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Pancreatic cancer is the growth of cancer cells in the pancreas. The pancreas is a long, flattened pear-shaped organ in the abdomen. It makes digestive enzymes and hormones, including insulin.
Cancer occurs when cells in the body divide without control or order. Normally, cells divide in a regulated manner. If cells keep dividing uncontrollably when new cells are not needed, a mass of tissue forms called a growth or tumor. The term cancer refers to malignant growths. These growths can invade nearby tissues. Cancer that has invaded nearby tissues can then spread to other parts of the body.
It is not clear exactly what causes these problems in the cells, but it is probably a combination of genetics and environment.
Pancreatic cancer is more common in men and in people aged 40 years and older. Other factors that may increase your chances of pancreatic cancer:
Pancreatic cancer does not cause symptoms in its early stages. The cancer may grow for some time before it causes symptoms. When symptoms do appear, they may be very vague. In many cases, the cancer has spread outside the pancreas by the time it is discovered.
Symptoms will vary depending on the location and size of the tumor. Pancreatic cancer may cause:
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. The doctor may order blood and urine tests, as well as check for hidden blood in your stool.
Imaging tests evaluate the pancreas and surrounding structures:
Your doctor may also want to take a biopsy—removal of a sample of pancreatic tissue for examination under a microscope
The physical exam, combined with all of your test results, will help to determine the stage of cancer you have. Staging is used to guide your treatment plan. Like other cancers, pancreatic cancer is staged from I-IV. Stage I is a very localized cancer, while stage IV indicates a spread to other parts of the body.
Treatments for pancreatic cancer depends on the stage of the cancer. Treatments include:
Removal of the cancerous tumor and nearby tissue may be done. Nearby lymph nodes may also need to be removed. In pancreatic cancer, surgery may also be performed to relieve symptoms. Surgeries include:
This is the use of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy may be:
Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be given in many forms including pill, injection, and via a catheter. The drugs enter the bloodstream. Chemotherapy also affects healthy cells.
The use of medications or substances made by the body. They can increase or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. It is also called biologic response modifier (BRM) therapy.
Most times, pancreatic cancer is discovered at an advanced stage. Surgery may not be appropriate in this case. If surgery cannot be done, then chemotherapy and radiation are offered together to prolong survival.
Surgery would be appropriate in about a quarter of people with this disease in the early stage. In these cases, the person would benefit from surgery. After surgery, follow-up chemotherapy and radiation therapy have been found to prolong survival in some cases.
To help reduce your chances of pancreatic cancer:
American Cancer Society
Pancreatic Cancer Action Network
Canadian Cancer Society
Pancreatic Cancer Canada
General information about pancreatic cancer. National Cancer Institute website. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/pancreatic/patient/pancreatic-treatment-pdq. Accessed December 23, 2016. Accessed October 9, 2017.
Pancreatic cancer. American Cancer Society website. Available at: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/pancreatic-cancer.html. Accessed October 9, 2017.
Pancreatic cancer. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:http://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114527/Pancreatic-cancer. Updated August 25, 2017. Accessed October 9, 2017.
9/23/2008 DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillancehttp://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114527/Pancreatic-cancer: Boffetta P, Hecht S, Gray N, Gupta P, Straif K. Smokeless tobacco and cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2008;9(7):667-675.
7/21/2009 DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillancehttp://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114527/Pancreatic-cancer: Li D, Morris JS, Liu J, et al. Body mass index and risk, age of onset, and survival in patients with pancreatic cancer. JAMA. 2009;301(24):2553-2562.
3/5/2010 DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillancehttp://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114527/Pancreatic-cancer: Tramacere I, Scotti L, Jenab M, et al. Alcohol drinking and pancreatic cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the dose-risk relation. Int J Cancer. 2010;126(6):1474-1486.
Last reviewed September 2018 by EBSCO Medical Review Board Mohei Abouzied, MD, FACP Last Updated: 9/4/2020


text: The Good: Outstanding DVD-recording quality, with a best-in-class LP mode; flexible recording speed; chasing playback with DVD-RAM discs; USB port and SDHC card slot for playback of MP3, DivX, and JPEG files; upscales DVD to 1080p; VHS-to-DVD dubbing for home recordings. The Bad: VHS operations are a bit slow; expensive; no Blu-ray compatibility. The Bottom Line: Outstanding recording quality, tons of features, and a built-in digital TV tuner make the Panasonic DMR-EZ48VK an excellent all-purpose DVD and VHS recorder. Editors' note (February 17, 2010): Panasonic has indicated that it plans to continue selling this 2008 model through the 2010 model year. \n\n\nThanks to the rise of Blu-ray, DVD can no longer be considered cutting-edge technology. But with Blu-ray recorders still not a reality--not in North America, anyway--DVD still has the edge when it comes to archiving home video. And because many of those who compulsively record TV shows have a pack rat mentality that dates back to the days of VHS, many of the DVD recorders currently on the market are combo DVD\/VCR models. \nPanasonic has two such models: the DMR-EA38VK and the DMR-EZ48VK. Both are 2008 products the company is leaving in its lineup for '09. The products are basically identical, but the DMR-EZ48VK reviewed here adds a built-in analog and digital TV tuner. In other words, the tunerless EA38VK is aimed at those who are recording from an external source (such as a cable or satellite box), while the EZ48VK can handle those duties plus it can record over-the-air analog or digital (DTV) signals with the addition of a standard antenna. The DMR-EZ48VK also adds some step-up features, such as a USB port and SDHC card slot for playing MP3s, DivX video files, and JPEG picture files. More important is the DMR-EZ48VK's top-notch performance, which gives crisp recordings even in 4-hour LP mode. The unit also includes our favorite feature, flexible recording, which automatically optimizes the video quality of the content to fill a DVD. While the DVD\/VHS combination recorder is surely a dying breed (for the most part, anyway) in today's increasingly digital-only media world, we're comfortable recommending the Panasonic DMR-EZ48VK to those who still need a VHS presence and DVD-recording solution in their home theater systems. \nNote that the Panasonic also sells through some retailers a very similar model called the DMR-EZ485VK--it's identical except for the inclusion of an HDMI cable in the box. Meanwhile, those who don't need VHS capabilities should check out the Panasonic DMR-EZ28K, which is the DVD-only version of this model. \nDesign\nConsidering the DVD and VHS functionality, Panasonic has crammed all of that hardware into an efficiently designed unit. Sporting an all-black design, the player has a bright LCD display that can be dimmed and a silver horizontal crescent that rests below both loading bays. Toward the bottom-right of the front of the player, you'll find a fold-down door that reveals an SDHC card slot, a FireWire port, and a USB flash input. Also located here are buttons to manually switch controlling either VHS or DVD media. Next to this panel are keys for stop, play, record, and fast-forward, which come in handy when the remote goes missing. Finally, on the lower-left side of the unit, you'll find composite inputs along with S-Video connectivity. \nThe well-designed remote is identical to that of previous models. Most of the buttons are large enough to differentiate, including the most important ones: Direct Navigator, Schedule, and Functions. There's a prominent directional pad in the center, and above that are large, blue playback buttons, such as Play and Pause. We're still baffled that the remote lacks an Open\/Close button, which we like to use to open the tray before walking up to switch a disc. \nUser interface\nThe simplest way to make a recording on the DMR-EZ48VK is to pop in a disc, select an input, select DVD or VHS, press Record, and hit Stop when you're done. To schedule a recording or edit it, you'll need to plunge more deeply into the interface, which requires a bit of a learning curve, but offers more functionality. Scheduling works easily enough, but you'll need to remember to turn off the DVD recorder before your scheduled program comes on--a minor annoyance if you want to use your recorder in the meantime. The same rule applies to recording directly to VHS. \nThe Direct Navigator is the main interface that you'll use to access your recordings. The main screen displays six recordings at a time, represented by thumbnail images that start to play back when you hover the cursor over them. You can enter title information through this interface and, if you're using DVD-RAM discs, erase and rerecord titles and perform simple editing to remove commercials, for example. Of course, when using VHS functionality, these options are not available. \nThe Direct Navigator also acts as a media browser for your MP3 music, DivX videos, and JPEG images. You can also begin a slide show through this menu with your images--off a thumb drive, an SDHC card, or a CD--and play your MP3 music to accompany it. We found the overall experience to be intuitive enough, if you're familiar with using the interface of a satellite receiver or cable set-top box. \nFeatures\nThe Panasonic DMR-EZ48VK can make recordings on DVD or VHS from an external video source (such as a cable or satellite box connected to the unit's S-Video or composite video inputs) or from its built-in TV tuner, which accepts analog (NTSC) or digital (ATSC) signals. That means the EZ48VK can tune analog cable signals or DTV over-the-air signals from an antenna. In other words, it has the same sort of capability as a DTV converter box--perfect for any antenna TV viewers who want to watch and record digital TV broadcasts once the analog stations shut down later in 2009. \nTheEZ48VK's auto-tuning setup works quick enough: after setting the device to scan for channels, the unit automatically adds those broadcast channels that come in. You can also manually set up this process, as you may find some specific stations can be skipped accidentally during the automated session. \nThis unit includes the standard four recording modes: highest-quality XP fits 1 hour of video on a DVD; SP fits 2 hours; LP fits 4 hours; and EP, the worst video quality, fits about 8 hours of video. The trade-offs in video quality versus capacity can be drastic: XP is nearly indistinguishable from the source, while EP is barely watchable. As we'll explain below, however, 4-hour LP mode looks very good. The DMR-EZ48VK also supports dual-layer DVD-R and DVD+R discs, doubling the video capacity to 2 hours for XP mode and 16 hours for EP. You can also record to VHS at three various speeds: SP, EP, and VP, SP being the best quality. We really liked Auto mode, which will use the best picture quality setting for the amount of tape you have left. \nThere's a similar setting for DVD recording. Sometimes what you want to record doesn't fit well with the available recording modes. For instance, say you want to record a movie that's 2 hours and 5 minutes long, but don't want to drop down to LP mode. Panasonic has a solution for this, and it's one of our favorite features: flexible recording, which allows you to completely fill a DVD with content and optimize the video quality. Unfortunately, you'll need to schedule a recording at a specific start and end time, which may not be a workable option if, for example, you're recording a Yankees game that slips into extra innings. \nWe liked that Panasonic included chasing playback again on DVD-RAM discs, which means you can watch a program from the beginning, even while it's in the process of recording. Additionally, you can watch a different program recorded on the disc, while it's in the process of recording. Think of chasing playback as a limited, DVD-RAM based DVR, which may be adequate if you don't plan on recording much. On the other hand, it's not as DVR-like as you might expect; you can't pause or rewind live TV, and the capacity of a single disc is pretty limited. We did appreciate the inclusion of the "CM Skip" button, which allows you to blast by commercials a minute at a time.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Note: Availability of format options differs based on your TV model and input video signal resolution and type. Please read the user manual of your TV for specific information about your TV's format options.
Automatic or Normal picture formats produce the best looking image format without distorting the aspect ratio of the input video signal.
Automatic or Normal picture formats use the dimensions of the video signal (i.e 480i, 720p, 1080i, 1080p) vs. the dimensions of the actual picture within the video signal, which can be in numerous different aspect ratios to display a picture on your TV screen. This prevents the aspect ratio of the image from being distorted (where people look short and pudgy, and circles look like ovals).
Below are a set of images which provide a good visual representation of how the Automatic or Normal picture formats look under different video signals and pictures framed within the video signals:
Note: For a 1080i/1080p video signal, if you want to view the entire picture with 1:1 pixel mapping (i.e. 1080p picture on a 1080p screen, if your TV is 1080p) without the 5% overscan which crops the picture on all four sides, please select Unscaled picture format for best performance.
Note: For a 480i / 480p video signal, if you want an image like the one which is shown above to fill more of the screen you can use other formats such as Zoom, Super Zoom, Movie Expand, Movie Expand 14:9 or Movie Expand 16:9 based on your personal preferences and their availabilty based on your TV model. These other formats are especially useful when the entire program and not just commercials are being letter-boxed & pillar-bared at the same time (which cause black bars on all four sides).
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Guest Lecturer photographer/cinematographer Bill Wallauer to speak Thursday, March 12 at 7 p.m. Hastings College Wilson Hall lower level Auditorium. The event is free and open to the public.
Bill is a sought-after speaker for adults and youth. His infectious personality, great stories and chimpanzee multimedia presentation help audiences understand the chimpanzees' behavior and emotional capacity, and the similarities and differences between humans and chimps. Bill's passion for the chimps he knows so intimately truly makes him the Jane Goodall Institute's "Chimp Champion."
Bill Wallauer offers a unique and fascinating view of life among wild chimpanzees. For 15 years, Bill spent just about every day following the wild chimpanzees of Gombe National Park in Tanzania, capturing the intimate details of their daily life. He has commented that, during those years, he spent more time with chimpanzees than with humans. Film production companies have recognized Bill's talent and recruited him as a film camera operator, videographer and consultant for wildlife films shot at Gombe and in other parts of Africa. He has served as camera operator and scientific advisor for more than 30 productions, including BBC/Animal Planet's "Chimp Week" and BBC/Discovery's 10-part series, "Planet Earth." Most recently, he worked as prinicipal photography for Disneynature's "Chimpanzee."
Bill became part of the life at the Jane Goodall Institute's Gombe Stream Research Center in 1989 while on assignment for the U.S. Peace Corps in southern Tanzania. After completing his Peace Corps work in May 1992, the Oregon native was drawn back to Tanzania to help study the Gombe chimpanzees. After he successfully captured a wild chimpanzee birth on videotape, Dr. Goodall asked Bill to follow the chimps and record their daily activities and behavior—which he did for the next 15 years.
For more information, contact Brad Mellema


