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The morphology of human pollical distal phalanges (PDP) closely reflects the adaptation of human hands for refined precision grip with pad-to-pad contact. The presence of these precision grip-related traits in the PDP of fossil hominins has been related to human-like hand proportions (i.e. short hands with a long thumb) enabling the thumb and finger pads to contact. Although this has been traditionally linked to the appearance of stone tool-making, the alternative hypothesis of an earlier origin—related to the freeing of the hands thanks to the advent of terrestrial bipedalism—is also possible given the human-like intrinsic hand proportion found in australopiths.
Methodology/Principal Findings
We perform morphofunctional and morphometric (bivariate and multivariate) analyses of most available hominin pollical distal phalanges, including Orrorin, Australopithecus, Paranthropous and fossil Homo, in order to investigate their morphological affinities. Our results indicate that the thumb morphology of the early biped Orrorin is more human-like than that of australopiths, in spite of its ancient chronology (ca. 6 Ma). Moreover, Orrorin already displays typical human-like features related to precision grasping.
These results reinforce previous hypotheses relating the origin of refined manipulation of natural objects–not stone tool-making–with the relaxation of locomotor selection pressures on the forelimbs. This suggests that human hand length proportions are largely plesiomorphic, in the sense that they more closely resemble the relatively short-handed Miocene apes than the elongated hand pattern of extant hominoids. With the advent of terrestrial bipedalism, these hand proportions may have been co-opted by early hominins for enhanced manipulative capabilities that, in turn, would have been later co-opted for stone tool-making in the genus Homo, more encephalized than the previous australopiths. This hypothesis remains may be further tested by the finding of more complete hands of unequivocally biped early hominins.
Citation: Almécija S, Moyà-Solà S, Alba DM (2010) Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins. PLoS ONE 5(7): e11727. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011727
Editor: David S. Strait, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY), United States of America
Received: May 5, 2010; Accepted: June 27, 2010; Published: July 22, 2010
Copyright: © 2010 Almécija et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This research has been supported by the Generalitat de Catalunya (predoctoral fellowship 2006 FI 00065 and travel grant 2008 BE1 00370 to S.A., and 2009 SGR 754 GRC), the U.S. National Science Foundation under NSF Award #BCS-0321893, the European Commission's Research Infrastructure (SYNTHESYS project grant to S.A.), and the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (CGL2008-00325/BTE, and RYC-2009-04533 to D.M.A.). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
One of the hallmarks of humankind is the possession of a complex repertoire of manual grips [1]–[2]. In humans, the thumb always plays a central role, being involved in almost all possible prehensile typologies [1]–[4]. This is possible thanks to human intrinsic manual proportions, i.e. a long thumb relative to the rest of the hand. On the contrary, extant apes possess relatively long hands with a short thumb, in which the musculature is poorly developed [1]–[2], [5]. The most refined expression of human manipulation is attained during pad-to-pad precision grasping, which consists in the opposition of the proximal pulp of the thumb against that of one or more fingers ([3]; see Figure 1). This capability is reflected in the morphology of the distal phalanges, especially in the pollical distal phalanx (PDP), which shows specific features related to the soft tissues involved in precision grasping [3]–[4]. These include the pronounced insertion for the flexor pollicis longus (FPL), with a marked asymmetry towards the radial side; the presence of an ungual fossa; and the occurrence of dissymmetric ungual spines, with a prominent ulnar one (Figure 1). The asymmetries of the FPL insertion and the ungual spines are the osteological correlates of the interphalangeal joint configuration of the human thumb, in which flexion is accompanied by pronation, so that the pulp of the thumb faces that of the remaining fingers. This provides the maximum contact surface with the objects being manipulated. The presence in humans of ungual spines and ungual fossa are indicative of a fully compartmentalized digital pulp, with a fatty and mobile proximal portion (related to the ungual fossa) as well as a large and more or less static distal part (related to the distal tuberosity; [3]–[4]). The presence of these two different pulps, each with distinctive properties, ensures an adequate friction and accommodation of the object between the pulp of the thumb and those of the fingers during precision grasping (Figure 1). Furthermore, the possession of a wide apical tuberosity is correlated with the presence of pulp that is also wide [6].
The box shows the anatomy of the pollical distal phalanx and its relationship with soft structures related to refined manipulation: a huge proximopalmar fossa (orange), associated with a palmarly protruding ridge (red) for insertion of the flexor pollicis longus; a compartmentalized digital pulp to accommodate the shape of the object being manipulated; this is reflected in the presence of an ungual fossa (green), associated to the large and mobile proximal pulp, as well as a wide apical tuberosity associated with the smaller and less mobile distal pulp; and finally, the ungual spines (yellow), where the collateral intraosseous ligaments that sustain the nail bed insert.
Humans also display a characteristic FPL insertion, which protrudes palmarly as a distinct bony element that is visible in lateral view (Figures 1 and 2; [7] his Figure 4). Exclusively among extant primates, humans display the complete set of anatomical traits in their PDPs, which have been related to the presence of a relatively long and powerful thumb, able to contact the proximal pulp of the other fingers ([4]; Figure 1). Most previous studies have focused on the functional relationship between the anatomical traits discussed above and stone tool-making in Plio-Pleistocene hominins [3]–[4], [8]–[9]. Furthermore, some studies equated precision grasping—inferred from PDP anatomy— with stone tool-making, thus favoring the view that the evolution of the human hand was mainly related the selective pressures posed by the latter behavior [7], [10]–[11]. However, the human-like manual proportions displayed by australopiths [12]–[13], well before the advent of stone tool-making, would contradict the former hypothesis. In fact, ever since Darwin [14] it has been hypothesized that the origin of bipedalism was related to the freeing of the hands for manipulative purposes. Alternatively, manual proportions might have been optimized for manipulation once the hands became freed from locomotion thanks to the advent of terrestrial bipedalism [12], [15].
Specimens are showed in palmar (top), oblique proximopalmar (middle) and lateral (bottom) views, and scaled to the same length to easily visualize the morphological differences. The main features related to human-like precision grasping are indicated in the middle row (same colors as in Figure 1), whereas the palmarly protruding insertion for the flexor pollicis longus has been further signaled in lateral view (red arrows in the lower row). Note that, although with several morphological differences, all the features related to refined manipulation in modern humans are already present in the late Miocene Orrorin. By the way, the OH 7 specimen, besides its odd overall proportions, neither shows a distinctive insertion for the flexor muscle, nor a compartmentalized digital pulp. All the phalanges belong to a right thumb. Scale bars represent 5 mm.
In order to test this hypothesis, and given the tight relationship between the anatomy of the PDP and refined manipulation in modern humans, we provide a morphofunctional analysis of this bone in selected fossil hominins—including the early biped Orrorin tugenensis (ca. 6 Ma; [16]–[17])—as compared to extant apes and humans. A principal components analysis (PCA) based on shape variables of the PDP is further provided in order to compare the main proportions of this bone in extant great apes, humans and fossil hominins, as well as ratios of relative phalangeal robusticity. The presence of anatomical traits functionally related to pad-to-pad precision grasping in the PDPs of early hominins would suggest that these taxa also displayed human-like hand length proportions for enabling the contact between the pulps (or pads) of the thumb with those of one ore more of the remaining fingers [4]. However, more complete fossil hands of these early hominins would be required in order to unequivocally confirm this prediction. On the contrary, the latter would be falsified if fossil taxa displaying the refined manipulation traits on their PDPs together with relatively long hands and short thumbs were found in the future.
Precision grasping morphology
Extant great-ape PDPs lack all the features related to precision grasping (Figure 2); as such, they display a smooth apical tuft (instead of a developed apical tuberosity with ungual spines), and further lack well-developed basal tubercles, which in humans reflect the presence of collateral intraosseous ligaments for sustaining the nail bed ([3]–[4]; see Figures 1 and 2 and Videos S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 for renderings of the PDPs in Figure 2).
Interestingly, the PDP of Orrorin, being the earliest pollical specimen in the hominin fossil record (ca. 6 Ma; [16]–[17]) displays an overall human-like morphology (Video S3). The latter even includes the most significant features related to precision grasping (Figure 2), although some of them (such as the ridge for insertion of the FPL and the apical tuberosity) are stouter as compared to later hominins and modern humans [17].
The Olduvai Hominid 7 (OH 7) specimen—originally attributed to Homo habilis [17]—differs from that of extant apes and humans (Video S5). This PDP does not display ungual spines [3], and there is no ridge for insertion of the FPL, but a huge palmar fossa that extends until the large apical tuberosity (Figure 2). Furthermore, the lack of a distinctive ungual fossa and spines would be indicative of limited palmar pad compartmentalization and, as such, of a restricted precision-grip capability [3].
