INDEX/multi0page.txt Date visited
24. High wage policies 1.0
I believe there is no High Wage Policy in Kyrgyzstan. In fact, the standard of living for an average citizen suggests the "As Low As Possible Wage Policy'. GNI per capita in 1999 was recorded at US $300 or US $25 per month. This income can not provide for decent living which includes being able to pay for a place to live, cover all the utility bills (with utility prices climbing up every month), enough food and some necessary clothing and occasional medical expenses. In the Kyrgyz Republic, poor people's wellbeing seems to be spiraling downward, and many face increasingly desperate situations. In their daily struggles they see the state as more of an obstacle than an ally, and they are forced to rely heavily on family, relatives, and friends. These social networks, however, also have limited resources and are showing signs of strain. By most recent estimate available, percent of the population living below national poverty line is 52%.
There are no laws enforcing a minimum wage for skilled labor (teachers, doctors, engineers) therefore a lot of highly trained professionals are working better paid jobs waiting the tables at restaurants or as bodyguards to local businessmen. Such waste of brainpower can not be beneficial for the country's economy.
Source: World Development Indicators database, July 2000
The World Bank's Voices of the Poor: From Many Lands
Personal experience
25. Environmental Protection 2.0
Compared to its Central Asia neighbors, Kyrgyzstan has been spared a great deal of huge environmental problems. During Soviet times no large scale neither cotton production nor heavy industry was located in the country. Nevertheless, today Kyrgyzstan faces serious problems because of pollution and insufficient use of water resources, improper agricultural practices and land degradation.
Realizing the danger of such problems if they continue on growing, Kyrgyzstan's government designed the National Environmental Action Plan. There are two agencies working on the environmental issues -- Goskompriroda and Hydrometeorological Administration. But the lack of money to finance any environmental protection programs, lack of legislature and poor coordination of any such activities pose great obstacles. Environmental problems in Kyrgyzstan just keep growing.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kg0020) accessed 2/24/02
26. Strong Army 2.0
In September 1991, immediately after the Declaration of Independence, Kyrgyzstan began to build a small armed force which was based on the understanding that Russia will remain chief guarantor of the country's security. The only operational part of Kyrgyz armed forces is 12,000 troops of ground force, which is crippled by a tight budget, corruption and lack of political direction. Two incursions by Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, IMU, fighters into the Batken province in 1999 and 2000 proved the Kyrgyz military ill-prepared to protect the country against attack.
Military expenditures in 1999 totaled $12 million or 1% of GDP.
27. Foreign Trade Impact 1.0
At present, Kyrgyzstan carries out trade with more than 100 countries of the world. The projected positive changes in economy and in the establishment of trade relations with many countries have allowed to expand the range and structure of foreign relations. Principal exports of Kyrgyzstan are wool, cotton and hides, electric power, electronic products, ferrous and nonferrous metals, food products and shoes. During January-July 2001, Kyrygz exports totaled US $275.5 million and imports totaled US $247.1 million. In 2000, exports measured US $511 million and imports measured US $559 million, foreign trade totaling US $1.07 billion. Kyrgyzstan's main trade partner in 2000 was Germany, which accounted for 28 percent of foreign trade followed by Uzbekistan (19%), Russia (12%), China (9.3%), Switzerland (7.4%), and Kazakhstan (6.6%).
> a personal experience it seems like the impact of Foreign Trade on the country is huge. About 90% of consumer goods used in the country are imported.
The country's nominal GDP in 2000 was US $1.3 about 82% of which was generated by foreign trade.
Kyrgyzstan's Ministry of External Trade and Industry http:/www.mvtp.kg accessed Feb 20th, 2002
http://eng.gateway.kg/economy accessed Feb 20th, 2002 accessed Feb 20th, 2002
http://www.bisnis.doc.gov accessed Feb 20th, 2002
http://www.worldbank.org accessed Feb 20th, 2002
28. Protection of foreign currency earning enterprises 2.0
Although it is believed that protecting the foreign currency earning enterprises is one of high priorities of the government policy, in reality the government assists the development of such enterprises in a limited number of ways. In 1998 Kyrgyzstan joined the World Trade Organization which gave the country access to new export markets and provided access to the system of appeals in the event of trade disputes. Kyrgyzstan is also a member of Customs Union along with Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus and has bilateral agreements with a number of Eastern and Western countries. Kyrgyzstan also has well-educated productive low-cost labor force which attracts export-oriented foreign investors. The Free Economic Zones of the Kyrgyz Republic were established to encourage growth, investment, exports and employment, and several zones were originally set up.
What this program is lacking is the ability of the Kyrgyz Government to protect the foreign currency earning enterprises from corrupted member of the government. Along with a lot of opportunities for creation and growth of export-oriented enterprises there also are a lot of obstacles caused by greedy officials.
World Bank's Kyrgyz Republic -- Private sector review in the transitional era http:/www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/regions.htm
29. Management of foreign currency budget 1.0
According to the results published by the World Bank, total export in Kyrgyzstan in 2001 measured US $511 million and imports measured US $559 million, bringing the Net Export to deficit of US $48 million.
