text:
- Review
- Open Access
Microbial production of hyaluronic acid: current state, challenges, and perspectives
© Liu et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2011
- Received: 20 July 2011
- Accepted: 16 November 2011
- Published: 16 November 2011
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a natural and linear polymer composed of repeating disaccharide units of β-1, 3-N-acetyl glucosamine and β-1, 4-glucuronic acid with a molecular weight up to 6 million Daltons. With excellent viscoelasticity, high moisture retention capacity, and high biocompatibility, HA finds a wide-range of applications in medicine, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals.
Traditionally HA was extracted from rooster combs, and now it is mainly produced via streptococcal fermentation. Recently the production of HA via recombinant systems has received increasing interest due to the avoidance of potential toxins. This work summarizes the research history and current commercial market of HA, and then deeply analyzes the current state of microbial production of HA by Streptococcus zooepidemicus and recombinant systems, and finally discusses the challenges facing microbial HA production and proposes several research outlines to meet the challenges.
- Hyaluronic acid
- Streptococcus zooepidemicus
- Metabolic engineering
- Molecular weight
Traditionally HA was extracted from rooster combs, and now it is mainly produced via microbial fermentation with lower production costs and less environmental pollution [3–7]. HA has been successfully produced on an industrial scale with Streptococcus sp. as the main producer. Nevertheless, the production of HA from Streptococcus sp. is facing a growing concern due to the fact that streptococci are pathogenic [8]. In this background, the recombinant HA production has attracted an increasing interest, and Novozymes has produced HA with recombinant Bacillus subtilis on an industrial scale [8].
In this review, the research history, current HA markets, and HA production by Streptococcus zooepidemicus and recombinant systems were summarized. And then the challenges facing the microbial HA production were discussed, and finally several guidelines in the forthcoming research were proposed.
In 1934, Karl Meyer and John Palmer described a new polysaccharide isolated from bovine vitreous humor. They found that the substance contained an uronic acid and an aminosugar, and named the polysaccharide "hyaluronic acid" from hyaloid (vitreous) + uronic acid [9]. The term "hyaluronan" was introduced in 1986 to conform to polysaccharide nomenclature. During the 1930s and 1940s, HA was isolated from many sources such as the vitreous body, umbilical cord, rooster comb, and streptococci [10]. The chemical structure of HA was essentially solved by Karl Meyer and his associates, who found that HA consists of disaccharide repeats of D-glucuronic acid (GlcUA) and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) joined alternatively by β-1, 3 and β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds (Figure 1).
The physico-chemical characterization of HA was conducted during the 1950s and 1960s. At a concentration as low as 0.1%, the HA chains were entangled, and this resulted in an extremely high and shear-dependent viscosity [11]. These properties enabled HA to regulate water balance and flow resistance, and also to act as a lubricant, and to stabilize structures [2].
The original development of HA as a product used in clinical medicine was entirely due to Endre Balazs, who developed the first non-inflammatory, highly purified high molecular weight HA from the umbilical cords and rooster combs [12]. In the early 1980s, HA was used to create plastic intraocular lenses for implantation, and it became a major material in ophthalmic surgery. A variety of other applications have since been proposed and developed.
The rooster comb-based extraction process is facing a growing concern over the use of animal-derived components in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Hence, microbial fermentation has emerged as a new alternative for HA production. The first commercially fermented HA was produced from Streptococcus zooepidemicus, which remains the current common strain in the industrial production of HA [5, 6, 13]. Nevertheless, the presence of bacterial endotoxins in HA from streptococcal fermentation limits the application of HA in biomedical field [4, 8]. Therefore, recombinant HA production has emerged as an attractive alternative. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were used as hosts, including Bacillus sp. [3, 8], Lactococcos lactis [4], Agrobacterium sp. [14], and Escherichia coli [15].