A PCA based on PDP shape variables allow us to discriminate the several extant genera being analyzed between each other (Figure 3, see Materials and Methods and Table 1). Positive values on the PC 1 (68% variance) are related to phalanges with mediolaterally narrow tufts and shafts, and with dorsopalmarly high midshafts and bases, thus having an overall rod-like appearance. Negative values, on the contrary, are related to phalanges with a flat appearance due to high breadths at midshaft and at the distal end (i.e. with apical tuberosities instead of tufts). Positive values on the PC 2 (13% variance) mainly separate phalanges with a relatively large base, in both mediolateral and dorsopalmar diameters (i.e., with a relatively small shaft and apical tuft), from phalanges that are very long relative to other dimensions (see Figures 2 and 3 and Videos S1, S2, S3, S4, S5).
Blue, Papio; red, Pongo; yellow, H. sapiens; green, Gorilla; grey, Pan. The PC 1 largely reflects the proportions of the tuft and shaft, while the PC 2 is more related to the proportions of the base. The Orrorin PDP overlaps with modern humans in both principal components, and later hominins also resemble modern humans in both components—although to a lesser degree. Paranthropus robustus and OH 7 constitute an exception, because they fall within the human range across the PC 2, but depart from the remaining taxa on the PC 1 by showing exceptionally wide PDPs (Figures 2 and 3). See text for further explanation. Figures at the corners represent the outline of these phalanges in palmar and lateral views.
To this respect, extant great apes display relatively narrow PDPs with a dorsopalmarly high midshaft, while the apical tuft is not well developed, conferring them a rod-like shape. This is especially true concerning Pan and Pongo, which can be roughly distinguished from each other thanks to the highest loads on PC 2 of orangs, which display very small shafts and apical tufts relative to the base (Figure 3). On this basis, gorillas occupy a central position on the scatter plot, because their PDPs overall resemble a somewhat flatter version of chimps' (see also Figure 2).
Extant humans display PDPs with relatively wide shafts and apical tuberosities (see Figure 2), as indicated by the low loads on the PC1. Moreover, they show low values on the PC2, which are also correlated to a significantly long PDP (Table 2). This combination of relatively long and wide PDP is exclusive of humans among the extant taxa analyzed (Figure 3). It is interesting to point out that, although humans and gorillas overlap in both PC 1 and PC 2, they occupy different regions in the morphospace.
The position of baboons (Papio) in the scatter plot indicates that they show overall proportions on PDPs more similar to those of humans than to great apes, although being relatively shorter and displaying a larger base (Figure 3).
Concerning the fossil hominins, Orrorin (BAR 1901′01) most closely resembles modern humans in both components (Figure 3). Neandertals (La Ferrassie I and Kebara 2) and Stw 294 (cf. A. africanus) also fall close to modern humans in both components, although both La Ferrassie I and Stw 294 display slightly highest values on the PC 2. However, both Paranthropus robustus (SKX 5016) and OH 7 depart in PC 1 by having an extremely robust (i.e mediolaterally broad) shaft and apical tuberosity in the PDP.
Here we provide additional morphometric evidence regarding the robusticity of the distal phalanges, by comparing the first (DP1) and third (DP3) manual rays of extant taxa, together with OH 7, Paranthropus robustus and Neandertals (Figure 4 and Table 2). In orangutans, the PDP is only slightly more robust than the third distal one, whereas in African apes the reverse condition is found. The 95% confidence intervals (CI) for DP1 and DP3 robusticity between extant great apes do not overlap, suggesting that differences are significant. In modern humans the degree of distal phalanx tuft robusticity for the first and third manual rays is very similar, although it is somewhat higher in the thumbs of Neandertals, with both La Ferrassie I and Kebara II having robusticity values above the 95% CI of extant humans. In monkeys, on the contrary, the distal pollical phalanx is much more robust than the distal third one, with both macaques and baboons showing values well above the 95% CI to that of the third digit. This odd condition is also found in both OH 7 and P. robustus, which the difference between the robusticity of the two digits (DP1 - PD3) falling within the 95% CI displayed by monkeys (see Figure 4 and Table 2).
Robusticity refers to apical tuft width (a) in relation to maximum length (b) of the distal pollical and middle finger phalanges (left and right, respectively; see Materials and for further details). Horizontal lines represent the median values, whereas the boxes represent the 25% and 75% percentiles, the whiskers the maximum-minimum ranges and circles are outliers. OH 7, like Paranthropus robustus, display a robusticity pattern convergent with quadrupedal monkeys (Macaca and Papio), in which the pollical distal phalanx is disproportionally robust relative to that from the middle finger. Note that the pollical and nonpollical distal phalanges attributed to P. robustus may not belong to the same individual.
Functional analysis
Extant great apes do not significantly use the thumb during locomotion: it does not participate in below-branch suspensory behaviors, and it does not support body weight during knuckle-walking in African apes [18]–[21]. However, it can participate during terrestrial palmigrady and fist-walking in orangutans [18]. In the latter, the hallux is reduced [22], and in some cases the distal phalanx may not be present at all [23]. This is explained by the specialized, four-digit hook grasp of orangs' hands and feet. According to this, the hallux would have been extremely reduced because of locomotor selection pressures, whereas the reduction of the pollex would not have proceeded to the same extent due to contradictory, manipulatory selection pressures favoring instead the possession of a longer thumb [23]. In orangutans, the reduction of the hallux has also affected the long flexor tendon [22]. This condition that can be also found in the thumb of all extant great apes, especially in Pongo and Pan, in which locomotor selection pressures have probably favored the lengthening and increased strength of digits II-V [18].
Thus, although extant great apes display diminished thumbs, especially concerning extrinsic muscle insertions, they do have well-developed intrinsic muscles that enable efficient power and precision grips, the latter being used during food manipulation [1], [2], [5], [18], [24]. Chimps and gorillas do efficiently manipulate small object between their thumb and index finger using different precision grip combinations (e.g. tip-to-tip and pad-to-side), but a human-like, pad-to-pad precision grip is precluded due to the disproportionate length of their digits II-V relative to that of the thumb [1], [2], [5], [24]. Chimps and orangs mostly rely on arboreal foraging by directly putting the foods from branch to mouth, whereas gorillas spend many hours on the ground, where they carefully select, manipulate and hold the food with their hands [18]. Increased terrestriality in such a large ape might have resulted in longer thumbs relative to the rest of the hand [12], [25], as a by-product of their shorter hands relative to body mass [26]. The Gorilla hand therefore displays more balanced proportions between the thumb and index finger (presumably related to somewhat advanced manipulatory capabilities) than chimps and especially orangs [5].
Our results show that extant great apes exhibit rod-like PDPs with barely discernible muscular impressions on the palmar side, further lacking developed tufts and associated palmar pads (Figures 2–4; see also [4], [6], [22]). The lack of dorspalmar flattening in the PDP, especially in Pan and Pongo, would be related to the lack of a developed flexor apparatus (usually without receiving extrinsic muscular component). The overall reduced PDP of orangs, especially referring the shaft and apical tuft, obviously stems from their rudimentary thumbs, which are diminished like in Colobus and Procolobus [22]. In the latter taxa, the PDP, when present, is usually confined to its proximal portion, the base (S.A. personal observation). Gorillas, being the most terrestrial great apes and displaying relatively short and skillful hands with relatively long thumbs, possess a somewhat flatter PDP than the other great apes (Figures 2–3). Furthermore, gorillas also exhibit more barely evidence of muscular insertion scars on the palmar side of the PDP shaft than them (Figure 2). Since the thumbs of gorillas do not participate in locomotion, this morphology should be correlated with an increased use of the thumb for manipulation as compared to Pan and Pongo [18].
Terrestrial monkeys, in its turn, exhibit proportionally short fingers in relation to their thumbs, thereby enabling an efficient precision grip [27]–[28]. This is particularly evident in gelada baboons, which display enhanced manual feeding capabilities [29] thanks to displaying the highest opposability index among extant primates, including humans [28]. Other baboons (Papio spp.) show the same capabilities, although to a lesser degree [28]. These baboons are digitigrade, and only the tip of the thumb contacts the substrate during the touchdown phase [21]. A huge long flexor tendon is inserted onto the distal part of the shaft and tuberosity of their PDP [4], although it does not correspond to the FPL, but to the radial portion of the flexor digitorium profundus [21]. Moreover, during the tip-weight support, their PDPs can be hyperextended, so that, like in humans, their pollical interphalangeal joint displays well-developed sesamoid bones [4]. There are also other similarities between baboon and human PDPs [4], such as a broad distal pad, tuberosity (sometimes with spines) and nail, a large palmar fossa (but not a distinct ridge for insertion of the FPL and ungual fossa), and similar ratios concerning both bone and long flexor tendon dimensions. These similarities can be related to the enhanced manipulative capabilities displayed by these monkeys [27]–[29].