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A document reveals how Microsoft is working with U.S. intelligence agencies to read messages from users, including helping the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) secret unlock code Microsoft, Australia Guardian reported on Friday (07/12/2013).
Confidential documents obtained by the Guardian of Edward Snowden, U.S. intelligence whistleblowers, said the level of cooperation between Silicon Valley and American intelligence agencies in the last three years.
The document, among others, suggests, Microsoft helped the NSA to read the conversation at the new portal Outlook.com by giving the company secret code. NSA has access to Outlook.com including Hotmail before the messages are written in the form of a code (encrypted).
Microsoft is working with the FBI this year that the NSA get easier access to the data warehouse via Prism SkyDrive which has 250 million users in the world.
Microsoft is also working with the FBI to the intelligence agencies "understand" the issues that potential Outlook.com that allows users to use the e-mail alias for them.
In July last year, nine months after Microsoft bought Skype, the NSA is proud to mention that the NSA has been able to increase the amount of video that they can access through Skype as much as three times through the Prism program. The materials obtained from Prism program routinely accessed by the FBI and CIA. One of the documents referred NSA has the name "team sport".
Snowden documents also reveal the tension between Silicon Valley and the Obama administration. Leading technology companies lobbying the government to be allowed to express the depth of their cooperation with the NSA to address customer concerns in terms of privacy.
Corporate leaders are not trying to claim that they have collaborated and worked with intelligence agencies like NSA documents mentioned in the argument that the process is carried out according to the lawsuit.
In a statement, Microsoft said, "If we increase the capacity (upgrade)-prudok and updating our products, we are not exempt from having to comply with applicable laws, both now and into the future."
Microsoft reiterated his argument that they provide the customer data "only in response to government requests, and we only serve the demand for specific address or identity".
Last June, the Guardian reported that the NSA claims to have "direct access" program through the Prism system leading internet companies including Microsoft, Skype, Apple, Google, Facebook, and Yahoo.


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Screaming headline in the 'Indy':
Oh noes! Disaster! Oh, the terrible Tory cuts!
Anthony Douglas, chief executive of Cafcass, which safeguards the welfare of children involved in family court proceedings, said he expected to see a leap in child neglect cases as thousands of struggling families were pushed over the financial edge in the coming months.
Really, Anthony? You really think so?
Because I'm sceptical, to say the least:
Riley Pettipierre, two, of Belper, Derbyshire, died in hospital last March after drinking the drug from a beaker left in the room of his mother Sally Dent and father Shaun Binfield, where he also slept.
Dent and Binfield are now on trial, charged with their son's manslaughter and cruelty to a person under 16 as it is alleged they failed to keep methadone and other drugs out of the reach of the child.
We don't seem to take into care the babies of drug-addled underclass wasters, Anthony, so I think some mother who has to buy Asda Value brand fish fingers instead of Birds Eye prime cod fish fingers shouldn't start panicking just yet…


text: NOTICE: We are currently experiencing issues regarding the readability of PDF files in the Chrome and Firefox browsers, and Adobe Reader. We are in the process of addressing this situation; in the meantime, we recommend using Internet Explorer or Safari, or Adobe Acrobat when viewing PDFs on RIT Scholar Works. If you have any questions or concerns, you can email us at .


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The world depends on mariners. Mariners depend on SCI. And we depend on you.
Photos of Christmas at Sea distribution, December 22, 2011.
Photos by the Rev. David Rider, President & Executive Director.
Volunteer knitters from around the country knit garments as symbols of SCI's mission of hospitality. Each year, SCI distributes these warming gifts to mariners far away from home.


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Stocks are moving higher on Wall Street in midday trading after another strong pickup in retail spending.
The Dow Jones industrial average was up 59 points at 13,387 shortly before noon Monday.
The Standard & Poor's 500 index was up six points at 1,434 and the Nasdaq composite was up 10 at 3,054.
The Commerce Department said retail sales rose 1.1 percent last month after a 1.2 percent increase in August. Those are the largest gains since October 2010 and could reflect growing confidence in the economy.
Citigroup stock rose after the bank beat Wall Street's earnings estimates. The stock was up $1.60 at $36.35. The bank made $1.06 per share from July through September after excluding special items, beating a prediction of 96 cents.


