text:
By L. J . KOSOFSKY EL-BAZ
a n d FAROUK
If one were to purchase a complete set of Lunar Orbiter photo-
graphs from the National Space Science Data Center, he would
have about 3100 20- by 24-inch prints. T o examine this material
for any useful purpose, he would have to make some selection.
This book includes selected parts of Lunar Orbiter photographs
that illustrate some of the salient features of the lunar surface.
Complete coverage of the lunar surface is provided in NASA's
forthcoming publication: The Lunar Orbiter Photographic
Atlas of the Moon (NASA SP-206).
Included in the Introduction are brief descriptions of the
Orbiter project, the spacecraft and camera systems, and the lunar
surface coverage of the five Orbiter missions flown during the
12-month period from August 1966 t o August 1967. Chapters 2
and 3 present the distant and close-up Lunar Orbiter photo-
graphs selected. These two chapters are complementary: chapter
2 gives substantially full, small-scale coverage of the lunar
surface, and chapter 3 gives salient lunar surface features in
greater detail. In several instances a medium-resolution photo-
graph of the complete feature is followed by several photographs,
a t a larger scale and showing greater detail. of selected parts of
the feature.
In the appendix are four stereoscopic views of selected features
as well as index charts of footprints of all Lunar Orbiter frames.
Technical data (Photo Reference Table) pertaining to the photo-
graphs in this book also are in the appendix.
T h e Lunar Orbiter project was carried out under the direction
of the NASA Langley Research Center. The Boeing Co. was the
prime contractor for the operation of all five missions. We wish
to pay particular tribute to the leadership of the late Robert J.
Helberg. who was manager of t h e Lunar Orbiter program for T h e
Boeing Co.
The authors are indebted to several agencies, especially the
U. S. Army Topographic Command, for their continued help and
support in pursuing this project. In preparing the picture
captions, we received considerable help from D. E. Wilhelms,
J. F. McCauley. H. J. Moore, M. H. Carr, and N. J. Trask of the
U. S. Geological Survey, Branch of Astrogeology. Help was also
provided by personnel of the Apollo Lunar Exploration Office
of NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight. We are especially
grateful to R. P. Bryson for his assistance and counsel in every
phase of the preparation of this book.
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Chapter 2
A Distant View 7
Chapter 3
A Closeup View 39
Maria 39
Highlands 52
Craters 62
Faults, Rilles. and Domes 103
T h e Moon's Farside 124
Stereoscopic Views 138
Index Maps 144
Photo Reference Table 150
photography and also the total area coverage obtained. These
Nearside Farside restrictions were relaxed for t h e final two missions.
down to 60 meters ground resolution, and the remainder is no
coarser than 150 meters. T h e east and west limbs and both
polar regions were covered in near-vertical views.
T h e primary objective of Mission V was to obtain closeup
I. . .. ., ... Lunar Orbiter 1 1 photographs of geologically interesting features i n 36 selected
areas of the Moon's nearside. In addition, some photographs
were taken to complete the Apollo requirements and t o complete
the coverage of the lunar farside. All of these objectives were
attained with the faultless execution of Mission V, completing
the Lunar Orbiter program.
Figure 1 summarizes the five missions, showing the orbit of
each one and the area that each covered photographically.
panels and antennas deployed, the maximum span became 5.2 above the photographic subsystem requirements (approximately
meters along the antenna booms and 3.8 meters across the solar 76 lines/mm) and a low enough speed (aerial index of approxi-
panels. mately 3.0) to make it relatively insensitive to space environment
Three-axis stabilization was provided using the Sun and the radiation.
star Canopus as primary references and a three-axis inertial The selection of a slow-speed film to meet the Apollo require-
system for periods when the spacecraft was required to operate ments for 1- and &meter resolution photographs necessitated
off celestial references during maneuvers or when the Sun and that image-motion compensation (IMC) be provided to minimize
Canopus were occulted by the Moon. After assuming the smear. An electric-optical sensor viewed the lunar surface
commanded attitude for a picture-taking sequence, the space- through a portion of the 610-mm lens and determined the ratio
craft would maintain that attitude through the sequence. of t h e spacecraft's velocity to its altitude-referred to as the
Attitude control was maintained by cold-gas thrusters. A flight velocity-to-height (V/H) ratio. T h e V/H senso.. output, in the
programmer with a 128-word memory provided the capability form of a mechanical camshaft rotation, was used for direct
for up to 16 hours of automatic spacecraft and camera operation drive of the camera platens (and film) a t the proper rate to
or for action on real-time commands. ensure IMC during exposure. T h e V/H sensor also controlled
the spacing of exposures during multiple exposure sequences.
Photographic System T h e two camera axes were coincident, so that the coverage
of the H-frame was centered within the. M-frame coverage as
T h e complete Lunar Orbiter photographic system included shown i n the upper left portion of figure 4. Because of the
the spacecraft's photographic subsystem: the ground recon- physical arrangement of t h e two-lens system, adjacent exposures
struction electronics (GRE):and the communications system. were recorded on the film in the interlaced manner shown in
the lower portion of the figure, Exposure times were recorded
in digital form on the film alongside the M-frames. The least
Rocket enuine reading of time was 0.1 second.
/ T h e upper right part of the figure shows a n enlarged portion
of t h e edge data preexposed on the film. T h e pattern included
Propellant tank
n Attitude control jets a gray scale and resolution bars to permit later calibration and
evaluation of the photographs, various markings for the control
eteoroid detector
of t h e readout operation, and framelet numbers to facilitate the
Directional reassembly of the frames on the ground.
antenna Flight T h e film-processing method was the Kodak Bimat diffusion
/ proqramrner transfer technique. T h e film, on entering the processor, was
/Canoms tracker laminated with the processing web, as indicated in figure 3.
A gelatin layer on the processing web was slightly damp, having
been soaked in the monobath processing solution before being
loaded into the spacecraft. T h e monobath solution developed
,/Omnidirectional the exposed portions of the SO-243 film to a negative image
antenna and transferred the undeveloped silver ions to the processing
web, where they were reduced to form a positive image. (This
is essentially the technique used with Polaroid Land black-and-
white film.) As the process went to completion within 3%
minutes of contact time, image quality was not affected by
/ Solar panel
prolonged contact. Coming off the processing drum, the two
Photographic subsystem
films were separated. T h e negative film went through the dry-
Figure 2. Lunar Orbiter Spacecraft ing section, and the processing web was wound on a takeup
spool. (No use was made of the positive images on the web.)
After being dried, the negative film went through the readout
scanner to its takeup spool. During readout, the film moved
The photographic subsystem recorded a negative image of lunar backward through the scanner. T h e readout looper shown
scenes on film that was developed and scanned to provide between the processor and the scanner made it possible to read
electrical signals for transmission to the deep space stations out selected portions of the film before photography was com-
(DSS). The video signals from the communications system pleted.
were fed to the GRE which reconverted these signals into Upon completion of photography, the processing web was
photographic images a t a scale 7.18 times the spacecraft scale. cut and pulled free of the processor. T h e negative film could
The transmitted signals were also recorded on magnetic tape. then be read out completely (from the last exposure to the first)
A brief description of the Lunar Orbiter photographic system and be pulled through the processor and camera onto the supply
follows. For a more detailed description, the reader is directed spool.
to the group of five papers in the Journal of Society o f Motion
Picture and Teleiiision Engineers, August 1967. pages 733-773.
. T h e readout scanner (fig. 5) converted the photographic
images into electrical signals by scanning the negative film with
a microscopic spot of high-intensity light. The source of the
The Photographic Subsystem light was the linescan tube shown a t the upper left. This was
a special cathode-ray tube whose phosphor layer was coated
T h e spacecraft's photographic subsystem. shown schemati- on a rotating cylindrical metal anode. Its output was a bright
cally in figure 3. comprised a dual camera, a film processing unit, spot of light that repetitively traced a line across the phosphor
a readout scanner, and film-handling apparatus. The two cam- drum.
eras operated simultaneously. placing two discrete frame expo- The scanner lens focused a 0.005-mm spot of light on the
sures on a common roll of 70-mm film. Each camera operated a t a film. The electrical scan of the spot traced a line 2.68-mm long
fixed f/5.6 lens aperture, a t shutter speeds of either 1/25, 1/50, on the film in the direction parallel to the film edge.
or 1/100 second. T h e high-resolution ( H ) frame was exposed The mechanical scan of the line across the width of the film
through a 610-mm narrow-angle lens and a focal plane shutter. was accomplished by the slow back-and-forth movement of the
T h e medium-resolution (M) frame was exposed through a n scanner lens. One t.raverse of the scanner lens required 22
80-mm wide-angle lens and a between-the-lens shutter. seconds, during which time the electrical scan was repeated
T h e film supply consisted of 79 meters of unperforated 70-mm over 17,000 times. Before the scanner lens started across the
Kodak special high definition aerial film, type SO-243. This film in the reverse direction, the film was moved 2.54-mm in the
fine-grain film has a recording capability (450 lines/mm) well readout M e . The resulting sections of spacecraft film scanned
in this manner, referred to as framelets. are the basic units
eventually used for the ground reassembly. T h e scanning of a
complete dual exposure took 43 minutes.
The intensity of light reaching the photomultiplier tube was
modulated by the density of t h e image on the film. An
electrical signal proportional to t h e intensity of t h e transmitted
light was generated, amplified, and fed to the spacecraft com-
munications subsystem.
Readout looper
Time of expow
LH-frame ~ 3 m m 1 LM-frame
Figure 3. Photographic Subsystem Figure 4. Film Format
ure sequences consisted of 1. 4, 8. and 16 exposures. A adopted by the International Astronomical Union at Berkeley
a fast repetition rate could be selected. At either rate, i n 1961. Oblique photographs may be oriented i n o t h e r
ng of successive exposures was automatically determined directions as they can only be viewed naturally when the
T / H sensor. horizon is at the top. Others were rotated from the normal
uence of eight exposures a t the slow rate produced the orientation in order t o fit selected features within the rectan-
! pattern shown a t the upper right of figure 6. The gular format of the book a t the most favorable scale for viewing.
s overlapped by 52 percent, providing continuous stereo- These can easily be identified, as the framelet lines are not
overage over nearly the full length of the strip. The parallel to the picture edges. These pictures include a small
vered by t h e eight H-frames were evenly spaced along arrow showing the North direction.