Our results agree with previous findings showing that baboons display PDPs more similar in overall proportions to those of extant humans rather than those of extant great apes, although being shorter and displaying a larger base (Figure 3). This morphology might be an adaptation to frequent weight bearing, during which the tip of the thumb contacts the ground in hyperextended postures. According to this, the enhanced manipulative capabilities displayed by baboons could be merely a by-product of an adaptation of the hand to digitigrady, resulting in a long thumb relative to the rest of the hand that would be suitable for pad-to-pad precision grasping (see Fig. 8a–b in [28]). The precision grasping displayed by these monkeys, in any case, is much less developed than that of humans, which is further reflected by the lack in the former of many PDP traits that are functionally related to human-like precision grasping (Figures 1–2; [3]–[4]).
The morphology displayed by the PDP of modern humans—including a relatively long bone, dorsopalmarly flat and wide at the shaft and apical tuberosity (Figure 3), together with several morphological traits related to a powerful FPL and compartmentalized digital pulp (Figure 2)—is not found among non-human primates, being indicative of a stable and powerful pad-to-pad contact during refined manipulation [3]–[4]. The similar position occupied by the PDPs of modern humans and those of fossil hominins (including Neandertals), together with the possession of morphological features functionally-related to pad-to-pad precision grasping [17], [30]–[31], is highly indicative of shared functional similarities. Apart from Neandertals, this is evident in Stw 294 (cf. A. africanus) and, particularly, in BAR 1901′1 (Orrorin), the latter showing, among early hominins, the greatest resemblance to extant humans (Figures 2–3). On the contrary, SKX 5016 (P. robustus) and OH 7, although more closely resembling extant humans than any other taxa examined, display extremely broad shafts and apical tuberosities (Figures 3–4). Although the phalanx attributed to P. robustus has been described as displaying some traits related to pad-to-pad precision grasping [17], this is not the case of OH 7 [3]–[4], which lacks some of these features (Figure 2 and Video S5; see next section). These results agree with previous ones, according to which both OH 7 and SKX 5016 are extremely broad phalanges, unlike those of humans or apes, thus having a narrow base relative to these dimensions [32].
All the evidence reported above suggests that the morphological differences found between the PDPs of extant taxa seem to be also correlated to functional differences in hand function, particularly involving the thumb. It would be of utmost interest to discern whether the subtle morphological differences found amongst the fossil hominins being analyzed—particularly concerning SKX 5016 and OH 7—are also correlated to differences in function, or whether they are alternatively correlated to different overall body types [32]. This cannot be definitively settled until more postcranial remains of these hominins are available. However, given the apparently convergent morphological similarities between these fossil taxa and baboons, both in the middle [33] and distal phalanges [this study], we favor the view that some kind of functional differences as compared to other hominins are likely.
The attribution of the OH 7 hand remains
The original attribution of the partial hand from Olduvai Bed I to the holotype of H. habilis (OH 7, consisting in the parietals and mandible of a subadult; [34]) has been subsequently accepted by most authors [e.g. 2]–[3], [35]–[36], mainly due to its subadult status. However, due to its overall robusticity—especially concerning the PDP—and curved middle phalanges, an alternative attribution to Paranthropus—contemporary to Homo in that region [37]—was also suggested long ago [18], [38]. More recently, this alternative attribution has been further favored on the basis of morphometric and morfofunctional analyses, particularly concerning middle phalangeal morphology [33]. The later study found that the OH 7 remains are more similar to those from South Africa attributed to P. robustus than to earlier Australopithecus and later and contemporary humans [33]. It is also noteworthy that other bones from the OH 7 hand, such as the trapezium, also suggests a taxonomic attribution different than Homo [9].
Be that as it may, the odd morphology of OH 7 PDP led some authors to consider an alternative anatomical identification as a hallucial distal phalanx [35]. This would be supported by the strong muscular attachments and, especially, the slight axial torsion at the apical tuft (functionally related to bipedalism). However, a discriminant analysis by the same authors indicated "that the fossil is closer to human distal phalanges than to those of any other hominoid and is somewhat more like a pollical than a hallucial phalanx" [35, p. 325]. We concur with this anatomical identification, especially given that there are no differences in axial torsion as compared to modern humans or extant apes (Figure 2), in which the apical tuft is slightly twisted, so that it faces the rest of the fingers. It is also noteworthy that the PDP of OH 7 does not display a human-like morphology related to precision grasping ([3]; Figure 2 and Video S5). This includes its odd overall proportions, which like in SKX 5016 (P. robustus) are characterized by a high degree of apical and midshaft robusticity, as it is found here (Figure 3) and in many previous works [10], [32]–[33], [39].
Furthermore, our results regarding relative distal phalangeal robusticity show that, when non-pollical manual rays are also taken into account, the pattern of robusticity of OH 7, like that of Paranthropus, resembles that of quadrupedal monkeys and does not fit either the great-ape or the human pattern (Figure 4). These results agree with a previous study of this partial hand, which interpreted the morphology of the middle phalanges as showing convergent adaptations with gelada baboons [33]. Alternatively, it would be necessary to conclude that early Homo was more similar to Paranthropus than to Australopithecus and Orrorin regarding several aspects of phalangeal morphology, which in evolutionary terms would imply a reversion regarding, among others, the robusticity of the PDP.
The attribution of BAR 1901′01
Hallucial distal phalanges do not display the set of features present in all the human PDPs, which are related to the pad-to-pad contact. Thus, they do show a large proximoplantar fossa, which is further accompanied by plantarly protruding basal tubercles. In proximal view, these structures configure a very wide and shallow channel for the pass and/or insertion of the flexor hallucis longus, which can act as a "supporting muscle" during terrestrial progression in both apes and humans [40].
Thus, besides morphometric similarities, the PDP of the late Miocene Orrorin displays the typically human set of morphological features functionally related to human pad-to-pad precision grasping (Figure 2 and Videos S3–S4; [4]). The presence of these features, among others, indicates that BAR 1901′1 does not belong to the hallux. The other features indicating an anatomical attribution to the pollex include: its degree of elongation, overall flatness, and round dorsal surface [17]; the orientation of the apical tuberosity, which does not face distally (such is the case in distal phalanges that support weight stresses in hyperextended positions; see Fig. 1 in [41] for the case of OH 10); and the lack of axial torsion, which is present in the hallucial phalanges of both humans [41] and apes [42].
The evolution of refined manipulation
The presence of precision grip features in the PDP of Orrorin indicates that this bone was fully prepared to accommodate objects between the palmar aspect of its pulp and that of the fingers. Some of these precision-grasping features in the Orrorin specimen had been previously reported, although they were interpreted as an adaptation to arboreal locomotion reflecting "the precision grip essential for climbing and balancing, different from that of apes" ([17], p. 372). However, given the fact that no arboreal primate displays this set of features, we favor the hypothesis that functionally relates the striking and detailed similarities between Orrorin and extant human PDPs to refined object manipulation.
Admittedly, although the Orrorin phalanx mostly looks like a human PDP, it also displays some primitive features that are further retained by the later australopiths, such as a small ungual fossa and a proximally protruding median eminence of the articular surface. Moreover, some other features, like the ridge for insertion of the FPL, and the dorsopalmar height of the shaft and apical tuberosity, are stouter than in later hominins and modern humans (Figure 2). The latter display relatively flat PDPs, especially at midshaft and distal tuberosity levels (Figures 2–3). Thus, although the late Miocene Orrorin is somewhat ape-like in dorsopalmar dimensions, it approaches a human-like profile in mediolateral dimensions. Moreover, it is most remarkable that although Plio-Pleistocene australopiths also show the morphological features related to precision grip [17], the 6-million-years-old PDP of Orrorin is more human-like in overall proportions and morphology than these later hominins. To this respect, both OH 7 and SKX 5016 display a degree of mediolateral broadening that highly surpasses the human condition. This is consistent with the femoral morphology of this taxon, which more closely resembles australopiths than later Homo, but among early hominins it is the one that most closely resembles humans [43]. All this evidence suggests that australopiths—especially Paranthropus—are derived by displaying a robusticity pattern on the distal phalanges that is convergent with that of quadrupedal monkeys (Figure 4), as previously suggested for the middle phalanges [33], and also suggested to some degree by the trapezial morphology [9], [36].
Be that as it may, the highest resemblance between the late Miocene Orrorin and modern humans, with the exclusion of australopiths, is an unexpected result that bears important implications for the understanding of the selective pressures originally involved in the evolution of human manual skills. Extant great apes are highly committed to arboreal locomotion (including vertical climbing and suspensory behaviors), their manipulative capabilities being limited by their relative short thumbs [1]–[2], [5], and especially by their absolutely long hands [12]. Because Miocene apes displayed absolutely long thumbs, it has been suggested that their hands were more suitable for manipulative purposes than those of extant hominoids [44]–[47]. The same condition can also be inferred for the stem hominid Pierolapithecus, which displays relatively short manual phalanges—like other early and middle Miocene apes—as well as a relatively long PDP [48]–[49].