The applications of HA depend on its molecular weight, which is an important quality parameter for charactering commercial HA products. Yet, the fermentation product is a mixture of HAs with different molecular weights. Obtaining HA with a uniform molecular weight represents a challenge, and much work has been conducted to elucidate the molecular weight control mechanism, which is a current research focus in the field of microbial HA production [16–18].
HA market
The current worldwide market for HA is estimated to be over $1 billion [2]. With the knee osteoarthritis patient population increasing by 26 percent from 15 million in 2000 to 19 million in 2010, the demand for viscosupplements is expected to escalate. In the US, the first single-injection HA viscosupplementation product, Synvisc-One, was approved in February 2009, and the product gained rapid acceptance by patients and physicians because of its convenience [19]. The European HA viscosupplementation market is shifting toward shorter treatment regimens, and the convenience of undergoing the procedure once will attract more patients through 2013. In the Asia Pacific, the HA viscosupplementation market will be favorably affected by both the aging and physically active demographics, as well as rising awareness of the treatment's benefits among physicians and patients [20].
The global market for dermal fillers is booming, at approximately 759 million USD during 2009, according to Medical Insight Inc. Nowadays, there are almost 100 different dermal fillers on the market, and about half of them are based on HA. American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reports that about 23, 000 dermatologists, plastic surgeons, and cosmetic surgeons in the US performed more than 11.8 million surgical and non-surgical cosmetic surgery procedures in 2004, generating $12.5 billion in fees. The dermal filler market is expanding at an annual rate of more than 25% through 2011 in the US, and 20% throughout the rest of the world, reaching $1.5 billion in global sales. The launch of Q-Med's Restylane, with NASHA technology (non-animal stabilized HA), has ushered in a new era in dermal enhancement. This filler addresses many of the issues with traditional bovine collagen fillers, namely shelf life, skin testing, and its animal origin.
Microbial production of HA with Streptococcus zooepidemicus
1) The biosynthesis pathway of HA in S. zooepidemicus
The sugar backbone of HA is derived from glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate. The HA synthesis pathway can be divided into two sets. In the first set of reactions, glucose-6-phosphate is converted to glucose-1-phosphate by α-phosphoglucomutase. UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase adds UTP to glucose-1-phosphate to produce UDP-glucose. Finally, oxidation of the primary alcohol in UDP-glucose by UDP-glucose dehydrogenase yields the first HA precursor, UDP-glucuronic acid. In the second set of reactions, glutamine fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase transfers the amido group from glutamine to fructose-6-phosphate to yield glucosamine-6-phosphate. Phosphate group rearrangement by phosphoglucosamine mutase produces glucosamine-1-phosphate. The acetylated form of this compound is produced in the next step by phosphoglucosamine acetyltransferase. Finally N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate pyrophosphorylase activates the intermediate by the addition of UTP thus yielding the second HA precursor, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine.
Figure 2 also shows that HA synthesis and cell growth share precursors such as glucose-1-phosphate, UDP-glucose, and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine. Thus there is a competition between HA synthesis and cell growth to consume the same precursors, and a high specific growth rate is not favorable for HA synthesis [21]. In addition, it can be seen that the glycolysis and HA synthesis compete for the carbon flux. Therefore, weakening the glycolytic process and reducing the rate of biomass formation are effective for the enhancement of HA titer and molecular weight. For example, HA titer was improved from 5.0 to 6.5 g/L by reducing the biomass formation rate via an intermittent alkaline stress strategy, where the cyclical pH switch from 7.0 (optimal for cell growth) to 8.5 (sub-optimal for cell growth) was done every 2 h during 6-16 h [7]. Both the cyclical temperature switch from 37 to 30°C (reducing cell growth rate) and the addition of pyruvate (weakening the glycolytic process) can significantly increase the HA titer [17].