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Independent' regulator has made no difference to poor standards in Scotland's legal profession STRUGGLING to shake off it's pro-lawyer, anti-client image, the Scottish Legal Complaints Commission (SLCC) published its 2012-2013 annual report last week, revealing the regulator now deals with more complaints per year. The report also reveals the SLCC's 'free' mediation service, which is generating costs & fees of over £45K to mediators, is resulting in a rising numbers of complaints resolutions instead of cases going on to investigation, determination, and potential disciplinary action against rogue lawyers.
The so-called 'independent' regulator of lawyers created six years ago by the Scottish Government at a staggering multi-million pound cost to taxpayers which has never been paid back, also published claims it made compensation awards and fee rebates to clients who were victims of crooked law firms to clients of "over £250,000.
Claims of a feather don't necessarily match together – SLCC 2012-2013 annual report Figures contained in the SLCC's own annual report reveal a very different version on the 'over £250K compensation figure', showing that law firms are regularly refusing or delaying to pay fines imposed on them by the regulator, forcing the SLCC to resort to costly court action when dodgy law firms & lawyers refuse to pay up to clients now turned into financial victims.
Figures in the annual report actually reveal there were 49 cases where the SLCC was forced to take recovery action against solicitors & law firms who refused to pay up after the SLCC had made compensation awards to clients.The SLCC said it's action recovered over £72,000 of compensation for complainers in these cases but gave no further details of the cases concerned.
The SLCC said "We continue to see cases of non-compliance where practitioners fail to pay awards which have been made against them by us. We take a firm line on this and use Sheriff Officers and the Small Claims Court processes where necessary to enforce outstanding sums." The SLCC went onto claim : "We have the full support of the Law Society of Scotland in tackling non-compliance where a solicitor refuses to pay."
The SLCC continued "In addition, we have found that complainers sometimes have to wait a considerable length of time to receive compensation or fee rebates where a Judicial Factor or Trustee has been appointed. They may also only receive partial compensation."
"We have raised this point with the Law Society of Scotland. Whilst we understand that other creditors' interests need to be considered, it is essential that the complaints system incorporates effective redress mechanisms. We are concerned that in an increasing proportion of cases, complainers are at risk of not receiving full redress."
"In addition to the risk of inadequacy of redress, we are incurring increasing costs in seeking to enforce our decisions. Since we are funded by a levy on the legal profession, these costs are borne by the profession as a whole."
In two cases, the SLCC was critical of the Law Society's administration of the investigation and/or its decision-making. The regulator revealed the Law Society paid a total of £500 compensation to the complainers (plus £20 towards their costs).
The SLCC also asked the Society to reconsider one of these complaints which resulted in a complaint being upheld which the Society had previously decided not to uphold. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the SLCC found that in the two other cases, the Law Society had carried out its investigations generally satisfactorily.
While the claimed improvements contained in the annual report may be welcome in some quarters, notably the Scottish Government who are in need of positive figures from it's inept creation of the SLCC in 2008 by Kenny MacAskill, the SLCC's statistics and rumours surrounding the identities of law firms continually subject to client complaints actually reveal some unsurprising facts :
(i) Solicitors & law firms who continually abuse clients & consumers in complaint after complaint are using the SLCC's perceived bias towards the profession and the regulator's lack of powers to avoid complaints investigations,
(ii) Solicitors and their 'professional representatives & support organisations' (aka Legal Defence Union, Law Care, Law Society etc) are manipulating paperwork, dates of legal work carried out on behalf of clients, and also the regulator's mediation service to ensure lawyers who are subject of complaints remain in a job with a clean record, thus avoiding claims for negligence, dishonesty and sanction as a result of prosecution before the Scottish Solicitors Discipline Tribunal .
Keen to promote the image of the SLCC as 'improved', even though the evidence appears to show the regulator at a five year stand still, Chief Executive of the SLCC, Matthew Vickers, said "We've made some significant improvements in our performance this year but there is no room for complacency. Where lawyers haven't met the standards which the public should expect, we act to put things right. Where we do make awards we follow up strongly to ensure that redress becomes reality. We believe that our trend analysis and guidance contributes to improving legal services and we look forward to continuing to work with the professional bodies to build public trust and confidence in the Scottish legal profession."
Once hailed as a hope to clean up crooked lawyers, the SLCC achieved so little in 5 years. The SLCC also published a five year review of it's work, which can be viewed online here : The SLCC Five Years On - Facts & Figures. Commenting on the review, Bill Brackenridge, SLCC Chair said : "The review is a good measure of progress and while there is still work to be done it clearly demonstrates the benefits of having an independent regulator. I would encourage the profession to continue to work closely with the SLCC in order to promote best practice, further reduce the number of complaints and continue to improve the reputation of the legal sector with clients, the public and stakeholders".
In reality, the Scottish Legal Complaints Commission has moved on little since its creation in 2008. Consumers of legal services in Scotland are as unprotected now as they have been for decades under the lawyer investigates their own culture of the Law Society of Scotland.
Indeed, the Law Society of Scotland appears more in charge of regulation of its own member solicitors than ever before, leaving the SLCC as some bystander, far from innocent, and far from having the will to clean up legal services or protect consumers from the costly consistent horrors of dealing with Scotland's legal profession.
And, as far as independence goes, the 'independent' regulator of complaints against Scottish solicitors, is hardly independent at all as Diary of Injustice revealed earlier this year here : A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP : Investigation reveals Scotland's 'independent' legal regulator is mired in family, business & personal links to legal profession & Law Society
The cost of this five year stand still you ask? Well, poor legal services in Scotland for one, poor client protection for another, hundreds of lawyers escaping regulation & penalties, and a whopping £3 million pounds a year to run the Scottish Legal Complaints Commission on top of the millions every year Scottish solicitors take in ill gotten gains from clients and get away with it.
So, got a complaint against a lawyer ? Well, tell us in the media about it before or during your trip to the Scottish Legal Complaints Commission. Its amazing what some attention, and little transparency can achieve these days…
MEDIATION – Far from free, and a dodge for dodgy lawyers to escape penalty
Included in the SLCC's annual report were claims their "free mediation service is an effective early complaint resolution method with 75% success rate."
However, a response received from the SLCC in relation to a freedom of information request made by DOI journalists revealed a slightly different story which anyone thinking of going into mediation may wish to consider :
Of the 134 cases eligible for mediation in the last year, 43 cases were settled at mediation, 14 cases were not settled at mediation, 1 case was withdrawn by the complainer, 76 cases were marked as "did not happen", which refers to the fact that the parties did not agree to go to mediation.
The SLCC were asked for statistics on the numbers of mediation outcomes accepted or rejected by complainer or solicitor. However, the SLCC claimed "There is no way of knowing this information. The outcome of the mediation process is agreed between the parties, the mediator does not suggest the settlement. Any settlements reached are confidential."
Asked about the numbers of mediation cases sent back for investigation, the SLCC disclosed "Any cases that are not settled at mediation will be passed to a Case Investigator to begin the investigation process. In the period in question 90 cases were sent for investigation."
In spite of claiming its mediation service to be free (to clients), the SLCC disclosed in its FOI response the total cost representing the cost of the mediator and the room hire etc amounts to £45,210.
In the period from 25/04/13 till 30/06/13 the SLCC said it had identified 3 cases which were closed following settlement at mediation. The combined costs of these cases (mediators costs and room hire) amounts to £1335.30
Commenting on the SLCC's mediation process, a consumer affairs representative who has seen documents from a client who's case was unsuccessful in mediation, said : "The SLCC's mediation scheme only seems to guarantee that any lawyer who faces a complaint and who is lucky enough to end up in mediation, can drag out discussions for months, settle for much less than the client appears to have lost, and then go on to find another victim to rip off."


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The Sun continues the steady stream of Democratic Party talking points by repeatedly asserting that the current government shutdown is entirely the fault of extreme Republicans bent on creating chaos ("Fund government, then negotiate," Oct. 7).
One of the reasons you offer is that many tea party Republicans are from gerrymandered districts who are not accountable to the national interest. The short answer to that argument is that nobody from Maryland, including The Sun, has a right to complain about another state's gerrymandered districts.
Maryland's congressional districts are so politically engineered to produce Democratic Party true believers that even a federal judge mocked the tortured contours of several of them.
The current deadlock is a fight between a group of gerrymandered districts benefiting Republicans and the gerrymandered districts that provide safe seats in reliably Democratic states like Maryland. Is it any wonder that nothing gets done and trillion-dollar budget deficits continue?
As to your assertion that President Obama is willing to negotiate "everything" but not when a gun is pointed to the head of the American people, one must ask: Since when?
Mr. Obama's entire presidency has been to sneer and belittle Republicans rather than negotiate and compromise on legislation, hoping that his cheerleaders in the media will carry water for him. One need only look at the "sequester" drama to see that the president does not feel obligated to compromise on anything.
Standing in front of human props for televised speeches is not negotiating. Presidents such as Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan understood this and sat down with their political opponents to work things out.
Instead of putting phony barricades in front of war memorials, perhaps the president should try something new — like being a leader. You never know, but that just might work.
Robert C. Erlandson, Lutherville


text:
Welded Wire Panels (original design)
Sturdy, hot-dip galvanized wire panels are great for lambing and kidding pens, gates, fence lines and many other projects. 1/4 in. diameter rods. 4"x4" holes.
Tall enough for most sheep (unless they are very active, flighty or high-libido rams during breeding season.)
Look to our reinforced PowerBilt® Panels for 3"x3" holes.
California Residents: Proposition 65 Information
*Items #964600, #964500 and #964400 are subject to shipping charges due to oversized and/or overweight items. Use the following table as a general estimate. Exact shipping charges may vary based on your location. We will contact you via phone or email with a quote before the product is shipped.
Estimated Shipping Cost for Welded Wire Panels
|Shipping Cost
|Zone A
|Zone B
|Zone C
|40" x 60"
40" x 72"
|Dimensional Surcharge†
|1–8 panels‡
|Plus $12/per panel
|40" x 96"
|LTL Delivery Fee
|1–8 panels‡
|Plus $8/per panel
- 4" square holes
- 1/4" dia. rods
- 1 height (40")
- 4 lengths
- Hot-dip galvanized steel
Usually used for stock confinement, galvanized welded wire mesh is also an excellent material for deck railings—very strong and extremely durable.
Listed below are recommended optional components or related items. Your particular situation may require alternative recommendations. Please call and talk to our consultants if there are any questions at 800-282-6631.
Buckets and Troughs
Premier Bucket HolderItem #564700 -
A welded wire bracket that easily drops into place onto wire or 1" wood panels, yet holds round and square buckets securely.$2.60
Wire Panels and Accessories
Wire Panel Hinge, 40" tallItem #965400 -
Provides a strong, reliable connection that is also a 360º hinge. Surprisingly easy and fast to use.$4.00
Wire Panels and Accessories
36" x 36" PowerBilt Wire Panel, 3" holesItem #965500 -
Reinforced galvanized welded wire panels. Great for building lambing jugs, gates, fence lines and many other projects.$54.00
Handling Equipment
Snap Clip, Stainless SteelItem #965406 -
Use to connect wire panels and hang poultry waterers and feeders.$7.60
Handling Equipment
Snap Clip, Zinc PlatedItem #965405 -
Use to connect wire panels and hang poultry waterers and feeders.$2.70
Wire Panels and Accessories
Braided Cord, 8 ftItem #965410 -
Useful length of cord for having around the farm. Hang poultry waterers and feeders. Attach wire panels and gates.$1.50
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Ground Rod and/or Connecting Pin, 3 ftItem #151200 -
Effectively ground energizers or firmly secure handling equipment. Galvanized pin is resilient to rust and wear.$5.80
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Plated steel bolt for holding connecting pins, tie gates shut and a multitude of farm uses.$2.10
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Linking stakes are stronger and more versatile than all other methods.$8.10
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Used extensively on the Premier farms to securely connect gates and panels via linking stakes.$2.40
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Michael M from Philadelphia PA
We don't have goats or sheep here in downtown Philadelphia (unfortunately), but we do have gardens, and these panels make some great urban trellis. Very straight and sturdy. Arrived quickly.
Brent K from Dallas, Texas
Great panels. I was worried about the finish, but they have a nice shiny coat. Very pleased.
Jim V from Langley, B.C.
Set them up at 48 inches high around a round bale. Looked great but next morning had a nanny goat hanging by her hind feet from the top of it, dead. An expensive lesson as I bought 10 panels I am not going to be using.
Jeanette H from Canada
2 panels received badly warped and edges crimped. very disappointed.