From the evidence presented above, it can be suggested that the hand length proportions of humans are plesiomorphic to a large extent. If Orrorin was an early biped hominin with a PDP adapted to refined manipulation, it follows that the whole thumb would be long relative to the hand, thus enabling an efficient pad-to-pad contact. Thus, this leads us to hypothesize that the manual proportions of Orrorin might have more closely resembled those of early and middle Miocene apes than those of extant apes, which would have diverged towards a different direction from the same ancestral morphotype. This idea is similar to that presented by Tuttle [18], who suggested that "By the time early hominids had assumed a bipedal gait, the hand was probably well on its way toward modern human configuration" [18; p. 203]. We therefore favor the hypothesis that human hand proportion enabling a pad-to-pad precision grasping are an exaptation, co-opted by early bipedal hominins for manipulative purposes, but originally evolved within a locomotor selective context as an adaptation to powerful-grasping—assisted by the thumb— within an arboreal setting in Miocene apes. This would explain why early bipedal hominins, such as A. afarensis [12] and A. africanus [13], already displayed human-like hand length proportions prior to the appearance of stone tools in the archeological record. It seem likely that the acquisition of habitual bipedalism—which largely freed the upper extremities from locomotor demands [14]—would have facilitated the refining of the manipulative capabilities displayed by all primates [e.g. 1]–[2], [5], [12], [28], [33]. Furthermore, bipedalism could also affect the hand morphology by means of correlated developmental responses dues to changes in the feet morphology [12], [39]. Thus, most probably "early hominoids [and hominins] […] evidently employed behaviors resulting from the addition of a number of functional morphological innovations to a relatively conservative body plan, including those underlying a more sophisticated manipulative and grasping use of the hand than used before" [50, p. 264].
Most likely, these hand capabilities would have not been co-opted until much later for a regular use in stone tool-making, coinciding with the encephalization increase that took place in hominins with the advent of the genus Homo ca. 2.5 Ma [51]–[53]. Thus, stone tool-making would not have played a significant role until the latter part of human hand evolution, and especially after the advent of the Acheulian culture [54], as already suggested by Tuttle [18]. On the basis of the evidence provided by modern human hands, the fine tuning of manipulative adaptations during the evolution of Homo would have involved an increase of overall robusticity at the several manual joints, an increase in robusticity of the whole thumb, and especially the development of distinct palmar pads on the distal phalanges.
More complete fossil hands from the African Mio-Pliocene transition would be necessary to clarify this issue, especially regarding of the selection pressures underpinning the remarkable human-like features of the Orrorin PDP. For the moment being, the most complete fossil hand around this time corresponds to the 4.4 million-years-old putative hominin Ardipithecus ramidus [55]. Although its hand is not as elongated as in extant apes [55], its thumb seems to be relatively short, and its PDP looks more ape-like than that of Orrorin, in spite of the older chronology of the latter. Thus, although A. ramidus has been claimed to be an early hominin close to the last common ancestor with Pan [56], it could be alternatively interpreted as one of the apes "among the tangled branches that constitute the basal hominine bush" [57, p 533]. Only future comparative studies would help to bring some light onto this question.
The pollical distal phalanx of the early bipedal hominin Orrorin (BAR 1901′01) unequivocally shows precision grasping capabilities in spite of its ancient chronology, most closely resembling modern humans than some later Plio-Pleistocene hominins—which show a derived robusticity pattern. This indicates that refined manipulation is an ancient acquisition already present by the late Miocene. This is consistent with the hypothesis that habitual terrestrial bipedalism and the possession of skillful hands do constitute a single adaptive complex. Both types of behaviors might have been simultaneously selected, by synergistically favoring each other.
From the evidence reported by BAR 1901′01, it is reasonable to assume that human hand length proportions (i.e. short hands and relatively long thumbs) are plesiomorphic to some degree, thus more closely resembling the short hands with relatively long thumbs of Miocene apes, rather than the elongated hands of extant apes, which seem to be secondarily derived. These ancient proportions, suitable for refined manipulation, would not have been co-opted for stone tool-making until much later, coinciding with a significative increase in encephalization in the genus Homo.
Materials and Methods
The primate sample
The comparative extant sample includes the following taxa: chimpanzees and bonobos (Pan; N = 29), gorillas (Gorilla; N = 13), orangutans (Pongo; N = 19), baboons (Papio; N = 22) and modern humans (Homo sapiens; N = 22). The fossil sample includes the PDPs of Orrorin tugenensis from the Lukeino Formation (BAR 1901′01), Australopithecus africanus from Sterkfontein (Stw 294), the hand from Olduvai (OH 7 A), Paranthropus robustus from Swartkrans (SKX 5016), and H. neanderthalensis from La Ferrassie I and Kebara 2. Apart of the above-mentioned extant taxa, we further employed the following fossil third distal phalanges for computing ratios: OH 7 B, SKX 27504 (attributed to P. robustus), La Ferrassie I and Kebara 2. Measurements for fossil specimens were taken from originals, good quality casts or from the literature [31], [58]–[59].
A principal components analysis (PCA) based on the covariance matrix was employed to perform morphometric comparisons between the pollical distal phalanges (PDP) of selected fossil specimens and those of other hominins and extant primates, including modern humans. This analysis, which does not assume group membership on a priori grounds, was based on six shape variables of the PDP, in its turn computed on the basis of the following six metrial variables: length (L); mediolateral width at the apical tuft (MLT), midshaft (MLS) and the base (MLB); and dorsopalmar height at midshaft (DPS) and the base (DPB). These measurements were transformed into shape variables by dividing each of them by the geometric mean (GM) of all the six phalangeal measurements (the GM being taken as a variable of overall phalangeal size) and then applying a logarithmic transformation (on the basis of natural logarithms, ln), following [43].
Distal phalangeal robusticity was analyzed by means of a ratio between apical tuft width and maximum length, separately for both the distal pollical and middle finger phalanges. We further calculated the difference between both ratios, in order to quantify the relative robusticity of the pollical distal phalanx in relation to that of the middle finger. Summary statistics for extant and fossil taxa are reported in Table 2.
Supporting Information
Video S1.
360° video render of Pan troglodytes pollical distal phalanx.
Video S2.
360° video render of Gorilla gorilla pollical distal phalanx.
Video S3.
360° video render of Orrorin tugenensis pollical distal phalanx.
Video S4.
360° video render of Homo sapiens pollical distal phalanx.
Video S5.
360° video render of Olduvai Hominid 7 pollical distal phalanx.
We are indebted to the following curators and scholars for granting access to collections under their care: Wim van Neer, Burkart Engesser, Assumpció Malgosa, Lars van den Hoek Ostende, Eileen Westwig and Eric Delson. Marta Palmero assisted us with Figure 1 and Diana Cózar provided with the nice video renderings. We are especially grateful to Soledad De Esteban-Trivigno for her ideas and to Brigitte Senut for making us available the cast of the Orrorin PDP.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: SA SMS DMA. Performed the experiments: SA SMS DMA. Analyzed the data: SA SMS DMA. Wrote the paper: SA SMS DMA.
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There has long been an ongoing battle on which operating system is superior to the other and with virtualization technology this battle is soon coming to an end. The truth is that no operating system is superior to the other. It is for example well known that Windows has some severe flaws at the low level when you look at things "under the hood" but it is unmatched when it comes to the abundance of software and computer games. It is also well known that ZFS which is found in Solaris based operating systems is a file system that is unmatched in terms of reliability and safety against data corruption, which is a growing concern as larger and more dense storage hardware has become less reliable in the past few years (many more hard drives have failed on me compared to 10 years ago). I'm very concerned about these issues and I can no longer trust a hard drive in a Windows environment to reliably keep my data. Linux has many advantages in terms of system resources efficiency and stability. This list of operating systems and their advantages/disadvantages can go on...
So why should I have to choose? Why can't I take advantage of all of these benefits from these operating systems and get the best of all worlds? The answer is that I can, by virtualization. In the past few years the world has seen exciting development in the Xen community and really powerful extensions that enhance the capabilities of a virtualization such as the Intel VT-x/ AMD-v and the Intel VT-d / AMD-Vi (IOMMU) have become widespread among desktop hardware whereas it has been commonplace among enterprise-level hardware for quite some time by now.
(url to full-size picture: http://img265.imageshack.us/img265/7963/multiplatform1.png)
So it is quite evident that the role of an operating system is going to change considerably in the future. The operating system that runs on-the-metal is going to become a simplistic hypervisor that manages simplistic virtual machines. The operating systems as they are today will shrink into so-called wrappers that merely supply the frameworks required to run a particular piece of software (such as .net, Visual Runtime etc).
So there will be a separation between the hardware and the operating systems by an abstraction layer where different wrappers (that used to be operating systems) share the underlying hardware with each other. There will no longer be a question whether you use Windows, MacOS or Linux. You just use whatever you prefer as a base OS and use whatever is needed to run the applications you want, which in reality could mean that you run several operating systems simultaneously on the very same machine.
