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Antioxidants and Related Phytochemicals:
Current Scientific Perspective
Stephen Barrett, M.D.
Many "antioxidant" products are marketed with claims that, by blocking the action free radicals, they can help prevent heart disease, cancer, and various other conditions associated with aging. These claims should be regarded with skepticism.
Free radicals are atoms or groups of atoms that have at least one unpaired electron, which makes them highly reactive. Free radicals promote beneficial oxidation that produces energy and kills bacterial invaders. In excess, however, they produce harmful oxidation that can damage cell membranes and cell contents. It is known that people who eat adequate amounts of fruits and vegetables high in antioxidants have a lower incidence of cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and cataracts. Fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidants, but it is not known which dietary factors are responsible for the beneficial effects. Each plant contains hundreds of phytochemicals (plant chemicals) whose presence is dictated by hereditary factors. Only well-designed long-term research can determine whether any of these chemicals, taken in a pill, would be useful for preventing any disease.
The most publicized phytochemicals with antioxidant properties have been vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene (which the body converts into vitamin A). Evidence exists that vitamin E can help prevent atherosclerosis by interfering with the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), a factor associated with increased risk of heart disease. However, vitamin E also has an anticoagulant effect that can promote excessive bleeding. In 1993, The New England Journal of Medicine published two epidemiologic studies which found that people who took vitamin E supplements had fewer deaths from heart disease [1,2]. These studies did not prove that taking vitamin E was useful because they did not rule out the effects of other lifestyle factors or consider death rates from other diseases. Moreover, other studies have had conflicting results. The only way to settle the question scientifically is to conduct long-term double-blind clinical studies comparing vitamin users to nonusers and checking death rates from all causes.
Clinical Trials Have Been Disappointing
So far, the results of clinical trials have been mostly negative. The first trial compared the effects of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), beta-carotene, and a placebo among heavy smokers. The researchers found no benefit from vitamin E and 18% more lung cancer among those who received beta-carotene. In addition, the overall death rate of beta-carotene recipients was 8% higher, and those who took vitamin E had a higher frequency of hemorrhagic stroke [3]. In 1997, the researchers reported on the effect of vitamin E or beta-carotene on the incidence of heart attacks or death among the subjects who had had a previous heart attack (myocardial infarction). The report covered 1,862 men aged 50 to 69 who were followed for a median of 5.3 years. The men had received dietary supplements of alpha-tocopherol (50 mg/day), beta-carotene (20 mg/day), both, or a placebo. There were significantly more deaths from coronary heart disease among those who took beta-carotene supplements, and a trend toward more deaths (but not enough to be statistically significant) in the vitamin E group [4].
The second study found no evidence that supplementing with vitamin C, vitamin E, or beta-carotene prevented colorectal cancer [5]. The third study, which followed 22,000 physicians for 12 years, found no difference in cancer or cardiovascular disease rates between users and nonusers of beta-carotene [6]. The fourth trial, which tested a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A, was terminated after four years because it appeared that the supplement-takers who smoked had a 28% higher incidence of lung cancer and a 17% higher death rate [7].
In the mid-1990s, a double-blind clinical trial found that taking high doses of vitamins C and E and beta-carotene did not reduce the odds of arteries reclogging after balloon coronary angioplasty. The patients took either probucol (a cholesterol-lowering drug), probucol plus the three antioxidants, the antixoidants alone, or a placebo. More than 200 patients completed the study without protocol violations. Patients in the antioxidant groups received 30,000 IU of beta-carotene, 500 mg of vitamin C, and 700 IU of vitamin E twice daily. All of the patients received aspirin, which is known to reduce the incidence of reclogging. After six months, the rates of repeated angioplasty were 11% in the probucol group, 16.2% in the combined treatment group, 24.4% in the multivitamin group, and 26.6% in the placebo group [8].
Another study involved 2,545 women and 6,996 men 55 years of age or older who were at high risk for cardiovascular events because they had cardiovascular disease or diabetes in addition to one other risk factor. These patients were randomly assigned to receive either 400 IU of natural vitamin E or a matching placebo for an average of 4.5 years. There were no significant differences in heart attacks, strokes, or death between the vitamin E and placebo groups. The researchers concluded that "In patients at high risk for cardiovascular events, treatment with vitamin E for a mean of 4.5 years has no apparent effect on cardiovascular outcomes." [9]
Yet another study tested aspirin, vitamin E, and beta-carotene in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease among 39,876 women aged 45 years or older. Among those randomly assigned to receive 50 mg of beta-carotene or a placebo every other day, there were no statistically significant differences in incidence of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or overall death rate after a median of two years of treatment and two years of follow-up [10].
Charles Hennekens, M.D., a who participated in two of the above studies, has pointed out that even if antioxidants could provide the benefits suggested by epidemiologic studies, smoking cessation and other lifestyle factors would have a far greater effect on the rates of lung cancer and coronary heart disease [11]. In 1998, The Medical Letter concluded:
- The benefits of taking high doses of vitamin E remain to be established.
- There is no convincing evidence that taking supplements of vitamin C prevents any disease.
- No one should take high-dose beta-carotene supplements [12].
Shortly afterward, a study was published that may explain why very high doses of beta-carotene appeared to increase lung cancer rates among smokers. The study was conducted in ferrets, which metabolize beta-carotene much like humans. Researchers at the Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center at Tufts University reported that excess amounts stored in the lungs became oxidized into substances that decreased a tumor suppressor and increased a tumor promoter in the animals' lungs. The ferrets were divided into four groups. One received beta-carotene and was exposed to cigarette smoke equivalent to a human smoking 1.5 packs per day. Two other groups got either the supplement or smoke exposure, and a control group got neither. The first group had the strongest precancerous changes [13].
Two studies have found that antioxidants may interfere with the protective action of drugs intended to improve cholesterol levels.
- A 1-year study of 153 patients found that supplements of vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene and selenium may interfere with the ability of simvastatin (Zocor) and niacin to raise the HDL levels of patients with abnormally low HDL levels. The patients receiving antioxidants and drugs had an average HDL increase of 18%, whereas the patients who received drugs alone has a 25% increase. However, HDL2-C, an HDL component thought to account for much of HDL's cardioprotective benefit, rose by 42% with drugs alone but was unchanged in patients who also received antioxidants [14]. Although the study was small, it casts further doubt on the value of antioxidant supplementation [15].
- A 3-year, double-blind, controlled study of 160 patients with significant coronary artery disease and low HDL levels found that those who received niacin and simvastatin had fewer heart attacks and a slight regression of coronary lesions, as measured by angiography. However, comparable patients who received just antioxidants (vitamins E and C, beta-carotene, and selenium) had no benefit, and patients who received the antioxidants in addition to niacin and simvastatin did worse than those who received niacin and simvastatin alone. The researchers believe that the negative effect resulted from blocking an increase in HDL2 that would have had a cardioprotective effect [16]. An accompanying editorial noted that "although the study completely refute claims that other combinations of antioxidant treatments are useful in distinct populations, the findings add to the growing body of evidence that certain supplemental antioxidant regimes have limited benefit in patients with cardiovascular disease." [17]
In 1999, the American Heart Association's nutrition committee issued a science advisory discussing relationships between antioxidants and heart disease. The statement concluded:
Considerable evidence now suggests that oxidants are involved in the development and clinical expression of coronary heart disease and that antioxidants may contribute to disease resistance. Consistent with this view is epidemiological evidence indicating that greater antioxidant intake is associated with lower disease risk. Although this increased antioxidant intake generally has involved increased consumption of antioxidant-rich foods, some recent observational studies have suggested the importance of levels of vitamin E intake achievable only by supplementation. There is currently no such evidence from primary prevention trials, but results from secondary prevention trials have shown beneficial effects of vitamin E supplements on some disease end points. In contrast, trials directly addressing the effects of beta-carotene supplements have not shown beneficial effects, and some have suggested deleterious effects, particularly in high-risk population subgroups.
In view of these findings, the most prudent and scientifically supportable recommendation for the general population is to consume a balanced diet with emphasis on antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables and whole grains. This advice, which is consistent with the current dietary guidelines of the American Heart Association, considers the role of the total diet in influencing disease risk. Although diet alone may not provide the levels of vitamin E intake that have been associated with the lowest risk in a few observational studies, the absence of efficacy and safety data from randomized trials precludes the establishment of population-wide recommendations regarding vitamin E supplementation. In the case of secondary prevention [protection of people known to have coronary artery disease], the results from clinical trials of vitamin E have been encouraging, and if further studies confirm these findings, consideration of the merits of vitamin E supplementation in individuals with cardiovascular disease would be warranted. [18]
In 2003, researchers at the Cleveland Clinic concluded that long-term supplementation with vitamin E or beta-carotene has not been proven beneficial in preventing cardiovascular disease. To reach this conclusion, they analyzed seven randomized controlled trials of vitamin E treatment and eight of beta-carotene treatment, all of which included at least 1,000 patients. The dosage ranged from 50 to 800 IU for vitamin E and 15 to 50 mg of beta-carotene; and follow-up ranged from 1.4 to 12.0 years. The vitamin E trials involved a total of 81,788 patients, and the beta-carotene trials involved 138,113. Compared with control treatment, Vitamin E did not increase the overall death rate or significantly decrease the risk of cardiovascular death or stroke. Beta-carotene led to a small but significant increase in overall deaths and a slight increase in cardiovascular death. Thus, although epidemiologic evidence has suggested that these antioxidant supplements may be beneficial, clinical trials have found otherwise [19].