3, separated by gaps. The pictures whose framelet lines are parallel to the picture
ion of the fast repetition rate produced 5 percent edges do not have the North direction precisely a t t h e top. T h e
of the H-frames thus providing high-resolution coverage cameras actually were oriented parallel to t h e ground track of
.ter strip without gaps. T h e overlaps of the M-frames at t h e spacecraft on Missions I, 11, 111, and V, i n order to achieve
rate was 88 percent. image - motion compensation, and the framelet lines also are
iwer left portion of figure 6 shows the coverage pattern parallel to the ground track. (On Mission IV, where the orbital
d by two eight-exposure sequences a t the fast rate, altitude made image - motion compensation unnecessary, the
on successive orbits. A small overlap between the
t strips of H-frames provided contiguous high-resolution
: of a considerable area. r\( 80 rnm p m e r a coverage
)attern a t the lower right was also produced by two 52% forward overlap
posure sequences a t the fast rate. Here the camera was
the cross-track direction during one of the sequences,
the two strips of H-frames completely overlapped. The
ge of the duplicated high-resolution coverage was that
of t h e angle of convergence between the two orbital
mission to permit stereoscopic examination of the
. i
iictures reproduced in this book are portions of the
frames that have been cropped and enlarged or reduced
.ate selected lunar features at scales appropriate to the
. T h e Photo Reference Table in the Appendix supplies
ion and frame number for each picture, as well as the
ion M (for the medium resolution, or 80-mm focal
camera) or H (for the high resolution, or 610-mm focal
of thin parallel lines, that can be seen in each picture,
its the borders of the framelets introduced by the read-
cess (as explained in the Photomaphic Subsystem
Although these framelet lines are a pictorial dis-
, they do supply several kinds of helpful information
ing t h e pictures. They provide the most convenient
e for defining the scale, which is indicated in each
as the number of meters on the Moon covered by one
's width. They also help in visualizing the size rela-
between the picture and the original frame, because
frame comprises 26, and each H-frame 86, framelets.
camera orientation was determined by righting considerations.) sitpal dropouts during the readout and transmission of the
T h e framelet lines of these pictures are always within 22" of photographs. T h e long, very thin ones are caused by scratches
the Moon's cardinal directions, and the captions do not have in the spacecraft film.
a North arrow. In order to know their orTWtBtioh more pre- The careful viewer may see a pattern of tiny white crosses
cisely, the reader should refer to the Photo Reference Table, (in the shape of plus signs) across most of the pictures. They
which gives the lunar bearing of the framelet lines. appear most distinctly in shadow areas. These are "reseau
T h e pictures of the lunar frontside in this book were all marks," which were preexposed on the film to aid in the
taken near the sunrise terminator, so that the Sun was low in photogrammetric recovery of the original exposures' geo-
the east. The solar elevation at the center of each frame is also metrical relationships. They were used on all missions except
given in t h e Photo Reference Table. In viewing-these pictures the first.
for the first time, many people have difficulty in distinguishing T h e pairs of sharp-edged white triangles on a few of the
between protuberances and indentations. This can be cleared pictures are artifacts produced by the film-processing equipment.
up by remembering that the direction of illumination was from There are several types of irregular white marks which are
the right (east). Some viewers find it helpful to hold the book caused by processing blemishes on the spacecraft film. Some
so that a window of the room is a t the right side. are roughly circular, and some resemble asterisks. Attention
T h e farside pictures were taken near the sunset terminator, is called to them in the captions wherever it seems likely that
so that the Sun was in the west and the direction of illumina- they could be confused with lunar features. The captions also
tion was from the left. (For the purpose of this discussion, t h e point out areas of processing "freckles."
series of pictures of the Mare Orientale region, a t the Moon's Nearly all of the pictures in this book are portions of single
western limb, are considered frontside pictures.) photographs. In a few cases, mosaics of two photographs were
Some of the pictures show white lines or bars that are per- required to show some feature completely. The junctions be-
pendicular to t h e framelet lines. They are not likely to be tween photographs on these mosaics were made straight, so that
confused with actual lunar features. The short ones that only they will not be mistaken for natural lunar features. The
extend across indiviual framelets are caused by momentary framelet lines are, of course, offset at these junction lines.
T h e eastern limb area in the southern hemisphere. The dark walled basin a t G20, with its spectacular radiating clefts, is
patch at I2 is Mare Smythii. T h e crater Humholdt (G7) is 200 located about 70" S , 130" E. The very prominent crater
kilometers in diameter. T h e large irregularly-shaped. dark area Tsiolkousky (011) is due north of it, about 20" S . 130" E. Both
south of Humboldt is Mare Australe. The unnamed, double- will be seen in detail in the next chapter.
T h e eastern regions of the northern hemisphere. Mare Crisium Mare Struve. T h e crater Posidonius (114)lies between Lacus
is a t P14. and Mare Humboldtianum a t L4. The crater Endymion Somniorum t o the north and Mare Serenitatis to the south and
(K7) is 125 kilometers in diameter. Northwest of the crater west. T h e craters Atlas (K9). Macrobius (M15). and Turuntius
Hercules (J10) is Mare Frigoris. T h e dark patch a t N8 is (N18) mark approximately the 45" East meridian.
The eastern regions of the southern hemisphere. The 60° East ward from Mare Nectaris (whose center is at D4) is the Rheita
meridian may be traced by the craters Langrenus (K4), Petavius valley. It is shown here in relation to its counterpart, the pre-
(57, 177 kilometers in diameter). Furnerius (110).Boussingault viously unknown valley that runs northward (H21 to 119) from
(E18), and Demonax (E20). T h e great gash running southeast- the double-rimmed depression a t the bottom of the photograph.
T h e central zone is here viewed from nearly the same direction border. Below them is Mare Vaporum, with the crater Manilius
as it is seen from E a r t h , but the perspective is different. Mare a t L11. The small patch of mare below that, at J16, is Sinus
Imbrium, at upper left, is outlined by its great circular mountain Medii. which is a t the center of the frontside. T h e crater
rim. Mare Serenitatis (N7) is also circular, with a more subdued Ptolemaeus (J19) is 153 kilometers in diameter.
The north polar region as viewed from above. The sunrise termi- the crater Peary. Beyond there, it becomes the sunset termi-
nator runs along the 31" West meridian, crossing (from south to nator, running southward along the 149' East meridian on the
north) Mare Imbrium and Mare Frigoris. t h e craters Philolaus farside. T h e crater Nansen (15) is 110 kilometers across,
(ElO) and Mouchez (Fa),and the north pole ( G 5 ) .just outside Rarrow (H11) is a crater with a notably square outline.
T h e south central region. T h e sunrise terminator is about 24" crater Tycho (F11).and the 225-kilometer-diameter crater Clavius
W. T h e 0" meridian crosses the craters Ptolemaeus (J4),Walter (D15). lie to the west. To the east are the craters Maurolycus
(19). and Moretus (E18. located 70" S). T h e crater Pitatus (F7), (513).Manzinus (H19). Scott (E21). and Amundsen (E22). T h e
marking t h e southern edge of M a r e Nubium, the very fresh south pole (D21) is near t h e last-named crater.
T h e zone along the 40" West meridian is mainly mare terrain. T h e 10" West meridian passes through t h e crater Pluto (D2).
Oceanus Procellarum. with its widespread rays from Kepler (E13) which is 100 kilometers in diameter, and just east of t h e craters
and Aristurchus (B9). covers most of the picture. Sinus Iridum Eratosthenes (Ell) and Pitatus (E22). Rays from Copernicus
(E3) is the semicircular bay a t the northwest edge of Mare ((213)are spread across Sinus Aestuum to the east and Mare
Imbrium. T h e crater Euler (GS) is 27 kilometers in diameter. Imbrium to the north. The crater Lansberg(A16)isontheequator.
Running southward from the vicinity of Kepler (E.51, t h e 40"W The zone lust west of the center, mainly in the southern hemi-
meridian crosses t h e crater Cussendl ( D E ) , which is 64 kilo- sphere. Within Mare Nubium are t h e Slruighi lthll (E14). 120
meters across, then the circular Mare Humorum. In the highland kilometers long. and t h e crater Bullialdus (B13). Ranger VI1
region to the south. it crosses the crater Schiller (D21). Schiller. made the first closeup photographs of the Moon at B10, in Mare
a t 52"s. is distinguished by its footprint shape. Cogniturn. Ranger IX photographed the crater Alphonsus(G11).
T h e western limb area in the northern hemisphere. T h e sunrise T h e western portion of Oceanus Procellarum. with its wide-
terminator runs along the 98" West meridian, from the Cordillera spread, irregular bright markings near the craters Ssleucus (D9)
Mountains (C22) to the north pole (A2). Note t h e intersecting and Reiner (G13). T h e dark-floored crater Grimaldi (D17) is
rille patterns crossing the craters Repsold (D9) and Galvani about 220 kilometers in diameter, and can be considered as a
(C10). The crater Pythagoras (D6) is 128 kilometers across. small circular mare. T h e terminator is a t 80"W.
The western limb area in the southern hemisphere. T h e center The southern hemisphere centered about 7O'W. T h e elongated
of .\/ore Orientale (D5) is located about ZO"S.95"W.The prominent features of sculpture and deposition radiating from Mare
crater Hausen at C17 is about 65"s. 90"W. T h e light-floored Orientale are apparent at upper left. The dark-floored crater
circular plain just southeast of it (D19) is Bailly. which is 300 Schickard (F13) is 230 kilometers across. A very sharp rille
kilometers in diameter. runs between the craters Ryrgius (F7) and Sirsalis (H5).
T h e "bull's eye" at the center of this spectacular view is the scarp, almost 900 kilometers in diameter. T h e craters Schliiter
hlare Orientale basin (the name Mare Annulatum has also been (581,Riccioli (M8). and Inghirami (L20) are all located within
proposed), on the extreme western edge of the visibleside. Three the area that was blanketed by deposits of material ejected from
circular scarps surround the inner basin, which is partially filled Orientale. Detailed views of characteristic portions of t h e basin
with mare material. T h e outermost is the Cordillera Mountain are shown on pages 125 through 131 .
T h e northern region of the eastern farside. The large circular The northern region of the eastern farside. The north pole is
depression centered on E12 is more than 250 kilometers across, a t H3. The basin a t C10 is quite inconspicuous in this photo-
and is located about 58"N. 150"W. Its floor lacks the smooth praph, where the terminator is a t 99"W, although it was very
dark-toned surface seen in maria. Such basins are somewhat distinct on the photograph to the left, where the terminator
more abundant on the farside than on the frontside. was 30" further west.
Northern zone of the western farside. Mare Moscouiense. C16. T h e northern zone a t the middle of the Moon's farside. The
is shown again on page 132. The circular depression a t D8, about chain of four craters at F3 runs along the 180" meridian about
200 kilometers across, is located about 45"N. 150"E. Except for 65"N. The large crater at C20, which is about 100 kilometers
the patch of dark mare material on part of its floor, it resembles in diameter, is located on the same meridian a t 30"N. T h e
other farside basins. The terminator is a t 172"E. terminator is at 164"W.
Southern zone in the middle of the farside. The crater a t G12, Southern zone just east of the middle of the farside. T h e
about 200 kilometers across, is near 175%. The termi- crater at D9 is located about 40"s. 170"W. T h e apparent
nator is a t 172"W. This region is unusual in the extent to which smoothness of its floor suggests a comparatively recent flooding.
depressions are flooded with dark mare material. Note also the T h e crater with a central peak at E16 is located about 52"s.
areas of bright discoloration in the maria, as a t F2 and D8. 170"W. The terminator is a t 156"W.
T h e equatorial zone of the western farside. T h e crater at I11 T h e basin a t bottom center is about 270 kilometers across. Its
is located about 5" S , 150" E. The terminator is nominally a t floor is quite rough, and is itself devoid of mare material.