This separation has already begun, ZFS is a good example of that. The ZFS file system looks at the hard drives as a storage pool and the user is not concerned with the physical characteristics of the partitions and where the sectors begin or end. I didn't like it at first but later found that this approach is ingenious. So I see it as a natural step that the rest of the hardware will undergo the same transition. I also think a lot can be done with the UEFI framework in this regard.
The latest advancement in the virtualization technology is the set of IOMMU extensions which allows virtual machines to run directly on selected parts of the hardware on the host. This means that I can run say, Linux on-the-metal while playing Crysis 2 on a virtual machine that runs directly on the GPUs. Here's a video showing Unigine Heaven running on a virtual Windows machine inside Ubuntu on a dual GPU setup:
This is called PCI passthrough where PCI slots are passed through to the virtual machine or VGA passthrough where also the VGA-BIOS mappings are sorted out. In another setup I may want to run Windows on-the-metal and pass through a whole hard disk controller to a Solaris machine where I run a secured storage pool with redundancy (e.g. raidz3). For ZFS to give proper protection against data corruption it is an imperative that it runs directly on the hardware and not through a virtualized abstraction layer. There currently is no support for IOMMU on Windows hosts but that will change eventually, our hopes lie with hyper-v, VirtualBox and VMWare.
However, there is a lot to be done and the purpose of my post in these forums is to address this. For PCI passthrough and VGA passthrough to work it is a requirement that the hardware supports function level reset (FLR) which is a feature that allows the hardware to be reset and reinitialized at any time on a running machine (i.e. at function level). FLR is standard on QuadroFX cards and nVidia supply patches that enable FLR on Geforce cards upon request.
Another issue is that current virtualization technologies only support passthrough of entire GPUs to virtual machines and GPUs can currently only be shared through emulation which makes it impossible to run applications that rely on hardware accelerated 3D (such as DirectX games). This situation is pretty much the same as where the virtualization was before the VT-x/AM-v extensions were introduced. The CPU instructions had to be emulated on the VM which severely degraded the performance on that machine. When VT-x/AMD-v came, virtual machines could be run directly on the CPU with almost no overhead at all.
So I would like to suggest similar extensions that allow the GPUs to be shared over several machines just like CPUs can be shared via VT-x/AMD-v.
So my suggestions in short:
- Work to get FLR support to become a standard feature among hardware
- Develop Intel VT-x / AMD-v like extensions for GPUs allowing for GPU power to be shared seamlessly among VMs and the host just like the CPU


text:
In celebration of the recent release of Counting the Cost by bestselling author, Liz Adair, Inglestone Publishing invites you to participate in a Roundup of Memories.
Counting the Cost is historical fiction, set in New Mexico and Arizona in the 1930s. Brilliantly told, the story is based on events from author Liz Adair's own family history. In Liz's book, the spring roundup is a central element in Liz's book. So, for the Roundup of Memories, you are invited to join in the fun by submitting a favorite memory or family history story of your own. Here's all you need to do to qualify for one of the prizes from Inglestone Publishing:
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text:
A Very Good Day at the San Diego County Fair
Entered six items in Baked Goods category, with the following results:
First Place Sourdough and Best of Yeast Breads Division:
Old School Jewish Deli Rye (ITJB pp. 74-76)
First Place Other Breads:
Sweet and Rich Challah (ITJB pp. 33-34)
Second Place (Rolls, Sourdough, Cookies):
The Classic New York Water Bagel (ITJB pp. 98-100)
Mixed-Grain (NYB Farine Rustique) Sourdough Miche
Rainbow Cookies (ITJB pp.223-224)
And my Russian Coffee Cake (ITJB pp. 167-168) got an Honorable Mention, probably because I underbaked it initially and had to return it to the oven after I finished it with apricot syrup, which darkened the top and produced a slightly charred note.
All in all, not a bad day.
Stan Ginsberg


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|Student type
|Fees to pay
|UK students
|EU students
Heckmondwike Grammar School
Drama (3BYH)
PGCE with QTS full time
- Accredited body
- Kirklees and Calderdale SCITT
- Financial support
- Student finance if you're eligible
- Qualification
PGCE with QTS
A postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE) with qualified teacher status (QTS) will allow you to teach in state schools in England and may allow you to teach in other parts of the UK.
It may also allow you to teach overseas, though you should always check what qualifications are needed in the country you'd like to teach in.
Many PGCE courses include credits that count toward a Master's degree.
- Course length
- 1 year
- Date you can apply from
- 8 October 2019
- Date course starts
- September 2020
- Website
- http://www.heckgrammar.co.uk
- About the course
- Interview process
- How school placements work
- Fees
- Financial support
- Requirements
- About the training provider
- Training with disabilities and other needs
- Contact details
- Apply
- Support and advice
About the course
You will be based at Heckmondwike Grammar School or one of our partner schools four days a week from the start of term in September. Working alongside your subject mentor, you will identify your current level of knowledge, skills and experience and from that we will draw up a training plan. This will involve observing experienced teachers, other teaching experiences and training activities leading to delivering whole class lessons.
Throughout the year you will have one day per week at the Kirklees and Calderdale central training base in Heckmondwike (or visiting schools, colleges or other educational establishments). The programme is extremely diverse, from theoretical input to observing excellent practice. Our trainees have also benefited from our Mindfulness and Yoga sessions to support their personal well-being.
You will also benefit from 10 additional Subject-Specific Training days which will give you the opportunity to further enhance your subject knowledge alongside other subject specialist trainees.
By the end of the training year you will be fully equipped to deliver your subject to students from Year 7 to Year 11, including the GCSE specification. You will also have experience of 6th form teaching.
In order to gain Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) you have to be judged competent against the Teacher Standards
For Kirklees & Calderdale SCITT this involves:
3 Reflection Points (training activities which focus on a group of standards feeding into 2 Assignments)
Tutor visit reports - your tutor will visit you half-termly
3 Periodic Reports - your school will write a report at the end of each term
2nd placement report
Interview process
Once we receive your application, we'll acknowledge by email and update UCAS if you are invited to interview. You will be asked to prepare a task to bring to your interview and should expect to undertake a written task on the day. You will also be asked to teach a small group of pupils for 20 minutes on a subject of your choice.
You will be invited to an interview by a small panel comprising the Deputy Head, School Direct Coordinator and a Kirklees and Calderdale SCITT representative.
You will be expected to answer a range of questions which are designed to explore your personal qualities, your potential as a teacher and to ensure you meet the course criteria.
You will need to bring to interview the original certificates for all qualifications and proof of identity as part of our Safeguarding processes.
You will be asked to complete a short exercise to demonstrate your ability to read effectively and communicate clearly and accurately in Standard English.
If you are successful at the interview you will be offered a place. You will usually be told where your main placement will be at that time, along with any specific additional conditions to your offer.
Before commencing the programme, you will sign a contract between you, the host school and the Partnership so that everyone agrees to the same supporting principal and requirements of your training year.
A criminal background check and all other requisite checks will be carried out.
How school placements work
We will source and arrange your school placement. You will be placed in a school which we feel will fully support you in your subject specialism.
You are training to teach the 11-16 age range but Heckmondwike Grammar School does have a 6th Form which obviously enhances your training opportunity.
You will spend most of the year in one school with a second experience in a contrasting school (usually Christmas to February half term). This enables you to deepen your experience and ensures that you have the opportunity to meet all the Teacher Standards. When in school, you are expected to follow the timings, practices and culture of the school.
The course fees for this year are as follows:
Student type Fees to pay
UK students £7,500
EU students £7,500
We offer 2 options:
£7500 for Qualified Teacher Status alone (QTS)
£9250 for QTS with PGCE. This PGCE element equates to 60 Masters credits which we offer through the University of Huddersfield.
Financial support
You may also be eligible for a loan while you study – note that you'll have to apply for undergraduate student finance.
Find out about financial support if you're from outside the UK.
Financial support from the training provider
You may be eligible for financial support while you study, including bursaries, scholarships and loans. Financial support if you're from outside of the UK. If required, the Kirklees and Calderdale SCITT will support your through the Student Finance process for fees and maintenance grants, administer SKE funding as well as sign post to other possible funding streams.
All qualifications must be gained by the start of the course. We will consider applications from people who are finishing a qualification but any offer would be fully subject to the successful completion of relevant qualifications.
GCSE Maths and English at least Grade C/4 or equivalent
A UK Bachelor's degree or equivalent
A NARIC certificate for qualifications gained overseas
For Secondary teaching, degrees are usually, though not exclusively, relevant to the subjects to be taught. We may request you undertake a Subject Knowledge Enhancement (SKE) course to increase your subject knowledge.
Personal qualities
A commitment to teaching and learning
An understanding of children as learners
A clear educational philosophy
An understanding of current educational issues
A knowledge/understanding of the subject specialism within the curriculum
A satisfactory standard of written/spoken English
The ability to use ICT, establish effective working relationships and take responsibility for own professional development
An understanding of the demands of this school-based route into teaching
You should demonstrate that you have recent experience working with secondary-age children to demonstrate you have an understanding of the demands of school life.