Kyrgyzstan -- Country at a glance by The World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag/kgz_aag.pdf
30. Layers of collective actions 2.0
Kyrgyzstan is administratively divided into 7 oblastar -- 6 regions and the city of Bishkek (the capital of Kyrgyzstan). Each province has a local elected legislature, but the real power belongs to the province governor who is appointed by the President. In each province city councils, school boards and such are elected bodies but they are heavily dependent financially on the Federal Government. The fact that there is not a lot of autonomy at the local level suits the Government, which fears to let the regions function more or less independently because of the threat of radical insurgents of Muslim extremists.
Since Kyrgyzstan's Declaration of Independence in 1991 Kyrgyzstan still has not developed a strong sense of nationhood. People are having hard time identifying themselves with the country of Kyrgyzstan therefore there is not much patriotic zeal for volunteer work. In comparison to the Soviet times when the citizens were proud to be part of a great nation and used their free time for country's benefits (an example would be subbotnik -- city's clean-up days where every citizen participated), today's Kyrgyzstani do not possess such patriotic feelings.
Sources: CIA - The World Factbook 2001 - Kyrgyzstan
Personal experience
31. Pro Business Climate 1.0
The transition from the centrally planed economy of the Soviet Union into the market economy of a newly independent country has been hard for Kyrgyzstan. The Kyrgyz Government, strongly committed to the development of the market economy in the country designed a plan for reform. But the lack of a legislative framework developed specifically for the private sector has led to excessive bureaucracy and wide spread corruption which poses considerable obstacles for established businesses and potential entrepreneurs.
A process of registration of a new enterprise may take up to three months, requires excessive documentation and then is dependent on the support of local administration. The establishment of a business remains a daunting task due to the lack of facilities and the numerous requirements for permits for almost every action. There is virtually no market for commercial office space. Enterprises must rent from the state or are given use of space by a governmental agency. Leases tend to be short term (usually not more than one year). Virtually everything needed to function is available only at the discretion of the state.
New enterprises have little access to credit and only at relatively unfavorable terms. Competitive, commercial banking is still non-existent. The allocation of credit in Kyrgyzstan has been primarily the allocation of low cost refinance credit from the National Bank of Kyrgyzstan and the granting of credits by commercial banks to the State Owned Enterprises which are the banks' main shareholders. The result is that for small and medium sized private enterprise, there is practically no access to credit.
Sources: Kyrgyzstan -- the transition to a market economy
The World Bank Group country study
Personal experience
32. Government Enterprises 2.0
Since 1936 when Kyrgyzstan entered the Soviet Union as Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic, all enterprises located within Kyrgyz borders were owned and run by the Soviet Government. With the break of the Soviet Union and Kyrgyzstan's Declaration of Independence in 1991 the country started one of the most aggressive programs of privatization in Central Asia. In December 1991 The Privatization and Denationalization Law was adapted and State Property Fund was appointed as the agency to design and implement the privatization program. By the end of 1993, about 4,450 state enterprises, including 33 percent of total fixed enterprise assets, were fully or partially privatized. By mid-1994, nearly all services and 82 percent of assets in trade enterprises, 40 percent of assets in industry, and 68 percent of construction assets were in private hands.
But in reality this number did not change the economic situation of the country. Privatized enterprises (many of which were industrial enterprises and were considered strategically important) became joint' stock companies with a part of the shares distributed among the workers but the biggest part still owned by the Federal Government. This continues to be huge burden for the federal budget.
Source: http:/lcweb2.loc.gov accessed Feb 2nd, 2002
33. International Security Agreements 3.0
In 1996 total armed forces of Kyrgyzstan consisted of 12,000 ground troops; 4,000 air and air defense troops and only 2,000 border guard troops. Newly independent Kyrgyzstan, on one side bordering states suspected of harboring Islamic extremists and on the other side China with their on-going border disputes has continuously requested aid guarding its borders. In 1994 Kyrgyzstan signed an agreement permitting border troops of The Russian Army to take over the task of guarding Kyrgyzstan's border with China.
In the summer of 1999 Kyrgyz border troops guarding the border with Uzbekistan clashed with a group of Islamic extremists who were trying to take over a region of the country for the militant's training and narcotics trade. This event forced the presidents of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Belarus and Russia to think of closer military and political integration and design an extended regional security plan.
Kyrgyzstan's promise to participate in The United States of America's led war on terrorism gave the country an opportunity to contribute to anti-terrorism campaign and at the same time hopefully strengthen its financial situation by attracting some aid money into the country. As of January 2002 3,000 American and allied troops are station in Kyrgyzstan and are supposed to stay there for at least one year, according to the signed agreement.
Sources: The Yankees are coming. The Economist Jan 17th, 2002
http/lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs accessed Feb 10th, 2002
34. Protection of domestic enterprises from government mandated costs 1.0
Taxation of companies
VAT 20 percent monthly or quarterly
Profit Tax 30 percent monthly
Road Fund Tax 0.8 percent of the cost of goods and services sold
Emergency fund tax 1.5 percent monthly
Fee for municipal garbage removal
Social Fund 31 percent monthly or minimum wage multiplied by the number of employees
Employer's Share 7 percent deducted from the employee's wage
Income Tax up to 35 percent
Agricultural Land Tax
Neighboring Kazakhstan has a very comparable tax law with the only considerable difference being the absence of VAT on sales of textile, sewing services, leather processing services and shoes production for residents of Kazakhstan for sales within Kazakhstan. That measure represents a stimulus for the domestic light industry development. Kyrgyzstan's domestic light industry could certainly benefit from such measure as well.
Sources http/www.state.gov/www/about_state/business
accessed Feb 9th, 2002
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