164" E, but the pronounced roughness of this part of theMoon However, t h e bottom of the crater excavated in that floor a t
produces great loops and indentations in the visible terminator. H19 is flooded with mare material.
Southern zone of t h e western farside. Since this is an oblique feature, which might be compared with the frontside's Straight
Photograph facing southward, it can be viewed in its natural Hhll (page 105). consists of a number of straight segments with
Perspective by holding the book upside-down. The terminator is distinct changes in direction. T h e crater with a central peak
a t 174" E. T h e mare-filled crater Jules Verne (C16) is distin- a t 53 is located about 10" S, 160" E. The concentric-ringed basin
wished by the sharp escarpment near its eastern edge. This a t I21 is 1400 kilometers to the south, a t 55" S, 160" E.
T h e equatorial zone of the western farside. The prominent line. The line points to the crater ?sioNtovsky (520). more than
basin a t 0 3 is located about 5" N, 140" E , and is about 300 800 kilometers away a t 20" S. 130" E. The region between the
kilometers across. Its floor, which is devoid of any mare two is marked by other crater chains. Some of these, as a t I l l ,
filling material, is crossed by a chain of craters in a precise are radial to Tsiolkousky. while others (e.g.. J8) are not.
T h e northern zone of the western farside. The crater at D11 is T h e northern zone of the western farside. The crater whose
located about 40"N, 120"E. T h e terminator is a t 140%. T h e central peak is at E l 0 is located about 40"N. 145"E. The termi-
large unnamed crater a t D2, with rilles crossing the floor near nator is a t 156"E. Mare Moscoviense (F19)is about 300 kilo-
the central peak, is located about 55"N. 105"E. meters in diameter.
T h e southern zone of the western farside. The terminator is at Some of the remarkable features of this conspicuous dark-floored
147" E. Like the other southward-facing oblique on page 29, crater are shown in detail on pages 133 and 134. The central-
this photograph shows correct perspective when viewed upside- peaked crater at B E is located about 28" S. 110" E. The large
down. T h e crater Tsiokocsky (K8) is located about 20" S, 130" E. circular depression a t K21 is centered about 55" S, 130" E .
' equatorial zone just beyond the eastern limb area. T h e ern rim is seen a t B20. T h e interior of Humboldt is shown in
iinator is a t 116' E. T h e left third of t h e photograph more detail on page 96.
N S redons of t h e eastern limb that were pointed out a t the The eastern half of this photograph covers the area seen so
nning of this chapter. Mare Marginis is a t the top. T h e strikingly in the oblique picture on pages 34 and 35. with the
er Neper (A3). which is 142 kilometers in diameter, is E a r t h in t h e background. T h e basin centered at K13 (located
ted a t 9" N, 84" E. Mare Smythii. centered a t B7, resem- about 12" S. 105" E ) is exhibited here as a very distinct depres-
the frontside's Mare Nubium in having a considerable sion. It is about 250 kilometers in diameter. I n the oblique
iber of "ghost rings." T h e crater Gibbs (B17) is a t the view. where it occupies about half t h e length of the picture,
gin of the secondary crater chains and deposits of ejected t h e evident roughness of t h e floor almost completely obscures
erial radiating from the large crater Humboldt. whose north- the height and continuity of the rim.
This Lunar Orbiter I photograph, taken August 23, 1966. at as it always is in August.
4:36 p.m., Greenwich Mean Time. was our first view of the Earth The homeward look emphasizes the spatial relationship be-
from the vicinity of the Moon and also provided our first detailed tween the unmanned spacecraft and the farflung mission opera-
oblique view of the lunar landscape. The spacecraft was 380,000 tions team that controlled it. It was rnidmorning a t the Space
kilometers from the Earth and 1200 kilometers above the lunar Flight Operations Facility in Pasadena, California, and a t the
surface. At t h a t time the sunset terminator on Earth was near nearby Goldstone tracking station, where the Moon was not due
Odessa in t h e Soviet Union and Istanbul, Turkey, and passed to rise for another 3 hours. At the Woomera, Australia tracking
slightly west of Capetown. South Africa. The Earth's South Pole station, where it was the middle of the night, the Moon had just
was within t h e field of view but on the dark side of the terminator, set. The Moon was high in the midafternoon sky at the station
near Madrid, Spain, but the spacecraft was about to interrupt all With the Sun nearly overhead, very few lunar surface features
communication by going behind the Moon. cast shadows. Even so, the oblique view conveys a strong
T h e portion of the Moon seen in this photograph (which covers impression of t h e roughness of the surface. T h e lighting on t h e
two-thirds of the original high-resolution frame) lies within the interior walls of craters suggests a general relationship in this
farside region t h a t is shown in vertical view on page 33. The area between t h e apparent freshness of the craters and the reflec-
center of this photograph, located about 10" S, 105" E, corre- tivity of their wall materials. Those craters that are not notably
sponds to K12 in the vertical photograph. As the camera was modified by later cratering or slumping generally have brighter
facing westward, north is to the right. The horizon coversabout walls. T h e upper part of the crater wall commonly appears as a
550 kilometers from north to south. darker horizontal band.
Man's early interest in the Moon is recorded largely in closeup views of the frontside, grouped in sections under four
mythology. Ancient Egyptians honored the Moon as their god headings: Maria; Highlands; Craters; and Faults, Rilles, and
Thoth (Dhouti),god of wisdom andmagic. T o the ancient Greeks Domes. These sections are followed by a selected group of
the Moon was their goddess Selena. from whose name the term detailed views of the farside.
selenology (study of the Moon) is derived. Even those civiliza-
tions that did not worship the Moon fixed their religious
festivals in terms of the 29%-day cycle of visible phases which MARIA
constitutes the lunar month. With this awareness, a great deal Since the 17th century, when they were actually considered
of accurate information was accumulated in ancient times about t o be oceans, the dark areas of the Moon have been called Maria
the motions of the Moon with respect to other celestial bodies. (plural of the Latin mare, sea). Lunar surface materials have
Galileo's application of the telescope t o the Moon in 1610 been found, in general, to be poor reflectors of light, with the
marked the birth of a new area of science, selenography (study brightest spots on the Moon reflecting about 20 percent and
of lunar surface morphology). Observation of the Moon, using t h e darkest regions as little as 5 percent of t h e incident sunlight.
telescopes of various sizes and optical designs, has continued A quantitative basis for differentiating between the two major
to t h e present time at many observatories around the world. surface units of the Moon, the relatively dark mare regions or
Two factors limit what can be accomplished by telescope seas and the relatively bright terrae or highlands, is provided
observation. Instability of the Earth's atmosphere has prevented by comparisons of their albedo (the ratio between t h e light
observations of lunar detail finer than a few hundred meters. reflected from a n unpolished surface and the total light falling
Because t h e Moon always presents nearly t h e same face to the on it).
Earth, a fixed viewpoint is imposed on the observations. Within Oceanus Procellarum, the maria Crisium. Fecunditatis,
the past 10 years, photography from spacecraft has circumvented Frigoris, Humorurn, Imbrium, Nectaris, Nubium, Serenitatis.
both of these limitations. and Tranquillitatis on the Moon's frontside and the maria
T h e photographs of the western farside transmitted t o Earth Orientale, Moscoviense, Australe, Marginis, and Smythii on its
from the Soviet spacecraft LUNA 3 when it flew past the Moon limbs and farside, together with several smaller regions, con-
in October 1959 freed selenography from its fixed viewpoint. stitute the dark. relatively flat and smooth areas of the lunar
Man's first closeup view of the lunar surface was provided by surface. Many of the maria are approximately circular. Mare
the American spacecraft Ranger VI1 July 31,1964. Photographs Imbrium, t h e largest of these features, is about 1300 kilometers
transmitted from soft-landed spacecraft, particularly the across and can easily be seen with the naked eye when the Moon
Surveyor missions, more recentiy have shown us local details is full. There does not appear to be any sharp distinction
a t the millimeter scale. T h e Lunar Orbiter photography between the circular maria and individual craters with mare-
represents t h e largest single advancement in selenography to filled floors. such as Grimaldi.
date. The photogaphs provided on the following pages display
T o display all that was revealed by Lunar Orbiter photog- some of the salient characteristics of mare surfaces, with special
raphy is beyond the scope of this book. A modest photo emphasis on those observed near the candidate Apollo landing
collection of lunar surface details is presented, beginning with sites.
This oblique view to the southwest shows part of the extensive mare-highlands boundary in the middle background are marked-
mare of Oceanus Procellarum. The smooth plain is pitted with ly evident. Behind the right-hand cliff is t h e crater Damoiseau,
sharp-walled craters in the foreground. A wrinkle ridge is located about 5"s.61'W. This crater, with its intricately cracked
visible extending diagonally across the mare to the small crater floor 37 kilometers across, is seen to be in the middle of a larger
Damoiseau L. T h e arcuate cliffs (up to 1300 meters high) at t h e crater, about 65 kilometers across.
. 9 ,
' #
6 .
i. .*' * :
* a 1 4 . 0
i series of long. arcuate, branching ridges is evident in the long. but only 8 to 16 kilometers wide T h e dark mare material
ight half of Mare Humorum. which 15 about 350 lulometers in filling the basin nearly obscures one crater in t h e lower center
iameter These ridges extend across the mare plain from t h e T h e arcuate rilles close to the lower right edge run approxi-
rater Gassendi in the upper center almost to the crater Vitello mately concentric wlth the basin borders. Location 23"30'S,
n the lower center. T h e left-hand ridge is about 200 kilometers 38"30'W. Framelet width 86 kilometers
A highly sinuous, locally steep scarp can be seen along the scientists. The crater density on the flow appears t o be the
scalloped edge of a flat-topped plateau in the middle of Mare same as that on t h e bordering mare plain, and sharp-walled
Imbrium. T h e lobate shape of the plateau is similar to that craters are common on both. Location: 32" N, 21"50' W.
of some terrestrial lava flows and is so interpreted by lunar Framelet w i d t h 5 kilometers.
This high-resolution mosaic shows part of the steep scarp of the blocks of rock evident around the many small sharp-walled
flow front illustrated above. The scarp for its rntire length craters alona the rim of the scarp. Details of the flow front ap-
appears to be somewhat rounded and smooth in profile No out- pear to be well preserved. Location: 32"20' N. 22" W. Framelet
crops or rock ledges are visible along t h e scarp. nor are any width: 650 meters.
T h e wrinkle ridges extending across the picture are near a ridges broaden and thin irregularly, but all decrease in breadth
candidate Apollo landing site in Oceanus Procellarum. This near the ends. Crater density is about the same on the ridges as
moderate-resolution photograph shows t h e ridges as smooth, on the mare plain, and bright, sharp-walled craters are common
rounded features, with some local areas of steeper relief. T h e on both. Location: 3"50'S,36" W. Framelet width: 3.4 kilometers.
A high-resolution photograph of the wrinkle ridge visible at t h e around several craters on the upper ridge crest, especially the
extreme left side of the picture above. The ridge top is generally bright. sharp-walled crater at the left center of the picture. In
smooth and rolling. but its crests and sides are steep and abun- this case, the blocks appear to be a product of the cratering event.
dantly strewn with blocks of rock. Blocks are concentrated Location: 3 2 0 ' S, 36"IO'W. Framelet width: 450 meters.
inity of this sinuous mare ridge lies a candidate Apollo density on the ridge appears t o be equal to that on the adjacent
te in Sinus Medii. The ridge is rounded and subdued mare plain. Most craters are subdued, and some below t h e ridge
tically no steep slopes. No blocks of rock are visible are essentially smoothed out. Location: O"10'N. O"5O'W.
e few sharp-walled craters on the ridge. T h e crater Framelet width: 440 meters.
.versity of crater forms is evident in this high-reso- fresh. Two craters, one in the upper right center and the other
itograph of a candidate Apollo landing area in Mare near the left edge, display sharp rims and rough floors: the
tatis. Craters of all degrees of sharpness are visible one to the left appears t o have a n internal terrace near floor
ture; many are faint, ghost craters, as in the lower level. Location: YlO'N, 34"lO'E. Framelet width: 440
?r, and only a few craters have sharp walls and appear meters.
T h e relatively bright, rough, and elevated lunar surfaces are
referred to as terrae or highlands, to distinguish them from
the relatively dark, smooth, and low-lying maria. Much of the
highland area, though rough, is actually a much modified plain.
Morphologic features that originally were sharp commonly have
become subdued with time. In part, this subdual is ascribed
to the movement of loosely consolidated material from higher
positions to lower levels on the surface under the influence of
lunar gravity. possibly with the aid of moonquakes. T h e result-
ing texture, where it is gentle and does not involve large debris
flows, is referred to as patterned ground. Several examples of
patterned ground, which is visible only on high-resolution pho-
tographs, are shown in this section.
Mountain ranges exist on t h e Moon in the form of arcs, asso-
ciated with the major circular basins and bounded on the side
facing the basin by steeper slopes or scarps. They form a con-
tinuous border around basins such as Mare Crisium. Others
form a discontinuous array, as exemplified by the Jura, Alps,
Caucasus, Apennine, and Carpathian Mountains bordering Mare
Imbrium. Still other arcs, such as the Altai Scarp, are in the
highlands but appear to he concentric with a nearby mare basin,
in this case Mare Nectaris. Many mountains of lesser magnitude
occur as isolated blocks or peaks.
Concerning the relative age of the highlands and the maria,
most scientists believe that t h e highlands represent older seg-
ments of the lunar surface. Age dating (by isotope abundances)
of representative samples from both types of terrain is planned
following the return of samples by the Apollo astronauts.
General view of the Apennine escarpment a t the southeastern View of the Caucasus Mountains (lower center) and the craters
border of Mare Imbrium. Resolution in this view is roughly Eudoxus (upper center) and Aristoteles (top). T h e rugged
equivalent to t h a t obtained with a large telescope on Earth on Caucasus peaks, up to 4000 meters high, are a continuation of
a night with good seeing conditions. Some of the peaks in the the Apennine Mountains (opposite) and border the eastern side
escarpment rise more than 2000 meters above the mare floor. of Mare Imbrium. Location: 42"30", lO"35'E. Framelet width:
Location: 20"30'N. 3"30W. Framelet width: 89 kilometers. 97 kilometers.
Oblique view toward t h e west showing Alpine Valley and Mare the appearance of a terrestrial valley cut by a winding river
Imbrium (top) and the isolated mountain block Pic0 (top right). (sinuous rille). The genesis of this feature will undoubtedly
Alpine Valley, about 150 kilometers long and 8 kilometers wide, provoke considerable discussion in the future. Location:
is a unique feature on the visible face of the moon and gives 48"15'N,1"E.
Oblique view, looking southwest, of the eastern side of t h e Brightness of the slopes facing the camera makes it difficult
Altai Scarp. This portion of the scarp, seen in the middle to observe the detail on much of t h e scarp. Location: about
foreground, rises above its base a n average of loo0 meters. 26"E. 28"s.
Representative details of the northern borders of Mare Sereni- materials. Part of the Calippus Rille extends northeastward
tatis. The upper portions of the photograph show hillocks and from the lower center in the darker, smooth mare material.
hummocky terrain of unknown origin composed of light-toned Location: 37"5O'N, 13'555'E. Framelet width: 6 kilometers.
View of t h e crater Murchison. center (58 kilometers across) and rilles are sinuous and others linear. T h e prominent lineations
Ukert, upper center, looking north toward the southern edge of which may be observed near Ukert have a pronounced north-
Mare Vaporum in the background. The many irregular positive west-southeast trend: these have been attributed to throwout
features on the floor of Murchison, which may be attributed to (ejecta) from the Imbrium event farther to the northwest.
volcanism, are dissected by a network of rilles. Some of the Location: about 5" N. O"30' W.
Portion of a crater chain close to the southern rim of the look, and the patterned ground is not strongly developed. An
crater Abulfeda. T h e shadowed area in the lower center of the almost complete absence of large blocks is characteristic of this
photograph is part of a small rille connecting the elongate chain, for which a n internal origin has been suggested by some
craters Abulfeda T, to the left, and Abulfeda X. to the right. lunar geologists. Location: 15"S, 13"55'E. Framelet width:
This part of the "Southern Highlands" has a very subdued 410meters.
- -* f
Patterned ground in the crater Gassendi. T h e textures are and also the abundance of large blocks on the crests of the hills
similar to other highland areas where the patterns are strongly in the upper right. Some of these blocks are more than 10
influenced by the slopes. Note the increase in crater frequency meters across. Location: 19"15'S, 4Oo05'W. Framelet width:
in the shallow valley floor, at the middle left of the photograph. 560 meters.
Patterned ground in the Alpes Mountains north of Rima frequency is significantly less on the ridge slope than on the
Plat0 11. This terrain has anotable northeast-southwest pattern flatter areas above or below the slope. A small circular feature,
in the surface topography. Note also the apparent change in perhaps a ghost crater, can be seen in the lower left. Location:
coarseness of t h e pattern at the break in the slope. Crater 49"15'N,."1 Framelet width: 1 kilometer.
A crater is a circular, polygonal, or elongate topographic
depression, generally with steep inner slopes. Craters abound
on the surface of t h e Moon and Mars and, to a lesser extent,
the Earth. Lunar craters range in size from the microscopic u p
to more than 100 kilometers in diameter. T h e individual craters
shown in this section are arranged in order of increasing size,
starting with one nearly 4 kilometers in diameter.
Although scientists have generated a voluminous literature
on the subject, t h e origin of craters is still controversial. Prior
to the availability of closeup photography, many scientists
believed that most craters were formed by the impact of meteor-
ites and comets, while others felt that most of them were the
products of volcanic activity. While the Lunar Orbiter photog-
raphy has provided seemingly incontrovertible evidence for the
existence of both impact and volcanic craters, the relative
importance of the processes is far from settled.
Lunar craters abound as single features, randomly distributed
on the surface. However, many others occur as pairs, clusters,
and chains. Some examples of these are presented at t h e end
of this section.
T h e relative ages of lunar craters are hypothesized from
their shapes and the appeirance nftheir rims, walls, and floors
What are thought to be young impact craters may display a
sharply raised rim, steep inner slopes, and a deep, sculptured
floor. Older craters may show subdued and rounded rims, gentle
inner wall slopes, and evenly filled floors. Some apparently
young craters, believed to be of volcanic origin, also display
subdued runs. Geologists recognize other structural details by
which they may infer the relative ages of craters. In the
following examples, reference will be made to some of these
structural and textural details as they were disclosed by the
five Lunar Orbiters.
T h e crater Mosting C (3.8 kilometers in diameter) is a very abound near the outer edges of the ejecta blanket. The crater
fresh crater with abundant blocks on the rim. T h e ejecta is more nearly circular than it appears in this somewhat
blanket is hummocky, braided, and dunelike, i.e., similar to oblique view. Location: l"30' S, 8" W. Framelet width: 1.7
those of larger, fresh lunar craters. Secondary impact craters kilometers.
Part of the rim and walls of Mosting C. Large blocks up to about some man-made craters produced by explosives. T h e freshness
60 meters in length occur near the rim. The steep crater walls of the materials exposed in Mosting C was predicted on the
are characterized by talus slopes and outcrops of broken rock. basis of Earth-based infrared studies. Framelet width: 220
They resemble many steep terrestrial slopes, including those of meters.
Transverse and radial dunelike textures north of the crater some volcanos. Well-developed, discrete flows, such as those
Mosting C. These are similar to base surge deposits produced on observed around larger craters (e.g., Aristarchus), are lacking.
Earth by chemical and nuclear explosions and to those around Framelet width: 220 meters.
The crater Copernicus H. 4.6 kilometers in diameter. is super- The dark apron shows up best in full-moon photographs. T h e
posed on the hummocky ejecta deposit outside the rim of t h e crater also has a n anomalously high infrared emission signal
crater Copernicus. It is surrounded by a n apron of material t h a t during eclipse. Location: 6"50' N , 18"30' W. Framelet width:
is much darker than the bright ejecta blanket of Copernicus. 3.3 kilometers.
Secchi X. a small, young crater (5.6 kilometers across) near from which fresh fragments may periodically slide downslope.
the western edge of Mare Fecunditatis. T h e striking mottling T h e darker areas may be flatter benches on which material
on the crater wall may be a result of differences in slope accumulates. Location: 1" S. 43"40' E. Framelet width: 450
stability. T h e brighter areas appear to be steep surfaces meters.
Unnamed crater, 6 kilometers long, next to Rima Rode 11. origin. T h e freshness of this crater was predicted from its
T h e great number of fresh blocks suggest that the crater is high albedo on full-moon telescopic photographs and from its
relatively young. T h e elongate shape of this crater and t h e infrared properties. Location: 13" N, 4" W. Framelet width:
chainlike alinement of the smaller craters suggest a volcanic 450 meters.
Gruithuisen K. a compound crater about 7 kilometers in diameter Moon on Orbiter IV photographs. They were probably formed
situated west of Mare Imbrium. I t consists of inner and outer by volcanic processes. T h e "freckles" a t the bottom of this
saucer-shaped depressions and a n intervening ring of hillocks. mosaic are processlng blemishes. Location: 35"20' N, 42"40' W.
Similar craters have been discovered in various parts of the Framelet width: 700 meters.
A crater near Gruithuisen K (and nearly a s large) has internal of sharp, funnel-shaped craters 100 to 200 meters across.
domal structures like those of Gruithuisen K. T h e "domes" and Craters smaller than that are found with about equal frequency
the irregularly rectangular outline of the crater speak strongly on the floor and on the surrounding terra surface. Location:
for a volcanic origin. The crater floor also exhibits a number 35"30 N, 42"20 W. Framelet width: 700 meters.
Dawes, a young, 18-kilometer-diameter crater between Mare occur on the sparsely cratered rim. A dense secondary crater
Serenitatis and Mare Tranquillitatis. displays many features field occurs beyond the rim, mostly outside the area of the
usually attributed to impact. Consolidated bedrock is exposed photograph. T h e crater has an exceptionally high emission in
just below the rim crest; talus close to the angle of repose the near infrared during eclipse. Location: 17"lO' N, 26"20' E.
makes up the rest of the wall. Blocks up to 150 meters across Framelet width: 3.6 kilometers.
An enlarged view of the northern wall of the crater Dawes, T h e blocks seen on the talus slope probably originated a t the
shown a t the bottom of the opposite page. Bedrock in place consolidated rock ledges. T h e tracks of their downslope
is clearly seen along the upper ledges of the wall. Talus movement are partly concealed by the fine talus. Framelet
close to the angle of repose makes the rest of the wall slopes. width: 470 meters.
Detail of the floor of the crater Dawes. In the second framelet the crater. The arcuate structures near the wall may be the
from the left is the contact between the floor and the wall surface expressions of faults along which movement probably
talus. Several overlapping layers of notably blocky debris took place during the late stages of the crater formation.
have slumped from the wall and now overlie the original floor of Framelet width: 470 meters.
An unnamed crater about 35 kilometers in diameter, located secondary craters which are typical of young, probable impact
within the Orientale Basin (see page 128). Both the crater and craters of its size (for example, Aristarchus). These character-
the basin materials are fresh, indicating that the crater is young. istics suggest that this crater is probably of volcanic orisin,
The rim flank is smooth, and it lacks the blanket of ejecta similar to those structures on Earth known as Calderas.
grading outward from hummocky to radial and the fields of Location: 18" S, 91" W. Framelet width: 11 kilometers.
Oblique view of t h e crater Kepler. 32 kilometers in diameter. Kepler and its related features are superposed partly on mare
T h e blocky rim, radial ridges, and field of satellite craters are and partly on rugged terra that may be part of the outer rim
typical of relatively young craters of probable impact origin. of the Imbrium Basin. Location: 8" N. 38" W.
Crater Vitello (45 kilometers across), a t the south edge of Mare Tracks made by boulders, possibly set in motion by moonquakes.
Humorum. The cracks on the floor are relatively fresh and as they rolled downslope from the central peaks of Vitello. T h e
young, hut t h e crater itself could be either young or old. If larger track. which is about 25 meters wide, shows a repetitive
young, it is not of impact origin. because ejecta and secondary pattern imprinted by the rolling of an irregularly shaped mass.
craters characteristic of young impact craters are not present Study of nearly 400 such boulder tracks noted to date is providing
o n the mare just north of the crater. Location: 31" S. 37'40' W. new insight into the mechanical properties of t h e lunar surface.
Framelet width: 5.4 kilometers.
Part of the floor of Aristarchus which resembles, in many could be either of volcanic origin (especially the flat, fissured
respects, the floors of some Hawaiian volcanos. Mounds, material) or debris slumped from the crater walls. Location:
complex fissures, and large blocks appear very fresh. These 23-30, N. 47"lO' W. Framelet width: 550 meters.
Concentric fault scarps and stepped surfaces are common fea- t h e crater floor. Large blocks u p to 115 meters long occur near
tures on the walls of large lunar craters. Here in Aristarchus. t h e crater rim. Location: 23"50' N , 47" W. Framelet width:
part of the original rim has been displaced downward toward 550 meters.
Large blocks, radial fractures, and concentric ridges charac- ever, present in the radial depressions) and radially channeled
terize the surface near the rim of Aristarchus. This surface by materials ejected from the crater. Location: 22"50' N, 47" W.
appears to be locally stripped of f i e material (which is, how- Framelet width: 550 meters.
Index map of Aristarchus showing locations of the three flow A. One of several flows near the south rim of Aristarchus that
features illustrated on this page. On all three photographs. the trends parallel to the crater rim. Here a leveed channel
width of a framelet is 550 meters. (upper left) disgorges bulbous ridges of flow material.
B . This hairpin-shaped feature is one of the many flow C . Flows with sinuous channels and marginal levees on the
structures on the south flank of Aristarchus. It resembles north rim of Aristarchus. T h e flows may be debris, volcanic
superficially some secondary impact craters farther from the materials, or shock-melted material generated by a hyper-
crater rim. Unlike secondary craters it is rimless, and one velocity projectile which produced the crater. T h e flows are
channeled leg has both a levee and a bulbous flow deposit. demonstrably younger than the surrounding materials.
This photograph. one of the most interesting taken by Lunar ridges and rilles, and the large number and linearity of its satel-
Orbiter I, displays the crater Taruntius and its extensive field litic craters. However, the long, linear, tangential trough a t
of satellitic craters. Taruntius (56 kilometers across) is anom- right center is probably unrelated to Taruntius. Location:
alous because of its relative shallowness, its internal concentric 2-40' N , 47"40' E. Framelet width: 8 kilometers.
A general view of the crater Tycho, an excellent example of a mounds and fissures. and the rim has prominent flow structures
young, fresh, lunar crater. A high central peak, slumped a n d a strong concentric texture in many places. Tycho. which
walls, and hummocky rim deposits are well-displayed typical is 85 kilometers across, is located a t 43"lO'S . 11"lO'W. Framelet
features. I n addition, the floor is extrzmely rough, with width: 7 kilometers.
Typical details of the floor and floor-wall contact of Tycho, irregular ones have variable directions. A flow lobe in the
including mounds, fissures, and blocks. Long fissures com- upper right corner has moved down the wall and "bulldozed"
monly parallel the floor-wall contact, while shorter, more its way into the floor material. Framelet width: 940 meters.
A view of some of the roughest parts of the floor of Tycho. melted rock off the surface of the mounds. Others interpret
Some geologists consider the symmetrical rings or shells them as volcanic domes. Fissures and blocks abound in all parts
surrounding the large mounds to be due to the flowage of shock- of the floor. Framelet width: 940 meters.
A representative segment of the crater Tycho's terraced wall obscured by the abundant flow features, which are here prob-
and northern rim crest (located near the top of the photo- ably debris flows. Blocks are particularly abundant on t h e
graph). As is typical of fresh craters, the uppermost wallscarp rim, although they occur on all surfaces. Framelet width: 930
is the most pronounced. T h e level terrace surfaces are almost meters.
Well-developed flow features just outside the northern rim of Part of Tycho's well-developed concentric rim pattern. T h e
the crater Tycho. Overlapping lobes, emanating from a large pattern may reflect a fracture system produced by the crater-
channel-and-levee system, flow northward away from the ing event. Notice also the abundant blocks and the flat,
crater. T h e small-crater density variations on separate flows smooth areas in topographic lows. The flat areas are "ponds"
suggest different ages. T h e flows, themselves, may have been of either fine debris or volcanic materials that flowed and
molten lava, volcanic debris, or partially fluidized impact ejecta. accumulated in the depressions. Located on the northern rim,
T h e cross a t upper left marks the site of the Surveyor VI1 directly east of t h e opposite photograph. Framelet width: 920
spacecraft landing. Framelet width: 920 meters. meters.
T h e rayed crater Copernicus, to the left, and the unrayed crater is the younger. Other craters in the picture are partly filled
Eratosthenes. Both are relatively young, being superposed on by mare material and are therefore older than the mare.
the mare and having fresh and extensive ejecta blankets and The arcuate mountain chain is part of a ring surrounding
satellitic crater fields; the superposition of Copernicus rays the basin of Mare Imbrium. Location: 11" N, 13" W. Framelet
and secondary craters on Eratosthenes shows that Copernicus width: 85 kilometers.
This mosaic composed of two medium-resolution frames provides has a lower albedo (i.e., darker tone) than the rest. T h e ex-
a vertical view of Copernicus, a relatively young crater with terior rim displays a complex juxtaposition of concentric and
an extensive ray system. T h e floor of Copernicus is covered radial structures and local smooth patches. Copernicus, 93
with an intricate pattern of hills, ridges, troughs, and sin- kilometers across, is located a t 9"40' N, 20" W. Framelet width:
uous cracks. T h e less rugged northwestern part (upper left) 3.4 kilometers.
Detail of the floor of the crater Copernicus. Hills are littered drainage of loose material into subsurface fractures. T h e floor
with blocks; some have summit depressions. which suggests is covered with swales and depressions which appear more
the possibility of internal origin. T h e irregular cracks with subdued than those in the floors of Aristarchus and Tycho.
crater-shaped enlargements along them may have formed by Framelet width: 440 meters.
Wide-angle oblique view, looking due north, of the crater Co- south. In the foreground, a complex array of mounds, cones,
pernicus. Blocky, rough ground just outside the rim crest is and crater clusters mark the outer portions of the rim. T h e
surrounded by a series of smooth ridges approximately radial clusters appear to have been formed by the impact of frag-
to the center of the crater. T h e keyhole-shaped crater Fauth ments ejected from the large crater. T h e origin of the mounds
is superimposed o n one of these ridges 60 kilometers to t h e and cones, however, is still a matter of controversy.
Vertical view of the north wall of Copernicus. Patches of smooth abruptly at the floor in a nearly straight line. A comparison of
material are perched a t several levels. Two well-developed this photograph with the oblique view of the same area is help-
flows appear in t h e western half of the picture. The eastern ful in visualizing the three-dimensional relationships among
flow extends onto the floor and the western one terminates t h e various features. Framelet width: 3.4 kilometers.
Posidonius, a 100-kilometer crater a t the northeastern edge of adjustment; the linear rilles may have formed by faulting due
Mare Serenitatis. T h e crater is partly filled and the rim partly to tension associated with the adjustment. An intricately
covered with mare material. The existence of an inner ring sinuous rille runs along the western edge of the crater floor.
suggests that the floor has been uplifted, probably by isostatic Location: 32" N, 30" E. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
T h e mare-filled crater Plato, 100 kilometers in diameter, north duct connecting the two. T h e sharp sinuous rilles that head
of Mare Imbrium. The mare material in Plato is like that out- near Plato (the one to t h e southwest is double) may or may not
side but is not connected with it a t the surface, suggestingeither be genetically related to the crater. Location: 51"30' N, 9" W.
local subsurface sources for the mare materials or a subsurface Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
Gassendi. a 110-kilometer-diameter crater a t t h e north edge of floor, probably through isostatic adjustment, is suggested by
Mare Humorum. Gassendi is younger than the distinctly circu- the numerous cracks and the unusually high elevation of the
lar Humorum basin upon which it is superimposed, but older floor and central peak relative to t h e rim crest (quite similar
t h a n the mare material that fills the basin and the peripheral to Posidonius, page 92). Location: 18"50 S , 39"50'W. Framelet
depressions of Gassendi's floor. Considerable uplift of the width: 4 kilometers.
Humboldt, a large crater 200 kilometers across, having an un- the hummocks in the southeast. Some rilles are filled in by
usually regular system of fresh-appearing rilles on its floor, the dark mare material which occurs in patches around the
resembling a spider web. T h e rilles cut across a complex of periphery of the floor. The rilles may have formed as a result of
massive peaks near the center, a hummocky unit i n the north- slow isostatic rebound of the floor. Location: 26" S, 83" E.
west part of the floor, and a light-toned plains unit covering Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
T h e unusual craters Sabine (right, 30 kilometers across) and of secondary craters, and close resemblance to each other.