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A Story of War and the Life That Follows
Brian Castner talks about life after war and his memoir 'The Long Walk Home'
Spencer Platt/Getty Images
Over the course of our nation's history, men and women have served in the military bravely, confronting the many dangers that face our country to continually protect our freedoms and lives.
See also: Healing America's heroes
Brian Castner is one those brave people. He served three tours of duty in the Middle East, two of them as the commander of an explosive ordnance disposal unit.
He and his unit dismantled IEDs wherever they threatened civilians or military personnel. It is one of the most dangerous and important jobs in the military. It is also one of the most emotionally and mentally demanding.
When Castner returned to his wife and family after he finished his tours of duty, he began fighting another equally fierce emotional and mental battle to readjust to a different life on the home front. The emotions that he struggles against, which for lack of a better term he dubs the Crazy, haunt him daily.
In this interview with Mike Cuthbert, Castner reveals his story of heartbreak, sacrifice and the camaraderie of war as well as the unending support from family and the lonely struggle with survivor guilt, which many veterans carry with them always. Castner's new memoir, The Long Walk, also details these and many other stories of war and the life that follows.
You May Also Like
- 8 ways the Civil War changed your life
- 10 high calorie foods you should be eating
- Feel good: Volunteer with AARP Foundation Tax-Aide
Visit the AARP home page for more politics and news
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Panera Is Testing Out New Double Bread Bowls in Philadelphia
It may still be peak summer, but we're already dreaming of enjoying a bread bowl full of soup on a cool early autumn night. A bread bowl is easily the coziest meal you can have. You get to enjoy hot soup inside of a bowl made out of delicious fluffy bread! It's the food equivalent of a fuzzy sweater, and according to Panera, it's one of their most popular items. That's why Panera is testing out new double bread bowls filled with either soup or mac and cheese.
From August 5 to August 31 (practically fall!) Panera will be testing out the double bread bowl — one loaf, two cutouts — in Philadelphia restaurants. The double bread bowl is potentially shareable — or potentially a way to just eat all the bread, mac and cheese, and soup that you can. Should the brand see success with the test product in Philadelphia, double bread bowls may launch nationwide. That means by the time it's cold enough to wear a scarf, you might be able to scarf down a cozy bread bowl with a friend or family member or, you know, alone.
Looking forward to more end-of-summer and fall foods? These are the most popular menu items at America's top chain restaurants.


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The last of the Untamed series from Microgaming, the Untamed Wolf Pack offers nothing new or exciting in terms of features. Following the same routine as the previous Untamed slots, it has a déjà vu feeling written all over it. Instead of the Bengal tigers or giant panda, the setting shifts over to the Canadian winters with Wolves running loose on the reels.
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South End, as a suburb, was once a cosmopolitan community. Men, women, children and families lived harmonious lives in the epicentre of cultural diversity. Blacks, whites, coloureds, Indians, Chinese, Jews, Greeks and many more were united in their attitude towards family values, faith and morals, despite the diversity of religion, language and race.
Children of all races played in the old South streets – Walmer Road, Gardner, Frere, Farie, Mitchell, Sprigg, Rudolph and Pier streets, among others. With 12 churches in South End alone, the religious element was strong and respected. These churches included Christian churches, Mosques and a Hindu Temple.
Education was another priority to the people of South End. Non-whites were not able to pursue high-end careers, but education was something that could not be denied (despite the Apartheid laws that sometimes made it very costly and difficult for non-whites). They placed an enormous value on this commodity and ensured that children gained the most benefit out of their education as possible. This bred a community of committed and intelligent youths, a valuable asset to any environment.
Sport was another area in which the South End community excelled. Again, non-whites were only able to achieve up to a certain level, and were prohibited from becoming regional or national representatives of their sport. This did not stop the South Enders, though. They were involved in, and excelled at, almost every type of sport including rugby, soccer, hockey, swimming, cricket, weightlifting, tennis, and lifesaving.
Life in South End at this time was fairly free in terms of where people lived, worked and even walked. Businesses were successfully owned and run by non-whites, and were very lucrative. Neighbours visited one another freely, sharing resources and socialising.
The suburb of South End itself was steeped in history, with beautiful buildings dating back to the 19th and 20th centuries. Such structures boasted high ceilings, wooden doors and stunning gables. Photographs of this period remind one of rural South America in its quaint antiquity and old world charm.
This vibrant, harmonious spirit was all but crushed when, in 1948, the National Party was elected to power and the Apartheid ideals were implemented. This way of ruling held the principle of "equal but separate development", and one of the laws that came into being was that of the Group Areas Act. This required that all non-whites be ousted from "white" suburbs. This removal was carried out by force, if necessary. Coloureds, blacks and Indians of all ages were assigned to areas far away from the city centre of Port Elizabeth and certainly far away from South End. These forced removals bore many negative consequences for the ex-residents of South End. People were now forced to commute long distances to get to work, school and even church and hospitals. In addition, homes that had once housed the families and extended families of South End were destroyed without discrimination.
Coloured residents were moved to areas such as Gelvandale, Korsten, and Chetty. The Chinese people were moved to Kabega Park, Indians to Malabar and black people to townships such as New Brighton. The effect on the people who had once created the vibrancy of South End was an ideal metaphor for the transition taking place in South Africa, even today. Despite being saddened by the injustices of Apartheid, this now-split community maintained their optimism and sought to embark on positive initiatives towards racial equality.
This reaction, as well as the efforts they made as a group of non-whites, could be attributed to the strong values, religious basis and family morals that were engrained into the community in the South End days. It is in recognition of this proactively constructive approach to a tragic situation that the South End Museum was established. The museum has been designed to provide an accurate picture of the life once enjoyed in this bustling and diverse neighbourhood. More than this, it exposes some of the injustices experienced by non-whites, and it honours the key figures who lived (and sometimes died) for their eternal determination for justice and racial equality.
History of South End
South End, as a suburb, was once a cosmopolitan community. Men, women, children and families lived harmonious lives in the epicentre of cultural diversity. Blacks, whites, coloureds, Indians, Chinese, Jews, Greeks and many more were united in their attitude towards family values, faith and morals, despite the diversity of religion, language and race.


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Double-amputee vet gets accessible home of his own
BETHEL TOWNSHIP, Pa. — For the past five years, a now-retired Marine corporal has been navigating life as a double amputee.
On Thursday, Tim Donley and his wife, Kelly, were given the keys to a brand new, handicapped-accessible "smart home" designed to remove many of the everyday roadblocks that he has encountered since he was wounded in Afghanistan.
"It's ours. I've never had a home of my own," Tim Donley said. "We've never had anywhere that was ours."
The Stephen Siller Tunnel to Towers Foundation, which has its headquarters on Staten Island, N.Y., changed that.
► March:Wounded at war, Army veteran gets new home
► July:Triple amputee vet to get new 'smart home'
"The apartment we've been living in has been pretty rough. It is a small place, so a lot of times I'll hop around instead of worrying about being in my wheelchair because there just isn't enough room." Tim Donley said. "You don't find many places that are handicapped accessible to the extent that we tend to need it."
The foundation honors the sacrifice of Stephen Siller, who died saving others on Sept. 11, 2001. One of its programs builds accessible homes with lighting, heating and electronics that can be controlled via computer, tablet or smartphone, and it has completed more than 50 such homes across the USA.
This home features a number of amenities meant to give Tim Donley more independence than a normal house. Pull-down cabinets and drawers for storage and a roll-in shower are just a few of its attributes.
"It is such an incredible place, and it's ours," Tim Donley said. He lost both legs and had severe damage to one arm when an improvised explosive device detonated near him Feb. 9, 2012, while he was on patrol in Afghanistan.
The home also will make it easier for the Donleys to play host to other disabled veterans who are their friends, including Kelly Donley's brother, Mark Fidler. Fidler also lost his legs in Afghanistan when the Marine stepped on an IED less than a week into his combat tour.
"We haven't been able to hang out with Mark or other injured guys as much because we didn't have enough space for multiple wheelchairs. It's tough," Tim Donley said.
The Donleys wanted to live in Bethel Township, about halfway between Harrisburg and Allentown in eastern Pennsylvania, because it is close to Kelly Donley's parents.
Her parents' property also is home to Kelly Donley's two horses, and her husband is hoping to get a horse specially trained to accommodate riders without legs.
► October 2014:Tears from quad-amputee as he sees his new 'smart home'
► July 2014:N.Y. Jets help injured Army vet get 'smart home'
Tim Donley met Kelly while he was in Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Md., recovering from the injuries he sustained in the 2012 explosion.
"Kelly's older brother, Mark, was injured about four months before I was, and he and I became friends at the hospital," Tim Donley said. "Kelly and I met about a year later, and the rest is history."
Members of the Stephen Siller Tunnel to Towers Foundation and representatives from the organizations and businesses that helped finance and build the home had a Thursday ceremony at the home to officially welcome the Donleys.
Having a mortgage-free, navigable home removes some of the stress that comes from living with injuries, not just for his family but for all of the veterans that the foundation has helped, Tim Donley said.
"In our time of need and during times where we've needed support, there have been good people who really want to help us and want to do something good for us," he said. "It is changing our lives."
Follow Merriell Moyer on Twitter: @merriell_moyer