In 2004, after reviewing their results, the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism concluded that antioxidants have little or no proven value for preventing or treating cardiovascular disease. The committee found:
- Of nine studies on vitamin E and cardiovascular disease (CVD), five showed no effect on CVD events, three showed beneficial effects, and one showed a negative effect.
- Of four studies of beta-carotene, three showed no effects on CVD and one showed a negative effect.
- Of five studies of antioxidant "cocktails," two showed no effects and three showed negative effects.
- Two studies of vitamins E and C together showed beneficial effects [20].
In 2007, Cochrane Collaboration team concluded that commonly taken antioxidant supplements may do more harm than good. Their review encompassed 68 randomized controlled trials with 232,606 participants who took various combinations of beta carotene, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, and/or selenium or a placebo or had no intervention [21]. The reviewers concluded:
- There was no convincing evidence that antioxidant supplements have beneficial effects on overall death rate.
- In 47 trials with 180,938 participants, the antioxidant supplements significantly increased the death rate.
- Beta carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E given singly or combined with other antioxidant supplements significantly increase mortality
- The potential roles of vitamin C and selenium on mortality need further study.
- Considering that 10% to 20% of the adult population in North America and Europe may consume the assessed supplements, the public health consequences may be substantial.
- Because the study examined only the influence of synthetic antioxidants, its findings should not be applied to the potential effects of eating fruits and vegetables.
In 2014, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force examined whether dietary supplements were useful in preventing cardiovascular disease or cancer. The Task Force concluded that there was insufficient scientific evidence to assess the balance of benefits and harms of taking multivitamins but recommended against taking beta carotene or vitamin E supplements [22].
In 2018, Canadian researchers who assessed the literature from 2012 to 2017 to judge whether antioxidant supplements could prevent or treat cardiovascular disease concluded:
Antioxidant mixtures did not appear to benefit cardiovascular disease but might increase all-cause mortality. In the absence of further studies, the current data on supplement use reinforce advice to focus on healthy dietary patterns, with an increased proportion of plant foods in which many of these required vitamins and minerals can be found [23].
Antioxidants for Macular Degeneration?
Research has also looked at whether taking supplements or eating foods rich in antioxidants can protect against age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a disease in which the central portion of the retina deteriorates so that only peripheral vision remains. A team of Australian researchers who followed 3,654 subjects age 49 or older found no statistically significant association between AMD and dietary intake of either carotene, zinc, or vitamins A or C, either from diet, supplements, or both [24]. Other published studies have had conflicting results, with some finding correlations and others finding none.
The most elaborate study is the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS), an 11-center clinical trial cosponsored by the National Eye Institute and Bausch & Lomb. In 2001, the researchers reported on what had happened to about 3600 study participants aged 55 to 80 who had been followed for an average of 6.3 years. Patients received either high doses of antioxidants (vitamin C 500 mg, vitamin E 400 IU, beta-carotene 15 mg); 80 mg of zinc oxide; the antioxidants plus zinc; or a placebo. No benefit was found in patients with a relatively small probability of AMD progression. When these patients were excluded from the analysis, the estimated probability of developing advanced AMD was 28% with placebo, 23% with antioxidants alone, 22% with zinc alone, and 20% with both zinc and antioxidants. The authors concluded that patients at high risk for AMD progression "should consider taking a supplement of antioxidants plus zinc such as that used in this study." [25]
Questionable Promotions
Despite the negative findings of most of the clinical trials, many manufacturers continue to market antioxidants as though they have been proven beneficial. Many also hype mixtures of beta-carotene and other carotenoids, which, they suggest, may provide the same benefits as fruits and vegetables.
Many types of pills described as "concentrates" of fruits and/or vegetables are being marketed. However, it is not possible to condense large amounts of produce into a pill without losing fiber, nutrients, and many other phytochemicals [26]. Although some products contain significant amounts of nutrients, these nutrients are readily obtainable at lower cost from foods.
Since publication of the 2001 AREDS report, many dietary supplements have been marketed through the Internet to ""promote" and/or "preserve" healthy vision. The most widely promoted product is Bausch and Lomb's Ocuvite PreserVision, which contains the amounts of beta carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, and zinc oxide, used in the study. However, The Medical Letter has cautioned that (a) the magnitude of the reported effect was "modest"; (b) no data suggest any benefit for people who do not have AMD or who have only mild disease; and (c) the increased death rate from lung cancer in smokers who took beta carotene in other studies is evidence enough that high doses of vitamins and minerals are not necessarily harmless." [27]
In 2002, Pharmanex began promoting its BioPhotonic Scanner for measuring "the antioxidant level in the body" when a person's hand is placed in front of the device. The test is said to measure carotenoid level. Shortly after its availability was announced, I took the company's online "BioScan Quiz," which asked questions about my diet and supplement intake. I found that no matter what answers I gave, I was advised to get scanned and to start using one of the company's antioxidant products, which are quite expensive. As far as I know, however, neither the scan nor the products have been proven to lead to improved health outcomes. I believe that both the scan and the products are a waste of money.
The Bottom Line
There is widespread scientific agreement that eating adequate amounts of fruits and vegetables can help lower the incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain cancers. With respect to antioxidants and other phytochemicals, the key question is whether supplementation has been proven to do more good than harm. So far, the answer is no, which is why the FDA will not permit any of these substances to be labeled or marketed with claims that they can prevent disease.
- Stampfer MJ and others. Vitamin consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. New England Journal of Medicine 328:1444-1449, 1993.
- Rimm EB and others. Vitamin consumption and the risk of coronary disease in men. New England Journal of Medicine 328:1450-1456, 1993.
- Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. New England Journal of Medicine 330:1029-1035, 1994.
- Rapola JM and others. Randomised trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events in men with previous myocardial infarction. Lancet 349:1715-1720, 1997.
- Greenberg ER and others. A clinical trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent colorectal cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 331:141-147, 1994.
- Hennekens CH and others. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine 334:1145-1149, 1996.
- Omenn GS and others. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine 334:1150-1155, 1996.
- Tardif J-C. Probucol and multivitamins in the prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. New England Journal of Medicine 337:365-372, 1997.
- The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. New England Journal of Medicine 342:145-153, 2000.
- Lee IM and others. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91:2102-2106, 1999.
- Hennekens CH and others. Antioxidant vitamins: Benefits not yet proved. New England Journal of Medicine 330:1080-1081, 1994.
- Vitamin supplements. The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics 40:75-77, 1998.
- Russel R and others. Why megadoses of beta carotene may promote lung cancer. USDA Agricultural Research Service Food & Nutrition Research Briefs, Jan 1999, p. 1.
- Cheung MC and others. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to Simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low HDL. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 21:1320-1326, 2001.
- Kuller LH. A time to stop prescribing antioxidant vitamins to prevent and treat heart disease? Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 21:1253, 2001.
- Brown BG and others. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. New England Journal of Medicine 345:1583-1592, 2001.
- Freedman JE. Antioxidant versus lipid-altering therapy: Some answers, more questions. New England Journal of Medicine 345:1636-1637, 2001.
- Tribble DL and others. Antioxidant consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: Emphasis on vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene. American Heart Association Science Advisory. Circulation 99:591-595, 1999.
- Vivekananthan, DP and others. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomized trials. Lancet 361:2017-2023, 2003.
- Kris-Etherton PM and others. Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 110:637ñ641, 2004.
- Bjelakovic G and others. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 297:842-857, 2007.
- Moyer VA and others. Vitamin, mineral, and multivitamin supplements for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Annals of Internal Medicine 160:558-564, 2014.
- Jenkins DJA. Supplemental vitamins and minerals for CVD prevention and treatment. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 71:2570-2584, 2018.
- Smith W and others. Dietary oxidants and age-related maculopathy: The Blue Mountains Study. Ophthalmology 106:761-767, 1999.
- Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group (AREDS). A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8. Archives of Ophthalmology 119:1417-1436, 2001.
- Phytochemicals. Drugstore in a salad? Consumer Reports on Health 7:133-135, 1995.
- Antioxidant vitamins and zinc for macular degeneration. The Medical Letter 45:45-46, 2003.


text:
These Womens Chinese Laundry Pretty Dress Sandals are guaranteed authentic. They're crafted with Man Made/Synthetic, and the closure is Slide. Since the early 1980's, Chinese Laundry has been designing fashion footwear for young fashionable woman around the world. With it's wide selection of stylish and trendy footwear, women everywhere choose to wear Chinese Laundry shoes for their trendy styles. Season after season Chinese Laundry footwear has been a leader in their trade offering everything from flats to trendy heels, flat sandals and high heeled sandals, and stylish fall and winter boots. At our store we offer an array of styles that include colorful and vibrant sandals, sexy heels and pumps, trendy boots, faux leather flats and embellished shoes such as wedges and slip-ons.
Chinese Laundry

subset: commoncrawl


text:
RENO, Nev. (AP) Malik Story scored 19 points and Nevada never trailed in beating Cal Poly 69-56 Tuesday night.
Story hit 5 of 7 from 3-point range. Jordan Burris had 13 points and Jerry Evans Jr. grabbed 14 rebounds for the Wolf Pack (6-4). The score was tied at 15 but Nevada took control from there and led 40-25 at halftime.
Nevada shot 45 percent from the field while Cal Poly made 32 percent of its outside shots.
Dylan Royer led the Mustangs (3-4) with 13 points. Brian Bennett added 10 points. Cal Poly has lost two of three since winning at UCLA 70-68 on Nov. 25.
This was the first meeting of the teams since 2000.


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Window Shades can increase the value of your home by $140
Window shades in New Brunswick are probably the most well-known kind of window treatment and for a good reason. New Brunswick window shades will give you the similar delicate quality of curtains plus the short and organized overall look of window blinds. Put simply, for people who might find combining curtains and window blinds too chaotic, installing window shades is considered to be a pleasant alternative for a single window treatment. No matter what window treatments you choose, picking them out has to be a fun-filled experience on which you are free to design the quality and ambiance of your house. Window shades in New Brunswick can be terrific final touches to many home enhancement jobs like installation of new windows, furniture, and home remodels. There is a chance that you might get a little astounded to realize just how many choices you might have for window shades in New Brunswick. A few have mechanisms which will allow you to open and close the shades automatically and some may include the material and texture of the shades themselves.
Fair price breakdown
Window shades in New Brunswick come in many varieties and styles. There are low-cost shades and custom shades that are available in the market today. Low-cost window shades include basic roller shades that are cut-to-order to ensure that they will be a perfect fit to your windows. They're relatively cheaper and can only cost around $7 to $25 per piece and can be installed easily without the need of a professional. Custom shades, on the other hand, have the clean and fitted look of their low-cost counterpart. However, they have added features like cordless operation, energy efficiency, and automatic movement. They also require professional installation. The cost of a custom window shade in New Brunswick depends on what features a homeowner will choose to go with the shade and the size of the window. It is estimated to cost around $150 to $200 per window and can go as high as $1,000 or more with added features.
Estimated final cost for window shades
|Fair Price
|Window Shade Cost
|1 Shade
|Window Shade Labor
|2 Hours
|Window Shade Job Materials and Supplies
|1 Shade
|Totals - Cost to Install Window Shades - 1 Shade
|Average Cost Per Shade
Find the Best Costs on Window Shades - New Brunswick, 08901
Finding the right and affordable window shades in New Brunswick for your window treatment need is easy. They are available in many shopping stores, home improvement stores, window treatment boutiques, and online retail shops. If you are on a tight budget, you may look for discounted New Brunswick window shades in department stores. Branded window shades can cost as low as $154 to $230 each.
Middlesex County Window Shades FAQ
Last Updated: Aug 24, 2020
Local pros & Availability
Window Contractors available in your area
- Open
- Closed
1200 LIVINGSTON AVE.New Brunswick, NJ 08901
2New Brunswick, NJ 08901
314 Van Dyke Ave.New Brunswick, NJ 08901
4646 Palmer Ave.New Brunswick, NJ 08901
5Accurate Roofing &.New Brunswick, NJ 08901
611 Jules Lane.New Brunswick, NJ 08901


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For forums, blogs and more please visit our
Developer Tools Community.
By: Yorai Aminov
Abstract: Read this to learn how to use tags on the Developer Network
The Developer Network supports social bookmarking internally and externally. External bookmarks are stored outside CDN, on popular social bookmarking sites. To bookmark a CDN page on another site, simply click the relevant link in the "Share This" area of the page:
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You can also use CDN's internal social bookmarking by tagging articles.
Article pages on CDN include an "Article Tags" area which shows article tags as a tag cloud:
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Each tag is a link. Clicking on a tag displays a page listing all articles on the current site that have the specified tag.
Logged-in users can also add and remove tags. When logged-in, the "Article Tags" area contains some additional controls:
The checkbox next to each tag indicates whether you have already applied this tag to the article. If the checkbox is checked, clicking it would remove your tag. If no other users have attached the same tag to the article, the tag would disappear. If the checkbox is clear, clicking the checkbox adds the tag to your set of tags for the article.
You can also type in new tags. Like other CDN content, tags are multi-lingual. Before typing in a new tag, select the appropriate language from the "Tag Language" drop-down. By default, CDN selects the language you use to view the site.
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To add a tag, click on the "Add Tag" button or press Enter. Because tags are updated using AJAX, it may take the tag cloud a few seconds to update.
Note: on some browsers, pressing Enter may not work, and you'll have to click the "Add Tag" button. We're investigating this issue and hope to find a fix soon.
Clicking on a tag in a tag cloud displays a page listing all articles with that tag applied. The list is identical to CDN's normal article lists, except articles are filtered by the selected tag. You can even use CDN's normal navigation hierarchy while maintaining the tag filter: clicking on any navigation link goes to the list page for that navigation area, including the current tag. The "bread crumb" links, however, do not include the tag filter, so you can simply click on any of them to remove the tag filter.
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Tagging is a community process, and community members can contribute not only by adding new tags, but by maintaining existing tags. If you see a typo in a tag name, for example, or see a tag with inappropriate language, you can fix it yourself. You can also translate tags so that users using other languages can see the tag. All of this can be done directly on the tagged article list page.
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The following strings are used by the "Article Tags" module, which displays tags for a single article and allows users to add and remove tags:
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The following strings are used by the "Tag Cloud" module, which shows tag clouds on article list pages:
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Tobacco Everywhere
For making cigars, tobacco is grown all around the world, from Poland to South Africa, from Argentina to Canada and, westbound, from Philippines to Mexico. But cigar tobaccos are mainly grown in the intertropical areas.
Tobacco Origin
Tobacco is known as a plant originally from America. Some species were identified in South Pacific. There are many species and varieties. Not all of them are used in smoking products. Many are grown as ornamental plants as they are frequently blooming, showing colors from white to dark red and purple.
Here are some of the countries in which tobacco is grown, to produce your cigars.
Argentina grows dark air-cured tobacco in the provinces of Misiones and Corrientes, and flue cured tobacco in the area of Salta. Misiones has also a production of Burley type. These tobaccos are mainly for cigarettes but Corrientes is appreciated for short filler cigars because of its smooth taste. Argentina used to be a big producer and exporter but changes in the economic and income tax policies have seriously damaged the production, making the tobacco too expensive to be competitive on the international market. Consequently, production volumes have decreased.
Brazil is one of the largest world's tobacco producers. The East Central State of Bahia is an important cigar tobacco growing area, about 100 miles west of the state capital, Salvador da Bahia, an active port on the Atlantic Coast. The Northern State of Alagoas hosts a production around the city of Arapiraca where maduro cigar wrappers are grown. The Southern states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina produce tobacco for cigarettes and pipe.
Cameroon cigar wrappers are grown in the East part of the country. The growing area spreads over the eastern border, into the Central African Republic. Wrappers are air grown, without fertilizers and pesticides, by small farmers. The average plantation size is about one acre. The seed is originally from Sumatra, introduced in the country just after WWII. Grown first for French Monopoly needs, the tobacco was offered on the international market when production was too large for this single use. Well appreciated by European manufacturers and large American cigars companies, Cameroon wrapper production dropped down during the late 1980s, due to poor management. Today, quantities are small and quality could be better.
Dark air cured tobaccos are produced in Mexico, mainly in Vera Cruz and Tampico provinces, on the East Coast along the Golf. There is also some production in Yucatan. Previously a state-owned operation, it is now handled by private individuals and cooperatives. Mexican tobacco is very dark and the best leaves can be used as maduro wrappers. In San Andres de Tuxtla (Vera Cruz), there is a very interesting production of Sumatra seed wrappers.
In Philippines, tobacco growing is concentrated in the Northern part of the main island of Luzon. Traditionally, dark tobacco for cigars was grown and Philippines' cigars were very famous, under the powerful Compania General de Tabaccos de Filipinas. They probably declined because they were too mild. Today, Philippines still grows dark tobacco and has developed a production of flue-cured tobacco for blond cigarettes.
Zimbabwe is among the top three countries for high quality flue cured tobacco (with the USA and Brazil). The embargo that hit the country, when it was still Rhodesia, did not hurt the production. It made the Rhodesians more inventive and they went on producing. At this time, Zambia and Tanzania, the neighboring countries were selling a lot! When the embargo was lifted in 1980 allowing us to deal directly, we discovered a fascinating organization and equipment, the best in the world. Tobacco was the top activity of the country and getting a job in tobacco was a challenge for many young men. The actual Zimbabwean agrarian policy , which we won't discuss here, will probably strike this country off the list of tobacco producers. Cigar industry will not suffer as flue-cured tobaccos are mainly concerned. Brazil should be the major beneficiary of this situation.
CBD Ejuice Near Me
Best Vape and Cigar Shop In Utah
Ok so we have all heard the debates right? It has been going on for years and in every different country around the world. There is this debate on Tobacco and how ridiculous is it that it is still available on the market of every modern country around the world. Despite all the studies done and published in Scientific journals about the cancer causing properties of tobacco, it is still very much legal everywhere. Tobacco causes cancer because it contains carcinogens
The most the governments have managed to do is make companies put warning labels on their products and maybe prevent them from advertising on kid's TV shows and the like but an outright ban is what is needed and not forthcoming. The biggest reason that most governments will give you is that it would infringe on the individual's right to choose. Well, I would agree with that if they were consistent about it. If that is truly the case then why is prostitution banned? Why are other drugs illegal? If it is all about individual choice and freedom of the consumer then shouldn't everything be legal?
Many people know at least one person whose health has been affected by tobacco and most tobacco users would quit if they could but it is also one of the most addictive substances known to man. So it is the perfect business. Inconsistencies in public policy are expected but they should not be expected when it comes to public health. There should be more outrage when it comes to tobacco use as it is the number one health problem facing the world today.


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Cap-and-trade spending legally limited
Sacramento --
Among the revenue that will strengthen California's general fund this year is cash from the state's new cap-and-trade program to limit greenhouse-gas emissions - about half a billion dollars - but officials may be legally barred from spending much of that money.
The nonpartisan Legislative Analyst's Office says lawmakers and the governor will probably be able to use only $100 million or so of the $500 million they were counting on spending in this year's budget.
That's because the money comes from a fee, and state law requires fee-generated revenue to be spent on state programs that relate to the collection of the fee. For example, entrance fees collected at state parks must be spent on parks.
Under cap and trade, the state began collecting the new revenue by auctioning "carbon credits" on Nov. 14 that essentially permit businesses to release extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Credit holders who do not emit carbon dioxide beyond a cap set by the state can sell them to businesses that are exceeding the cap.
The idea is to create a system that encourages polluting industries to limit greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
Hunt to cut deficit
Included in the current budget is an assumption that the state will spend $500 million on greenhouse-gas-related programs, although the legislative analyst found only a few that qualify. Those programs would account for about a fifth of the $500 million.
"We scoured the budget, and what we said is that you could potentially find maybe $100 million," said Tiffany Roberts, senior fiscal and policy analyst for energy and climate change.
That finding was included in the legislative analyst's calculation of the state's $1.9 billion deficit through June 2014. So if additional qualified programs are found, the deficit would be reduced.
Officials assume the cap-and-trade auction will raise $1 billion in state revenue per year. Half would go to programs now paid for through the general fund, and the rest is slated for new, but yet to be defined, state initiatives to reduce greenhouse gases.
Additionally, the state is giving away carbon credits to investor-owned utility companies that are expected to sell the credits. On Nov. 16, the California Public Utilities Commission proposed using that money to give residential utility customers a "climate dividend," worth an estimated $30, twice each year.
Chamber objects
The notion of raising so much money is controversial in itself, and the California Chamber of Commerce filed a lawsuit in an attempt to block the first auction. The chamber argued that the state can't collect more in fee money than is needed to run the cap-and-trade program.
The first auction proceeded despite the suit.
Meanwhile, the California Air Resources Board and the Department of Finance are working to create a list of general fund programs they believe are eligible to be paid for with the $500 million.
The eligible programs that the legislative analyst has identified so far include an energy efficiency initiative at the University of California, water use efficiency programs that cut down the amount of electricity required to move water, and a forest resource program.
Some at the Capitol have wondered whether the cost of building the state's $68 billion high-speed rail system would qualify. Legislative Analyst Mac Taylor said he didn't think so.
He noted that construction of the project will actually increase carbon emissions and that reducing greenhouse gases is not the main purpose of high-speed rail.
"It's a little hard for us to justify how you can use huge sums of money to pay the large capital costs when that's a relatively small reason of why you're doing it," Taylor said.
Environmental groups said they would like to see the money used, at least in the near term, for greenhouse gas reduction programs.
Alex Jackson, an attorney for the Natural Resources Defense Council, said state officials should proceed with caution.
"First and foremost," he said, "what we're concerned about is this revenue being spent in a legally sound manner."
Wyatt Buchanan is a San Francisco Chronicle staff writer. E-mail: email@example.com


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Whether New York City can constitutionally use GPS devices to monitor cab drivers' movements and fares landed before a federal appeals court Thursday.
The appeal spotlights the growing reach of tracking technology, which has been used to monitor everybody from public school students to garbage collectors, truckers, and now cab drivers.
Nobody doubts that some cabbies overcharge tourists and those unfamiliar with New York's terrain. But what is being questioned is whether the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission can fine or fire drivers with data obtained from GPS devices that were installed without court warrants.
The specific case before the Second US Circuit Court of Appeals concerns driver Hassan El-Nahal, who was accused of overcharging passengers. He lost and regained his taxi license several times. He sued on behalf of himself and others who were fined or who lost their taxi license due to information gathered from GPS devices. The trackers were installed on licensed cabs in 2007, and among other things, they monitor trip routes, trip times, and fees. A federal judge ruled against El-Nahal, and he appealed.
In 2010, the taxi commission announced that almost 22,000 drivers "illegally overcharged at least one passenger" over a 26-month period to the tune of more than $1 million. Many drivers who knew that the technology was on their vehicles lost their licenses or paid fines.
Attorneys for El-Nahal argue that the Supreme Court ruled in 2012 that attaching GPS monitoring devices to vehicles was a search and that a probable cause warrant was generally required.
"We hold that the Government's installation of a GPS device on a target's vehicle, and its use of that device to monitor the vehicle's movements, constitutes a 'search,'" the high court ruled.
With that ruling, the justices tossed the life sentence of convicted drug dealer Antoine Jones, saying the authorities should have obtained a warrant before tracking his wife's jeep.
Lawyers for El-Nahal told the New York-based appeals court Thursday:
The case at bar is no different: The TLC mandated the physical placement of tracking devices in privately owned taxicabs and then (after promising it would not) used the devices to investigate and obtain information about drivers' movements over weeks, months and years. It matters not at all that the automobiles in this case were taxicabs, which are regulated by the city, as opposed to the jeep used by a drug dealer and belonging to his wife. Physical placement of a tracking device on a private vehicle in order to obtain information is, under Jones, a search.
In January, however, a New York federal judge ruled that the Jones case did not apply.
The data's use "in an administrative proceeding does not constitute a search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment," US District Judge Katherine Forrest wrote. "Even assuming that the use of such data was a search, any such search was reasonable and thus did not constitute a violation of the Fourth Amendment."
Commission attorney Sherill Kurland said the ruling supports the commission's "ability to use technology to protect the riding public."
No hearing date on the appeal has been set.


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The Legislature asked the Department of Licensing to create a workgroup to examine the use of disabled parking placards and special license plates for persons with disabilities, and develop a strategic plan for ending any abuse.
The workgroup is made up of representatives from DOL, Department of Health, City of Seattle, Governor's Committee on Disability Issues and Employment, and Arc of Washington.
The workgroup has been meeting since June to research and review data to determine where potential abuse may be, develop measures to reduce fraudulent use and issuance, and suggest ways to strengthen administrative processes, while minimizing the impact to individuals who really need these privileges.
The deadline for public comments is October 15, 2013.
The workgroup will report its findings—and a strategic plan on ideas to potentially reduce abuse—to the Legislature by December 1, 2013.
The public may share ideas with the workgroup by sending an email to: email@example.com.


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The educationally based speech-language pathologist (SLP) identifies and provides both direct and consultative speech and language services to children, birth through ages 21, who have difficulties in the area of articulation, language, fluency, and voice. The development of communication skills is important for all students and can impact school success. SLP services can target communication disabilities, which adversely affect an individual's educational performance.
Many students in school have significant communication problems that include difficulties with speech and/or language skill development. According to Minnesota State special education criteria, a child may meet eligibility as a student with a Speech or Language Impairment in four areas: articulation disorder, voice disorder, fluency disorder (e.g. stuttering) and language disorder. Student with other primary disabilities (e.g. developmental delays, learning disabilities, physical impairments, mental impairments autism) may also exhibit communication problems that co-occur with their primary disability and require the specialized, direct or consultative, services of the SLP.
SLPs serve students with identified speech and/or language impairments and needs at all Osseo schools and sites. Services may include screening, pre-referral consultation, referral for evaluation, and indirect or direct service delivery. Intervention is based upon each student's individual needs and the IEP team helps determine the goals.
Jan Bitzer


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Franchising: An adequate Business Model
for the "Proactive University"?
A Public-Private Perspective on German HE1*
Britta Leusing
Currículo: estudia el doctorado en International Management en la University of Flensburg (Germany) y en la University of Southern Denmark. Consultora en temas educativos y de administración de la educación superior, con especialidad en impactos económicos en las regiones, acceso a la educación superior de los "estudiantes no tradicionales" y alianzas estratégicas entre instituciones públicas y privadas.
Las instituciones de educación superior (IES) públicas están experimentando cambios en virtud de las crecientes presiones financieras, la autonomía y la diversidad de actores en un "mercado" que impone grandes retos. Estos cambios han conducido a que las IES adquieran formas empresariales, como la concesión de franquicias o licencias, que han alcanzado relevancia en el contexto de internacionalización y en la difusión de programas de estudio. Durante la década anterior, este fenómeno creció en Alemania, donde las universidades públicas empezaron a vender franquicias a instituciones de educación superior privadas y no reconocidas por el Estado. Esta situación es de especial interés porque el sistema de educación superior alemán es, tradicionalmente, estatal y concibe la universidad como una institución de prestigio y sólida.
Public higher education institutions (HEIs) are experiencing circumstantial changes due to increasing financial pressure, higher autonomy and diversified actors on an increasingly challenging "market". These changes have led to forms of "entrepreneurial behavior" in public HEIs, such as franchising arrangements, which have become prominent in the context of internationalization and the export of study programs. Over the last decade, a growing number of franchising arrangements on an intrastate level can be observed between public universities as franchisors and private, non-state recognized HEIs as franchisees in the German HE sector. The German situation is of special interest because the HE system is traditionally state-run and emphasizes the university as a prestige and sound institution. Students pay almost no tuition fees for a public university degree except those students enrolled in a franchise model, where the fees are about 9 times higher. Special organizational structures like intermediary stock companies and either the lack of or not commonly interpreted regulatory instruments lead to critical discussions of these models. The most crucial assumptions are that financial motives dominate decision making rather than pedagogical considerations and that public services are exploited to mask the interests of individuals. Although these presumptions cannot be rejected through the empirical results of case study analyses, the opportunities of such strategic alliances are not to be underestimated. With adequate external and internal quality assurance mechanisms, franchising models can be used to strengthen the market position of public universities through a higher number of students and an extended portfolio of products and services. Additionally, HE programs can be offered more flexibly in regions with minimal HE infrastructure and / or with programs particularly designed for "non-traditional students".
Recibido: 8 de junio de 2010. Aceptado para su publicación: 18 de febrero de 2011.
Como citar este artículo: Leusing, B. (enero-junio, 2011). Franchising: An adequate Business Model for the "Proactive University"? A Public-Private Perspective on German HE. Sinéctica, 36. Recuperado de https://sinectica.iteso.mx/index.php/SINECTICA/article/view/123
Higher education institutions (HEIs) are experiencing circumstantial changes due to external pressures (financial challenges), institutional changes (higher autonomy) and diversified actors (non-profit, for-profit, not-for-profit). These changes create new strategic possibilities for the public university to succeed in the increasingly challenging higher education (HE) market. In this changing HE environment it is important to study the impact of external conditions on the behavior of HEIs in order to identify those conditions under which HEIs are best able to ensure quality, efficiency and accessibility (Enders & Jongbloed, 2007).
In this study, franchises of HE programs are to be investigated to examine opportunities that public universities have to react (better "proact") strategically to market changes and thus become more proactive and entrepreneurial institutions. Additionally, the necessity of quality assurance mechanisms is to be discussed. Since franchising in HE has become more prominent in the context of internationalization and the export of study programs, the investigation concentrates on the "phenomenon" of HE franchises in Germany, especially between public universities as franchisors and private, non-state recognized HEIs as franchisees. The discussion of the risks and opportunities of these models will be empirically accompanied by case study analysis.
The public-private franchise model in German HE is legitimately declared as a "phenomenon". Since the middle ages, Germany has run a HE system which is publicly organized and emphasizes the university as a prestige and sound institution. It is the state that has a traditional monopoly in HEIs. About 95% of students are enrolled in state HEIs and pay almost no tuition fees. Since World War II, however, especially in the last three decades, the number of private, state-recognized HEIs, as well as their share of enrolled students, has grown enormously. A market for private study programs with "consumers" willing to pay high tuition fees seems to have evolved. Besides state-recognized institutions, another form of private actors is competing on the HE market: non state-recognized providers offer tertiary education services without degree awarding power. The increasing demand of the students for state-recognized study degrees forces these institutions either to invest in getting a university status or to co-operate with public or state-recognized institutions e.g. via franchising - the less risky and less cost-intensive alternative. One of the delicate issues of this public-private arrangement is the fact that the students enrolled in these models pay tuition fees to a private institution for a public university degree. These fees can be about 9 times higher than for those students directly enrollment at public universities.
Franchising as a business model in HE
Franchising in HE can be described as an arrangement between HEIs in which the franchisee acquires the right to subsume an academic program of the franchisor institution within a portfolio under its own name (Yorke, 1993, p. 167). In general, the courses are designed and developed in the franchisor HEI and delivered in the franchisee institution. The fundamental responsibility for quality assurance lies with the franchisor HEI. The franchisee employs the staff, makes resources available, and is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the courses (Robinson & Hammersley-Fletcher, 2006, p. 21).
Since the model is implemented in order to create additional financial sources, it is discussed very critically (Cavanaugh & Cavanaugh, 2006, p. B20; Woodrow, 1993, pp. 207-220). The most crucial issue in franchising models is that financial motives dominate rather than pedagogical considerations and that public services are exploited to mask the interests of individuals. Critics mistrust the equivalence and quality assurance in teaching and learning and sometimes disparage HE franchising as "McDonaldization" (Hayes & Wynyard, 2002). While talking about "McEducation" it is asked if it is "really higher education when it is delivered in that franchised way" (Milton cited from Strosnider, 1997).
HE franchising in the international context
The franchise model is generally applied in the context of exporting and importing higher education programs all over the world, especially in the USA, the UK and Australia. Internationalization of HE programs began in the 1980s when tuition fees from exchange students became an important financial resource.
Besides students studying in a foreign country (student import), there was a strong growth in the number of foreign students studying on off-shore campuses in their own country (export of study programs). Many of the off-shore campuses are set up by private enterprises on a franchise basis.
In these franchising arrangements a university sub-contracts a local provider in another country to offer selected parts or all of its degree programme (Healy, 2007, p. 334). They are often delivered in a "1 + 2"- or "2 + 1"-structure [the so called "Twinning-system" (Schreiterer & Witte, 2001, p. 44)]. The franchisee delivers the first phase of the study program with the students completing their degrees as regular students at the franchisor HEI (Healey, 2007, p. 337). Additionally, the programs are often delivered via distance learning modules (Hahn, 2005, p. 23).
Data about the volume of franchise programs of the different countries is rare. For example, in 2004 the British Council estimated 180,000 international students studying for UK university degrees in franchised programs at off-shore campuses outside the UK. This is compared to 270,000 students studying on HE programs on-shore (Healy, 2007, p. 337).
Franchising to widen access to HE for "non-traditional students" in the UK
A long tradition of collaborations between Further Education Colleges (FECs) and HEIs in the UK is still supported through British educational policy agenda which aims at the expansion of HE in further education and a widening participation in HE from those sectors of society previously underrepresented. Especially in the 1980s and the early 1990s, the number of partnerships between the two types of institutions expanded and most of them were organized in a franchise model. FECs deliver HE degrees on a part-time basis, including evening study programs (Robinson & Hammersley Fletcher, 2003, p. 20). In 2005/06 learners in FECs comprised approximately 11% of all HE learners, including 3% of whom were enrolled in franchised programs (Pye & Legard, 2008, p. 28).
Quality assurance in HE franchising
Quality assurance mechanisms for HE franchising arrangements were developed especially in the context of internationalization of study programs because governments feared the undermining of the reputation of the country's HE brand. Quality assurance mechanisms are generally discussed on an external level (governmental interventions, guidelines) as well as on an internal level (quality assurance instruments between the franchising HEIs).
Governmental institutions such as funding councils and quality assurance agencies have developed guidelines and evaluation systems explicitly for HE franchise models. Accreditations, institutional reviews or codes of practice are either obligatory or optional. Particularly the latter are more often of a formal than of a content-based character (Schreiterer & Witte, 2001, p. 55).
Accreditation procedures are time-consuming and cost-intensive which leads to a higher degree of specifity of the franchised study program. They will raise the transaction costs associated with a switch to an alternative franchise partner. Argued in a resource dependence perspective accreditation can strengthen the ties between the two partners. In case that the university has the ability to accredit the franchise study program on its own responsibility its power on the franchisee grows (Emerson, 1962; Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003).
Although literature on HE franchise is rare, some studies on quality assurance instruments on the internal level can be found in the context of franchise arrangements between FECs and HEIs in the UK (see paragraph 2.2). Besides governmental approval Yorke (1993) identified some general principles for quality assurance, e. g. the soundness of the franchisee, real and adequate resources at the franchisee institution, and rigorous monitoring and review (Yorke, 1993, p. 178).
In addition, a guide (a guide for those FE Colleges and HE Institutions entering into Partnerships from HEFCE project "A Comparative Study of Leadership Governance and Management Issues of three HE/FE Partnerships", http://lgm.hud.ac.uk/pdf/HEFCE-Guide3.pdf) for collaborations was developed based on a comparative study of Robinson and Hammersley-Fletcher (2006) about HE/FE partnerships, including franchising arrangements. Referring to quality assurance the authors emphasize to consider the development of handbooks and guidance documents, as well as approval and validation procedures.