Other requirements
Offers will be subject to an Enhanced DBS which will be organised for you. An overseas check may be required for those who have spent time outside of the UK. You will also be subject to the following checks:
You will also be subject to the following checks:
Health, identity, relevant work qualifications, right to work in the UK, professional registration, references and a Childcare Disqualification and Disqualification by Association Declaration.
About the training provider
Heckmondwike Grammar School is a mixed, selective Academy of over 1500 pupils including 600 in the sixth form. It is a fantastic place to work and learn. A school should be judged not only on it's examination results or it's facilities but also the fitness of it's pupil's to succeed in later life. We think we serve our pupils well. More importantly so do others, including Ofsted, who judged the school to be outstanding on their last visit, and the various newspapers who regularly include us in their lists of the most high-performing schools. HGS is a school in which pupils feel happy and safe and are challenged and supported to achieve the highest possible academic standards. They are encouraged to participate and excel in a wide range of creative, sporting and cultural fields. They develop the skills and qualities that will make them healthy, adaptable, responsible citizens of the future, and enable them to make a profound contribution. A former training school, HGS has a long established track record of training teachers and working with HEI providers, and we recognise the benefits that trainees can offer a school. We provide a unique school based learning opportunity in partnership with the Kirklees and Calderdale SCITT in conjunction with Huddersfield University. Our teachers are outstanding practitioners ready to share their knowledge and expertise with the next generation of teachers.
About the accredited body
Kirklees & Calderdale SCITT are an established and successful teacher training provider and have been training teachers across West Yorkshire since 2003, rated 'Good' in our Ofsted Inspection in 2015.
As a trainee you will benefit from experienced mentors in school, supporting you on a daily basis. This runs alongside highly regarded tutors who ensure your training year is a positive and successful experience in becoming a qualified teacher.
You will be based in school for four days and will spend one day at our central base for the core programme each week to ensure you develop as effective teachers.
Training with disabilities and other needs
Heckmondwike Grammar School is committed to Equality and Diversity. All schools that we place trainees in have clearly established policies, processes and systems for monitoring that ensure trainees of all abilities are suitably catered for and supported. Where trainees have had specific needs in the past, we have taken a bespoke approach to ensure there are no barriers to learning experienced.
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- 01924402202
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- http://www.heckgrammar.co.uk
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Heckmondwike (Near Huddersfield)
West Yorkshire
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text:
Wednesday, June 2, 2010
Casey Anthony: June 1 Hearing, Cliff Notes Version
Once the storms had passed, my computer totally crashed and at the current time is under total reconstruction from my hard-working husband. For the time being, I'm borrowing his computer. I have no bookmarks, no e-mail, and am stuck using an aged track-ball mouse which is next to impossible for me to operate. So, you are getting my Cliff Note's version of the hearing!
The rest of the problems were for the defense side.
It was rather ominous when Judge Perry was late to the bench by about two minutes. Lawyers were seen going in and out of the courtroom. The courtroom itself was so silent, I thought there was something wrong with the feed!
Once Judge Belvin Perry took the bench, we learned that Casey Anthony had waived her appearance for the hearing. We later heard that she had tripped and fallen on the elevator on the way to the courtroom and needed medical attention. It is interesting that in one of her letters to her jail "buddy", Robyn Adams, she mentioned that she was a "klutz" and had nearly fallen in the courtroom on the way to her seat.
Once court was in session, Cheney Mason led the defense in the arguments over the sealing of the visitor logs. If you recall, at the JAC hearing on May 11, there was an extended side-bar between the defense and the judge concerning one type of expert they did not wish to name. In their motion to seal the records, Mason pointed out that this was the same expert whose name (or names) he did not wish to appear on the jail visitor logs. His remedy for this was to either have the logs sealed or the name(s) redacted.
Orlando County attorney Tamara Gappen spoke to the motion as we have heard her do before. The main issue is that there is an issue with the Judicial Branch's inability to impinge on the Executive Branch, which runs the jail.
After a few more arguments, Judge Perry told the attorneys that he had already done extensive research on the issue both within the State of Florida and nationwide and had yet to find case law that would apply. He is obviously concerned that he not step over the line. In order for him to find for the defense will be to find case law which confronts the issue of the Judicial Branch and Casey Anthony's constitutional rights to due process and representation.
Perry indicated he would do some more searching this touchy issue and have a decision next week.
Personally, I don't think he will find anything new, but we'll leave a little glimmer of hope out there for the defense.
Defense ? State 0
The next motion was to unseal the surreptitious tape made by searcher Joseph Jordan. Mason claimed that the information about Jordan came from "incomplete" documents from TES.
I thought they came from Ms. Laura Buchanan.
Mason stated that when Jordan met with defense PI Mort Smith and his attorney Kelly Sims, Jordan stated that when he searched the area and found no remains and that the area was dry. This information would open a "huge door of reasonable doubt" as to whether or not Casey Anthony placed the body in that location since she was incarcerated at the time of this search.
Mason, unlike Todd Macaluso, indicated that this did not rule out the possibility that Casey killed Caylee. In July, Macaluso stated that it proved her innocence!
Mason also stated that in statements to LE, Jordan had changed his story. He also worded his comments to indicate that LE had somehow influenced him to change his story. According to Mason, one version was the truth, and the other was a lie.
In reading the interviews with Jordan, it seemed to me that Jordan changed his mind as to exactly where he searched. When he spoke with Smith, Jordan was under the impression that the remains were found near where he and others had located a cooler and a blanket. When taken to the site, Jordan realized he had been in error.
I will admit that if I were the defense, I would jump on this information as well. However, it would seem that a deposition of Mr. Jordan might be in order so that he could explain the situation in his own words.
Judge Perry asked Mason if he felt that the original ruling by Judge Strickland was tainted (by his "bias" for which the defense asked him to be recused) or for a "second bite of the apple".
Cheney had no way to answer this and chuckled. Had he answered to either, he would have a major problem.
Cheney indicated to the Court that due to the circumstances of the meeting, there was no expectation of privacy and that the tape could be unsealed. He also cited one case, Incieranno, where the VICTIM of the crime turned on a tape during the commission of the crime. I would have loved to hear how Cheney could explain how this exception to the rule related to a meeting with a PI and an attorney! Unfortunately, Cheney couldn't find the case and the hearing moved on.
Judge Perry mentioned the Atkins case in which there is an absolute prohibition for the use of the tape. Mason pointed out to the judge that Judge Strickland had left the motion open for a "second bite" and in the end, Perry denied the motion, but left the door open for the defense to argue it again, AT TRIAL.
Defense ? State 1
Next up was George Anthony's Grand Jury testimony. The State had requested and received the transcript last fall so that they could check for any inconsistencies between George's testimony October 14, 2008 and his deposition in August of 2009.
Mason began by indicating that the defense strongly believed that they had a right to the testimony simply because the State had gotten it. He erroneously stated that the State wanted to compare his Grand Jury testimony to his infamous Morgan & Morgan deposition given because "someone" had filed a civil suit. He corrected himself at the end.
Jeff Ashton spoke briefly, reminding the court that the target of his investigation was NOT the Morgan & Morgan deposition. He also pointed out that he had filed a report with the Court stating he had found no inconsistencies and would not be using the still sealed testimony.
He indicated that the defense should file a motion with appropriate legal grounds, in camera, for the judge to reconsider.
After a few more brief arguments, the judge denied the motion stating that Grand Jury testimony is sacrosanct.
Defense ? State 2
When the issues of aggravating factors came up, Mason pointed out that the State had not backed up their list of aggravating factors with the facts of the case to back them up.
Ashton replied that the trial was a year away and things could change between now and then. He also stated that the defense was upset with the "may" was not "will" as far as the application of these factors.
I got that one right!
Judge Perry read the law on this situation and indicated to the defense that the State had given what was required by his Order and that the State was not required to do any more than that. In addition, aggravating factors can be added and taken off the table even during the trial.
Did anyone else notice the bit of a twinkle in Judge Perry's eyes when he mentioned that the State had listed only the statute numbers?
Motion denied.
Defense ? State 3
Next, we were up to the infamous tips. I think we all remember the drama back in 2008 and early 2009, when Jose Baez asked for all those tips? He came before the court to complain that he had been "ripped off" because there were mainly psychic tips? Well, Linda Drane Burdick certainly mentioned it when she spoke!
Baez indicated that the defense had spent $1500 to obtain tips and Drane Burdick indicated that the Sheriff's Office indicated that there was $1500 due to them for the tips. I have a sneaking suspicion that the defense never bothered to pick them up. Drane Burdick indicated that she understood that the defense had sent someone to the Sheriff's Office to inspect the tips, but had abandoned the project. Baez indicated that they had finished the job.