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Difference between revisions of "2014 Group 1 Project"
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====Factors affecting Phagocytosis====
====Factors affecting Phagocytosis====
Phagocytosis can be affected by the particle shape, size and temperature. An oval shaped particle has a better chance and rate of engulfment than a round-shaped particle, due to a better grasp of the particle which is affected by the surface area and volume ratio. 2,3 <ref><pubmed>PMID21059234<
Phagocytosis can be affected by the particle shape, size and temperature. An oval shaped particle has a better chance and rate of engulfment than a round-shaped particle, due to a better grasp of the particle which is affected by the surface area and volume ratio. 2,3 <ref><pubmed>PMID21059234</><ref> <ref><pubmed>16549762<pubmed><ref>
==Diseases related to endocytosis==
==Diseases related to endocytosis==
Revision as of 23:18, 29 May 2014
UNSW ANAT3231 Course Coordinator Dr Mark Hill
2014 Projects: Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | Group 4
- 1 Phagocytosis
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 History
- 1.3 Structure of Plasma Membrane
- 1.4 Receptors
- 1.5 Mechanism of Phagocytosis (how material is transported through the membrane and into the cell)
- 1.6 Diseases related to endocytosis
- 1.7 Diseases related to endocytosis
- 1.8 Diseases related to endocytosis
- 1.9 Current/future research
- 1.10 References
Phagocytosis is a crucial defence mechanism of the innate immune response which eliminates debris and pathogens[1]. Phagocytosis is a specialised type of endocytosis where large (≥0.5 μm)[2] solid particles are internalised through the receptor-mediated engulfment of membrane-derived vesicles called phagosomes[3]. After the vesicles detach from the plasma membrane (scission), the phagosome matures by fusing with endosomes and lysosomes (which contain hydrolytic enzymes) to form a phagolysosome. The hydrolytic enzymes in the phagolysosome break down the internalised solid particles. The mechanism behind Phagocytosis is clathrin (a protein that plays a major role in formation of coated vesicles) independent and usually requires actin polymerisation[4]. Phagocytosis is triggered by the interaction between ligands on the particle surface and receptors on the phagocytic cell. Particles may be directly recognised or may be tagged by opsonins before being recognised by specific receptors. Phagocytosis plays a central role in host defence against infective agents, and in tissue remodelling and maintenance, though some microorganisms use phagocytosis as a means to invade host cells and thus avoid direct destruction by serum antibodies or cytotoxic cells. Phagocytes can be divided into two groups; Professional Phagocytes (usually referring to Polymorphonucleocytes - PMNs), and Non-professional Phagocytes[2].
<mediaplayer>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VQU28itVVw</mediaplayer> Outline of Phagocytosis[5]
Professional phagocytes are known as such as their main function is phagocytosis. These professional phagocytes come a common precursor, the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. Although they have an overall function of phagocytosis, some specialise in the engulfment of particular organisms in some specific environment. These phagocytes are considered very important as they play a very big role in innate immunity. [6] These cells are highly dependent on their actin cytoskeleton to reach the target site and to go through the phagocytic process. [7]
Pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell as precursor to professional phagocytes[8]
Monocytes are phagocytic cells that are serve as the precursor of macrophages, mast cells and dendritic cells upon moving into specific tissues.[9] They are seen to have a bean shaped nucleus, but do change in form once they mature into the above mentioned specialised cells. [6]
Macrophages are probably the most commonly mentioned amongst the phagocytic cells of the body, although they are smaller in number compared to the neutrophils. They are matured monocytes, which have travelled to specific tissues in the body. They are known to play a key role in innate immunity and play a crucial role in host defense. [6] They have receptors to recognise foreign particles, which in turn trigger a release of cytokines. These cytokines, usually of the interleukin family, attract more phagocytic cells on to the area of infection. Their ability to take on large parasites makes their function quite effective, leaving other phagocytic cells capable of phagocytic activity against smaller microorganisms. [10]
Neutrophils are the most numerous of the professional phagocytes. They have a multilobed nucleus and neutrophilic granules. They are usually attracted to the site of infection by cytokines secreted by macrophages. They are usually located in the peripheral blood and possess adhesive interactions with the endothelium to get through to the site of infection. [10] At the site of infection, they are seen to possess a 'vacuum like mechanism', engulfing foreign microorganisms as it comes across them. For this reason, it is believed that much of its effectiveness also springs from it motility. It has been noted that its effectiveness decreases in fluid environments and in this case, macrophages are more responsible for the phagocytic response. [11]
The recruitment of neutrophils[12]
<mediaplayer>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yicmRt1lQDs</mediaplayer> Neutrophils engulfing bacteria[13]
Dendritic Cells
Dendritic cells also come from the common monocyte precursor. They have an interdigitating, finger-like appearance. They share a common function with macrophages, where they have the ability of phagocytose foreign microorganisms. This normally occurs at the early stages of the dendritic cell's existence. As this cell matures, it moves on to its function as an antigen-presenting cell. At this stage, it is found in areas of high T-cell count.[6]
Mast Cells
Mast cells are another type of phagocytic cells that have come from their monocyte precursor. Like macrophages, they tend to differentiate and mature in the tissue they migrate to. They also play a key role in immunity, particularly in allergic reactions. They are known to be exocytic ells, known to recruit other exocytic cells such as eosinophils and basophils. [14]
Timeline of Phagocytosis and Progression of Immunology [4] [15] [16] [17]
Structure of Plasma Membrane
Plasma membranes surround the cell, that is composed of lipid bilayer. The lipid bilayer consists of double-layered amphipathic phospholipids that reflect each other; individually these phospholipids have a hydrophilic polar head and 2 uncharged, hydrocarbons, hydrophobic tails. The hydrophilic head faces outwards, i.e. articulates with the extracellular environment and internal cellular department. and the hydrophobic tails face towards each other, internally. This orientation is energetically favourable. This amphipothic property allows self-sealing, however this causes the plasma membrane to have no intrinsic strength.
Membrane proteins are specialised proteins that carryout specific functions for the membrane and are either embedded in the inner, outer or both phospholipid layers. Glycoproteins are proteins with polymers of oligosaccharides (sugar short chains) that coat the surface (non-cytosolic side) of all eukaryotic cells. This is called the carbohydrate layer of the cell, which functions to protect the cell surface from damage, provide lubrication for assisting with motility and cell-cell recognition and adhesion.
Cholesterol molecules are also abundant in the membrane and closely associate with the phospholipids and enhance permeability-barrier properties of the bilayer by decreasing the deformability regions of the phospholipids and prevent crystallisation of hydrocarbon chains. [18]
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Lipid Bilayer. [2]
In order for the innate immune system to function properly, there must be a mechanism where Phagocytes can differentiate host cells from foreign particles. Phagocytes can identify cells using "Pattern-recognition receptors" (PRRs) located on the plasma membrane, which interact with specific conserved motifs on pathogens called "Pathogen-associated molecular patterns" (PAMPs)[19]. Examples of Pathogen-associated motifs include mannans in the cell wall of yeast, formylated peptides in bacteria, and lipopolysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids on the surface of bacteria. Furthermore, the differences in phagocytic capacity and efficiency of professional and nonprofessional phagocytes have been suggested to arise from the presence of an array of dedicated phagocytic receptors that increase particle range and phagocytic rate.
Due to the complexity of phagocytosis, no single model can fully account for the diverse structures and outcomes associated with particle internalisation. This complexity can be attriubted in part to the large diversity of receptors capable of stimulating phagocytosis. Since most particles are recognised by more than one receptor, and that these receptors are capable of cross-talk and synergy, further complicates our understanding. Furthermore, many phagocytic receptors have multiple functions, often mediating both adhesion and particle internalisation (the relationship between adhesion and particle internalisation also being a complex topic). Adhesion receptors and phagocytic receptors can both activate and inhibit each other's function. For example, ligation of the fibronectin receptor (α5β1 integrin) at the substrate-adherent surface of a monocyte results in conditions within the cell that permit the otherwise inactive complement receptor CR3 (αMβ2 integrin) to mediate phagocytosis[20] [21]. It is also thought that adhesion processes and phagocytosis compete for similar cytoskeletal components as it has been observed that many of the cytoskeletal components known to participate in adhesion are also enriched in the phagocytic cup. These components include paxillin, talin, vinculin, and α-actinin[22] [23].
Despite the complexity associated with different phagocytic mechanisms, they share a number of similarities such as: The interaction of specific receptors on the surface of the phagocyte with ligands on the surface of the particle that is being internalised leads to the polymerisation of actin at the site of ingestion[24]. After internalisation, actin is shed from the phagosome, and the phagosome matures by a series of fusion and fission events with components of the endocytic pathway, resulting in the formation of the mature phagolysosome. Phagosome maturation requires the coordinated interaction of the actin and tubulin based cytoskeletons as the transportation of endosomes/lysosomes occurs mainly in association with microtubules[25] [26].
Fc Receptor-Mediated Phagocytosis
Fc (Fragment crystallisable) receptors (FcRs) are specialised receptors for different immunoglobulin isotypes (IgA, IgE, IgM, and IgG), and are involved in regulating and executing antibody‐mediated responses. FcRs fall into two general classes; those involved in effector functions, and those that transport immunoglobulins across epithelial barriers. There are three types of FcR; FcαR, FcεR, and FcγR, which are classified based on the type of antibody that they recognise[27]. FcγR binds to IgG, the most common class of antibody. FcRs that mediate phagocytosis in human macrophages fall under the activator class of FcRs and include FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIII[28].
Types of Fc receptors
FcγRIIA is a single chain protein in humans that is composed of an extracellular Fc binding domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail containing two immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) - a specific sequence of amino acids (YXXL) occurring twice in close succession in the intracellular tail of a receptor[29] [30]. FcγRIIB is an inhibitory receptor that does not contain ITAM motifs, but instead has immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIMs) and are therefore not involved in phagocytosis[29] [31]. FcγRI and FcγRIIIA have extracellular Fc binding domains similar to the FcγRIIA, but lack ITAMs on their cytoplasmic tails [29]. When the γ subunit of Fcγ receptor is absent (due to genetic mutation or deletion of the gene encoding the γ subunit of Fcγ receptor), the resulting macrophages are unable to express FcγR I or III. Since these receptors are not transported to the surface of cells in the absence of their signaling subunit, the resulting macrophages are unable to phagocytize IgG-coated particles[32].
Binding of a ligand to the receptor results in receptor cross-linking, causing tyrosine phosphorylation of the ITAMs by members of the src (non-receptor tyrosine kinase) family. Subsequent recruitment of SH2 (Src Homology 2 - a structurally conserved protein domain contained within the Src) containing signaling molecules, most notably the Syk kinase family of molecules, bind the phosphorylated ITAM. The activation of PI3-kinase results in production of Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate (PIP3) and recruitment of PH domain containing molecules, such as PLC and Tec kinases, through a PIP3-PH domain interaction[33] [34] [35] [36]. The adaptor molecules SLP-76 and BLNK link Syk activation with Btk and PLC responses in FcR-dependent macrophage activation, ultimately resulting in activation of PLC. Activation of PLC leads to generation of IP3, DAG, and sustained calcium mobilization[37].
Complement Receptor-Mediated Phagocytosis
Complement proteins are a group of proteins present in serum that opsonise bacteria. The C3b or C3bi receptors (CRs) on macrophages can detect the marked bacteria and phagocytose them. CR1, CR3, and CR4 also participate in phagocytosis of complement-opsonised particles. CR1 is a single-chain transmembrane protein consisting of a large extracellular lectin-like (a lectin is a type of carbohydrate-binding protein) complement-binding domain and a short 43 amino acid cytosolic domain.
Mannose Receptor-Mediated Phagocytosis
Mechanism of Phagocytosis (how material is transported through the membrane and into the cell)
Morphological Mechanisms
Firstly, the phagocytes attach, with its cell surface receptors, to the particles that are IgG-opsinsed (Immunoglobin G-opsinised). The IgG-opsinons are proteins on the particles that allow the phagocyte Fc receptor attachment.1 [38] [39]
Right after the particle attachment, the phagocyte membrane condenses, due to sphingomyelin and ceramide, unravels its wrinkles (smoothen out by breaking bonds) and extends pseudopods to grip the particle, as demonstrated in figure 1 and 2 . The pseudopod extension is induced by actin polymerization via PIP3-RAC signaling. At this stage, phagocytosis is irreversible [40]
Additionally, Tollis et al (2010) suggest that actin polymerisation also stops pseudopods from forming back and stabilise the ligand receptor bonds between the phagocyte and phagosome. [41]
Transition occurs and promotes membrane remodeling in preparation for engulfment, where the surrounding phagocytic cell diameter is equal to the phagosome radius and is in more contact with the phagosome. [42] [43]
This pseudopod extension increases the membrane tension, by 50% in tether force (compared to resting cells), and activates exocytosis of GPI-anchored protein-containing vesicles from within the phagocyte. These vesicles join with the plasma membrane and increase the phagocyte cell surface area for the pseudopod to extend further around the particle. [42] [40] [43]
Note: The cholesterol within the membrane has no effect on membrane condensation and phagocytic rate. [40]
Cell Spreading & Engulfment
After the transition stage cell spreading, where by the pseudopods extend even further around the phagosome and begin engulfment. There are 2 models that demonstrate phagocytic engulfment and cell spreading: The trigger model and the zipper model. The zipper model is more widely accepted that trigger model, however both models are valid. [38] </ref> [43]
The Trigger Model
The trigger model demonstrates that engulfment and spreading can occur when the particle is partially bound to the phagocyte (not completely covered by pseudopod) and that the particle does not require complete IgG coating in order to be engulfed because the receptors already trigger the engulfment once attached .1 [38]
The Zipper Model
Then the engulfment of particles by phagocytosis is demonstrated by the zipper mechanism, where plasma membrane receptors bind with ligands on the particle surface and then the pseudopods makes it way around the particle by attaching to each ligand in a sequence, in a zipper fashion, (fig ) forming a phagocytic cup. Unlike the trigger model, the zipper model requires the whole particle to be coated by IgG-opsinin to induce engulfment. [38]
The zipper model can be divided into active or passive. The passive zipper model is not supported by actin polymerization instead just by ligand-receptor bonds and is therefore slower and effective on small particles, although has more variable cup shape around the phagosome. Active zipper model involves actin polymerization is faster then passive and can take large particles as well and is irreversible. These extension and spreading form a cup shape around the phagosome, known as an actin-cup. [41] {The role of actin polymerization in phagocytosis is hence to stabilize ligand receptor bonds and to direct the membrane movements in a ratchet-like fashion, leading to unidirectional movement of the leading edge of the engulfing cell.3 }
Then, additional actin polymerisation and remodeling change the actin cup to actin ring that encircle the particle, continuing to spread the pseudopods around the particle for enclosure. [41]
Inwards Movement & Contraction
The actin-ring constricts around the particle by actin, with higher concentration of actin at the distal pseudopod margin (leading edge), to close the phagosome, by membrane fusion. The particle moves inwards the phagocyte by contractile force pulling the cytoskeleton down and exocytosis vesicle activation, instead of a pseudopod extension. [43] [44] [38]
Myosin is also detected during phagosome closure and contraction, especially at leading edge, with myosin II and IXb is detected in ruffles and early phagocytic cups, then myosin IV at the later stage of phagosome closure and myosin V when the phagosomes are fully internalized. The phagosome is enclosed at the circular margin by constriction into a narrower vesicle and then closes by membrane fusion forming an intracellular vacuole. These phagosome-containing vacuoles are sent into the cell for either digest, degraded by fusing with a lysomsome, fused with the endoplasmic reticulum or… depending on phagocytic type. [45]
Phagosome fusion
Endoplasmic Reticulum and lysosomes also play a role in phagocytosis. [46]
If 2 phagocytes were engulfing the same phagosome, then the phagocytes would meet at a midpoint on the phagosome and pinch the phagosome in half. Strings, containing myosin IC form as the phagocytes pull apart after engulfment as shown in figure. Cite error: Closing
</ref> missing for
<ref> tag [47]
Diseases linked to the mechanism
Diseases linked to the mechanism of phagocytosis tend to lead to autoimmune disorders. In these diseases, there is a tendency of phagocytic activity again the immune system, hindering the basic action of elements such as neutrophils and macrophages. In certain circumstances, some of the problems associated with the phagocytic mechanism tend to be the hypoactive kind, wherein the different activities of phagocytes in the cells are impeded. Some of these examples are found below.
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
This is an autoimmune disease detected very early in life. Patients with such disease are found to take antibacterial and antimycotic drugs at a very early age. Severe infection in patients is the primary sign of the disease, although there are patients that can go years without showing any symptoms. In Chronic Granulomatous Disease, the activity of neutrophils are impaired and this there is an increase in infection as there is no acting mechanism acting against these foreign bacteria.[48]
Chediak Higashi Syndrome
This is rather the opposite of CGD. In this disease, there is a hyperactivity in phagocytosis. It is caused by one autosomal recessive gene which can cause albinism, a decrease in resistance to infection and large granules of leukocytes. It can present as an accelerated lymphoma-like phase, with issues such as hepatosplenomegaly. The phagocytic cells in the body tend to become autologous for leukocytes, leaving to defense mechanism again foreign invaders. In an experiment conducted by Komiyama et al., there were instances of erythrocytes being engulfed by these phagocytes as well.[49]
Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome
The Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome (WAS) is an x-linked neutropenia disorder. There is also decrease in the number of macrophages in this disease. Although there exists a human population with a normal number of phagocytic cells, the major problem noted in this disease is the affected mobility of these phagocytic cells, as well as the noted abnormal chemotaxis. As these processes are important in the mechanism of phagocytosis, there is an increased susceptibility to infection in human beings who have WAS. Without motility, the cells are neither able to move to the area of infection, nor are they able to engulf the foreign materials due to the disabled actin filaments. Chemotaxis is also important in recruitment. With this impaired, signals do not reach other phagocytic cells and they remain absent from the site of infection. [7]
Current/future research
A recent study has shown that infertile men have low testosterone, but have a heightened level of estrogen in the body. This heightened level of E2 has been seen to cause an increase in the macrophage activation factors in the blood, found to relate to the engulfment of Leydig cells. There is found to be an increase of phosphatidylserine, a substance which has a role in the signalling of macrophages to on go engulfment of another cell. Experiments showed that enhanced E2 levels tend to cause an increase in macrophage activating factors leading to Leydig Cell hyperplasia as well as an increased macrophage activity. [50]
- ↑ <pubmed>18085665</pubmed>
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 <pubmed>10358769</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>21783028</pubmed>
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 <pubmed>14732160</pubmed>
- ↑ Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VQU28itVVw on 14th of April 2014
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Janeway, C., Travers, P., Walport, M., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2001). The production of armed effector T cells. Immunobiology: the immune system in health and disease (5th ed., ). New York: Garland Pub..Accessed on 5 May 2014 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27118/#A1042 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Janeway1042" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Janeway1042" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Janeway1042" defined multiple times with different content
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 <pubmed>23868979</pubmed>
- ↑ Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27092/figure/A40/?report=objectonly on 29 May 2014
- ↑ Janeway, C., Travers, P., Walport, M., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2001). Glossary. Immunobiology: the immune system in health and disease (5th ed., ). New York: Garland Pub..Accessed on 5 May 2014 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10759/#IX-M
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Janeway, C., Travers, P., Walport, M., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2001). The production of armed effector T cells. Immunobiology: the immune system in health and disease (5th ed., ). New York: Garland Pub..Accessed on 5 May 2014 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27122/#A213 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Janeway213" defined multiple times with different content
- ↑ <pubmed>21868367</pubmed>
- ↑ Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27122/figure/A214/?report=objectonly on 29 May 2014
- ↑ Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yicmRt1lQDs on 29 May 2014
- ↑ Janeway, C., Travers, P., Walport, M., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2001). The components of the immune system. Immunobiology: the immune system in health and disease (5th ed., ). New York: Garland Pub..Accessed on 5 May 2014 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27092/#A52
- ↑ Tauber, A. I. and Chernyak, L. (1991) Metchnikoff and the Origins of immunology, Oxford University Press
- ↑ <pubmed>2137711</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>2137771</pubmed>
- ↑ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Lipid Bilayer. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26871/ on 17th April 2014
- ↑ <pubmed>1739426</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>6854210</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>6225825</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>8760816</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>7650489</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>11228151</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>9427679</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>12440692</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>17981207</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>9039776</pubmed>
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 <pubmed>8069908</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>2927501</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>1837175</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>8313472</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>9430633</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>8521504</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>8947047</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>9052864</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>10677525</pubmed>
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 <pubmed>1194852</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>16549762</pubmed>
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 <pubmed>21883764</pubmed>
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 <pubmed>21059234</pubmed>
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 <pubmed>15827090</pubmed>
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 <pubmed>23821745</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>9885284</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>12151002</pubmed>
- ↑ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Transport into the Cell from the Plasma Membrane: Endocytosis. Accessed on: 27th April 2014 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26870/
- ↑ <pubmed>16549762</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>18155283</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>3764339</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>24762434</pubmed>


text:
So, I'm a day late with posting to the Scribes, but when I'm through, you'll see why. PJ Sharon here, and I thought it might be fun to share the short list of to-do's in the days before indie-publishing two projects at once–Christmas week.
1) Complete third and final round of edits for SAMI's CHRISTMAS WISH LIST, a holiday novella releasing on December 19th as part of The GIRLS of THOMPSON LAKE box set. (Done)
2) Format box set prior to sending off for professional formatting. (I don't want any surprises!) The box set includes HEAVEN is for HEROES, ON THIN ICE, and PIECES of LOVE, which means I had to go through all three novels, combine them into one document, and assure that formatting was consistent throughout. Being that my brain is in edit mode, you can imagine I was catching things right and left that needed fixing. (Done)
3) Final round edits for HEALING WATERS, Book Three in the Chronicles of Lily Carmichael Trilogy. (Done!)
4) Prepare/format HW for final upload to Amazon by…um…tonight. (In order to offer pre-orders, the final product must be uploaded ten days prior to December 23rd release.) (In-progress) If you pre-order it now, you'll have it on your Kindle on release day!
5) Set up FREE run for WANING MOON, Book One in the trilogy. December 22-26th. (Includes listing book on as many FREE e-book sites as possible…there are probably hundreds these days. This takes hours and requires a personal assistant or an all-night spree in the next few days. (In-progress)
6) Ordered print proofs/advanced copies for Goodreads giveaway. They arrived today. Yay!!! So cool having the book in hand. If you want a chance to win a signed ARC, you still have a couple of days to enter. Giveaway ends December 15th. (Done) Mail signed ARCs to winners on December 16th.
Oh, and did I mention, I'm participating in a group blog hop from December 12-31st? My Addictive Reads friends and I are chatting about a "Few of our Favorite Things." You can read mine here. We also want to show our appreciation to our readers by offering $50, $20, and $15 gift cards, and a grand prize of a Kindle Fire HD Tablet that we've front loaded with a bunch of our books, including PIECES of LOVE. Estimated value $239! Check out the EVENT page, fill in the rafflecopter, and visit each author's site to find more goodies.
Once I'm done uploading HEALING WATERS tonight, I'm determined to take tomorrow off to breathe and hang out with my CTRWA writer pals at our annual Margarita Awards Holiday Party. This year's bash includes a luau and a pool party. I can see some margaritas in my near future! Maybe even of the "awards" variety.
The one part my multi-project launch I haven't been able to manage (secondary to limitations in time, budget, and brain cells) is preparing a release party or setting up any major advertising. Since past efforts (FB parties, paid ads, and social media blitzes through blog tours and such), have all shown minimal success, this time, I'm focusing on getting the books out. Now that I have the third book in the trilogy completed and I have the box set to work with, I'll take a bit of time off from new fiction projects and focus my first quarter efforts on promoting.
2015 promises to be an exciting year. I have a non-fiction project in the works and plan to teach some workshops at conferences. I've already been invited to appear at the New England RWA chapter's April conference. I'll be presenting a workshop on Self-Care and Ergonomics for writers entitled…"Is your writing killing you?"
Yes…I am an expert, LOL.
Miraculously, I seem to be able to juggle all of this and plan a little time with family and friends, despite my slight grumpiness and fatigue. If you're wondering if there are two of me, there aren't. But it is on my Christmas wish list.
Best to you all through the holidays! Wish me luck.


text:
The artist in her studio, 1982. Image courtesy the artist and Galerie Buchholz, Cologne/Berlin.
Upon visiting Isa Genzken: Retrospective at New York's Museum of Modern Art, Rhizome's Community Manager Zachary Kaplan was struck by the relevance of the artist's practice to ongoing conversations that we observe and participate in at Rhizome every day, from her use of technological processes and goods to her deployment of globalized glurge and brand identity. We invited Tyler Coburn and Hannah Black, both artists and writers currently participating in the Whitney Independent Study Program, to walk through the exhibition and weigh in on these valences and connections. In particular, we asked them to keep in mind Rhizome's ongoing discussion of postinternet art (artworks in diverse media, particularly collage and assemblage, that can be seen as responses to a ubiquitous network culture). Their conversation worked both within and against this frame.
Below you will find images of works, excerpts from their chat about those works, and highlights from transcription. To download the whole file for while you walk through the exhibition, click here.
"How could a woman do this kind of work?"
Isa Genzken. Rot-gelb-schwarzes Doppelellipsoid 'Zwilling' (Red-Yellow-Black Double Ellipsoid "Twin"), 1982. Lacquered wood, two parts Overall: 9 7/16 x 8 1/16 x 473 1/4″ (24 x 33.5 x 1202.1 cm) Part one: 5 1/8 x 8 1/16 x 236 1/4″ (13 x 20.5 x 600 cm) Part two: 4 5/16 x 5 1/2 x 237″ (11 x 14 x 602 cm). Collection of the artist. Courtesy the artist and Galerie Buchholz, Cologne/Berlin. © Isa Genzken


text:
Orchidée Impériale
The Gel Cream
Corrects the signs of ageing
Indisponible -
An exceptional achievement by the Guerlain formulators, the Gel Cream lets your skin enjoy a new fresh sensation. The light texture becomes one with the skin, for a feeling of pure pleasure and an instant ""beautiful skin"" effect.
Infused with the energy of the Gold Orchid Technology, the Gel Cream corrects the signs of skin ageing. Immediately, skin is plumped, smoothed and even-toned, with the perfection of an orchid petal.
A floral scent with hints of orchid that blend with notes of rose, white musk and precious cedar wood.
100% of women agreed on the "perfect skin" effect*: the skin immediately looks more even-toned, luminous and plumped, the complexion stays fresh all day long, pores are less visible and skin's texture is refined.
A measured "beautiful skin" effect: a 79% improvement in skin's beauty** at the end of the day, compared with a day of not using the Gel Cream.
1. Apply the product in circular movements.
2. Smooth your fingertips from the forehead to the ears. Perform 3 smoothing movements from the corners of the lips to the nose, ears and to the jawline.
3. Press down 3 times on each of the muscle attachment points.
4. Gently smooth the backs of your fingers along the contour of your face. Smooth the entire forehead 3 times.


text:
Difference between revisions of "Nintendo Entertainment System"
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|Line 79:
| Virtual ROM Controller 6 adds two additional pulse waves and a sawtooth wave. It was only used in Akumajou Densetsu, Madara, and Esper Dream II.
| Virtual ROM Controller 6 adds two additional pulse waves and a sawtooth wave. It was only used in Akumajou Densetsu, Madara, and Esper Dream II.
| [[
| [[]]
| [[Konami]]
| [[Konami]]
| Virtual ROM Controller
| Virtual ROM Controller adds channels of FM synthesis due to a Yamaha [[YM2413]] chip. Unfortunately, only one game utilized the audio capabilities of this chip, [[Langrage Point (NES)]].
Revision as of 18:49, 12 February 2014
[[Image:Platform - {{{Icon}}}.png|32x32px]]Nintendo Entertainment System
The Nintendo Entertainment System, or NES, is an 8-bit videogame console of the third-generation of home videogame systems, most popular in Japan and the USA. The console used a Ricoh RP2A03 for a CPU which contained a modified MOS Technology 6502 processor. The RP2A03 also contained the console's default programmable sound generator. There are special versions of the CPU for NTSC and PAL regions.
Nintendo released the console as the Famicom (family computer) in Japan on July 15, 1983. It uses the Ricoh RP2A03 chip for both its CPU and audio capabilities.
Family Computer Disk System
- Main article, Famicom Disk System.
On February 21, 1986, Nintendo released the Family Computer Disk System (FDS) add-on which used diskettes instead of cartridges. This unit has slightly enhanced graphics and an extra sound channel. Players can also save their data on the disks. The FDS uses an RP2C33 for an additional audio channel.
Released in Japan as the Famicom Box, the M82 was a console developed by Nintendo and released in stores that could hold up to 12 physical NES games at the same time and use 5 controller ports. The Japanese version could hold up to 15 games but they were built into the console, rather than there being physical cartridges.
Nintendo Entertainment System
The United States released the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) on October 18, 1985. Minor hardware changes were added to prevent pirating, but a full cosmetic overhaul was made, giving the USA system a very different look. This style of the console became the standard design for later regions like Canada (released in February of 1986), Europe (September 1, 1986), Australia (1987), Brazil and South Korea. On October 15, 1993, Nintendo produced a second generation version of the NES with a redesigned console and controllers. NTSC consoles use an RP2A03 processor as the main CPU and default audio chip, while PAL consoles use the RP2A07.
Family BASIC
The Family BASIC was a development kit for the Famicom which was developed by Nintendo in association with Hudson Soft and Sharp Corporation. Potential users could develop their own games and put it on the cartridge the development system came with.
The PlayChoice-10 is a dual-screen arcade system that ran hardware nearly identical to the NES. It was released to market the more popular NES games in arcades and advertise them to potential buyers. Each machine had ten slots, each slot could have a special PlayChoice-10 game cartridge inserted into it. Instead of buying lives, players bought play time, and could switch between the ten games and play until their time ran out. For the most part, the PlayChoice-10 games are identical to the home game, but occasionally the developers would make modifications to the game, sometimes even the music. The PlayChoice-10 used the RP2A03 processor for sound.
Vs. System
The Vs. System is similar to the PlayChoice-10 system, in that it allowed slightly-altered NES games to be to be played as arcade games. The Vs. System differed by allowing two players to play head-to-head in some of the more popular games. Also, the system took a more traditional approach so players bought lives, not time. Because of this, Vs. System games had to be altered a bit more than the PlayChoice-10 games. The Vs. System used the RP2A03 processor for sound.
Sound & Music
Every version of the NES used the RP2A03 for it's main CPU which had an integrated programmable sound generator (PSG) designed by Yukio Kaneoka. The PAL versions of the NES used the RR2A07 which was the same chip only with a PAL clock rate. The PSG in the RP2A03 contains two pulse wave channels with four different waveforms, a triangle channel use mostly for bass and percussion, a noise channel usually used for percussion, and a DPCM channel which would play digital samples at a low bitrate. The use of the DPCM channel was limited in early games because samples took so much cartridge space. Several expansion chips were made for the NES. These were added to the game boards of the NES cartridges. Below is a complete list of all the audio chips found in the various NES consoles and game cartridges.
|Active Enterprises
|The chip had a 16-bit channel so it would sound like SNES music. The chip wasn't endorsed or licensed by Nintendo. This was the only expansion chip used in America.
|Features three extra square channels. It was only used in Gimmick! (FC).
|The Memory Management Controller 5 added two extra square channels.
|Contains 8 wavetable synthesis channels. Most players do not properly emulate the chip, raising the notes an octave higher.
|This is the original built-in audio chip for the NES. It has 2 pulse waves, a triangle wave, a noise channel, and a DPCM channel. The only difference between the two chips is that the NTSC version ran at 60 Hz while the PAL version ran at 50 Hz.
|Included on the Famicom Disk System. Adds a 32-volume wavetable synthesis sound.
|Virtual ROM Controller 6 adds two additional pulse waves and a sawtooth wave. It was only used in Akumajou Densetsu, Madara, and Esper Dream II.
|Virtual ROM Controller VII adds 6 channels of FM synthesis due to a modified Yamaha YM2413 integrated into the chip. Unfortunately, only one game utilized the audio capabilities of this chip, Langrage Point (NES).
In the earliest days of the NES, most composers were either expected to learn 6502 assembly and write their own audio driver for the RP2A03 or use an audio driver developed by a programmer and feed audio input in a custom Music Macro Language. Because of this, many of the first composers were also competent computer programmers. In the later years, developers had written utilities that converted MIDI music into instructions the audio chip could process. This conversion method was especially popular for US and European development companies. Many low-budget game companies either couldn't afford to hire professional musicians or couldn't find anyone capable of composing in such a limited medium. Because of this, a lot of sub-standard music was made by programmers.
Recently, special audio trackers have been created that either emulate the sound of the NES, or properly function on the original audio hardware. For example, Nerdtracker and Famitracker are designed to be compatible with the specific chips found in the NES, and music composed in them can be put directly into an NES ROM.


text:
Louisville beat an old foe to win a second Big East championship.
Chris Smith, with his brother who plays for the New York Knicks in the stands, scored 15 points and the Cardinals withstood a closing run by Cincinnati for a 50-44 victory Saturday night that sends the Cardinals to the NCAA tournament for the sixth straight year.
Kyle Kuric added 13 points for seventh-seeded Louisville (26-9), which was in the championship for the third time. The Cardinals won the title in 2009 and lost to Connecticut in last year's championship game.
The game was far from offensive classic but it had the sellout crowd of 20,057 at Madison Square Garden on their feet in the final minutes.
"The problem with this game is, Cincinnati and Louisville know each other too well," Cardinals coach Rick Pitino said. "The coaches know each other, they've worked together. So you can't run one play without the coaches on the other side yelling it out. So defense has to win it."
It did.
Cashmere Wright had 16 points for the fourth-seeded Bearcats (24-10), who were in the title game for the first time.
This was in the first time in the 34 years the tournament has been held that at least one of the original seven members of the conference wasn't in the championship game.
Louisville looked to be in control when Smith — whose brother J.R. joined the Knicks during the season — hit a 3-pointer that gave the Cardinals a 44-28 lead with 8:27 to play. But Wright had nine points in a 16-4 run that brought the Bearcats within 48-44 with 2:35 to play.
Russ Smith's two free throws were the only points either team scored the rest of the way. Cincinnati had three possession trailing by four points but came up empty on each of them.
Tournament MVP Peyton Siva had 10 points, four rebounds and five assists for Louisville, which will be making its sixth consecutive appearance in the NCAA tournament. Siva averaged 15 points, seven rebounds, six assists and three steals in the first three games of the tournament.
"Nobody really expected us to even get this far," Siva said. "It just feels good because a lot of people wrote us off. Coach P had a lot of faith in me. I'm very thankful for that. Everybody really showed a lot of heart today."
He was humble about being selected MVP.
"My teammates are really the people who deserve this trophy," he said on the court as the nets were being cut down.
Even though the matchup was new for a Big East championship game, it was one between old adversaries. Louisville leads the all-time series 54-41 and this was the third different conference tournament they met in.
Louisville won all three meetings in the Metro Conference tournament, while Cincinnati won all three matchups in Conference USA. They are now 1-1 in the Big East tournament.
Cincinnati won the only regular season meeting, 60-56. In that game the Bearcats went 11 for 27 from 3-point range in that game and Louisville made only one of its 14 attempts from beyond the arc.
This game was quite different.
Louisville finished 5 for 14 on 3s while the Bearcats were 3 of 14 and that included them missing their first nine.
The Cardinals led 24-14 at half and even though Cincinnati picked the scoring pace considerably, they were able to take the 16-point lead.
Wright, who had 22 points in the first meeting, took over when Cincinnati made the run. He hit a jumper, made a 3 and scored on two drives as what looked to be an easy win for Louisville became a close game.
JaQuon Parker was credited with a basket on an offensive goaltending call to get the Bearcats within 48-44 with 2:35 left.
Louisville came up empty on its next three possessions — a turnover and two missed shots — but the Bearcats couldn't take advantage as Wright turned the ball over, Parker missed a jumper and then two free throws.
Pitino improved to 26-9 against his former assistants and is now 5-4 over Cincinnati's Mick Cronin, who worked for him at Louisville from 2001-03. Cronin was the second former assistant Pitino beat in this tournament as the Cardinals beat Seton Hall and coach Kevin Willard in the second round.
Louisville led 24-14 at halftime with the Bearcats just four points better than the Big East tournament record for fewest points in a half. The way they were shooting it would seem the record was a lock.
Cincinnati missed 11 of its first 12 shots from the field and the drought kept up even longer from 3-point range as the Bearcats missed all nine attempts from beyond the arc. In the semifinal win over Syracuse they made six of their first seven 3-point attempts.
Louisville wasn't exactly lighting up the scoreboard but the Cardinals were 9 of 24 (37.9 percent) and they made three of 10 from3-point range.