Environmental changes in German HE determining HE franchise
The German HE sector is traditionally dominated by public universities with a market share defined by the number of students: 95% (public institutions) compared to 4% at private HEIs (church-related universities [1% market share] are to be considered separately from private universities in German HE sector). Since 1980 the number of private universities increased from 10 to more than 90 and the relative as well as the absolute number of students enrolled in private institutions is growing disproportionately while it remains on a constant level in the public HE sector (German Federal Statistical Office).
Besides the 90 private state-recognized HEIs, several for-profit actors are providing tertiary education services without university status and thus without degree-awarding power. They are offering their own institutional degree or a degree of a public German or foreign university e. g. via franchising. Since there is no official data about these institutions the number is guesstimated to be about 40 institutions.
The following environmental changes in the German HE sector determine franchising activities between public universities and private HE providers:
• Higher autonomy of public universities
• Increasing need for additional private funding sources
• Procedures of accreditation and state recognition
• Increasing demand and demographic developments
• Changes in demand
• Increasing supply
Intrastate HE franchising in Germany
In the German HE sector a few of private and public education providers with or without university-status are delivering study programs in a franchise model. Most of those franchise activities are not communicated transparently which makes a complete survey nearly impossible.
In an international perspective several private providers of tertiary education co-operate in a franchise model particularly with universities from the UK and the Netherlands. The ministries of education of the German federal states acknowledge the equivalency of the study program through a certificate.
Other private providers franchise the study programs of national public universities. One example contains a university of applied sciences which founded a stock corporation as franchisor. Actually eleven private providers are offering its study programs in the fields of health, media and business management for a monthly tuition fee of about 600€ compared to 70€ per semester for those students directly taught by public universities. The franchisees are regionally allocated, most of them in metropolitan, some in smaller, non-metropolitan areas. The students are taught the first 4 semesters at the franchisee institution and the last year they are enrolled at the public university.
Another example is an experienced provider in further education which co-operates with two public universities as franchisors. The provider runs several study centers in metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, some of them in former East Germany, and offers the universities' study courses mainly in the field of business management combined with technical disciplines as distance learning programs thus the main target group are employed students.
HE franchise activities and their legitimacy are discussed predominantly in the context of importing study programs from foreign universities (Hailbronner, 2007). In 2008 the Education Minister's conference (KMK) passed guidelines for the approval of HE franchise. Some HE acts particularly refer to the accreditation of franchised study programs but findings from previous interviews lead to the assumption that either a fully knowledge or a common understanding about HE franchise is missing in governmental institutions and quality agencies.
Opportunities of HE franchise
Market growth and additional financial resources
The growing market-orientation in HE with a greater autonomy of public universities, the development of strategic goals and the strengthening of the universities' profile enforce the strategic thinking and management of public universities. HE franchising with private providers might be a flexible opportunity for strategic alliances to increase market shares and to acquire additional financial resources. Based on the product-market growth matrix (Ansoff, 1957) the following chances in HE franchising can be identified:
i) Market development
For the franchisor HEI the alliance can enlarge the pool of potential students available through offering the study programs in new regions. Even in "risky" regions where the demand of students can not be forecasted with high certainty the financial risk for the HEI is limited due to the franchisee's responsibility for the resources available. Depending on the educational funding system of the federal state the university gets more public funding through a higher number of students enrolled. Additionally the university gets on-going franchise royalties and / or franchising fees.
In the development of study programs economies of scale can be generated by the extended offer of an existing program and the synergetic use of course materials, particularly in the case of distance learning programs (e. g. e-learning platforms and correspondence units).
ii) Market penetration
Strategic alliances between a university and a private HE provider are one way to make organizations grow and to capture a market. Additionally the university can maintain and enhance their regional sphere of influence which strengthens its position face to face with competing HEIs, ministries and enterprises.
iii) Product development
Franchise agreements allow both, the university and the franchisee institution, to extend their portfolio of products and services. Study programs in non-mainstream subjects can be offered without financial risk for the public institution. The common development of a new product can create learning effects for both institutions. Providers of educational services can charge class rooms to capacity particularly via distance learning study programs which include periods of required attendance at the week-end when the building is usually not used.
iv) Diversification
Via franchising the provider of educational services can offer state-recognized study programs. For those who were not yet active on the HE market the study programs allow the acquisition of a new target-group. Additionally the collaboration with a public university can sanitize the image of the private provider.
Market persistence for private HE providers
The private HE provider escapes the cost and time intensive procedure of the state-recognition as university and thus of the institutional and program accreditation. At the same time, it presents the ability to offer state-recognized HE degrees to react to the changing demand of the prospective students.
Since the Bologna process and the conversion of traditional academic awards to Bachelor's and Master's degrees, Germany is running a system of program accreditation which is applied to public and private HEIs. Before the latter receives the university status and thus the degree-awarding power, it has to be institutionally accredited by the German Science Council. Depending on the HE act of the federal state in question, both the accreditation of the programs and of the institution are prerequisites for the state recognition via the Ministry of Education. The costs for both procedures are about 100,000€ (including bureaucratic costs and agency fees) and take approximately 1.5 years. For each additional study program, an amount up to 40,000€ has to be added and the time and costs for the regular re-accreditation procedures (each 5–10 years) are to be calculated as well (Nickel, 2008; Wissenschaftsrat, 2010).
Besides accreditation, several further criteria are to be fulfilled in order to be able to run a state-recognized HEI. This can imply high financial investments: The institution has to offer not just one but multiple study programs, the qualification of the teaching staff must be equal to public universities (full-time professors) and it has to provide a debt guarantee (Darraz et al., 2009).
These aspects show that the costs and risks involved in running a state-recognized HEI are high. But for private providers state-recognized study programs are essential for their portfolio if they wish to remain competitive on the HE market. The tertiary education level gains importance for a professional career and the demand changes not only in a quantitative but also in a qualitative sense. Students are more informed about rankings and accreditations. They also exchange information and experiences / opinions in online forums or create their own websites on which HEIs and their teaching staff are systematically rated.
Especially in the private HE sector, the prospective students have become more sensitive regarding state recognition and accreditations. Private educational providers without degree-awarding power but with high tuitions fees are having difficulties with their image (Fricke, 2006).
Widening and expanding access to HE
Through franchising agreements, HE programs can be offered more flexibly in regions with minimal HE infrastructure and / or with programs particularly designed for "non-traditional students" [those usually excluded from HE due to geography, class or culture (e. g. without traditional HE qualification, employed students)]. Experiences in franchising between FECs and HECs in the UK (see paragraph 2.2) leads to the assumption that the access of these target-groups to HE is particularly facilitated as long as providers with a product portfolio including vocational and / or further education are involved as franchisee (Pye & Legard, 2008, p. 6). In Germany almost 80% of interested persons receive access to HEI via the traditional HE entry qualification, the "Abitur" (Nickel & Leusing, 2009, p. 49). Since discussions about a widened access for "non-traditional students" have been (re)started (Nickel & Leusing, 2009) due to the availability of international comparative studies (Schuetze & Slowey, 2000), these franchising arrangements can be considered as an adequate model to recruit adult students with or without traditional HE entry qualifications. They often require special formats of teaching and learning, especially distance learning modules, which allow them to combine study and work. The co-operation with a vocational or further education institution guarantees a professional orientation, which can optimize the learning environment for these students. Instead of building up new HEIs or integrating special study programs in existing and traditionally run HEIs, the franchising arrangement is an opportunity to build up single study programs closer to "non-traditional students", especially designed to meet their needs.
Possible risks of HE franchise
Mainly based on the principal-agent theory and the transaction cost approach, the possible risks of HE franchising are analyzed via two main determinants of transactions: information asymmetry and opportunism (Williamson, 1985; Richter & Furubotn, 2003). To analyze the behavior of the actors of HE franchise agreements two scenarios are created by way of example derived from the principal agent theory:
First scenario: Public university as principal, private HEI as agent
Regarding the university as the principal, which engages in franchise arrangements with private institutions ex ante and ex post agency costs may arise from the conflicting interests between the two partners. While the university is acting in the public interest to expand HE offerings and to generate additional financial resources which are used to improve the quality of teaching and research the franchisee aims at maximizing its individual interest which is profit making. These assumptions may result in adverse selection of the franchisee institution because it is hiding its main characteristics and intentions for the arrangement during and after the contract negotiation. To maximize the profit it acts opportunistically in a sense that it invests less in teaching and quality assurance mechanisms but taking high tuition fees of the student. These risks caused by hidden action and information are difficult and thus cost-intensive for the franchisor to monitor and to avoid. The public university has to fear damaging its reputation. Additional losses through externalities are induced by a bad, and highly paid teaching quality.
Second scenario: public university and private HEI as agent, student as principal
In this case both, the franchisor as well as the franchisee, are counted as one agent, which offers the state-recognized study program and the degree as a common product to the student. Both actors are pursuing individual interest which is profit making. Special organization models (e. g. Stock Corporation) enable single members of the HE franchise (e. g. professors, managers) to generate financial benefits. To maximize the financial outcome the investment in teaching and quality assurance is low (hidden action and information) combined with high tuition fees. Franchisee and franchisor are exploiting the principal trust of students in public universities and their belief in high tuition fees as an indicator for high quality in education (hidden characteristics and intention) (Dotterweich, 2005).
Discussion: Need for quality assurance and transparency
In the context of internationalization of HE two main drivers for franchising arrangements can be identified: On the one hand, the fees of foreign students are important financial resources in times of budget cuts from the government. On the other hand, the franchising model has gained in importance to reach new markets abroad or to at least defend existing shares of foreign markets. Franchising universities are acting strategically and thus entrepreneurially - not surprising e. g. for Australian and American HE sectors in which "for-profit-behavior" is regarded as more usual. The German HE sector, however, has almost no experience in market-oriented behavior because of its long tradition of state run HEIs. The question is, is the German HE sector developing entrepreneurial thinking in that it co-operates with private education institutions? Can the "ethos of the German prestige university" be maintained even through public-private franchising arrangements?
The hitherto investigations show that HE franchising in Germany is a rare and not particularly transparent business model of several HEIs. Some of the franchising institutions refuse to use the term "franchising" because they fear an undermining of their reputation.
The model promises, however, opportunities for the whole HE sector:
• Strategic thinking and acting for public universities concerning market growth, strengthening of the university's profile, additional financial resources
• Regional structural development through flexible offerings of HE study programs
• Progressive qualification opportunities for students and their employers.
Who exactly and in which extent the winners of HE franchises are, will be further investigated in empirical studies.
The very delicate issue in the HE franchise model between a private HE provider as franchisee and a public university as franchisor is the question of the allocation of losses and benefits between the private and the public sector. In German public HE students pay almost no tuition fees, but in the case of the franchise model with a private franchisee institution the students pay a high amount for the degree from a public university. Do the benefits of the public-private HE franchise legitimize the high tuition fees or are public services exploited to generate private profits?
The two selected scenarios (see paragraph 5) show possible risks of the public-private HE franchise. In both cases the student may suffer from bad quality for high costs and should be protected. These approaches open the discussion on governmental interventions and quality assurance mechanisms. To answer the question if and –if yes– what kind of internal and / or external quality assurance mechanisms are adequate all opportunities and risks of HE franchise have to be identified. The investigation has to consider the relevant environmental conditions of the HE sector in question and should start from the examination of each actor's objectives. The particular aims of the partners determine their behavior which leads to the identification of the ex ante and ex post transaction costs for the public university, the private franchisee institution, and the student.
In case that HE franchise arrangements can be conducted efficiently universities are to inform in which mode and extend they can use the model to strengthen their strategic position on the HE market.
Additionally HE franchise models have to be transparently and conformly communicated to all involved actors from official HE institutions, universities and other education providers, from ministries and quality assurance agencies as well as to students and employers. The overall maxim shall be that "students should not become victims of entrepreneurial activities" (Koelman & de Vries, 1999, p. 175).
Ansoff, I. (1957). Strategies for diversification. Harvard Business Review, September–October, 113–124.
Berthold, C., Gabriel, G. & von Stuckrad, T. (2009). Zwei Jahre Hochschulpakt 2020 (1. Phase) –eine Halbzeitbilanz. Arbeitspapier Nr. 118. Gütersloh: Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung.
Cavanaugh, J. C. & Cavanaugh, C. K. (2006). Franchising Higher Education. The Chronicle of Higher Education 52 (33).
Darraz, E. F., Lenhardt, G., Resiz, R. D. & Stock, M. (2009). Private Hochschulen in Chile, Deutschland, Rumänien und den USA. Struktur und Entwicklung. HoF-Arbeitsberichte. 3'09. Institut für Hochschulforschung Wittenberg.
Dotterweich, D. & Baryla, E. A. (2005). Non-resident Tuition and Enrollment in Higher Education: Implications for Tuition Pricing. Education Economics 13, 375–385.
Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power-Dependence Relations. American Sociological Review 27 (1), February, 31-41.
Enders, J & Jongbloed, B. (2007). The Public, the Private and the Good in Higher Education and Research: An Introduction. In Public-Private Dynamics in Higher Education. Enders, J & Jongbloed, B. (Eds.), 9-39. Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.
German Federal Statistical Office, Studierende an Hochschulen nach Trägerschaft. Wintersemester 2008/2009. Fachserie 11, VI B – Hochschulstatistik.
Hailbronner, K. (2007). Akademische Grade ausländischer EU-Hochschulen im Fernstudienverbund mit deutschen Ausbildungsaktiengesellschaften? EuZW 18 (2), 39–44.
Hayes, D. & Wynyard, R. (Eds.) (2002). The McDonaldization of higher education. Wesport, CT: Praeger.
KMK (2008). Anrechnung von außerhalb des Hochschulwesens erworbenen Kenntnissen und Fähigkeiten auf ein Hochschulstudium (II). (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 18.09.2008).
Knight, J. (2008). Higher Education in Turmoil. Sense Publisher.
Koelman, J. & de Vries, P. (1999). Marketisation, hybrid organisations and accounting in higher education. En Jongbloed, B., Maassen, P., Neave, G. (Eds.), From the eye of the storm: Higher education's changing institution. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Nickel, S. (2008). Orientierungshilfen für Hochschulen auf dem Akkreditierungs- und Auditierungsmarkt. Nutzen und Kosten der unterschiedlichen Verfahren. CHE Forum in Kassel, 04-15-2008.
Nickel, S. & Leusing, B. (2009). Studieren ohne Abitur. Entwicklungspotenziale in Bund und Ländern. Eine empirische Analyse. AP 123. CHE, Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung, Gütersloh.
OECD (2009). Bildung auf einen Blick. Wesentliche Aussagen in der Ausgabe 2009. Zusammengefasst vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung und der Kultusministerkonferenz.http://www.bmbf.de/pub/bildung_auf_einen_blick_09_wesentliche_aussagen.pdf, accessed October 9 2009.
Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G. R. (2003). The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. Stanford University Press.
Pye & Legard (2008). Further Education and the Delivery of Higher-level Education. Learning and Skills Council, Coventry, U.K.
Richter, R. & Furubotn, E. G. (2003). Neue Institutionenökonomik. 3. Auflage. Mohr Siebeck. Tübingen.
Robinson & Hammersley-Fletcher (2006). A Comparative Study of the Leadership, Governance and Management (LGM) Issues of three FE/HE Partnerships. Higher Education Funding Council.
Schreiterer, U. & Witte, J. (2001). Modelle und Szenarien für den Export deutscher Studienangebote ins Ausland. Eine international vergleichende Studie im Auftrag des DAAD. CHE, Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung, Gütersloh.
Schuetze, H.G. & Slowey, M. (2000). Higher Education and Lifelong Learners. International Perspectives on Change. London: Routledge.
Strosnider, K. (1997). For-profit university challenges traditional colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education 43 (39).
Williamson, O.E. (1985). The Economic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press.
Wissenschaftsrat (2010). Leitfaden der Institutionellen Akkreditierung. Drs. 9886-10 Potsdam, 05-07_2010.
Woodrow, M. (1993). Franchising: The Quiet Revolution. Higher Education Quarterly 47 (3), 207–220.
Yorke, M. (1993). Quality Assurance for Higher Education Franchising. Higher Education 26, 167–182.
1 The research topic of this paper is examined in a dissertation which is not finished yet.


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Over the course of the four days Kerry met with Prime minister Netanyahu four separate occasions, spending nearly 13 hours with the Israeli Prime Minister in an attempt to make progress on the long fabled peace process. Kerry also made two trips to meet Palestinian Authority President in Amman, Jordan, and one more final meeting with Abbas this Sunday in Ramallah.
This feverish diplomatic schedule is part of an ongoing campaign by the U.S. to bring both sides to the negotiating table to engage in bilateral talks. Israeli newspaper Haaretz reported earlier this week that Kerry is intent on making "headway" between the two parties before the U.N. General Assembly gathers in September.
This U.S. campaign began in earnest following Obama's trip to Israel earlier this year. Kerry's return to Israel and Palestine this Thursday marks Kerry fifth visit to the region in the last three months. Despite the marathon visit, the prospects for substantial progress seem distant. According to Al Jazeera English, Kerry has ended meetings with Israeli and Palestinian leaders without an agreement on resuming peace talks.
The proposed talks have been billed as a last ditch effort to save the two-state solution from imminent demise, yet question remains whether there is the political will in Israel, or enough trust from the Palestinians to make any meaningful progress.
Land for Peace
A senior cabinet minister from the Likud Party expressed that the Israeli Prime Minister would be willing to withdraw from most of the West Bank and evacuate numerous settlements so long as his security demands were satisfied, according to Haaretz . This proposed "land swap" has been referred in the past, in which major settlement blocks would remain in Israeli hands while Palestine sovereignty would extend into part of Israel in return.
However Netanyahu reiterated his stance that "a peace agreement must be based on security and not on good will" adding: "Without security we won't be able to defend ourselves if the peace unravels," according to Israeli newspaper The Jerusalem Post
The security arrangements Netanyahu refers to would be the requirement of a demilitarized Palestine, with the Isreali Defense Forces remaining in full control of Palestinian borders and internal security.