So, I'm wondering why they need these tips now? In fact, the only "tips" that Baez mentioned were those by Roy Kronk and the e-mail from Joseph Jordan.
As I recall, the Sheriff's Office was required to produce all tips that were not still under investigation. Since Roy Kronk later discovered the remains in December 2008, his "tips" were more than likely still under investigation.
Well, when push comes to shove, the judge didn't even bother with ruling on this motion. He indicated to Jose Baez that he could go down to the Sheriff's office and pay the outstanding $1500 and get the tips. Baez claimed that Casey was indigent and couldn't afford them. The judge then reminded him that he allocated funds for public records requests and allowed him up to $2000 for the tips and he'd better be able to justify the expense if he wanted more funds from the JAC. I'm betting that he sends someone down to finish going over the tips and pays for the Roy Kronk tips.
As for the infamous e-mail, the defense already has it and, as Drane Burdick pointed out, was not a tip!
I'd like to give the defense a "win" on this one, but they only are getting what they already had. They just have to pay for them. Since they have funds available, we won't get to hear any more motions on this issue!
Defense ?? State 3
The last motion up for discussion was the defense motion for additional discovery. There was an interesting exchange at the beginning of this portion of the hearing. Jeff Ashton objected early on and indicated that he had not received Baez' Excel spreadsheet presentation until two days ago.
Baez told Ashton he'd like to argue his motion in his own way! There then followed and rambling discussion about scientific research, Dr. Arpad Vass, etc. etc. There was mention of novel science, etc. etc. There was mention of a wire article about the search for bodies in the Manson case which was done a while back.
Judge Perry made a rather strong mention asking if this wire article was from a learned treatise or scholarly book. Nope! An article...
Perry also asked Baez why the defense was asking for this information prior to deposing Dr. Vass. He indicated that this information should be brought up at a Frye hearing.
Baez basically said in more than so many words that he wanted the information prior to the deposition, scheduled for July, so that the defense could ask intelligent questions.
Perry explained that the State had yet to state which documents they intended to use at trial. He used an example from the DEA, where the state was not in constructive possession and did not have a "compact" with the DEA to obtain the documents. In addition, the information that the defense wants is proprietary information and cited a case which deals with breatholizer codes. He asked Baez what authority he could state where he could make the State produce these documents which might be produced in civil litigation (I'm assuming where the information is the focus of the case). He also said that if there were some "quackery" involved in the information which could cause a conviction to be overturned!
This motion was also denied. The defense will have to find its way around all the problems in their own way, obviously!
Defense ?? State 4
It's obvious Judge Perry is annoyed with the pace of the trial. In his opinion, the case should be 98% complete at this point. Ever the diplomat, he indicated to both the defense and the prosecution that they needed to obey the deadlines in the case, and not for the first time. We know that this particular comment was aimed at the defense!
Watch the hearing here:
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Interesting Fact:
Listening to the discussion on InSession this morning, I learned a little about grand jury witnesses.
The laws vary from state-to-state concerning whether or not a grand jury witness may discuss his/her testimony.
Florida is a state where a witness may NOT discuss their testimony with anyone. That explains why George Anthony's testimony is so important to the defense. They can ask him, but he can't answer!
Also, there's something interesting at the end of the hearing. Jose Baez was complaining about all the witnesses the state was adding. Judge Perry indicated that the deadline is August 31. We're at June 1 now!
Oh, and Linda Drane Burdick has even a bigger problem! She has virtually NO witness list! Two years in, and the defense has only submitted a limited list of about 3 experts. Otherwise, it mirrors the State witness list.
8 comments:
- ritanita said...
Donchais, your comment ended up in Memorial Day!
Yes, I've been royally zapped. I hope to be up by the next status hearing, whenever it is.
Concerning Mr. Mason, I was also surprised that he fumbled so much in searching out his references. I do hope all is well with him.
- June 2, 2010 at 9:41 AM
- FRG said...
Great article as usual!!! Thank you very much!!!
Well, after reading Valhall's article from today "Concerning the "Junk Science" Argument against Vass's Work" I now understand the reasons why LKB was not present to argue over this issue. She would rather sent dummy JB out to ramble about it. Oh boy!! LOL
I agree with you I thought Joe Jordan was involved into this by Laura Buchanan.
What I am really looking forward is the hearing on the TES records. I think sparkles will fly. I bet Mr. NeJame is fed up with KC's defense insinuations that they are hiding something. As you have said before this is all a "fishing expedition".
- June 2, 2010 at 9:52 AM
- FRG said...
I forgot I am sorry about your computer, hope your hubby gets it fixed in no time. It's terrible when this thing happens.
- June 2, 2010 at 9:53 AM
- ritanita said...
I'm going to have to go over and read her blog today. Not having my own computer has really slowed me down!
As for Mr. NeJame, I am still awaiting a response from him on the motion. I want to hear his version of the incident when Baez and Mason went to his office.
It will be a great courtroom adventure, to be sure!
- June 2, 2010 at 9:56 AM
- Sprocket said...
Excellent report, even for a cliff notes version!
Your hard work and dedication is appreciated by so many ritanita.
- June 2, 2010 at 11:10 AM
- katfish said...
I second Sprocket's comment!
Hope your computer is fixed soon. Isn't it amazing how attached we get to these machines.....I won't even start on the cell phone dependency issue. LOL
- June 2, 2010 at 4:23 PM
- ritanita said...
Computer outlook is gloomy so far. At least I can use this one during the day and while DH is working on mine.
As for cell phones, I only have a cheapo go-phone with a ton of money on it since I only use it for emergencies and when we travel. I don't dare get anything fancier. My bills would be off the charts!
- June 2, 2010 at 4:40 PM
- katfish said...
Sorry to hear it will be a while before your computer is back up. Thankful you can use your DH's. I would miss your posts. :)
I am having cell phone withdrawal....I lost my income a few months back and since I'm home a lot I thought that would be a good place to cut back. WRONG! I didn't realize how accustom I was to having it... need to get me a cheapy....SOON!
- June 2, 2010 at 8:33 PM


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Guest Blog: Montreal Art Tattoo Show
Photo above from the Montreal Art Tattoo Show. Photos below by Demetra Molina.
We have another wonderful guest blog from Demetra Molina of The Hand of Fate Tattoo Parlor in Ithaca, NY. Instead of talking wine, she shares the highlights of the Montreal Art Tattoo Show, which took place last weekend.
Montreal is a magical city. It's beautiful, cultured, and the ideal place to hold an exceptional tattoo convention. This past weekend, September 6-8, was the 11th annual Montreal Art Tattoo Show, presented by Mr. and Mrs. Pierre and Valerie Emond of Studio Tattoo Mania in Montreal. Once again, there was magic in the air, and the weekend was truly like no other. The level of artistry is top notch, as you can easily see from the roster of renowned tattooers. The setting, the performances, the fine art exhibitions -- all quality, year after year.
For the very first time, my husband Eddie Molina and I did not work the actual show. Things at our shop worked out a certain way, and we saw an escape for a quick weekend road trip. Art, tattoos, good friends, and Montreal smoked meat with poutine? Yes, and yes, please.
The entrance line was down the street when we arrived at the convention site, Gare Windsor Station, a stunning historic venue. Glass ceilings in the old train station allow the artists to work with natural sunlight, a rare luxury at any venue. Tattoo machines were already humming away, as collectors excitedly looked at artist portfolios. We slowly made our way around the main aisle, saying hello and wandering, and noticed several other artists had also had the same idea -- a weekend away networking and enjoying Montreal. One of the main reasons? The Leu family had travelled from Switzerland to be part of the show.
The Leu Family Iron booth was an experience unto itself. Crowds lined up to watch Swiss tattoo artist Filip Leu work in collaboration with artist Kurt Wiscombe on one-sitting backpiece projects each day. Absolutely an amazing opportunity, and several tattooists had "art nerd moments" rarely witnessed in public. The entire Leu family was very gracious, talking with everyone and posing for endless photos. I even had a chance to interview artist Loretta Leu, matriarch of the family (photographed below). She was a delight to talk to, answering my questions with smiles, colorful stories of living an amazing life, and of course Frank Zappa lyrics.
Montreal Tattoo Art Show 2013 was a convention weekend completely out of the ordinary. The level of talent, artwork, and enjoyable company is something every tattoo lover should experience. I had no time for wine touring this trip, too much for us to do at the show...rare on all accounts...and I didn't miss the booze.
For more photos of the convention, photographer John Whelan captured some great moments and posted them to Facebook here.


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Why mention DNS and Conficker in the same post? All of the commotion about Conficker involves one variant's activation of a new domain generation algorithm on 1 April. Until today no one had publicly announced the reverse engineering of the algorithm, but right now you can download a list of 50,014 domains that one Conficker variant will select from when trying to phone home starting 1 April. Some of the domains appear to be pre-empted:
$ whois aadqnggvc.com.ua
% This is the Ukrainian Whois query server #B.