Ritter, a t the southwest edge of Mare Tranquillitatis. A pos- These characteristics resemble those of terrestrial calderas.
sible volcanic origin for these craters is suggested by their Similar crater pairs exist on the Moon's farside (see page 135).
relatively high floors. arcuate internal ridges. apparent lack Location: l"40' N, 19"40' E. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
A crater chain t h a t crosses light-toned plains-forming material uniform width and spacing of the craters in this chain. Davy
in the large old crater Davy Y (left) and continues eastward G cools anomalously slowly a t eclipse and appears to be a fresh
into the adjacent rugged highlands where it culminates in the volcanic crater a t the intersection of two fractures. Location:
bright crater Davy G (15 kilometers across). Note the markedly lO"40' S , 6'10'W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
Detail of the crater Messier, Fresh blocks and possible out- rays shown in the photograph on the opposite paae may have
crops of ledges occur along with slump structures on the wails. been produced by a low-angle impact, but the coincidence of
T h e dark material in the elongate depressions on the floor the asymmetric rays and the crater triplet remains to be fully
could be accumulated debris from the walls. Messier and the explained. Messier is located a t L350'S,47"40' E.
Detail of t h e floor of the crater Hyginus. The origin of t h e subsidence of a solid crust into a weak substratum. Framelet
irregular depressions is not clear, but their form suggests t h e width: 440 meters.
Fresh blocks on the south wall of the crater Hyeinus, including ment along the crater wall. Hyginus is located a t 7"40' N, 6"2O E.
many that have rolled and left trails of their downslope move- Framelet width: 440 meters.
Rima Stadius IV, a chain of craters that is part of the field Terrain northwest of the Orientale basin, including radially
of abundant satellitic craters surrounding Copernicus. Narrow streaked material and numerous equisized, somewhat irregular
ridges and troughs, and strings of small craters form a n craters. Such craters are commonly arranged in chains radial
irregular herringbone pattern with the "V's" pointing south- to Mare Orientale. They may be secondary impact craters of
ward in t h e general direction of Copernicus. This pattern is seen the Orientale basin or volcanic craters along impact-opened
in the small craters that surround many large, bright-rayed fractures. Approximate location: 8" N, 113" W. Framelet width:
craters. Location: 16"30'N,16"20'W.Framelet width: 450 meters. about 25 kilometers.
The three previous sections have included several examples
of such structural features as wrinkle ridges, fractures, shrink-
age cracks, and slump blocks. This section is devoted to three
other prominent types of structural features.
Faults: A fault is a plane along which rock masses have been
shifted. T h e displacement may be horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal. A t places. t h e lunar surface gives visible evidence of
such displacement structures. T h e Straight Wall (Rupes Recta)
is a prominent example whose long, continuous escarpment dis-
plays a vertical component of displacement of over 250 meters.
Rilles: These are depressions on the lunar surface that bear
some resemblance to terrestrial valleys. Two general types are
recognized: linear and sinuous rilles, with a few combining the
features of both types. Many linear rilles appear to be depressed
rock masses bounded by parallel faults. Large linear rilles are
as wide as 10 kilometers and half a kilometer deep and may
extend for hundreds of kilometers across the lunar surface with
complete disregard for the preexisting surface features. Sinuous
or meandering rilles usually are smaller though often as long.
Commonly they head a t a crater or similar depression. They are
common in some mare areas and rare in highland areas. Sinuous
rilles are generally similar in form to terrestrial stream channels,
and many scientists believe that they were formed through the
action of particles carried by a fluid flow.
Domes: Circular, raised structures up to 20 kilometers wide
and several hundred meters high abound on the Moon's surface,
particularly in mare regions. Although most previously known
domes .were thought to possess smooth, flat surfaces, Lunar
Orbiter photographs have revealed that many are characterized
by steep-sided, rough, and cratered surfaces. Both types of
surface are displayed by the volcanic domes found on the Earth.
The Straight Wall is a unique scarp on the eastern side of Mare A portion of Rima Sirsalis (lower left t o upper right). a graben
Nubium. I t originated a s a fault some 120 kilometers long, with which forms one of the longest lunar rilles. T h e rille is clearly
a vertical displacement of about 250 meters. This simple type younger than the large crater De Vico A (center), but older
of fault scarp is less common on the Moon than t h e graben which than the small crater De Vico AA (in t h e floor of the former),
results from the downward displacement ofthe rock mass between which indents the rille's adjacent side. T h e intersecting
two roughly parallel faults. Rima Rirt I (left) is an irregular rilles (lower left) are part of the Rimae Darwin system, which
trough or rille, a n d not necessarily a graben. Location: Zl"50'5. is older than Rima Sirsalis. Location: 18"30'S, 63"40'W.
8"lO'W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
T h e existence of this large trough, on the farside near t h e as wide as 8 kilometers. The trough cuts across several older
south pole, was unknown prior to this photograph, taken by craters without regard for the preexisting structures. The
Lunar Orbiter IV on May 11, 1967. The trough extendsnorth- sharpness of its features indicates that it is much younger than
ward for more than 250 kilometers from the rim of a large, as similar features on the front side. Location: approximately
yet unnamed, crater. It displays raised rims and in places is 65"s. 1lO"E.
This photograph illustrates part of a system of branching rilles Parry I and Rima Parry V-VI. respectively. A portion of the
(rimae) dissecting old features of the Moon's earthside. Cutting latter rille within Fra Mauro is nearly obliterated by a deposit
across the common boundaries between the crater Fra Mauro, of darker-toned material derived from a line of presumably
which occupies the upper half of the photograph. and the volcanic domes and cones along its west bank. Location: 7"lOS.
craters Parry (lower right) and Bonpland (lower left), are Rima 16"40'W. Framelet width: 3.3 kilometers.
Rima Hadley. the sinuous depression illustrated above, is one a northeasterly direction, approximately parallel to the margin
of the most conspicuous lunar rilles when viewed with Earth- of the Apennine Mountains which rise from 1 to 2 kilometers
based telescopes. Its southern end is a very deep, elongate above the adjacent mare surface. T h e relatively large, circular
depression, which is interpreted by some as its source. T h e crater in the center of the photograph is Hadley C. Location:
rille meanders through the mare material of Palus Putredinis in 25"ZO N. 2"50' E. Framelet width: 4 kilometers.
Telephoto lens views of two parts of Rima Hadley. The rille the bottom appear to be derived from ledaes of bedrock along
is a depression in a moderately matered mare terrain. It has the walls. especially on the upper parts. The origin of Rima
a V-shaped cross section. measuring between 1 and 1.5 kilometers Hadley is still a matter of controversy, but apparently is
from rim to rim. T h e inner wails of the rille have an average related to some sort of flow of fluid material. Framelet width:
slope of about 20". and are typically block strewn. Blocks a t 550 meters.
Part of a remarkable sinuous rille system in southern Oceanus sinuous rilles of the same type, such as Rima Plato 11. The
Procellarum. northeast of the crater Gassendi. T h e rille cuts circular crater with a sham raised rim near the middle of the
across several mare ridges. and some of its branches originate photomaph. Herigonius Ec. is about 3.5 kilometers i n diameter..
in elongated depressions. The branching is found in other 4 Location: ll"5O'S. 38" W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
This is part of a sinuous rille southeast of the crater Plato material T h e loop which the rille makes at the upper left of
in t h e Mont,es Alpes r e ~ o n .T h e rille. Rima Plato 11. forms a the photograph may represent a cutoff flow channel in t h e
meandering, V-shaped depression. Its walls display some lami- early stages of formation. Location: 49"30' h'.2"50' W. Framelet
nation that suggests the existence of layering in the incised width: 1 kilometer.
Part of Rima Plato 11. a sinuous rille southeast of the crater to originate a t the upper layers. As in most other rilles, there
Plato. T h e rille occurs in what here appears to be stratified is evidence of downslope movement and "mass wasting" along
mare material in a plainslike terrain. Indications of stratifica- the rille walls. The two irregular white spots in the lower
tion exist on the rille walls. especially toward the top. Dark right quadrant are processing blemishes. Location: 49" N. 1"W.
rock exposures abound on the walls. and the larger blocksappear Framelet width: 1 kilometer.
This photograph illustrates a lunar valley, named after the the valley. The north rim of the crater Herodotus appears a t
renowned German selenographer, J . H . Schroter (1745-1816). the lower right. Much of the surface sculpture in this area
Schroter's Valley, which is about 1300 meters deep, has the 1s caused by ejecta from the crater Aristarchus, situated to
Cobra Head (center right) at its southeastern end. This is the southeast. Location: 24"58'N, 50°02'W. Framelet width:
interpreted as the source of the fluid material that eroded 4.3 kilometers.
Detailed telephoto view of part of Schroter's Valley. Within on the floors of both the valley and the rille. Some scientists
t h e valley is a meandering rille which also emerges from the believe that the valley and the meandering rille were eroded by
Cobra Head. T h e rille meanders from wall to wall across the a dense mass of particulate material carried by a flow of either
valley floor, and forms a cutoff rhannel near the center of liquid or gas. Location: 25"40'N, 50"W. Framelet width: 570
this view. Note also the numerous blocks along the walls and meters.
This area is part of the Harhinger Mountains plateau in north hvdrologists with data for the study of the geometry of sinuous
central Oceanus Procellarum. Many sinuous rilles cut across rilles and their relations to the surroundings. This work is
the mare materials, and one cuts the highland mass near the aimed at establishing the properties of channel materials. the
center of the view. The north rim of the crater Prinz is just flowing fluid. and the transport load. if any. Location: 27'10",
visible at the bottom. Photopaphs such as this provide stream .43"40'W. Framelet width: 4.5 kilometers.
This mosaic is a telephoto view of the head of the westernmost Valley. In both cases there is an inner sinuous rille which
rille in the previous photograph. It lies on the flank of the originates in a deep circular pit within the shallower and
old, partly flooded crater Prinz. Its relation t o the rille larger head. Location: 26"lO' N , 43"40' W. Frarnelet width:
(Rima Prinz I) is similar to that of the Cobra Head to Schroter's 580 meters.
Part of Rima Prinz 11. a sinuous valley in the Harbinger Moun- This photograph illustrates the southern end of a rille, just
tains region with parallel walls and nearly constant width and east of Rima Prinz 11, that starts as a rimless, plains-filled
depth. Blocks abound a t places along the walls. Small craters depression and extends (without a break in the floor surface)
are equally abundant on the rille floor and the surrounding toward topographically lower plains. Location: 27"N, 42"50'W.
areas. Location: 26"40". 43"40W. Framelet width: 580 meters. Framelet width: 580 meters.
T h e chain of elongated craters alternating with low. nearly is the upwelling of mobile material along a line of weakness in
circular mounds shown here is in mare material near the north the mare. with actual extrusion at a series of vents, and collapse
border of Oceanus Procellarum. T h e line extends south of this to form elongated craters or troughs in between. Location:
view as a mare ridge. A possible origin for this puzzling feature 34"30'N. 43"40'W. Framelet width: 5.4 kilometers.
A broad, low dome about 25 kilometers across, one of many in Crater chains and clusters seen here are secondary to larger
Oceanus Procellarum, southwest of the crater Tobias Mayer. craters outside the field of view. Many of them trend north-
This dome is bounded on the east by a highland ridge which is 35 westward, roughly parallel to the elongated, well-defined
kilometers long. T h e path of a sinuous rille in the mare just summit crater of the dome. Location: 13" N, 30"50'W. Frame-
west of the dome appears to have been affected by the dome. let width: 3.5 kilometers.
These are some of the numerous domes which occupy a part of believe that they were formed by volcanic processes. T h e large
Oceanus Procellarum. Morphologically, these domes (the Marius crater (lower right) is Reiner. which is 30 kilometers in diameter.
Hills) closely resemble terrestrial volcanic domes, laccolithic T h e peculiarly marked area of bright discoloration (lower left)
intrusions, and shield volcanos. For this reason, and because is called Reiner y . Location: ll"40'N. 58"lO'W. Framelet
of other manifestations of volcanism in the area, geologists width: 12 kilometers.
Part of the plateau west-northwest of the crater Marius, where (shown in detail on page 118) originates a t an elongated spear
a variety of volcanic domes, cones, and ridges typical of the head. Two distinct varieties of domes are discernible. These
Marius Hills region occur. Two sinuous rilles cut across the are the gently rising smooth low domes. and the rugged, heavily
main broad ridge in the area. The larger rille has a nearly cratered, steep-sided domes. Location: 14" N. 56" W. Framelet
circular depression a t its head, whereas the smaller rille width: 12 kilometers.
The lunar farside is markedly different from the frontside
hemisphere in that it has fewer very large basins and virtually
no maria comparable in the extent of fill to those on the
frontside. Mare Orientale, the largest of all circular features
on the farside, is only partially filled with mare material.
Mare Moscoviense is comparable to Mare Nectaris, one of the
smaller frontside circular maria. Although the floors of a few
individual craters, most notably Tsiolkovsky, are substantially
covered with smooth, dark mare material, the predominant im-
pression is of the scarcity of such material. In this respect much
of the farside could be compared in gross morphology to the
frontside's southern highlands. The latter region's large basins
with light-toned floors, exemplified by Bailly and Clavius,
have about a score of farside countemarts.
. . most of which are
The sculuture which radiates from or is concentric with Mare
Orientale dominates the eastern part of the lunar farside; ridges
and furrows extend radially over 1000 kilometers from this
multiringed circular basin, while secondary craters, believed to
have originated from Orientale ejecta, overlie older features on
much of the eastern farside.
As is the case in the southern highlands on the Moon's front-
side, t h e structural and textural characteristics of the farside
are complex. This is largely due to the existence of countless
craters of various ages and sizes, each modified by younger
ones. I t should be remembered, too, that all of our information
about farside features is the product of spacecraft photography
accomplished within the last 10 years. Undoubtedly, it will
take many years of study to decipher the nature and unravel
the history of the surface of t h e lunar farside.
The mare filling of the inner Orientale basin (area A of t h e (left) probably are collapse structures. formed under control
preceding photograph) may be quite shallow, as suggested by t h e of subsurface structures which also controlled the complex
numerous "islands" of older material that project through it. pattern of rilles and wrinkle ridges. All these structures
A number of steep-sided domes and ridges of complicated form formed some time after the flooding of the central depression.
are present. The circular, rectilinear, and irregular depressions Location: 24"s. 96"W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
This large (55 kilometers in diameter), unnamed, young crater is are seen most clearly where they cover the dark mare floor
at t h e northern edge of the inner Mare Orientale basin (area B). material to the south. Smooth-textured blocks which form the
It shows well-developed interior terraces and a rough, high, innermost Mare Orientale basin scarp are visible along the upper
inner rim which grades outward to radial braids. The abundant edge of the photograph. Location: 16"S, 96"W. Framelet width:
secondary craters and light-toned rays radiating from the crater 12 kilometers.
T h e band of smooth, dark material running across the right side photograph is concentric with the basin structure. T h e large,
of this view (area C) is part of Mare Veris, which occupies the smooth-rimmed, largely flooded crater (lower left) is about 35
low terrain a t the foot of the Rook Mountain scarp. T h e rolling kilometers across. Its peculiar morphological characteristics
terrain to its left is part of the basin's innermost ring. T h e (shown in more detail on page 72) suggest a volcanic origin.
nearly continuous arcuate rille that runs diagonally across the Location: 16" S . 90" W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
T h e Cordillera Mountain scarp, which is the outermost ring of coarsely braided material whose grooves and ridges are radial
the Orientale basin, crosses this view (area D) from the north- to t h e Mare Orientale basin. T h e large, smooth-textured, partly
west to the southeast. I t separates two distinct textural rectilinear blocks in the lower left corner are part of the
patterns: 1) an inner zone of small, closely spaced, low hills Rook Mountains (the middle one of the basin's three rings).
with isolated patches of mare material, and 2) a n outer zone of Location: 11"s. 84"W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
T h e 150-kilometer crater Riccioli, occupying the upper right blanket and the dunelike deposits at the base of Riccioli's far
quarter of this view (area E), is about 750 kilometers northeast wall suggest that the material was probably transported out-
of t h e center of Mare Orientale. It lies within the coarsely ward from the basin's center by a base surge of a type observed
braided blanket which mantles older topographic features all in manmade nuclear and high-explosive cratering experiments.
around t h e Orientale basin. Textural characteristics of t h e Location: 5"s. 76"W. Framelet width: 12 kilometers.
This view (area F) includes the edge of the base surge and Inghirami (lower left, 90 kilometers across) is mantled with
ejecta blanket, about 1100 kilometers southeast of the center braided material; its southeast wall is not. T h e trough (upper
of Mare Orientale. Coarsely braided material thickly mantles left) shows evidence of differential surface flowage, as indi-
earlier craters to the upper left, whereas the smoother area to cated by the shear or drag pattern along its western edge.
the lower right is very thinly covered. Only part of the crater Location: 45"s. 68"W. Framelet width: 13 kilometers.
This Lunar Orbiter V photograph is a n oblique view, looking scientists when it was first photographed by Luna 111. I t is
westward, of Mare Moscoviense on the Moon's farside. Mare about 350 kilometers across and is similar in appearance to some
Moscoviense was named in honor of the city of Moscow by Soviet frontside maria. Approximate location: 25"N, 145"E.
A telephoto view westward over the northern portion of Mare is peppered with craters of various shapes and sizes, and with
Moscoviense. In this area the dark mare material fills the floor the "ghosts" of more or less completely tilled craters. Located
to the basin's rim; to the west (top center) it does not. The floor about 30"N. 148"E.Framelet width: about 6 kilometers.
Telephoto view of the western half of the crater Tsiolkovsky, sizable craters and the sparse distribution of small ones. The
named in honor of the Russian pioneer student of space travel. unflooded areas of the crater floor are exceedingly rough on a
T h e rim crest is conspicuously crenelated. and the inner rim fine scale. T h e bright mass of rock (center right) is a central
slope is terraced. Much of the floor has been flooded by a peak on t h e crater floor, a feature common to many large lunar
dark material whose freshness is indicated by the absence of craters. Framelet width: 7 kilometers.
T h e events which produced the fresh-appearing crater (center Telephoto view of a pair of farside craters having similar
left) deposited t h e ejected material in a radial pattern. The characteristics. Both are rather shallow and have fractured
braided texture surrounding the crater (best seen extending to floors which appear to have been shaped by internal forces.
the southeast) resembles the "base surge" deposits observed T h e fracturing of the smaller crater is in a prominent polygonal
around manmade nuclear craters. T h e chain of secondary craters pattern of rilles resembling an alligator hide. That of the
extending to the northeast in a striking herringbone pattern larger crater is more subdued and roughly parallel to the margin
was formed by material ejected in ballistic trajectories. Approxi- of the floor. Approximate location: 5"S, 146"E. Framelet width:
mate location: llcS, 163"W. Framelet width: 5.5 kilometers. 6 kilometers.
A pair of craters located about 270 kilometers due north of the forced a great mass of material to move into the smaller, older
farside crater Tsiolkovsky (page 133). It is evident that the crater, partially filling it by what appear now to be a number
two craters are of different ages, as formation of t h e larger crater of landslides. Framelet width: 6 kilometers.
A crater cluster located within a large unnamed farside crater similar craters on the frontside. T h e many small arcuate scarps
(seen on page 25). These craters are all of similar size. yet (right) bounding the dark floor of the large crater face away
quite different depths, with two shallow ones displayingrernark- from the floor. These may represent the fronts of successive
able bulbous floors that appear to have formed as volcanic hills flows on the crater floor. Approximate location: 17" S, 174"E.
and domes. Lunar Orbiter photography has shown a number of Framelet width: 6.3 kilometers.
The photographs appearing on the next four pages are called
anaglyphs. Each anaglyph comprises the duplicated portions
of two overlapping medium-resolution frames. The two frames
are printed in complementary colors, so that when the anaglyph
is viewed through the colored spectacles (found in the envelope
inside the book's back cover) each eye sees the image of a differ-
ent frame. The spectacles should be held so that the red filter is
over the left eye. This permits the reader to examine t h e photo-
graphs stereoscopically.
T h e areas covered by the four stereoscopic views are also
shown monoscopically elsewhere in the book, as indicated in
their captions. I t will be noted that, whereas the monoscopic
views are oriented so that north is a t the top, all the anaglyphs
are oriented with east a t the top. The reason for this reorien-
tation is that they are all Lunar Orbiter V photographs. Because
the fifth mission was conducted in a nearly polar orbit, succes-
sive frames covering a site are separated in a north-south direc-
tion. Stereoscopic vision requires that the separation between
successive camera locations be parallel to the imaginary line
connecting the viewer's eyes. If the viewer keeps in mind that
the solar illumination was coming from the east (Le., the top of
the anaglyph), the impression of depth created by the shadows
will be in agreement with the stereoscopic impression.
The stereoscopic impression conveyed by these anaglyphs is
an exaggerated one. T h e slopes appear to be steeper than they
are in reality. T h e exaggeration is less extreme on these photo-
graphs than it is on the wide-angle photographs ordinarily used
in aerial mapping. but it should not be ignored.
Stereoscopic view of the crater Aristarchus. 40 kilometers across material, is the lowest and smoothest part. A long narrow central
and about 3.6 kilometers deep. The floor is partially covered peak rises about 300meters above the floor. Note the terracingof
with material that slumped down from the walls; its eastern the inner crater walls and also t h e elevation of the rim crest
portion (toward the top of the page), being least covered by this above t h e outer ejecta blanket. See also page 75.
Stereoscopic view of a part of Schroter's Valley. the meandering rille whose tightly packed meander loops are about 200 meters
depression running from the upper right to the lower left corner deeper. T h e ridge that is seen in the upper left portion of t h e
of the anaglyph. This rille is about 7 kilometers wide and u p photograph is about 1600 meters higher than the plateau surface
to 1300 meters deep. Within its flat floor is a second. sinuous into which the valley is cut. See also page 113.
Stereoscopic view of three adjoinint: craters: Fra Mauro to the crater floors and rims alike. T h e more westerly rille is bordered
north (left), P a r r y (upper right). and Bonpland (lower riaht). on the west (near the center of the anaglyph) by a chain of low
T h e area where the three rims meet is about 1200 meters higher domes. T h e adjacent area of the rille is nearly filled with
than the crater floors. T h e two linear rilles form a V whose dark, smooth material that appears to have come from t h e domes.
apex is a t the left edge of the photopaph. They dissect the See also page 108.
TOBIAS h,lAYER DOhlE ANAGLYPH
Stereoscopic view of an area southwest of the crater Tobias exhibits an elongate summit crater, about 5 kilometers long. A
hfayer in Oceanus Procellarum. The highland ridge in the middle sinuous rille meanders across t h e lower part of the photograph.
portion of the anaglyph is about 35 kilometers long and 2 kilo- detouring around the base of the dome. Note the presence of
meters high. A smooth mare dome abuts the western flank of several crater chains in the lower half. and a large highland
the ridge. The dome is about 20 kilometers in diameter and mass a t upper left. See also page 120.
Following the anaglyphs are six pages of index maps. They
indicate the Lunar Orbiter photographic coverage for every
portion of the Moon. Each mission's coverage has its own color,
and the frame numbers are shown in the same colors. For
example. the first map shows that the crater Tycho (located
43" S . 11" W) is covered by Mission IV Frame H119 and also by
hlission V Frames M125 through M128. (Mission V Frames H125
through H128 fall inside the rectangle that shows t h e medium-
resolution coverage.)
The first two index maps cover the latitude bands between
50" N and 50" S for the frontside and farside. respectively. The
Apollo zone, indicated by the dashed outline on the first map,
is covered by enlarged index maps on the last two pages. T h e
polar zones are covered on the third and fourth pages.
For scientists interested in performing studies and analyses
using the Lunar Orbiter photographs, the National Space
Science Data Center (NSSDC) has prepared a Datu C h m ' h ' o f e ,
"Lunar Orbiter Photographic Data" NSSDC 69-05, which
presents detailed information about the availability and ordering
procedures for photographic reproductions. In addition, as
a further aid in ordering, the NSSDC has prepared a microfilmed
catalog of all usable pictures available from the five Lunar
Orbiter missions. Scientists in the United States who want
to obtain Lunar Orbiter photographs for their investigations
should direct their inquiries or requests to the National Space
Science Data Center, Code 601.4. Goddard Space Flight Center,
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771. Requests for Lunar Orbiter
photographs from scientists located outside the United States
should be directed to the World Data Center A for Rockets and
Satellites, Code 601, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt,
Maryland 20771, U.S.A. (Because of its location contiguous
to the NSSDC, the World Data Center A for Rockets and
Satellites can effectively assist scientists in obtaining data held
in the NSSDC.)
< '
Medium Rerolutmon
MisrionIt 0 MissionP 0
r-- LATITUDE
t- 90 Full II H162
69' 20'
91 Full V M155 104.2 5' 10' 10'40" 20'20'W 18'00' N 5'10'E
92' Full IV H86 2956 1'50' 41'00" 31'10'E 23'40' N7 1'20'W
92' Full IV H79 2964 2 O 10' 41'50" 39'00'E 24'30' N7 1 1O'W
93 Full IV H127 2886 2' 10' 41' 1O'N 14'20'W 21'50' N7 1'20'W
94 Full Ill M78 56.8 68'50' 10'20's 26'30'E 30' 10' N78' 1O'W
95' Full V M178 127.4 6'00' 17'40's 40'00'W 13'10' N 4'00'E
95' Full V M177 130.8 6'40' 19'00's 40' 1O'W 13'00' N 4'00'E
96 Full IV H27 2747 0'30' 15°10'S 82'40'E 26'20' N85'00'E
97 To P IV H85 2717 0'50' 13'00" 24'00'E 23'30' N84' 10'W
97 Bottom IV H108 2719 O"30' 14'20's 2O20'W 21O10' N84'20'E
98 Full V M4 1 103.3 53'40' 2OOO'S 47'00'E 17'10' N 3'20'E
99 Full V H41 103.3 53'30' 2'00's 47'00'E 17'10' N 3'20'E
100 Full V M97 100.3 19'20' 8' 1 O'N 6'00'E 18'20' N 3'40'E
101 Bottom V H95 99.9 19'10' 7'40" 5'50'E 18'20' N 4'00'E
102 Left V H121 106.4 12'00' 12'40" 4OOO'W 19'40' N 5'20'E
102 Right V H19 5758 7'40' 14°00'N 102°20'w 2'40' , N89'30'W
104 Full Ill M73 62.8 "52'30' 7'40" 6'40'E 6'40' N53'20'W
105 Left IV H113 2718 0'20' 14'40's 9'30'W 20' 10' N84'10'E
105 Right IV H161 2723 0'50' 15'1 0's 62OOO'W 16'30' N84'50'E
106 Full IV M9 2989 4'20' 41'50'5 I 96'10'E 24'50' N66'30'E
107 Full V H21 3342 16'50' 85'io's
7'1 0's
j ; ; ; ; : ; ;1
110 Bottom V H105 131.1 4'50' 25'00" 3'00'E 19OOO' N 4"40'E
111 Bottom V H130 236.0 7'20' 49'20" 2'40'W 16'40' N 8'50'E
112 Full V H130 236.0 7'20' 49'20" 2'40'W 16'40' N 8"50'E
113 Full V M202 134.4 6' 10' 24'50'N 49'30'W 15'20' N 5'00'E
114 Full V H204 136.4 6'20' 25'40" 49'30'W 15'20' N 5'00'E
115 Full V M191 142.0 2'50' 27'40" 43'30'W 16'10' N 5'20'E
116" Full V Hi88 138.8 1'50' 26'30" 43'40'W 16'10' N 5'30'E
116* Full V ~187 137.8 1'30' 26' 1O'N 43'40'W 16'10' N 5'20'E
117* Left V Hi89 139.8 2' 10' 26'50" 43'40'W 16'10' N 5'30'E
117* Left V ~188 138.8 1'50' 26'30" I 43'40'W 16'10' N 5'30'E
117 Right V H189 139.8 2 O 10' 26'50" 43'40'W 16'10' N 5'30'E
118" Full V H215 112.5 9'40' 14' 1 O'N 56'00'W 14'40' N 4'20'E
1 18" Full V H214 112.1 9'40' 13'50" 56'00'W 14'30' N 4'30'E
119 Full V ~ 1 8 3 169.2 5'50' 35"30'N 41'30'W 15'20' N 5'00'E
120 Full V M164 109.2 0'40' 12'30" 31'00'W 17'00' N 4'40'E
121 Full IV H157 2669 1O 2 0 ' 13'20" 56'20'W 16'50' N84'50'W
122 Full II M213 50.8 68'40' 8'00" 52'50'W 21'10' N52'50'W
123 Full V M214 112.1 9O50' 13'50" 56'00'W 14'30' N 4'20'E
125 Full IV ~ 1 8 7 2723 0'30' 15OOO'S 8g0oo'w 14'00' N85'20'E
126 Full IV H195 2721 1OOO' 14'50'5 94'40'W 14'30' N84'50' E
Full IV H195 2721 1OOO' 14'50'5 94'40'W 14'30' N84'50'E
1 131 Full IV H172 301 1 4'50' 43'00's 68'oo'w 16"20' N65'20'E
i 132 TOP V M103 1237 25'20' 38'50" 150'50'E 11OOO' N85'50'E
1 132 Bottom V H103 1236 25'20' 38'40" 150'50'E 11OOO' N86'00'E
1 133 Left Ill M121 1463 12'40' 24' 10's 126'50'E 19'20' N88'50'E
1 133 Right Ill H121 1463 12'40' 126'40'E 19'30' N89'00'E
~ 134 Full Ill H121 1463 12'40' 126'40'E 19'30' N89'00'E
Left I H30 1299 2O20' 1O02O'S 162'40'W 23'40' N8 4 ' 4 0 ' ~
Right I H115 1381 6'50' 145'20'E 19'00' N82'50'W
To P
20' 10'


text:
pramathāḥ saha-guhyakāḥ
hanyamānā diśo bhejur
uśadbhir brahma-tejasā
The word brahma-tejasā, used in this verse, is significant. In those days, brāhmaṇas were so powerful that simply by desiring and by chanting a Vedic mantra, they could accomplish very wonderful effects. But in the present age of degradation there are no such brāhmaṇas. According to the Pāñcarātrika system, in this age the entire population is supposed to consist of śūdras because the brahminical culture has been lost. But if anyone displays the signs of understanding Kṛṣṇa consciousness, he should be accepted, according to Vaiṣṇava smṛti regulations, as a prospective brāhmaṇa and should be given all facilities to achieve the highest perfection. The most magnanimous gift of Lord Caitanya's is that the highest perfection of life is available in this fallen age if one simply adopts the process of chanting Hare Kṛṣṇa, which is able to bring about the fulfillment of all activities in self-realization.
Thus end the Bhaktivedanta purports of the Fourth Canto, Fourth Chapter, of the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, entitled "Satī Quits Her Body."

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Patrick Sullivan grew up in Pennsylvania, in a suburb of Philadelphia. He studied at Temple University, where he earned his Bachelor of Architecture in 1992.
At 26, he put his career in architecture behind him, yielding to his unwavering desire to pursue a future in film. California was a world away, nevertheless, he dropped his pencil, packed his car and headed west.
Now a twenty-three year veteran of the film industry, he has earned credit on feature film projects with a wide range of scope and genres, serving as Set Designer through to Supervising Art Director and now Production Designer. These projects have taken him to a dozen US states as well as Canada, Europe and Asia.
His creative contributions have led to three Academy Award nominations, including Men in Black. His art direction of the Japanese village helped Memoirs of a Geisha earn an Oscar win for Best Art Direction. Also as art director, he won an Emmy for HBO's Behind the Candelabra, his sole venture into television. He has four Art Directors Guild nominations and two wins.
Patrick has worked with a number of celebrated and respected directors including, Steven Soderberg, Steven Spielberg, Gore Verbinski and David Fincher. He was a frequent collaborator with Clint Eastwood on projects that include J. Edgar, Jersey Boys and the Best Art Direction Oscar-nominated Changeling.
His production design work includes the thriller Keep Watching for Screen Gems and the recently released NETFLIX horror film Gerald's Game, based upon the novel by Stephen King and directed by Mike Flanagan.
He recently returned from Hong Kong, where he lived with his family for almost two years. His experience there took him to almost a dozen Asian territories and counties as well as Australia. While in Hong Kong, he traveled to Cambodia, where he served as second unit art director on the Angelina Jolie-directed feature, First They Killed My Father.
He has a pair of completed projects that have yet to be released-the upcoming feature films The Tomorrow Man, starring John Lithgow and Blythe Danner and BrightBurn, produced by James Gunn.
In his free time, he enjoys photography, sketching and recreational flying. He lives with his wife and son in Los Angeles.


text:
Fix entrance own hands
You there staircase. Served it to you faithfully more months or even years. But here suddenly now - and it breaks. How to Apply in this case? Actually, about this you learn from our article.
Mending entrance - it in fact enough not simple it. Many people pretty strongly wrong, underestimating difficulty this business.
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First sense find company by fix entrance. This can be done using your favorites finder. If price services for fix for you will feasible - believe problem possession. If no - in this case have repair own.
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