Conflicting Positions
The Palestinian Authority reiterated its demand that Israel halt the construction of Jewish settlements on occupied land, and agree in principle that peace negotiations be based on Israel withdrawing from all land occupied during the 1967 war.
Construction in major settlement blocks does not substantially affect Israel's ability to come to an agreement
Construction in major settlement blocks does not substantially affect Israel's ability to come to an agreement
According to Haaretz Netanyahu said "construction in major settlement blocks does not substantially affect Israel's ability to come to an agreement," adding that both parties should enter negotiations without preconditions.
The continued Settlement construction in the West Bank an East Jerusalem is internationally recognized to be the single biggest obstacle to peace in the region as they physically undermine the viability of a future Palestinian state. There are over 500,000 settlers living is East Jerusalem and the West Bank today, a population that rose rapidly since the onset of direct negotiations between the PLO and the Israeli Government beginning in the early nineties.
Prospects for Peace
The narrative in the Mainstream media is that the failure of the peace process reflects the intransigence of both Palestinian and Israeli negotiators and a series of missed opportunities by both sides. While there may be some truth to this, an analysis of the post Oslo "peace process" period is telling.
Since the landmark Oslo agreement, which was the supposed first step towards Palestinian statehood, the Israeli settler population in the West Bank and East Jerusalem has doubled, Israeli has extended administrative/military control over the majority of Palestinian territory creating a de-factor annexation of area C and making a two state solution geographically improbable.
Since the onset of Kerry's attempt to revive the peace process Israel has rapidly expanded settlement constructions, up 335% in the first quarter of this year according to settlement watch organization Peace Now. This is consistent with Israeli activities in the past; the last round of talks in 2010 broke down when Israel refused to extend a construction moratorium on settlements in the West Bank.
Nothing has indicated that Israel intends to halt its settlement campaign or support the establishment of a Palestinian state based on 1967 borders
Nothing has indicated that Israel intends to halt its settlement campaign or support the establishment of a Palestinian state based on 1967 borders
Nothing has indicated that Israel intends to halt its settlement campaign or support the establishment of a Palestinian state based on 1967 borders. Recent candid comments by high-ranking government officials speak to this sentiment within the Knesset. In an interview with the Times of Israel defense minister Danny Dannon said "there was never a government discussion, resolution or vote about the two-state solution… and nobody will bring it to a vote, it's not smart to do it — but if you bring it to a vote, you will see the majority of Likud ministers, along with the Jewish Home [party], will be against it."
What has been offered to Palestinians when they do sit down to negotiations does not resemble autonomous statehood as imagined by Palestinians and the international community. According to Netanyahu, if a Palestinian state is established "it would have to be demilitarized and with arrangements that rely fully on the Israel Defense Forces for security." This coupled with Netanyahu's position towards retaining all of Jerusalem along with major settlement blocks makes any future agreement based on this low ceiling likely unacceptable to most Palestinians.
To date The U.S. brokered peace talks have provided diplomatic cover as Israeli extends its occupation and settlement of the West Banka and East Jerusalem. While much has been made of the diligence of Kerry in working for peace, the approach remains the same. As its stands today this proces has been a comprehensive failure.
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Arbiter says Kodak didn't infringe Apple patents
The U.S. arbiter for trade disputes has spurned Apple Inc.'s digital-camera patent claims against Eastman Kodak Co., a 131-year-old photography pioneer caught in a perilous race to redefine itself in the cutthroat digital-imaging arena.
Kodak's stock, nonetheless, fell 18 cents, or 7.1 percent, to $2.34 in midday trading Tuesday - its lowest level since March 2009 - amid signs of rising investor concern over its ability to fund a long and painful turnaround.
In a ruling late Monday, the U.S. International Trade Commission's six-judge panel affirmed a preliminary decision in May that Kodak's technology doesn't infringe on Apple's patent rights and that one of the two patents in dispute is invalid.
The decision comes weeks after the commission kept open Kodak's high-stakes case against iPhone behemoth Apple and Research In Motion Ltd., maker of BlackBerry smartphones.
The commission's chief administrative law judge, Paul Luckern, had ruled in January that the iPhone and the BlackBerry do not violate Kodak's patent. On appeal, the commission asked Luckern in late June to take another look. Yet Kodak's failure to score an outright victory heightened worries on Wall Street about whether the maker of cameras, film and printers will be able to cross back quickly enough into a reliably profitable company.
"Kodak can't speak for investors or their reaction" to the commission's decision in June, spokesman David Lanzillo said Tuesday. "As we have said since January, we are confident that Kodak will ultimately prevail in this case."
Kodak, which popularized photography beginning with the Brownie box camera in 1900, had $1.3 billion in cash at the end of March. It needs to pay back $50 million in debt this year, another $50 million in 2012 and $300 million in 2013.
"We have the resources to fully pay our obligations, and we are confident that will continue to be the case," Lanzillo said.
Mining its rich array of inventions has become indispensable in Kodak's push to reverse four years of losses and return to profitability in 2012. Kodak has a promising array of new inkjet printing, packaging and software businesses, but it needs to tap other sources of revenue before investments in those areas have time to pay off.
Kodak has amassed more than 1,000 digital-imaging patents, and almost all of today's digital cameras rely on that technology.
After failed negotiations, Kodak filed a complaint with the commission in January 2010 against Apple, of Cupertino, Calif., and RIM, of Waterloo, Canada. It also filed two lawsuits against Apple in U.S. District Court in Rochester, but it has not specified the damages it is seeking. Both lawsuits are still pending.
In a counterclaim three months later, Apple argued that some Kodak still and video camera products violate two of Apple's patents. One invention relates to a camera's ability to process several images at the same time; the other enables a camera to simultaneously handle adjustments in color, sharpness and other processes.
Kodak's victory in that case represents old technology triumphing over new and "Apple being on the losing side - a rarity indeed," said Anthony Michael Sabino, a business law professor at St. John's University in New York.
Phone and email messages to Apple were not immediately returned Tuesday.
Patent cases can take years to resolve, and agreements over licensing and royalty payments often emerge. The trade commission in Washington, D.C., which can order Customs to block imports of products made with contested technology, is seen as a fast-track mediator that typically resolves disputes in 12 to 18 months.
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©2011 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


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Increasing demand for mobile communications is compelling enterprises and service providers alike to search for solutions that lower costs for existing services, while providing greater overall bandwidth capacity and flexibility for new and evolving applications and services.
As an industry leader for more than 40 years, Walker and its manufacturer community offer a breadth of mobile backhaul solutions to meet specific applications and challenges, enabling carriers to successfully deploy a scalable and robust next-generation network infrastructure.
Walker and Associates offers various network infrastructure solutions enabling service providers to build a mobile backhaul network that is optimized for today's mobile world. These solutions provide unique, powerful, and feature-rich services, as well as provide the flexibility to support converged networks to accommodate both IP and legacy services.
Examples of mobile backhaul applications and solutions that Walker offers include:
Intelligent Carrier Ethernet
Carrier Ethernet provides an economical solution to meet ever-increasing bandwidth requirements and leverages the current move to packet-based networks, allowing carriers to optimize site costs, increase quality of service and reduce transport costs across the entire backhaul network.
Cell Site Demarcation
Cell site switching and demarcation enables service providers and wireless operators to backhaul both TDM and Ethernet traffic over a packet-based RAN as they evolve to next generation 3G and 4G (LTE/WiMAX) services. The solution provides flexible transport options, multiple resiliency mechanisms, and advanced OAM capabilities for remote management, monitoring and rapid fault isolation.
TDM Pseudowire
Despite the trend toward LTE, mobile operators still have extensive 2G/3G networks, typically requiring T1/E1 and Ethernet backhaul services. TDM pseudowire or circuit emulation is an important complement to Ethernet backhaul, supporting legacy 2G/3G backhaul over a single converged access infrastructure.
Microwave Radio
Microwave spans the capacity regime of copper, as well as the lower end of the fiber capacity regime and is unique in its ability to be cost-effective at either end of this spectrum. Available in all bands and configurations, there is a broad portfolio of point-to-point microwave backhaul radio systems to meet every public and private network application need from the network edge to the core.
Network Infrastructure and Connectivity
Keeping your voice, video and data flowing efficiently is important in any communications network. Our extensive network infrastructure and connectivity solutions include outside plant products, power distribution and protection, equipment racks and hardware, copper and fiber optic connectivity, cable management, and more.
Mobile Backhaul Testing
As the network backhaul infrastructure evolves to support new technologies that require more and more bandwidth, service providers need to gain real-time, end-to-end insight into network performance in order to manage existing architectures and ensure service quality regardless of the underlying technology, all the while meeting their bottom-line objectives. Wireless backhaul testing and monitoring solutions provide network operators with the tools they need to enhance network performance and reliability, ensure customer satisfaction and reduce churn. Modular test platforms and end-to-end monitoring systems help reduce equipment inventory and minimize CAPEX, as well as provide simplified, centralized testing to reduce truck rolls, man/hour ratios and operational expenses (OPEX).