% Rights restricted by copyright.
% % .UA whois
% Domain Record:
% =============
domain: aadqnggvc.com.ua
admin-c: CCTLD-UANIC
tech-c: CCTLD-UANIC
status: FROZEN-OK-UNTIL 20090701000000
dom-public: NO
mnt-by: UARR109-UANIC (ua.admin)
remark: blocked according to administrator decision
changed: CCTLD-UANIC 20090320144409
source: UANIC
Others appear ready for registration:
~$ whois aafkegx.co.uk
No match for "aafkegx.co.uk".
This domain name has not been registered.
WHOIS lookup made at 00:56:31 31-Mar-2009
Keep in mind that another 50,000 domains will be generated on 2 April, and so on. With such a big problem, what could we do to contain this malware?
OpenDNS is a possible answer:
OpenDNS has kept our users safe from Conficker for the past several months by blocking the domains it uses to phone home...
The latest variant of Conficker is now churning through 50,000 domains per day in an attempt to thwart blocking attempts. Consider this: at any given time we have filters that hold well over 1,000,000 domains (when you combine our phishing and domain tagging filters). 50,000 domains a day isn't going to rock the boat.
So here's our update: OpenDNS will continue to identify the domains, all 50,000, and block them from resolving for all OpenDNS users. This means even if the virus has penetrated machines on your network, its rendered useless because it cannot connect back to the botnet.
That's one advantage of outsourcing your Internet DNS to a third party. They have the resources to integrate the latest threat intelligence and the position to do something to protect users.
This is a great example of scalable infrastructure (DNS) vs large problems (Conficker).
Finally, you've probably heard about the Conficker Know Your Enemy paper and associated upgraded scanning tools, like Nmap 4.85BETA5 and the newest Nessus check. I can't wait to see the results of tools like this. It could mark one of the first times we could fairly easily generate a statistic for the percentage of total assets compromised, similar to steps 8 and 9 from my 2007 post Controls Are Not the Solution to Our Problem. In other words, you can scan for Conficker and determine one score of the game -- the percentage of hosts compromised by one or more Conficker variants. The question is, how long until those controlling Conficker update the code to resist these remote, unauthenticated scans?
Richard Bejtlich is teaching new classes in Europe and Las Vegas in 2009. Online Europe registration ends by 1 Apr, and seats are filling. Early Las Vegas registration ends 1 May.


text:
You can follow the discussion on ProForm SMART Endurance 920 E without having to leave a comment. Cool, huh? Just enter your email address in the form here below and you're all set.
As a thank you, we'll send you our Elliptical Buyer's Guide as a FREE gift.
This 39-page guide will tell you all you need to know to make a smart buying decision. ($29 Value)
Oops! We could not locate your form.


text:
ElectroFence® Plus 11/48/12 Electric Netting
Effective at keeping in: sheep, goats, guard dogs and cattle while keeping out deer, coyotes and bear.
For fences that involve curves, corners and directional change, or when aesthetics are a concern, "Plus" nets include additional line posts to reduce sag. Line posts are spaced every 6'8" (vs. 12.5' for standard 48" ElectroFence).
What makes ElectroFence different from PermaNet?
- Strutted verticals every 12" vs PermaNet's string every 6".
- Has 10 energized strands vs 9 for PermaNet.
- Lowest energized strand 4" above the soil (vs 6" for PermaNet).
Common Uses
For small breeds such as Pygmy or Nigerian Dwarf goats use PoultryNet style netting. The tighter spacings are a better deterrent to these species than the wider spaced ElectroFence.
|ElectroFence® Plus 11/48/12
|48" installed
|Horizontal Strands
|11 (10 conductive)
|Vertical Strands
|Plastic struts, spaced every 12"
|Roll Length
|50' or 100'
|Premium Superconductor
|Electrical Resistance
|38 Ω/per 1000'
|Line Post Options
|Double Spike (DS)
|Line Post Material
|White PVC, 0.75" diameter
|Spike Length/Diameter
|Distance Between Posts
|Horizontal Spacings
|4", 4", 4", 4", 4", 4", 6", 6", 6", 6"
(from bottom to top)
Each roll comes with 1 Warning Sign and 1 Repair Kit.
- #204520 - $1.88 per ft (100' roll with double spike posts)
- #204521 - $2.90 per ft (50' roll with double spike posts)
Note: Weeds must be controlled for ElectroFence to remain effective. Either move and mow as needed during the growing season, or spray herbicide (see photos above) along the bottom strand of the net. If you can't do this, ElectroFence may not be the right net for you.
See PDFs and videos above for additional installation instructions.
Warning! Due to risk of fire, do NOT use continuous output energizers with electric netting or electro-plastic conductors such as rope, twine or tape. Use only with a low or wide impedance intermittent pulse energizer. (Fi-Shock™ brand energizers which are sold as low impedance, continuous current output should NOT be used with electric netting.) All energizers sold on Premier's website use an intermittent pulse and are suitable for use with electric netting.
Dry conditions and wintertime usage may reduce the effectiveness of electric fencing. Ice and heavy snow can flatten netting and thereby damage it.
Dry or frozen ground may cause post spikes to bend or break if inserted with force. Pilot holes may be needed. We recommend using drivable or single spike posts in hard soils. Double spike posts provide more stability when the ground is soft.
Listed below are recommended optional components. Your particular situation may require alternative recommendations. Please call and talk to our fence consultants if there are any questions at 800-282-6631.
Posts and Accessories
FiberTuff™ Post, 48" tall, 22mm diaItem #208055 -
Fiberglass-reinforced support posts for ends, corners and major directional changes. Commonly used with electrified net fences.$6.98
Energizer Kits
Solar IntelliShock® 60 Energizer with Wireless TesterItem #113300 -
Solar powered 0.60 joule energizer used with electric fences to contain sheep, goats, poultry, swine, cattle and horses. Effective against predators.$285.00
Fence Connectors and Accessories
5-Light Wireless Fence TesterItem #200006 -
Low cost 5-light wireless tester to measure approximate fence voltage. Used to determine if your energizer/charger is working properly.$15.00
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Warning SignItem #346000 -
Attaches to an electric fence or netting to warn people that the fence is electrified.$1.20
ElectroFence Gate (7.5 ft x 48" tall), black/white with black postsItem #340616 -
Easy access in/out of net enclosures without having to turn off the energizer!$58.00
Posts and Accessories
NetPost 19/48/DS (white) - For: PermaNet 10/48/6, PermaNet & Plus 12/48/3, Horse and Cattle QF 4/48/24 or ElectroFence & Plus 11/48/12Item #207046 -
Replacement line posts for Premier's netting. Designs for each type of net, double or single spike.$3.50
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Repair Kit for Bear QuikFence, VersaNet 60, ElectroNet (DP), PoultryNet (DP), ElectroStop (DP), ElectroFence & Plus, PermaNet & PlusItem #201730 -
A handy repair kit that includes all of the essentials to patch tears and holes in electric net fences.$2.00
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Brass Ferrules for NettingItem #200500 -
Neat item used to repair broken horizontals in electric netting.$0.14
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Replacement - Electrical clip for nettingItem #200900 -
This clip is designed to connect all the horizontals on any electrified netting together electrically.$0.25
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Top Cap (replacement only) for 19mm/.75" dia net postsItem #206502 -
Replaces lost, misplaced or broken plastic caps (for posts 0.75" in diameter) on netting posts. Holds top strand of net in place so there is less sagging.$0.21
Fence Connectors and Accessories
Cord retainer (replacement only) for 19mm/.75" net postsItem #206503 -
Replacement clip designed for the steel spikes on posts.$0.15
Write a Review
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Diane D from California
Great product, easy to install and move. Animals respect it.
Roxanne H from Pennsylvania
Love it! We bought it to move our young goats around the wood line. They respect it and it's easy to move. We started with one section, but definitely ordering more.
Coleen G from Idaho
Excellent fencing that works!
Melissa M from New York
We LOVE this fence. Very easy to install and move. Should have purchased this years ago.
Kelsey M from Indiana
I bought one roll of the ElectroFence Plus and 2 rolls of the regular ElectroFence to see if which we liked better. Double spike is great; no bent spikes and easy step-on set up rather than bending over to push the spike into the ground. For our application the extra posts in the Plus were not necessary as the posts are pretty heavy duty and stand up well. Works well with our sheep. Waiting on a stronger charger for a trial with the 250# goats though.


text:
On August 31, the Rio Arriba Community Health Council and its member agencies went to the Senior Center in the village of Truchas to conduct joint pain prevention classes, immunizations, diabetes screenings and other preventive services. We met a lot of folks and learned that co-pays, even small ones, are a huge barrier in our small farming towns. The RACHC will be working to find ways to eliminate or reduce co-pays for key services such as immunizations.
In the meantime, this is our story: