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2|PageActivity patterns to bioarchaeologists are a bit like the search for the Holy Grail:not enough information to figure it all out, and no one is sure that finding the answer iseven possible in the first place. Yet (p)hysical activity is a defining characteristic ofhuman adaptive regimes and (w)orkload and activity have enormous implications forthe demographic history of a population. (Larsen 1997:161) So, we continue to delveinto science and information, hoping to find enough clues to lead us to the GoldenCupfiguring out the what, how and sometimes even the where and who of the past.Markers of occupational stress, or MOS, include conditions such as arthritis, robusticityand articular modifications. (Kennedy 1989, 1998, Wilczak & Kennedy 1998) Theseconditions are evaluated for the information they can give us about activity patterns inthe past. But, how is this information being gleaned? What are the questions beingasked, and are we even asking the right questions in the first place?One of the most well researched markers of activity is osteoarthritis and itsassociated counterparts: arthrosis, septic arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. all to beunderstood hereafter in the term: arthritis. Arthritis is a multi-factorial disorder whichis dependent on things such as: genetics, sex, climate, health and weight, metabolism,and trauma; just to name a few. (Weiss et al 2007, Larsen 1997, Jurmain 1991).Essentially, arthritis is the result of a physiological imbalance between the mechanicalstress in the joint tissue and the ability of the joint tissues to withstand. . . stress.(Radin 1982:20) Even more so, it is the destruction of the joint tissue itself, leading toporous proliferation, osteophytes, eburnation, etc. Thus arthritis can be a strongindicator of activity patterns, especially those chronically performed.For example, Merbs (1983) found a high incidence of arthritis in the lefttemporomandibular joint in the Sadlermuit women of northern Canada. He had the
3|Pageadded benefit of ethnographic information demonstrating that the women in thispopulation were softening leather using their left side dentition. Stirland (2001) foundthat the sailors aboard the 16th century ship Mary Rose had a high prevalence ofthoracic arthritis and from historical and ethnographic accounts was able to deduce thiswas from the heavy lifting involved in life at sea. Wells (1982:152) has even referred toarthritis as the most useful of all diseases for reconstructing the lifestyle of earlypopulations; and at the time this statement was made, the sentiment was probablyquite accurate.Musculo-stress markers, also known as MSMs or enthesopathies, are anotherwell studied form of activity marker. These are located at the point where musclesattach to the bone. Bone remodeling theory holds that when muscle insertion sites aresubjected to stress, blood flow is increased, stimulating osteoblasts to form new bone inthe stimulated area. Enthesopathies, or bone proliferation at muscle attachment sites,is the result. (Larsen 1997, Hawkey & Merbs 1995, Kennedy 1989, 1998, Wilczak &Kennedy 1998) Anthropologists have concluded using bone remodeling theory thatlarge muscle markers are due to continued muscle use in daily and repetitive tasks(especially when started at a young age and continued through adulthood), which hasmade muscle markers ideal for reconstructing past lifestyles. (Weis 2007:931)Fur traders are one group in which MSMs have been a significant line of study, inpart because of the documentation available on the physical activities of the occupation,and also in part because of the vast amount of conspicuous bone modification availablefor study in their skeletons. Fur traders are known for having carried immensely heavyloads and for rowing or mushing for hours on end with only 6-7 hours of rest in a day.(Lai & Lovell 1992, Lovell & Dublenko 1999). Markers on the fur traders skeletons
4|Pageinclude extremely pronounced muscle attachment sites, especially in the attachmentsites for the trapezius, pronator quadratus, deltoid, brachialis and supinator: all majormuscles used in rowing. Two of the individuals from the Fort Edmonton locale, havebrachialis attachment sites that have progressed to the point of becoming lesions.(Lovell & Dublenko 1999) Attachments for flexor muscles of the hands are also marked.Of the two surviving mandibles at the Seafort site, both exhibit pronounced squaring ofthe anterior margins of the horizontal ramus as well as considerable gonial eversion.This is suggestive of a great stress to the masseter muscle. (Lai & Lovell 1992) Allmarkers are consistent with, even a testament to, the known heavy activities performedby those involved in the fur trade.Cortical defects have also been classified as MSMs. (Larsen 1997) These defectsare cavities in the cortical surface of bone with a rough or irregular floor and relativelysmooth margins. Like enthesopathies, it has been suggested that cortical defects arecaused by chronic mechanical stress at muscular insertion sites; and cortical defects dosometimes appear at points near the radial-medial head of the gastrocnemius or theinsertion sites for the pectoralis and teres major. (Larsen 1997) However, thishypothesis seems a bit deficient in its reasoning. Why would chronic stress produce amound (hypertrophic proliferation or enthesopathy) in one instance and then produce ahole (cortical defect) in another?In addition, not all cortical defects occur near muscle insertion sites. Stafnesdefect, for instance, is a classic cortical defect which occurs on the lingual surface of themandible anterior to the pterygoideous internus attachment, inferior to the mylohyoideus attachment, and posterior to the digastric attachment site. In other words,nowhere near a muscle attachment. It is, however, exactly in the fossa for the
5|Pagesubmaxillary gland. This would appear to indicate a connection to this gland and not atendonous articulation. It would at least seem unconnected, or at best tangentiallyconnected, to any musculo-attachment sites. (Lukacs and Martin 2002, Gray 1918,Dauzvardis et al 1998, Langlais et al 1976, Kay 1974) In this regard, it is still possiblethat cortical defects represent some form of MOS; however, it seems more likely thatthey are linked with bursars or some other pathology with merely a tangentialconnection to muscle attachments.A third line of study into skeletal markers of occupational stress is bonerobusticity. In 1892, Julius Wolff made his famous hypothesis that has been come to beknown as Wolffs Law. His theory was essentially that in a healthy individual, bone willadapt to the stress load under which it is placed. If loading on a particular boneincreases, the bone will remodel itself to become stronger; usually involving an increasein bone density and thickness. This will increase the amount of effort that individualsbody needs to put in to maintaining this structure. Therefore, the inverse holds as well:if loading decreases, the bone will resorb and remodel the bone; decreasing the densityand thickness. (Wolff 1892)Although modifications have been suggested and made to Wolffs original theory,(Frost 1960, Ruff et al 2006) the basic concept still stands and plays a part in the abovementioned MSMs. It also plays a significant part in overall bone robusticity. Stock andPfeiffer (2001), for example, found a greater lower limb robusticity in African terrestrialforagers when compared to marine foragers on the Andaman Islands. The marineforagers also exhibited a greater upper limb robusticity. Their conclusion was that theterrestrial foragers had a much more mobile lifestyle, at least in terms of using their owntwo feet for locomotion; while the islanders bipedal mobility was limited, most travel
6|Pagebeing accomplished while sitting in boats. The upper arm robusticity was explained bythe weight of hauling in fishing nets; an equivalent activity that the Africans did nothave.Adults who exercise tend to have higher bone mass and size than adults who arerelatively sedentary. (Larsen 1997:196). Thus, studying and quantifying robusticity hasbeen a key direction in the research into activity patterns and the main method ofquantifying this has been with the use of cross-sectional analysis. Cross-sectionalanalysis is a method borrowed from engineering. It applies the basis of beam theory toevaluate a longbones strength using measurements taken from the cross-section.Measurements can be taken by cutting the bone perpendicular to the main axis or by useof modern imaging methods.Evaluation using the external measurements has been done, but not with thevigor of the cross-sectional method; the rationale being that external evaluation neglectsthe thickness of the cortical bone as well as neglecting the inclusion of all the variousways bone can strengthen itself. (Larsen 1997, Ruff et al 2006, Demes 2007)[B]ones are rarely subject to compression alone. During movement, both bone shape andmuscle actions create high levels of bending and torsional strains in bones. These forcesare resisted not just by the amount of cortical bone, but by how it is distributed in a crosssection. Second moments of area are used to estimate the resistance of the cross sectionto these forces: I, which represents the second moment of area, is used to estimateresistance to bending around a particular axis (for example, I measures resistance aroundthe anteroposterior axis). The polar second moment of area (designated J), whichestimates the resistance of the cross section under torsional or twisting forces, isfrequently used as a general indicator of bone strength. (Bridges 1996:112)
7|Pagemodification. If the type of force is understood, this can lead to the knowledge of whatactivities the individual(s) was involved in.The problem with cross-sectional analysis is wrapped-up in the very reason it wascreated. Engineers use it to test the strength of beams (or tubes) for use in construction.A beam is a long stretch of material, say iron or wood, in which the sides are parallel toone another. In the case of a tube the sides are parallel to the central axis. In the case ofan I-beam, the sides are connected by a wall that runs perpendicular to the sides. Ineach case, the beam is a geometric object with no alteration of its structure from one endto another.A bone, on the other hand, is not a geometric object. At least not in the manmade sense. A long bone is essentially a tube, but the sides rarely, if ever, run parallelto the central axis. In fact the sides rarely, if ever, even run in a straight line. There aredips and twists and undulations. In addition to this, a beam is essentially a static being.It is what it is and, except for some changes that do occur with time and environment(iron rusts, wood decomposes, etc.) continue to be what it is until its use has finished.Bone, on the other hand, is not static. While bone will always remain bone, it is adynamic substance: increasing density here, shifting shape there, until the originalshape is augmented and morphed to withstand the stress it is under.Cross-sectional analysis has yet to account for this dynamic nature of bone beamanalysis. And so, researchers continue to make statements such as this one by Knusel(2007): Although there is a growing understanding of how bone responds to stress, it israrely possible to identify the occupation even of living people from physical changes totheir bodies. Jurmain (1991) also cautioned that the connection of specific physicalstressors with skeletal characteristics is virtually impossible for prehistoric groups and
8|Pagemay not be possible even for people for which historical records and ethnographicanalogy are available.Yet there is, if not disagreement with these sentiments; there is hope. Ronchesepublished his 1948 book Occupational Marks and Other Physical Signs, much of whichis soft tissue related, but some skeletal information is included. Rogers et al (1987) atleast attempt to list arthropathies with most probable cause. And Kennedy et al (1999)published a list of skeletal markers and their suggested causation.So, will bioarchaeology be able to find the Holy Grail? While physical context andmaterial culture give clues to past behavior, analysis of the skeletons themselves is themost direct way to reconstruct individual conduct and to explore intra- andinterpopulational differences in behavior. Research has only scratched the surface ofthe enormous amount of information available from the skeleton. Living beings aredynamic. Perhaps our techniques need to be as well. Can we compile our informationbased on more than one evaluation? Start seeing the body as material culture like anyother artifact we would study. (Soafer 2006) Taking their cue from Lawrence AngelPerhaps the Sauls (1989) have it right in looking at the story the skeleton tells you andtelling it in an osteobiography.Take, for example, this lower right leg from a Fort Edmonton fur trader (Fig 1).There is a pronounced hypertrophic MSM for the soleus on the posterior tibia. Inaddition, there is an arthritic lesion at the proximal tibio-fibular articulation in the formof remodeled bony proliferation on the tibia and resorption on the fibula. There is nomention of this from Lovell & Dublenko (1999), and while it is difficult to say from thisphoto, there seems to be a septic nature to this pathology. This condition is actuallyapparent in two of the fur trader skeletons. There is a similar resorptive lesion on the
9|Pagemedio-proximal tibial surface at thearticulation of the semimembranosusligament. There is no arthritis oreburnation on the superior surface of thetibial proximal condyles.Lovell & Dublenko (1999:254)surmise that these lesions could be dueto the locomotor stresses of portagingalthough an alternative explanation, andperhaps a better one in this culturehistorical context given that the lesionappears unilaterally, on the right leg, inboth individuals, is that the lesion resultsfrom habitual kicking of the leg when
driving dog sleds. No further investigation was made within this paper.Is this then the end of the information these bones can tell us? Is this a completeosteobiography? Is there more that these bones can say if we but knew how to listen?There is no suggestion explaining the hypertrophy of the popliteal line. No crosssectional analysis was done, or if it was, the results were not published. What can thecortical bone density and distribution tell about this individuals activities? Why is thereno eburnation on the condylar articular surface, but so much arthritis around theproximal metaphysis area? Activity patterns in youth affect the joints more than thediaphyses of bones; thus joint changes can be a clue to the identity of activities begun inyouth, while shaft changes can be a clue to activities continued into or simple taken on
10 | P a g ein adulthood. (Knusel 2007, Ruff et al 1994) Could this knowledge be applied to the furtrader skeletons? What can this concept tell us about the strength of the cortical bone ofthis lower leg and what can it tell us about the obvious arthritic degeneration?In addition, what about the condition of the fibula?Fibulae are bones that are often regaled into the category ofhighly variable without any significance being assigned tothat variability. It should not be forgotten that osteology iscovered by pathology, and there are actually quite a fewmuscles that attach to (and therefore act upon) the fibula.The fibula also acts as a strut or buttress, giving support tothe lateral condyle of the tibia and acting to stabilize theankle. (Lambert 1971) This function is highly suggestive of abone with strong forces acting upon it; and where there areforces, there is Wolffs Law.Notice that the Fort Edmonton fibula (fig 1) has a verythin tubular shaft with a relatively large proximal head.Compare this to a normal fibula (fig 2) which has a moretriangular shaft with rounded edges. Could there be certainmuscle forces, certain mechanical loadings, and thereforecertain activities that can be surmised from this fibularFigure 2 from Gray (1918)
11 | P a g einterosseous crest. Should not only the question Why is the crest hypertrophic? beasked; but also Why is the crest hypertrophic in this manner? Is there something inthe way the interosseous membrane functions that would produce such hypertrophy?(Currently the function of interosseous membranes is poorly understood. See Skahen etal 1997a & b and Wallace et al 1997).What is to be gleaned from the apparent robusticityof this tibia and the overall robusticity of the fur traderskeletons in general? Take, for example, these two ulnae,also from the Fort Edmonton site. The ulna on the right isfrom a male. The one on the left is from a female. Bothulnae scored an R3 using the Hawkey & Merbs (1995)criteria. (Lovell & Dublenko 1999) Weiss (2007) cautionsthat both size of the element and age of the individual needto be taken in to consideration when assessing traitrobusticity. Even taking the minimal size differences intoaccount, the two ulnae do appear homogeneous, at leastwhere robusticity is concerned. This would seem to suggestthe same amount and similar type of work between males
and females. And yet, from ethnographic accounts, we know that women in the furtrade did not perform the same tasks as the men. Perhaps robusticity is an erroneousassessment and morphology the better evaluation. Could more information be gleanedfrom not only the robustness, but also the apparent angle difference in the necks of thetwo ulnae; or the shape difference in the interosseous crest?
12 | P a g eResearchers are looking at shape as an indicator of activity. Yet this is still playingonly a small part in their investigations. Rhodes and Knusel (2005), spend only 17 linesin a 10 page paper addressing the shape of the humeri under investigation. Shaw andStock (2009) give it more discussion: 49 lines in the same number of pages. And, a fewresearchers are showing shape its due deference. Galtes et al (2009) use the function ofshape to better understand curvature in the radius, and Bridges (1996) tries to includeshape and morphology to aid in her investigation of the shift over time from robusticityto a more gracile skeleton among the genus Homo. Perhaps this line of research will aidin the continued search for the Holy Grail.Bones experience forces throughout an individuals life. Wolffs law applies andbone modifies itself to enable itself to withstand the force or forces in question, whethertorsion, bending, shear, compression, tension or all of the above. In attempting todiscover the Holy Grailmarkers of occupational stress and ultimately knowledge ofpast activitiesbioarchaeologists use arthritis, MSMs, and robusticity as primary linesof investigation. There are problems with each method, but continued use ofmethodology will hopefully lead to a refinement and improvement in techniques. Andperhaps trying to read the whole story the bones are telling us, rather than just a sectionof the script will lead us to better techniques and even better questions to ask. Perhapsthinking outside the box would benefit us all?
13 | P a g e
Works Cited:
Bridges, P. S. "Skeletal Biology and Behavior in Ancient Humans." Evolutionary Anthropology, 1996:5:112-120.Dauzvardis, M. F., J. A. McNulty, B. Espiritu, D. Lee, S. Sadowski, G. Klitz, and M. Yuan. LoyolaUniversity. 1998. www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/grossanatomy/dissector/mml/index.htm(accessed Nov. 2009).Demes, B. "In Vivo Strain and Bone Functional Adaptation." American Journal of PhysicalAnthropology, 2007: 133:717722.Frost, H. M. The Utah Paradigm of Skeletal Physiology. Salt Lake City: ISMNI, 1960.Galtes, I., X. Jordana, J. Manyosa, and A. Malgosa. "Functional Implications of Radial DiaphysealCurvature." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2009: 138:286292.Gray, Henry. Anatomy of the Human Body. 20. Edited by W. H. Lewis. New York: Bartelby, 1918.Hawkey, D. E. and C. F. Merbs. "Activity induced musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) and subsistencestrategy changes among ancient Hudson's Bay Eskimos." International Journal ofOsteoarchaeology, 1995: 5:324-338.Jurmain, R. D. "Degenerative Changes in Peripheral Joints as Iindicators of Mechanical Stress:Opportunities and Limitations." International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1991: 1:247252.Jurmain, R. D. "Paleoepidemiology of a Central California Prehistoric Population from CA-ALA-329: 11.Degenerative Disease." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1990: 83:83-94.Kay, L. W. "Some Anthropologic Investigations of Interest to Surgeons." International Journal of OralSurgury, 1974: 3:363379.Kennedy, K. A. R. "Markers of Occupational Stress: Conspectus and Prognosis of Research." InternationalJournal of Osteoarchaeology, 1998: 8:305310.Kennedy, K. A. R. "Skeletal Markers of Occupational Stress." In Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton,by M. Y. and K. A. R. Kennedy Iscan, 129-160. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1989.Kennedy, K. A. R., C. A. Wilczak and L. Capasso. Atlas of Occupational Markers on Human Remains.Teramo, Italy: Edigrafital S.P.A, 1999.Knusel, C. "Activity-Related Skeletal Change." In Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Gravefrom the Battle of Towton AD 1461, by V., A. Boylston and C. Knusel Fiorato, 103-118. Oxford:Oxbow Books, 2007.Lai, P. and N. C. Lovell. "Skeletal markers of occupational stress in the fur trade: a case study from aHudson's Bay Company Fur Trade Post." International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 1992: 2:221-234.Lambert, K. "The Weight-Bearing Function of the Fibula: A Strain Gauge Study." Journal of Bone andJoint Surgury (American), 1971: 53:507-513.
14 | P a g eLanglais, R. P., J. Cottone and M. J. Kasle. "Anterior and Posterior Lingual Depressions of the Mandible."Journal of Oral Surgury, 1976: 34(6):502509.Larsen, C. S. "Activity Patterns 1 & 2: Chapers 5 & 6." In Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from theHuman Skeleton, 161-225. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, 1997.Lovell, N. and A. A. Dublenko. "Further Aspects of Fur Trade Life Depicted in the Skeleton." InternationalJournal of Osteoarchaeology, 1999: 9:248256.Lukacs, J. R. and C. R. Martin. "Lingual Cortical Mandibular Defects (Stafnes Defect): AnAnthropological Approach based on Prehistoric Skeletons from the Canary Islands."International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2002: 12: 112126.Merbs, C. F. Patterns of Activity-Induced Pathology in a Canadian Inuit Population. ArchaeologicalSurvey of Canada No. 119, Ottowa: National Museum of Man Mercury Series, 1983.Radin, E. L. "Mechanical Factors in the Causation of Osteoarthriris." Rheumatology, 1982: 7:46-52.Rhodes, J. A. and C. Knusel. "Activity-Related Skeletal Change in Medieval Humeri: Cross-Sectional andArchitectural Alterations." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2005: 128:536546.Rogers, J., T. Waldronb, P. Dieppe and I. Watt. "Arthropathies in Paleopathology: The Basis ofClassification According to Most Probable Cause." Journal of Archaeological Science, 1987:14:179-l 93.Ronchese, F. Occupational Marks and Other Physical Signs: a Guide to Personal Identification. NewYork: Grune & Stratton, Inc., 1948.Ruff, C. B., A. Walker and E. Trinkaus. "Postcranial Robusticity in Homo III: Ontogeny." AmericanJournal of Physical Anthropology, 1994: 93:35-54.Ruff, C., B. Holt and E. Trinkaus. "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf: "Wolff's Law" and Bone FunctionalAdaptation." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2006: 129:484498.Saul, F. and J. Saul. "Osteobiography: a Maya Example." In Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton, byM. Y. and J. A. R. Kennedy Iscan, 287-302. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1989.Shaw, C. N. and J. T. Stock. "Habitual Throwing and Swimming Correspond with Upper Limb DiaphysealStrength and Shape in Modern Human Athletes." American Journal of Physical Anthropology,2009a: 140:160172.Shaw, C. N. and J. T. Stock. "Intensity, Repetitiveness, and Directionality of Habitual Adolescent MobilityPatterns Influence the Tibial Diaphysis Morphology of Athletes." American Journal of PhysicalANthropology, 2009: 140:149159.Skahen, J. R. III, A. K. Palmer, F. W. Werner, and M. D. Fortino. "Reconstruction of the InterosseousMembrane of the Forearm in Cadavers." The Journal of Hand Surgery, 1997: 22A:986-994.Skahen, J. R. III, A. K. Palmer, F. W. Werner, and M. D. Fortino. "The Interosseous Membrane of theForearm: Anatomy and Function." Journal of Hand Surgury, 1997: 22A:981-985.Soafer, J. R. The Body as Material Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.Stirland, A. "The Skeleton Crew of the Mary Rose: General Pathology." In Skeleton Crew, 87-116.Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
15 | P a g eStock, J., and S. Pfeiffer. "Linking Structural Variability in Long Bone Diaphyses to Habitual Behaviors:Foragers from the SAfrican Later Stone Age and the Andaman Islands." American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology, 2001: 115:337348.Wallace, A. L., W. R. Walsh, M. Van Rooijen, J. S. Hughes, and D. H. Sonnabend. "The InterosseousMembrane in Radio-Ulnar Dislocation." Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (European), 1997:79-B:422-7.Weiss, E. and R. Jurmain. "Osteoarthritis Revisited: A Contemporary Review of Aetiology." InternationalJournal of Osteoarchaeology, 2007: 17:437450.Weiss, E. "Muscle Markers Revisited: Activity Pattern Reconstruction with Controls in a CentralCalifornia Amerind Population." American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2007: 133:931940.Wells, C. "The Human Burials." In Cirencester Excavations II: Romano-British Cemeteries atCirencester, edited by L. Viner & C. Wells A. McWhirr, 135-202. Cirencester: CirencesterExcavation Committee, Corinium Museum, 1982.Wilczak, C.A. and K. A. R. Kennedy. "Mostly MOS: Aspects of Identification of Skeletal Markers." InForensic Osteology, edited by ed. Kathy J. Reichs, 461490. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas,1998.Wolff, J. The Law of Bone Remodeling. 1986. New York: Springer, 1892.


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Journal Article
A New Piston Insulation Concept for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines to Reduce Heat Loss from the Wall
To reduce heat transfer between hot gas and cavity wall, thin Zirconia (ZrO2) layer (0.5mm) on the cavity surface of a forged steel piston was firstly formed by thermal spray coating aiming higher surface temperature swing precisely synchronized with flame temperature near the wall resulting in the reduction of temperature difference. However, no apparent difference in the heat loss was analyzed. To find out the reason why the heat loss was not so improved, direct observation of flame impingement to the cavity wall was carried out with the top view visualization technique, for which one of the exhaust valves was modified to a sapphire window. Local flame behavior very close to the wall was compared by macrophotography. Numerical analysis by utilizing a three-dimensional simulation was also carried out to investigate the effect of several parameters on the heat transfer coefficient.

subset: commoncrawl


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It was established by Royal Charter in 1968 and began production in 1971. Initial capacity was 120,000 tonnes a year (t/y). In 1980, it celebrated producing its millionth tonne of aluminium products. Just one year later, in 1981, a third pot line was opened, taking capacity up to 170,000 t/y. Pot line 4 opened in 1992 and, together with an upgrade of line 3, pushed capacity to 450,000 t/y. Pot line 5 opened in 2005; the 1.15-kilometre line took just 77 days to commission, setting a new world record.
Today, the plant has an output of 890,000 t/y and is set to be expanded further with a sixth production line. This has been planned for several years, however, the past few years have been eventful for the company and this goes some way to explaining why this has been delayed. Most importantly, the organisation, which was previously 77 per cent owned by the government of Bahrain, 20 per cent owned by Saudi Arabias Sabic Industrial Investments Company (SIIC) and 3 per cent owned by Germany-based Breton Investments, launched an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange and the Bahraini Bourse in November 2010. Breton Investments relinquished its ownership stake, selling its shares back to the company. About 10 per cent of Alba was subsequently floated and was well received by the markets, raising $338m. Today, its shareholders include Bahrain Mumtalakat Holding Company, which is itself owned by the government. It owns 69.38 per cent of the company. SIIC continues to hold 20.62 per cent. Of the remaining 10 per cent, 5.27 per cent is owned by two major shareholders and 4.73 per cent is held by 2,453 minor shareholders. The company also holds 3 million treasury shares for employees as part of an incentive plan.
Prior to the listing, chief executive officer (CEO) Ahmed Saleh al-Noaimi retired after being with Alba for 35 years (as CEO since 2005). He was replaced by Laurent Schmitt, who held the role until September 2012, when it was given to long-standing Alba employee Tim Murray, who was previously the chief finance and supply officer.
Also in 2012, Alba resolved a controversial civil court case against US alumina supplier Alcoa World Alumina. First filed in the US in 2008, the case saw Alba accuse Alcoa of corrupt activities related to alumina supplies. After an investigation under the Foreign and Corrupt Practices Act, a US court ordered in June 2012 that the case could proceed to the discovery phase. In October 2012, Alcoa reached a settlement with Alba worth $447m to the Bahraini company, although Alcoa did not admit any liability. The payment consisted of an $85m cash sum and long-term alumina sales agreements.
With this ongoing issue now settled, Alba is focused on its sixth pot line. In December 2012, it commissioned Bechtel Canada to produce a bankable feasibility study for the line and a new power station. The main contract award is scheduled for late 2014, but progress on the project depends on the gas allocation from the Bahrain National Oil & Gas Authority (Noga). Noga raised the price of the gas allocated to Alba in January 2012, from $1.50 a million BTUs to $2.25 a million BTUs, costing the company an extra $86.6m for the year. Despite this, Alba still enjoys much lower energy prices than many of its international competitors, which explains why the company is still doing well despite lower global aluminium costs and rising energy prices. In November, it also completed upgrades to lines 1, 2 and 3 using resistor preheating, which saves energy, reduces gas use and prolongs pot life. This new system had already been implemented on lines 4 and 5.
The majority of Albas customers are in Bahrain, with the domestic market accounting for 46 per cent of sales in 2013 (to the end of September). A further 26 per cent of its produce is sold to the wider Middle East and regional demand is growing, particularly in neighbouring Saudi Arabia. Sales in the first nine months of 2013 were up 2 per cent on the same period in 2012, due to increased local demand, while exports to Asia fell significantly during this period.
Key details
Aluminium Bahrain (Alba)
Founded: 1968
CEO: Tim Murray
Chairman: Mahmood Hashim al-Kooheji
Tel: (+973) 1 783 0000
Web: www.albasmelter.com


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SAITEK Wheels R4 Racing Wheel USB more- opens in a new window or tab Change country: Get a Grip Yet another item on our list of must-haves for true farming simulation: How else can you turn the wheel while enjoying your beverage of choice? Better yet, your free hand can operate the controls on our supplementary, separately sold Vehicle Side Panel.
The knob is removable — go ahead and place it wherever it's most convenient for you. Enjoy Your Farm's Fresh Air As good as it feels to cruise your farm in heavy machinery, sometimes you just have to get your hands dirty.
Those in-game situations call for sticks and buttons, and the wheel has a cornucopia of them. Twin analog sticks, each with a push-down button, are ideal for moving your character and controlling your camera. Plus, the 4-way hat switches near each stick provide eight more buttons at your fingertips.
Saitek R4 Racing Wheel USB Free Driver Download (Official)
Two ergonomic, trigger-like buttons reside on the back. This built-in control scheme gives you precision command of your farmer, and everything is programmable from within the game.
Whether using your chainsaw, walking into the barn, or simply going for a sunset stroll to admire your crops, all controls are at the ready. Stop and Go Rather than take the easy route by adding gas and brake functions to the wheel, we chose to enhance immersion by creating a set of dedicated pedals.
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Angular travel is set to 20 degrees to give you utmost control. Why dig a hole with a shovel if you have access to a backhoe?
Care for your farm with these realistic tools to gain a deeper sense of immersion and enjoyment, all while driving vehicles with a finer degree of control. Total Control In and Out of Vehicles You will actually feel like you're SAITEK Wheels R4 Racing Wheel USB in your heavy machinery with this highly realistic wheel and pedals system.
Manage and grow your farm by steering a real wheel and pushing real pedals. Use the steering wheel knob to steer with one hand, just like in real life. Need to get out of your vehicle and walk around?
Saitek R100 USB PC Racing Wheel and Pedals
We've put all the controls from a gamepad right on the wheel itself. Unless you're reaching for the loader stick on our separately available Vehicle Side Panel, you won't have to take your hands off the wheel.
The wheel's bumper crop of buttons, SAITEK Wheels R4 Racing Wheel USB, and switches give you total control over your farmer. Go for a Spin You won't find a wheel that's closer to the real thing. Put down your gamepad, racing wheel, or mouse and keyboard, and wrap your hands around a wheel that truly simulates what's inside real-life farming machines.


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WGA, Guild Impasse Continues
The Writers Guild of America East and West had their first face-to-face negotiations since November 1 with CBS over their protracted contract dispute, but the two still didn't meet.
According to a WGA reading of the talks, CBS did not modify its last proposal, which was rejected by 99% of the guild members.
WGA says CBS also rejected a counterproposal from the union that would have modified the producer proposal, one of the key sticking points.
CBS had alread withdrawn its condition that could have taken producers out of the guild, but had said it then wanted them to be responsible for supervisory functions. The guild had proposed a six-month waiting period before the accountability kicked in, but CBS didn't want a grace period. Apparently, reducing that period from six to four months was the modification that CBS rejected.
Since the guild had asked for the meeting this week, the network was likely looking for more in the way of new proposals than it got.
The contract expired on April 1, 2005 and the almost two-year-old negotiations are over contracts affecting approximately 500 newswriters, editors, desk assistants, production assistants, graphic artists, promotion writers and researchers in New York, Washington, Chicago, and Los Angeles.
At an investor conference in Last Vegas Wednesday, Moonves said he was still hopeful the two sides could reach an agreement.


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Audio Video over IP
What you need to know to make audio video over IP as good as solid state.
There are many reasons why people prefer to transport audio/video signals over a digital network or #AVoverIP. However, before abandoning conventional A/V routers, switches, coax cables, and amplifiers, let's look at the basics of digital audio/video and transmission and your optimal options.
Best Practices in Delivering Video Over Ethernet and Wifi Networks
Join DiscoverVideo and our newest partner Wyebot on November 13, 2018, for a webinar on the best practices of video deployment.
Learn about:
- Optimizing network connectivity
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- Pros and cons of using Unicast vs Multicast
About Wyebot:
On a day-to-day basis, you and your customers just want a WiFi network you can count on. By combining a best-of-breed WiFi sensor and patented software solution, Wyebot keeps enterprises reliably connected, every day.


text: When A sudden tragedy turns her life upside down,Alex Ryan resigns as a homicide detective with the Boston PD and goes into hiding to licke her wounds in private. Her self-imposed exile doesn't last long because life keeps interfering. In fact, her plan goes awry as soon as she moves into her new home. First there is Megan, the gorgeous new neighbor Alex starts to find too distracting, then her best freind Jamie who needs help in solving a murder. This murder involves Kate, a mysterious blonde with a dislike for disco, and a newly discovered interest in women, only adds to the confusion. Add in the cavlry of friends who don't stay on the sidelines for long and Alex finds that even when she tries hard to disengage from life, life has a way of barging in and demanding her attention.


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A hybrid-hydraulic-fracture (HHF) model composed of (1) complex discrete fracture networks (DFNs) and (2) planar fractures is proposed for modeling the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV). Modeling the SRV is complex and requires a synergetic approach between geophysics, petrophysics, and reservoir engineering. The objective of this paper is to characterize and evaluate the SRV in nine horizontal multilaterals covering the Muskwa, Otter Park, and Evie Formations in the Horn River Shale in Canada, with a view to match their production histories and to evaluate the effectiveness and potential problems of the multistage hydraulic-fracturing jobs performed in the nine laterals.
To accomplish this goal, the HHF model is run in a numerical-simulation model to evaluate the SRV performance in planar and complex fracture networks using good-quality microseismicity data collected during 75 stages of hydraulic fracturing (out of 145 stages performed in nine laterals). The fracture-network geometry for each hydraulic-fracture (HF) stage is developed on the basis of microseismicity observations and the limits obtained in the fracture-propagation modeling. Post-fracturing production is appraised with rate-transient analysis (RTA) for determining effective permeability under flowing conditions. Results are compared with the HHF simulation and the hydraulic-fracturing design.
The HHF modeling of the SRV leads to a good match of the post-fracturing production history. The HHF simulation indicates interference between stages. The vertical connectivity in the reservoir is larger than the horizontal connectivity. This is interpreted to be the result of the large height achieved by HFs, and the absence of barriers between the formations.
It is concluded that the HHF model is a valuable tool for evaluating hydraulic-fracturing jobs and the SRV in shales of the Horn River Basin in Canada. Because of the generality of the Horn River application, the same approach might have application in other shale gas reservoirs around the world.
Dumas, Guilherme E. S. (Petrobras E&P) | Freire, Ednilson B. (Petrobras E&P) | Johann, Paulo R. S. (Petrobras E&P) | Silva, Luciana S. (Petrobras E&P) | Vieira, Roberto A. B. (Petrobras E&P) | Bruhn, Carlos H. L. (Petrobras E&P) | Pinto, Antonio C. C. (Petrobras E&P)
Over the last 40 years Petrobras has developed several oilfields in the prolific Campos Basin, including giant fields such as Marlim, Roncador and Jubarte, among others. All of these giant fields produce mostly from siliciclastic turbidite reservoirs, ranging in age from Albian to Miocene, which contain medium API gravity oil (mostly 18 – 24°API). Sea water injection is the main method for improving oil recovery. Reservoir management is particularly complex because of the deep to ultra-deep water depth and the use of subsea well completion. Therefore, several methodologies, tools and technologies are required to help reservoir management, such as: (1) data acquisition for reducing reservoir uncertainties, including extended well tests in the development plan design phase; (2) continuous improvement in the reservoir characterization and modeling incorporating dynamic data; (3) 4D seismic for monitoring oil and gas production, allowing the identification of areas with bypassed oil and secondary gas caps; (4) single well and inter-well tracers and production logs, also to help tracking the remaining oil; (5) infill drilling, to replace high water cut wells by wells located in areas with low water saturation; (6) produced water reinjection; (7) remote well treatment to restore water injectivity, as well as to inhibit or remove inorganic scaling in production wells; and (8) active reservoir management aiming the optimization of well production and injection rates, based on the flow simulator and field responses. The results have been so far very good, with the reduction of production losses and the gradual increasing in the ultimate recovery factor. A good example is provided by the Marlim Field, that already reached an oil recovery of 40%, and the actions planned for the field revitalization indicate an ultimate recovery factor of over 50%.
A hybrid hydraulic fracture (HHF) model composed of (1) complex discrete fracture networks (DFN) and (2) planar fractures is proposed for modeling the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV). Modeling the SRV is complex and requires a synergetic approach between geophysics, petrophysics, and reservoir engineering. The objective of this paper is to characterize and evaluate the SRV considering the initial hydraulic fracturing efficiency, fracture network complexity, mechanics, and microseismicity distribution along 145 stimulated stages in a multilateral horizontal well on the Muskwa, Otter Park and Evie Formations in the Horn River Shale in Canada.
Hydraulic fracturing jobs in shale reservoirs are designed with a view to achieve economic production by exploiting fracture network complexity. The task involves significant challenges in modeling and forecasting, which complicates the examination of operations to enhance their performance, including refracturing or infill drilling.
In this study, an HHF is run in a numerical simulation model to evaluate the SRV performance in planar and complex fracture networks using microseismicity data collected during 75 stages of hydraulic fracturing in the Horn River shale. Post-fracturing production is appraised with Rate Transient Analysis (RTA) for determining effective permeability under flowing conditions, compare to the numerical simulation and the hydraulic fracturing design.
Fracturing stages with larger fracture patch sizes, associated with the microseismic events in a fixed stress drop, correspond to higher stimulated areas, fracture conductivity, and gas production. Several microseismic events are observed in the heel of the laterals that are aligned to the far field NE stresses, indicated a loss of efficiency along the wellbore lateral during hydraulic fracturing. The hydraulic propagation modeling revealed increment of the leak-off coefficient, related to the natural fractures and communication with other stages. The production performance is evaluated in the numerical model, to measure interference between stages.
The SRV, modeled with HHF networks, is able to match the post-fracturing production history. Fracture mechanics is important in order to understand the flowing performance of the reservoir.
The inclusion of propagating models and RTA allowed to characterize possible fracture geometries in the reservoir and to observe limitations inherent to large dispersion and uncertainty of the microseismicity cloud. Also, to observe areas where the stimulation may have propped natural fractures totally or partially, which will benefit the production of gas.
This study presents a better understanding and characterization of the SRV in shale gas reservoirs, especially in those cases where microseismicity dispersion is problematic and where the SRV is not easily delimited.
Perz, Michael (TGS) | Chopra, Satinder (TGS) | Sharma, Ritesh (TGS) | Cary, Peter (TGS) | Li, Xinxiang (Arcis Seismic Solutions) | Ohlhauser, Wendy (Arcis Seismic Solutions) | Pike, Kimberly (PennWest) | Creaser, Brian (Enerplus) | Nemati, M. Hossein (Arcis)
A high-effort, multicomponent 3C3D seismic data set was acquired over a mature oil field in central Alberta in order to better understand the characteristics of a waterflood operation. True-amplitude processing of the data was undertaken, and joint PP-PS prestack impedance inversion reveals a pronounced set of anomalous low-impedance lineaments at the target level which exhibit a very strong spatial correlation with known water injector locations. Rock physics modeling demonstrates that fluid pressure effects are heavily influencing the seismic response in the vicinity of the injectors, and are accounting for the observed low-impedance anomalies. Analysis of injection and production data suggests that the seismic data can play a vital role in identifying zones of unswept pay in this area.
Presentation Date: Monday, October 17, 2016
Start Time: 1:00:00 PM
Location: 156
Presentation Type: ORAL
Madsen, M. (Whiting Petroleum Corporation) | Carlson, J. E. (Whiting Petroleum Corporation) | Rondon, J. R. (Schlumberger) | Valenca, A. (Schlumberger) | Do, T. (Schlumberger) | Stewart, M. (Schlumberger) | Borchardt, E. (Schlumberger) | Dupuis, B. (Schlumberger)
A well which was drilled in the Pronghorn formation of the Williston Basin had significant trouble during the cementing process. While the lateral length was 11,103 feet, only the 9,296 feet of the lateral closest to the toe had adequate cement to provide the isolation needed for hydraulic fracture stimulation. An integrated solution with evaluation of well integrity and novel diversion material used over the remaining 1,807 feet of the lateral to generate multiple hydraulic fractures was proposed and results were confirmed with production log evaluation.
After using an ultrasonic imaging logging tool conveyed via tractor to determine the point at which the cement isolation became unreliable, the appropriate completion was designed. The first 33 stages of the stimulation were done using a standard plug and perf technique. The last 1,807 feet of the lateral were completed in two intervals with only one additional bridge plug. The two intervals were each stimulated with seven hydraulic fracturing stages and six diversion pills consisting of a proprietary blend of degradable materials. While more stages were pumped in the heel section, the same amount of proppant per foot of lateral was used as in the larger conventionally completed toe section.
The 14 stages pumped in the heel portion of the lateral showed that in both intervals, the instantaneous shut-in pressures at the end of each one of them increased by 2,300 psi and 340 psi respectively. This increase is consistent with fractures initiating at lower pressure intervals, and then being diverted to higher pressure, unstimulated areas. Well production was evaluated with a production log capable of identifying multiphase holdup along the lateral. This evaluation showed that 42% of the total oil production was coming from the 18% of the lateral which was stimulated using the degradable diversion material.
The application of this degradable diversion material in poorly cemented or un-cemented lateral sections in order to create a more uniform distribution of hydraulic fractures can significantly improve both completion efficiency and hydrocarbon production.
Hydraulic fracturing in shale gas reservoirs has often resulted in complex fracture network growth, as evidenced by microseismic monitoring. The nature and degree of fracture complexity must be clearly understood to optimize stimulation design and completion strategy. Unfortunately, the existing single planar fracture models used in the industry today are not able to simulate complex fracture networks.
A recently developed unconventional complex fracture propagation model is able to simulate complex fracture network propagation in a formation with pre-existing natural fractures. Multiple fracture branches can propagate simultaneously and intersect/cross each other. This paper presents an integrated operator, non-operator and service provider's approach to optimize future hydraulic fracture design by fully integrating all the data captured in the Canadian Horn River shale.
Based upon insight from the study, which was initiated by the non-operator, continued by the operator and supported by the service provider in two different countries, the operator and non-operator needed to make more informed design decisions and understand the interaction between the shale, the hydraulic and pre-existing natural fracture network and reduce costs.
Data were captured from reference vertical wells and a multi-well pad. The data incorporated into the study included geophysical, geological, petrophysical, geomechanical and engineering such as dfit (small volume of water pumped into target formation) derived fracture closure pressure, production and pressure data from the horizontal wells in the pad. A generation of 2D natural fracture network is also included in the paper by defining natural fracture parameters such as length, orientation, spacing, friction coefficient, cohesion, and toughness which are almost entirely validated using lab data and geomechanical interpretation.
The complex hydraulic fracture simulation results calibrated with microseismic and fracturing treatment data were incorporated into a shale gas, numerical simulator and further calibrated with current production history of the candidate multi-wells. The results of the hydraulic fracture, natural fracture and reservoir models were utilized to understand the fracture propagation mechanism in the Canadian Horn River shale gas formation.
As a result of the project, the team is now able to run different hydraulic fracture design scenarios and assess the impact that each key design parameter has over the candidate well's long term production using a numerical simulator with a unique gridding process. Based on these findings, the operator and non-operator now have an insightful tool that could be used as the building block for future optimization of the fracture design
Uncertainties in rock and soil engineering are connected with the cognitive boundaries and with the natural variability of the relevant variables. In particular, uncertainties are linked to geometrical and mechanical aspects and the model used for the problem schematization. While nothing can be done to remove the randomness of natural variables, except defining their variability boundaries with stochastic studies, the uncertainties due to the cognitive gaps could be filled by improving the quality of measuring instruments and numerical codes. The present paper considers uncertainties connected to the design of protection barriers against rockfall and contains a simple application of interval analysis to the problem, in order to quantify spacing influence on predicting rock block volume. A case study is also presented: block volume calculated from interval analysis is compared to results obtained from a non-contact survey and validated with in situ measurements. Also kinetic energy calculation is performed in order to show block volume influence on the design of a protection barrier.
The design of a geotechnical structure has inevitably to include the identification and the evaluation of a series of uncertainties due to the characteristics, the complexity and the non-homogeneous nature of the involved medium, either soil or rock. If the design concerns slope stability problems, the amount of uncertainties is further complicated. In fact, not only the time factor has to be considered as an additional variable, but also the spatial dimensions of the potentially involved areas. Therefore, for a better design in the rock engineering field, it is necessary to focus the attention on the involved uncertainties [1]. The nature of the uncertainties in rock engineering is extensively discussed in literature. In [2], for example, sources of errors in sampling are classified as:
• Sampling error;
• Estimation ("statistical") error;
• Measurement error.
The integration of an MPD system during a new drilling floater design phase is today a common practice. While working on a brand new project, different MPD technologies could be evaluated choosing the one that suit best next well campaign properties of each drilling contractor. At the design phase, technically speaking, almost everything can be arranged and integrated. Now, given the high appeal that MPD systems are reaching today within Oil Companies, and considering the best possible delivery time for a new floater, are we sure we will be granted all this time to wait? The idea of limiting MPD chances to new builds seems not to be wise, thus, the profitability of retrofitting this new philosophy on an existing drilling rig should be properly evaluated. Developing this assessment, it is easy to notice how the implementation of an MPD set up on a conventional drilling plant impose the designer a different approach. Limitations in space on decks, integration between new and existing equipment and need for crew training are just some of the criticalities the drilling contractor will face choosing the best solution for them within the increasing number of potential providers. Let's say "constrains" will drive the choice. The two major technologies available in the MPD market - and relevant set up - have been analysed on a "retrofitting point of view", highlighting benefits and deficiencies of each in a critical tradeoff between drilling development and operative constrains.
This paper aims at understanding the factors controlling the wettability of unconventional rocks. In the first part, we report the results of comparative imbibition experiments on several binary core plugs from the Montney tight gas formation, which is an enormous tight gas fairway in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Both contact angle and imbibition data indicate that the formation is strongly oil-wet. However, the ratio between oil and water imbibition rate of these samples is higher than what capillary-driven imbibition models predict. This discrepancy can be explained by the strong adsorption of oil on the surface of a well-connected organic pore network that is partly coated by pyrobitumen. We also define a wettability index by using the equilibrium imbibed volume of oil and water in binary plugs. Oil wettability index is in general positively correlated to the total organic carbon (TOC), measured by the Rock-Eval technique. In the second part, we report similar imbibition experiments on several binary core samples collected from the cores drilled in the shale members of the Horn River Basin. In contrast to the Montney (MT) samples, the Horn River (HR) samples imbibe significantly more water than oil. This observation contradicts the contact angle results which suggest that the HR samples are strongly oil-wet. Clay hydration, imbibition-induced microfractures, depositional lamination, and osmotic potential are collectively responsible for the excess water uptake. We also measure and compare spontaneous imbibition of oil and water into the crushed packs of the similar HR samples. Interestingly, in contrast to the intact samples, the crushed samples consistently imbibe more oil than water. The comparative study suggests that the connected pore network of the intact HR samples is water-wet while the majority of rock including poorly connected pores is oil-wet.Overall, the results suggest that the well-connected pore network of the MT samples is dominantly hydrophobic and is very likely to be coated by pyrobitumen. This is the main reason why these samples imbibe more oil than water. On the other hand, the well-connected pore network of the HR samples is strongly hydrophilic primarily due to the presence of clay minerals and precipitated salt crystals coating the rock grains.
Increasing the energy demand has shifted the industry focus towards unconventional resources worldwide. Recent advances in horizontal drilling and multi-lateral/multi-stage hydraulic fracturing has unlocked the challenging unconventional resources. However, successful and sustainable development of such reservoirs requires correct characterization of reservoir properties (Burke et al., 2011). In particular, knowing the reservoir rock properties such as permeability, porosity and wettability (wetting affinity) is critical for reserve estimation, production forecasting and designing optimum fracturing and treatment fluids.
The affinity of a reservoir rock on a particular fluid is defined as wettability, which depends on various factors such as rock mineralogy and the properties of the materials coating the rock surface (Anderson, 1986; Rao et al., 1994; Hamon, 2000; Mohammed B et al., 2010; Mohammadlou et al., 2012). Characterizing the wettability of reservoir rocks is important for 1) selecting fracturing and treatment fluids, 2) investigating residual phase saturation and its pore-scale topology, 3) investigating the occurrence water blockage at fracture face, and 4) selecting relevant capillary pressure and relative permeability models for reservoir engineering calculations.
A brief overview of different proppant types and amounts used in stimulation designs in the Bakken shale play since 2011 is presented in this paper. The primary goal of the paper is to determine the long-term production and economical effectiveness on hydraulically fractured wells using different proppant types, percentages of proppant types and overall amount of proppant in the well completions. The results are based on four case studies that focus on 72 wells in four different fields in the Bakken formation of the Williston Basin.
In these four case studies, the primary variable that affects the difference in long-term production of the different well groups is the percentage and amount of each proppant type used in the completion design. Completion and stimulation data was collected from public resources such as the North Dakota Industrial Commission (NDIC) database. In each case study, wells in the same field were grouped. For each group of wells, the average long-term production and economical effectiveness was analyzed.
The case studies in the Capa Field in Williams County North Dakota and the Chimney Butte Field in Dunn County North Dakota shows that over a 270 day period, in each group of wells completed with about 30 percent ceramic proppant mixed with silica sand, the wells produced an average of over 100 percent more than the comparable group of wells completed using only silica sand. The case study in the East Fork Field in Williams County North Dakota shows that after 270 days of production, the group of wells using 100 percent ceramic proppant attained an average of 27 percent production increase over the group of wells using an average of 62 percent ceramic proppant. These wells also attained a 67 percent production increase over the group of wells using an average of 35 percent ceramic proppant.
In comparing completion procedures in these high-producing fields, using a combination of high percentages and large amounts of ceramic proppant has yield higher production and EUR. The use of ceramic proppant not only covers the additional proppant cost in a short period of time, but also generates higher revenue in the long term. The findings from these case studies should apply to all fields that have similar reservoir characteristics.


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It can be a challenge for you if you are seeking to find better ways to implement educational materials for your kid(s). The ideology of educational apps for kids tends to really elevate into the educational surface, as we are seeing a spike of educational applications becoming widely available in Google Play Store and iTunes. Approx. there are about 80,000 educational applications available for anyone from around the world. Learning apps for toddlers like PEZO Parent is a comprehensible educational application that offers "parental control, it is an advisory-based" application that helps parents monitor their kid(s) fun activities and their educational progress.
One of the most important factors when you allow your kid(s) to use of an educational app for students is to ensure whether or not that your child is actually learning from the application. Educational application developers have developed a complex-yet-comprehensible system for the child and the parent to engage in pre-educational learning phases, monitor progress and some innovated features that further enlightens you about your child's activities whilst using such smart device.
What are the benefits of monitoring your kid(s) activities in educational apps?
(Image Accredited by: howtogeek.com)
One of the major reasons why parents should opt into monitoring your kid's activities in educational apps is to identify your child's progress and to determine whether or not your child is learning a vital lesson or not. One genius way to ensure that your child will use the educational app is through parental-app restriction and control. An educational app that has a feature whereas though the parent can restrict certain applications within the device, such as Facebook, can have a greater impact on your child's learning phases. Some educational applications like PEZO Parent, offers the parental-app control option. The only way your child can use his or her favorite application is through the educational app itself, the challenge is that your child must answer or complete a lesson before his/her favorite app becomes available for them to operate and use. Whilst your child works hard to solve the questions and problems that is presented to the child as a challenge, parents get a sneak peak at how the child is doing, whether or not he or she is completing the questions easily or not and helps parents understand their child's educational needs. It vitally helps parents to understand their child's educational needs, their strengths and weaknesses and in which areas their child needs improvement on.
Whether your child needs to focus on mathematics, reading or science, educational applications with parental advisory restrictions and app blocking features can help you control your child's progress with their educational stats and daily activities such as the use of other applications that are solely designed for fun and entertainment purposes.
Parents are recommended to first thoroughly investigate which application tends to suite you and your child needs. It's a mere fact that not all parents know how to use a smart device, considering this factor, it becomes vitally acceptable that parents ought to opt into educational apps for the sake of their child and for their own educational purposes.


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Weight loss in Saguenay : Understand how hormones affect your body!
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|FIXX Promotes beneficial digestive tract bacteria. FIXX - Tastes amazing All that you need to do is to follow all essential steps that are required in the Ketopia weight loss management program.
Weight loss in Saguenay - Das Spitzenprodukt.
Weight loss in Saguenay ?. They also offer Azul and FrequenSea, whole-food beverages with industry exclusive marine phytoplankton, the Versativa line of hemp-based whole-food products, immune support and weight management products, Pulse-8 powdered L-arginine formula, TRUessence Essential Oils and Apothecary, 24Karat Chocolate(R) and an entire catalog of meals, snacks, household cleaners and personal care products. Before commercialism filled it full of waxes and fillers, chocolate was a dark, antioxidant-rich experience found from the blossoms of the cacao tree. Understand how hormones affect your body! All that you need to do is to follow all essential steps that are required in the Ketopia weight loss management program. New from ForeverGreen ! KETOPIAlose weight loss (KetonX, KetoPM , Dough Bites and FIXX) - Saguenay . Since health is habit, not an event, Ketopia was designed to supplement your healthy lifestyle to help you feel and look your best.EVERY DREAM BEGAN SOMEWHERE! FIXX is a whey protein meal replacement shake that comes from grass-fed cows in New Zealand. MCT oil is not true coconut oil, however, since it contains little or no lauric acid. One should not expect the same benefits from cooking with MCT oil (which traditionally has been a supplement or skin care ingredient, and only recently has been marketed as a cooking oil), as with coconut oil. Understand how hormones affect your body! Diet in Ketosis in Saguenay . That means our bodies become very inefficient at using fats, and simply says the heck with it and stores fats as well…fat. WORLDWIDE EXCLUSIVITY: This suggests that a modest increase in protein may promote satiety and facilitate weight loss through reduced energy (caloric) consumption.
Many leading scientists believe the ketosis lifestyle will be the pinnacle of health and wellbeing. Weight loss in Saguenay - Pflege und Kosmetikprodukte. It is better absorbed before any form of exercise, and has even been shown to have a positive effect on stress and mood. Ketopia is our opportunity to take fat and turn it into energy; to reenergize our bodies and self-worth. According to BodyBuilding.com, our bodies are lazy because we consume so many carbs.
Weight loss in Saguenay . KetoPM includes industrial hemp oil concentrate, which has been studied extensively and is found to offer a number of health benefits. Understand how hormones affect your body! It is also known to help create a sense of relaxation for body and mind, without any psychoactive effects. Includes one bottle (2 oz.; about 30 servings) of KetoPM. Easy achieve a state of ketosis in Saguenay .
It's an optimum state of nutrition. In the state of ketosis you have more energy, more mental clarity and less of an appetite, meaning you decide when to eat, not when your cravings do. Ketosis Fat Burning in Saguenay .FIXX - Convenient single-serve pouches Fat offers the body 225% more energy than carbohydrates. Weight loss in Saguenay . I believe the compensation plan for Ketopia™ is rolled into the plan for all ForeverGreen's products, and as such it goes like this: Before we answer a few pivotal questions about Ketopia, let's break down the subtle bodily science of ketosis.
a) Weight loss in Saguenay !Anyway, as promised, here's your definition… Using fat as your body's primary fuel source helps to balance blood sugar levels, which translates to fewer cravings and better energy. Understand how hormones affect your body! Ketopia - KetonX - A worldwide novelty start in Jul 2015 - be a part of a billion dollar market. Understand how hormones affect your body! It's an optimum state of nutrition.
1.1) Weight loss in Saguenay
MCT oils have also been found to have a thermogenic effect in the body, which means they increase heat in the body through metabolic stimulation. After all, tomorrow's greatness begins tonight. Lose weight in Ketosis in Saguenay . SCIENTIFIC BREAKTHROUGH ! KetonX Drink: This is the first part of the Ketopia System, Looks Delicious!
Weitere Seiten:
La - Natural Ketosis Supplement on weight-reduction-in-ketosis.com | Kamloops - Weight Control on ketosis-reduce-weight.com | Me - Diet in Ketosis on ketosis-fat-killer.com | Los Angeles - The optimum state of nutrition on ketosis-lose-weight.com | Personalized Homepage - Scientific Breakthrough on fat-burnung-in-ketosis.com |
Independence - Get in Ketosis with Ketopia | Nanaimo - Weight Loss Management | Press Releases - Reach Ketosis and Take Advantage | West Virginia - Lose weight |


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As long as most of your diet comes from these two food groups.
Another royal wedding is upon us!
She followed a VERY popular diet.
You need to hear this message.
It all starts with breakfast.
Balanced meals to help you get your beach body.
His transformation is seriously impressive.
When Robert couldn't keep up with his family on vacation, he knew he needed to make a change.
Is timing really everything when it comes to eating carbs and staying slim?
Her troll was basically every woman's worst nightmare.
Turns out abs really can be built in the kitchen.
Her look is actually magic.
Lose the belly, save some money.
If you're not careful, you can get real lit, real fast.
It's all about the muscle.
She had the PERFECT response.
A nutritionist weights in on whether his method is actually healthy.
If you want results, stop avoiding this area of the gym.


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PRINCE GEORGE'S COMMUNITY COLLEGE has been awarded $25,000 for the Academy of Health Sciences at PGCC from NBC Universal Foundation and NBC4 Washington as part of their 21st Century Solutions initiative.
What does PGCC stand for?
PGCC stands for Prince George's Community College (Maryland)
This definition appears very frequently and is found in the following Acronym Finder categories:
- Organizations, NGOs, schools, universities, etc.
See other definitions of PGCC
Other Resources:
We have 15 other meanings of PGCC in our Acronym Attic
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- Prince Georges County Association of Realtors (Landover, MD; Realtors group)
- Predictive Ground Collision Avoidance System
- Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board
- Power Grid Corporation of Bangladesh Limited
- Prince George Community Band (Prince George, BC, Canada)
- Post Graduate Certificate in Business Management
- Penang Global City Centre (Penang Turf Club; Penang Island, Malaysia)
- Persian Gulf Cooperation Council
- Ponderosa Golf & Country Club (Malaysia)
- Power Generation Control Complex
- Professional Golfers Career College (various locations)
- Postgraduate Certificate in Curriculum and Assessment
- Postgraduate Certificate in Child Development
- Planned Giving Council of Central Massachusetts (West Springfield, MA)
- Pinal Gila Community Child Services, Inc. (Arizona)
- Panhandle Groundwater Conservation District (Texas)
- Pineywoods Groundwater Conservation District (Texas)
- Plus Grand Commun Diviseur (mathematics)
- Primordial Germ Cell-Derived (biology)
- Postgraduate Certificate in Education (UK)
Samples in periodicals archive:
On the Same Page "Community colleges as partners really just make sense," says Yvette Snowden, dean of workforce development and community partnerships at Prince George's Community College (Md.
For example, a major element in a retention program for Black, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian students in Prince George's Community College is individual support provided by mentors.
Dukes: I think that it occurs in pockets of students, if I can speak [only] for Prince George's Community College.
00 Hardcover Children's and young adult literature reference Z1236 With this resource, Adamson, a professional writer and retired professor of literature at Prince George's Community College, aims to help readers in grades K-6 have emotional responses to historical people and stories so they will then understand and remember them.


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At Arnold Oil Company we are constantly looking for great Individuals with the right talent to help us achieve Success!
We offer competitive wages, excellent benefits, 401K, paid holidays & a great work environment.
If you are interested becoming a member of the Arnold Oil Co. team please submit your Resume or download application below.
©2019 Arnold Oil CompanySite by Sound Press


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Saudi Arabia will execute three prominent scholars who are currently detained on "terrorism" charges after Ramadan, the Middle East Eye reports.
The latest revelation was disclosed to the MEE by two government sources and one of the scholar's relatives.
The most prominent of the three is Shaykh Salman al-Awdah, who is an internationally renowned known for his stances on Shariah law and Muslim unity.
Shaykh al-Awdah was arrested in September 2017 after tweeting a prayer for peace between Saudi Arabia and Qatar, three months after Riyadh launched a blockade on its fellow Gulf state.
The other two scholars awaiting execution are Shaykh Ali al-Omari, a prominent TV broadcaster, and Shaykh Awad al-Qarni, an academic, author and preacher.
Two Saudi government sources independently confirmed to MEE the plan to execute the three scholars, who are currently awaiting trial at the Criminal Special Court in Riyadh.
A court hearing was set for Wednesday 1 May, but was postponed without setting another date.
One source told MEE: "They will not wait to execute these men once the death sentence has been passed."
The second Saudi government source said the execution of 37 Saudi citizens, mainly Shia activists, on "terrorism" changes last month was used as a test to see how strongly the international community would condemnation capital punishments.
The source, who wished to remain anonymous, said: "When they found out there was very little international reaction, particularly at the level of governments and heads of state, they decided to proceed with their plan to execute figures who were prominent,"
The timing of the executions has been influenced by the increased tensions between Iran and the U.S.
The first source said: "They are encouraged to do it, especially with the tension in the Gulf at the moment. Washington wants to please the Saudis at the moment. The [Saudi] government calculates that this enables them to get away with this."
A family member of one of the scholars' told the MEE: "The executions, if they go ahead, would be very serious, and could present a dangerous tipping point."
5Pillars have contacted the Saudi Arabian embassy in the UK to comment on the MEE's report.
As you're here…
5Pillars have one humble request from you…
Thousands of Muslims around the world visit our website for news every day. Due to the unfortunate reality of covering Muslim-related news in a heightened Islamophobic environment, our advertising and fundraising revenues have decreased significantly.
5Pillars is editorially and financially independent, with no sectarian or political allegiance to any particular group or movement. Our journalism has been exclusively grassroots focussed and our sole purpose is to defend Islam and Muslims in the media.
This makes us unique in comparison to other online Muslim media outlets who are neither independently regulated by a reputable body nor are they managed by qualified journalists.
Our journalism takes time, money and effort to deliver. But we do it because we believe we have a duty to Allah (swt).
You may not agree or like everything we publish. However, which other Muslim news site that is run by experienced journalists will take on the responsibility of being a shield for Islam and Muslims in the media?
If you follow 5Pillars, and you understand its importance in today's climate, then please support us for as little as £5 a month, it only takes a minute to make a donation. Jazakallah khayran.
Our beloved Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said:"The best deeds are those done regularly, even if they are small." [Ibn Mājah]


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On December 1st, 2018, we celebrated the release of our cassette with Carrier Records at the lighting factory Remains Lighting in Brooklyn. The entire event ran three hours long, with overlapping performances contributed by Gyun Hur, Leslie Allison, Philip White, and Terri Hron.
Special thanks to Alix Calligeros, David Calligeros, Spencer H. Schedler, Dexter Dine, Remains Lighting, Carrier Records, Iowa State University Center for Excellence in the Arts and Humanities, and Wesleyan University Grants in Support of Scholarship.


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Since February,13th at mustARTgallery has opened the personal exhibition of famous artist, poet, script writer Garry Gordon "God's creature" which is dedicated to the Adam and Eve biblical plot. More
Exotic Thai charm and tranquility of nature have inspired the artist to create a series of original works. More
From June,13th till August,13th take place the personal exhibition of Boris Cherstviy "Apology". More
From 26th of April till 9th of June at mustARTgallery will took place the personal exhibition of famous moscow artist Bato Dugarjapov - "Foretaste of warmth" More


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How much do you need to know to build a startup? From what I have seen of big entrepreneurs and founders they tend to not worry about knowing things, but rather doing things.
Source: Funders and Founders
A lot young people have an education. Often it is the education that disables them from doing – they know so much that they don't even know where to start. Walking out of my law school graduation I remember sensing that I had too much information, and little idea of what to do with it.
Related Article: Biting The Dust & Resurrection: Here Are Some First-Class Entrepreneurial Second Innings
What does the alternative look like? Having little information, and acting on what you know. This infographic very simply describes the life paths of two big entrepreneurs who built their businesses on one realization.
Manoj Bhargava
The first is a man who came from India. He dropped out of Princeton after a year. Then he went back to India for 12 years to meditate at an ashram. His goal? To learn to be still. After 12 years he came back and realized (or remembered) from prior jobs in the plastics factories that chemicals are much cheaper than the end products made out of them. He then bought some vitamins and caffeine and mixed them into a drink similar to something he took a swig of at a trade show. The 5 Hour Energy was born. The man is now a billionaire.
Pejman Nozad
The second man came from Iran. Knowing almost no English he called another Iranian man about an ad for a rug salesman. Accepted, he started going around the Silicon Valley showing his rugs. His million-dollar realization? People who buy rugs are not only rich, they are influential. And they could be a mentor if you really ask. A lot of questions. So the rug salesman gradually learned about venture capital and started to arrange investor and entrepreneur meetings in his rug shop. Today he is one of the most respected VCs (source: forbes.com).
There would be a lot more big entrepreneurs in the world if more of us had this type of one-realization mindset. The problem is not that you and I never had realizations like these two. We have had too many. And the many of them make us question if the one you had an hour ago is really the one. Or should you wait to see "if you are really passionate about that idea."
Whether this is called being still, being focused, uninformed, or even stupid – it would help to be a bit stupider so we can act on our realizations and start companies.
[Editor's Note: This article was written by Anna Vital and originally published at Funders And Founders. Copyright 2013.]


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Helmet sizing is determined by the distance around your head in centimeters. Measure the circumference of your head just above your eyebrows to determine your correct helmet size. Helmet linings do compress, so if your helmet is slightly tight to start with, this is quite normal. Here's the selection we have for Junior Skiers & Snowbarders from some of the top brands; Giro, Head and Scott.
Junior Helmets
View as Grid List
7 Items
- Scott Apic Jnr Helmet WhiteAs low as £54.99
- Scott Apic Jnr Helmet Orange Crush MattAs low as £44.99
- Manbi Park Kids Invaders Helmet BlackAs low as £44.95
- Giro Launch Junior Helmet Blue PenguinsAs low as £79.95
- Giro Slingshot Junior Helmet SilverAs low as £54.95
- Giro Slingshot Junior Helmet BlackAs low as £54.95
- Scott Keeper Junior Helmet White MattAs low as £49.99
View as Grid List
7 Items


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"Happiness is neither virtue nor pleasure nor this thing nor that, but simply growth. We are happy when we are growing." ~ William Butler Yeats
You feel better about yourself when you learn, grow and do better. That's the point of lifehacking, and it's something Yeats figured it out a long while before us.
Growing doesn't mean stressing out about all the things you need to improve in your life. It simply means taking opportunities to become better as you find them. That way you're growing naturally, and becoming happier as a result.
Want this quotable as a wallpaper? Download it here (2560x1440).
Happiness [Swissmiss]


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Mould Group Of Companies
Architect in Mumbai
AddressOffice No13/14,12th Floor, Building No3,Navjivan Commercial Premises,Lamingtan Road,Mumbai Central, Mumbai - 400008, Navjivan Society. Mumbai Central.. P.C. 400008, Mumbai, Mumbai.
What you should know about Mould Group Of Companies
the Architecture, Engineering and Construction Industry. Mould Provides services for Architecture Design, Liasoning, Engineering, Project Management and Construction providing one stop solution for any type of Architectural Requirements.
Mould prides itself with a team with over 30 years experience, comprising of senior architects, engineers, town planners, sustainable architects, landscape architects, valuers, interior designers and well equipped construction team, using latest techniques and technology to deliver the best. Mould seniors have been associated with government bodies like MHADA and MMRDA, having supervised / managed over 300 repair buildings, 30 new construction projects, and infrastructure projects like pumping stations, sky walks, bridges etc. Team Mould has worked on Township projects, Residential , Commercial, Institutional Buildings, Bungalow schemes, Hotels, Temples and many more.
Design and planning services : Preparation of Master plan, Urban design, land use plans, road layouts, services layouts, concept design, detail design, 3d visualization, approval drawings, Getting approval from government bodies, Interior design, Furniture design, working drawings, site supervision.
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A civil engineer by profession, Sudipa Pathak is a resident of Chitwan. 23 years old Miss Nepal 2015 contestant no. 10, Sudipa is 5'7″ tall.
Video profile of Sudipa Pathak
Sudipa loves pencil sketching, painting and net surfing. In sports, Sudipa likes to play badminton and she also likes watching games like football, cricket and tennis. In future, Sudipa wants to be a successful person in the chosen profession. As of now, she is fully focused on becoming the next Miss Nepal.


text: As we near the end of our week on simple Christianity, we look today at the simple truth of our freedom in Christ. Our sin and bondage often feels like a convoluted web that entangles us. Satan would like nothing more than to keep us foggy and confused about the freedom and righteousness bought for us through the precious blood of Jesus. Today I'm praying that chains are broken in God's presence. May we gain clarity and deep understanding of the freedom afforded to us as children of God. May we adopt the simple truth of our freedom and truly be set free.