2) Fermentation medium
Streptococci are nutritionally fastidious lactic acid bacteria and can not synthesize some amino acids [21]. Supplementing some amino acids such as arginine and lysine in the medium was favorable for cell growth and HA production [22]. The chemically defined medium (CDM) containing some nutritional factors essential to growth also can be used for the culture of S. zooepidemicus, with the same HA concentration and specific HA production rate relative to complex medium [21]. Zhang et al. developed a serum-free medium with starch as exclusive carbon source, and HA concentration reached 6.7 g/L [23]. The mineral ions and initial glucose concentration also had significant effects on microbial HA production [24, 25]. The absence of glucose resulted in a mixed acid metabolism independent of the oxygen supply, while, for the initial glucose concentrations ranging from 5 to 90 g/L, the homolactic metabolism was prevalent [25].
3) Fermentation conditions
Culture conditions (pH, temperature, agitation speed, aeration rate, shear stress, dissolved oxygen, and bioreactor type) significantly influence the microbial HA production. The pH and temperature for HA production by S. zooepidemicus were usually at 7.0 and 37°C, respectively [26, 27]. The microbial HA production by S. zooepidemicus is a typically viscous process, and thus mixing performance and oxygen mass transfer rate significantly influence HA production. The effects of agitation speed, aeration rate, shear stress, and dissolved oxygen on microbial HA production have been extensively studied [22, 26–32]. Compared with an anaerobic culture, an aerobic culture gives higher HA titer and molecular weight [21, 26]. For example, Armstrong and Johns observed a 20% increase in HA titer when S. zooepidemicus were grown under aerobic conditions [21]. Johns et al. also reported that the aerated culture gave higher HA concentration and yield than the equivalent anaerobic fermentation [26]. The stimulation effects of aeration on HA production can be explained by the following: (1) Oxygen may stimulate the HA synthesis as the aggregation of streptococcal cells mediated by their HA capsule shielded them from oxygen metabolites; (2) Dissolved oxygen in the medium can redirect the carbon flux towards lactic acid to acetic acid and thus more ATP can be generated (YATP/glucose is 3 mol/mol with acetate production against 2 mol/mol with lactate production). The extra ATP generated during the formation of acetate is favorable for the attainment of higher HA titer. (3) The aeration can enhance acetyl-CoA accumulation as such that more acetyl-CoA can be diverged from the central carbon metabolism to replenish acetyl-CoA for the synthesis of HA [32]. Yet, there is a considerable divergence on the impacts of agitation speed and aeration on the microbial HA production. It was observed that HA production was not affected by aeration rate, whereas it decreased with the increase of agitation speed [27]. Hasegawa et al. reported that HA production increased with the increase of aeration rate and agitation speed; nevertheless, too high agitation speed would cause cell damage and led to a drop in HA concentration [33]. The energy status was improved via the overexpression of NADH oxidase in S. zooepidemicus, however, little impact on HA titer was observed [6]. This divergence may be explained by the recent study, which indicated that there existed a critical dissolved oxygen level of 5% air saturation for HA synthesis [30]. That was to say, when dissolved oxygen level was lower than 5% of air saturation, the increase of aeration rate and agitation speed was favorable for microbial HA production; and when dissolved oxygen level was higher than 5% of air saturation, there was little impact of agitation speed and aeration rate on HA production.
4) Fermentation mode
Various fermentation modes, such as batch, repeated batch, fed-batch, and continuous culture have been used for HA production [34–41]. Batch culture is the dominant operation mode for HA production. Compared to batch culture, fed-batch culture can shorten fermentation time and thus increase HA productivity [39]. The combination of fed-batch and batch was found to be effective for HA production, namely, S. zooepidemicus were cultured in a fed-batch mode with sucrose concentration at 1.0 g/L during 0-8 h and then batch culture was performed during 8-20 h with an initial sucrose concentration of 15 g/L. With this two-stage culture strategy, HA production was increased by 32% compared to the batch culture [38]. Recently, the repeated batch culture has also been employed for HA production, and HA productivity was significantly enhanced [35, 36]. In an operation that seeded 31% cell, the volumetric production rate of the repeated batch culture (0.59 g HA/(L·h)) was found to be 2.5-fold of the batch culture (0.24 g HA/(L· h)).
Compared with batch operation, continuous operation can extend culture period, reduce the time spent on reactor turnover, and decrease the polydispersity of molecular weight [21, 34]. HA production in a chemostat was, however, not easily achieved due to the instability of the HA-producing phenotype of highly encapsulated streptococci strains at high dilution rate [34]. The highest dilution rate for stable HA production in a chemostat culture was 0.4 h-1 [34]. Therefore, the industrial production of HA cannot be achieved in continuous cultivation [2].
5) Key factors influencing HA molecular weight
Molecular weight is an important quality parameter for a commercial HA product, as it determines the HA's rheological properties, affects physiological response, and defines suitable applications [42, 43]. HA with a high molecular weight (greater than 10 kDa) has good viscoelasticity, moisture retention, and mucoadhesion, -- qualities desirable in the areas of ophthalmology, orthopedics, wound healing, and cosmetics. Whereas, HA with a relatively low molecular weight (2-3.5 kDa) or HA oligosaccharides (10-20 sugars in length) have shown to promote angiogenesis, induce expression of inflammatory mediators, and inhibit tumor growth [18].
Compared with anaerobic condition, aeration can increase the molecular weight of HA due to more energy can be produced under aerobic conditions [42]. Moreover, a high dissolved oxygen level favored a high molecular weight, while a high shear stress led to a lower molecular weight [28]. The decrease of HA molecular weight at high shear stress was caused by the reactive oxygen species generated by NADH oxidase. Thus a combination of high dissolved oxygen level and mild shear stress may be an effective strategy to enhance HA molecular weight.
Besides the culture conditions, the balance between the synthesis rate of HA and the providing rate of precursor sugars was also important for the molecular weight. A high ratio of HA synthase gene (HasA) to UDP-glucose-6-dehydrogenase gene (HasB) resulted in a lower HA molecular weight [18]. Altering this ratio affected the concentration of precursor sugars and ultimately affected the HA size, and it was an effective approach to control HA molecular weight [18]. Of the two sugar precursors, UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine, the latter exerted a dominant effect on molecular weight [18]. An overexpression of the genes involved in UDP-glucuronic acid biosynthesis decreased molecular weight; whereas, an overexpression of the genes involved in UDP-N-acetylglucosamine biosynthesis increased molecular weight [16]. Thus, manipulating an appropriate balance of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and UDP-glucuronic acid was necessary to obtain HA with high molecular weight. In addition, the balance of glycolytic rate and HA synthesis rate was also important for the molecular weight of HA [17].
Microbial production of HA with other production systems
Overview of HA titer and molecular weight with different microorganisms under different culture conditions
Culture mode
Culture medium
Aeration parameters
HA titer and molecular weight
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 35246)
Batch 2.5 L
Maltose 20 g/L, CDM
600 rpm
1.3 vvm
[HA]: 2.14 g/L
MW: 2.1 × 106 Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus deficient in β-glucuronidase
Batch 100 mL
Glucose 40 g/L, trypton 10 g/L, yeast extract 2.5 g/L
Anaerobic condition
[HA]:0.4430 g/L
MW:2.21 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Batch 3.7 L
400 rpm
1 vvm
[HA]:3.66 g/L
MW: 3.8 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 35246)
Batch 2 L
Glucose 60 g/L, CDM
600 rpm
1 vvm
[HA]:4.2 g/L
MW: 3.2 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus WSH-24
Batch 7 L
Yeast extract 25 g/L, sucrose 70 g/L
200 rpm
0.5 vvm
[HA]:6.7 g/L
MW: n.d.
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus NJUST01
Batch 500 ml
Starch 50 g/L, glucose 3 g/L,
peptone 5 g/L
220 rpm
[HA]:6.7 g/l
MW: n.d.
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus G1(mutant of ATCC39920)
Batch + pulse 5 L
Glucose 40 g/L, polypeptone 20 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
[HA]: 3.5 g/L
MW: 2.19 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 35246)
Batch 2 L
Glucose 20 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
600 rpm
0.3 vvm
[HA]:2.1 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Batch 3 L
Glucose20 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
300 rpm
1 vvm
[HA]:2.3 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus WSH-24
Batch 7 L
Yeast extract 25 g/L, sucrose 70 g/L
Adding oxygen vector
200 rpm
0.5 vvm
[HA]:6.6 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Fed-batch 2.5 L
glucose 5 g/L, yeast extract 2.5 g/L
[HA]:3.5 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 35246)
cC Continuous culture 2 L
Glucose 15 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
200 rpm
0 vvm
[HA]:0.6 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Repeated batch 3 L
Glucose2 0 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L, tryptone 1.7 g/L, soytone 0.3 g/L
0.59 g HA/(L·h)
Streptococcus sp. ID9102 (KCTC1139BP)
Batch 75 L
Glucose 40 g/L, yeast extract 7.5 g/L, casein peptone 10 g/L
400 rpm
0.5 vvm
[HA]:6.94 g/L
MW: 5.9 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus WSH-24
Fed-batch 7 L
Yeast extract 25 g/L, sucrose 70 g/L
200 rpm
0.5 vvm
[HA]:6.6 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus
Batch 2 L
Mussel processing wastewater 50 g/L, tuna peptone 8 g/L
500 rpm
0 vvm
[HA]:2.46 g/L
MW: 2.5 × 106Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 35246)
Nitrogen-limited fed-batch 3 L
Yeast extract 10 g/L and a
mixture of inorganic salts
600 rpm.
0.05 vvm.
[HA]:2.2 g/L
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Batch 2 L
Glucose (10-60) g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
300 rpm,
1.3 vvm.
[HA]:1.8 g/L
MW:2.52 × 106 Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Batch 3 L
glucose 25 g/L yeast extract 60 g/L
250 rpm
2 vvm
[HA]:1.21 g/L
MW:4 × 107Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC 39920)
Batch 125 mL
glucose 25 g/L yeast extract 60 g/L
150 rpm
liquid volume: 50 mL in 125 mL
[HA]:0.65 g/L
MW:7.4 × 107Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus mutant
Fed-batch 100 L
400-1,200 rpm,
0.5-2.0 vvm
[HA]: 6-7 g/L
MW:3.2 × 106 Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus #104
Batch 2 m3
Peptone20 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L
30 rpm;
0.5 vvm;
0.05 MPa.
MW:4.3 × 106 Da
S. equi subsp zooepidemicus (ATCC) 39920
Batch 250 mL
Agricultural resource derivatives medium
150 rpm
[HA]:0.89 g/L,
MW:103 to 104 Da
Recombined Bacillus subtilis
Batch 250 mL
Modified minimal medium, 10 g/L glucose
170 rpm
liquid volume: 50 mL in 250 mL flask
[HA]:1.8 g/L
Recombinant Lactococcus lactis
Batch 250 mL
M17 medium, 10 g/L glucose
170 rpm
liquid volume: 50 mL in 250 mL flask
[HA]:0.65 g/l
Recombinant Bacillus subtilis RB161(hasA-tuaD-gtaB)
Fed-batch 3 L
minimal medium with sucrose
1300 rpm
1.5 vvm
MW:1 × 106 Da
Recombinant Escherichia coli
Fed-batch 250 mL
LB medium
liquid volume: 40 mL in 250 mL flask
[HA]:190 mg/L
MW:3.5 × 105 to 1.9 × 106 Da
Recombinant Agrobacterium sp.
Batch 250 mL
LB medium
250 rpm
liquid volume: 50 mL in 250 mL flask
[HA]:0.3 g/L
MW:0.7 × 106 to 2 × 106 Da
Recombinant S. equi subsp zooepidemicus
Batch 2 L
glucose 20 g/L, uridine 50 mg/L, CDM
300 rpm
0 vvm
MW:1.8 × 106 to 3.4 × 106 Da
Recombinant Escherichia coli
Fed-batch 1 L
Glucose 45 g/L, GlcNAc 11.8 g/L
[HA]:3.8 g/L
Recombinant Escherichia coli
(sz-has A with rare codon modifications)
LB medium.
[HA]:32.5 mg/L
Recombinant Lactococcus lactis
Batch 2.4 L
M17 medium, 20 g/L glucose
200 rpm
1 vvm
[HA]:1.8 g/L
Perspectives: challenges and opportunities
Though great progresses have been achieved on the microbial production of HA with S. zooepidemicus and the recombinant production systems, several challenges remain.
1) The continuous rise in the cost of raw materials weakens the commercial competiveness of microbial HA production, and thus it is necessary to find a cheaper substrate replacement to reduce production cost. Furthermore, the needs of a sustainable society point to the conversion of renewable resources such as agricultural derivatives into valuable bioproducts. Thus, exploring the feasibility of producing HA with cheap crude materials or wastes from the other industrial processes is worth investigating. Mussel processing wastewater (MPW) and tuna peptone (TP) from viscera residue are used for HA production by S. zooepidemicus, and the economic analysis indicated that the production cost can be reduced by more than 30% with the by-products as the culture medium [39]. The agricultural resource derivatives such as cashew apple juice was a promising medium for the microbial HA production [47]. For another example, the large amount of crude glycerol produced in the biodiesel industry, if not properly treated, pose a significant environmental concern. Therefore, we can explore the potential of microbial HA production with the crude glycerol as a substrate. Of course, process engineering for the efficient treatment of crude material and metabolic engineering of microbes for the efficient utilization of raw substrates should be considered to achieve this objective.
2) Whether for S. zooepidemicus or the recombinant systems like E. coli, B. subtilis, and L. lactis, the key factors limiting HA synthesis need to be further clarified. The tools of metabolic engineering, such as metabolic flux analysis (MFA) and metabolic control analysis (MCA), can be employed to develop a rational strategy to improve HA yield and molecular weight. MFA is an analysis technique used to calculate and analyze the flux distribution of the entire biochemical reaction network during a process. MCA quantifies the relation between genetic modifications or environmental changes and cellular process responses [48]. MCA introduces the control coefficients to quantify the fractional change of cellular output, such as metabolite concentrations and metabolic fluxes, in response to fractional change of system parameters, such as enzyme activities and growth conditions [49]. The combination of MFA and MCA can be used to investigate the metabolic responses of HA producer to the environmental changes or the expression of key genes related with HA synthesis. With the information gathered from MFA and MCA, the optimal strategies (both process control and key genes expression) can be determined to improve HA titer and molecular weight.
3) It is necessary to obtain specially designated molecular weight or uniform size-defined HA to extend the applications of HA and make better HA containing biomedical products. To achieve low polydispersity, we must know the regulatory mechanisms of initiation and elongation during the HA polymer synthesis process. Despite HA polymerization model has been put forward and some key intracellular metabolites influencing molecular weight have been clarified, much work needs to be performed to understand the mechanism of molecular weight control.
This project was financially supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No.JUSRP30901), 973 Project (2012CB720806), and the Programme of Introducing Talents of Discipline to Universities (111-2-06), and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions.
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- Huang WC, Chen SJ, Chen TL: The role of dissolved oxygen and function of agitation in hyaluronic acid fermentation. Biochem Eng J. 2006, 32: 239-243. 10.1016/j.bej.2006.10.011. 10.1016/j.bej.2006.10.011View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Liu L, Du GC, Chen J, Wang M, Sun J: Comparative study on the influence of dissolved oxygen control approaches on the microbial hyaluronic acid production of Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Bioproc Biosyst Eng. 2009, 32: 755-763. 10.1007/s00449-009-0300-6. 10.1007/s00449-009-0300-6View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Wu TF, Huang WC, Chen YH, Tsay YG, Chang CS: Proteomic investigation of the impact of oxygen on the protein profiles of hyaluronic acid-producing Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Proteomics. 2009, 9: 4507-4518. 10.1002/pmic.200800868View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Hasegawa S, Nagatsuru M, Shibutani M: Productivity of concentrated hyaluronic acid using maxblend fermentor. J Biosci Bioeng. 1999, 88: 68-71. 10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80178-9View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Blank LM, McLaughlin RL, Nielsen LK: Stable production of hyaluronic acid in Streptococcus zooppidemicus chemostats operated at high dilution rate. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2005, 90: 685-693. 10.1002/bit.20466View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Chen SJ, Chen JL, Huang WC, Chen HL: Fermentation process development for hyaluronic acid production by Streptococcus zooepidemicus ATCC 39920. Korean J Chem Eng. 2009, 26: 428-432. 10.1007/s11814-009-0072-3. 10.1007/s11814-009-0072-3View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Huang WC, Chen SJ, Chen TL: Production of hyaluronic acid by repeated batch fermentation. Biochem Eng J. 2008, 40: 460-464. 10.1016/j.bej.2008.01.021View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Im JH, Song JM, Kang JH, Kang DJ: Optimization of medium components for high molecular weight hyaluronic acid production by Streptococcus sp. ID9102 via a statistical approach. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2009, 36: 1337-1344. 10.1007/s10295-009-0618-8View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Liu L, Wang M, Sun J, Du GC, Chen J: Enhanced hyaluronic acid production by a two-stage culture strategy based on the modeling of batch and fed-batch cultivation of Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Bioresour Technol. 2008, 99: 8532-8536. 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.02.035View ArticleGoogle Scholar
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- Don MM, Shoparwe NF: Kinetics of hyaluronic acid production by Streptococcus zooepidemicus considering the effect of glucose. Biochem Eng J. 2010, 49: 95-103.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Armstrong DC, Johns MR: Culture conditions affect the molecular weight properties of hyaluronic acid produced by Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1997, 63: 2759-2764.Google Scholar
- Blank LM, Hugenholtz P, Nielsen LK: Evolution of the hyaluronic acid synthesis (has) operon in Streptococcus zooepidemicus and other pathogenic streptococci. J Mol Evol. 2008, 67: 13-22. 10.1007/s00239-008-9117-1View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Jongsareejit B, Bhumiratana A, Morikawa M, Kanaya S: Cloning of hyaluronan synthase (sz-has) gene from Streptococcus zooepidemicus in Escherichia coli. Sci Asia. 2007, 33: 389-395. 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2007.33.389. 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2007.33.389View ArticleGoogle Scholar
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This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


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Hi Mama!
Do you need some ideas for egg hunt fillers other than the usual candy? I have rounded up some options for you below. I purchased the large eggs because there is a wider variety of items that will fit in them versus the smaller ones, not to mention they'll be easier for a 2 yo to find 😉 I saw a lot these at the Dollar Store and Target Dollar Spot which ends up being a great deal because multiple items come in a pack.
- Gold Fish
- Fruit snacks
- Marshmallows
- Mini animals
- Mini Critters
- Balls of any sort
- Hotwheels
- Play-Doh
- Wac-a-Pac balloons
- Stickers
- Stamps
- Legos
What's an egg hunt without signs?!? I found these at Target and couldn't resist.
Hope you have a great hunt with your kiddos!

subset: commoncrawl


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One51 plc "(One51") is an Ireland-based holding company comprised of two operating businesses focused on plastics manufacturing and environmental services.
IPL Ltd. ("IPL"), owned by Novacap, is a leading North American manufacturer of injection-molded plastic products including thin-wall overcaps and containers. The Company is comprised of two business units, the Bulk & Environmental ("B&E'') and the Food retail packaging unit ("Retail").
One51 participated in the auction process for the divestiture of IPL's B&E division. With the support from CF Ireland as well as CF New York, PwCCF Montreal pitched One51's management and secured the engagement in February 2015.
One51 quickly shifted its focus to also acquire IPL's Retail division, now targeting IPL as a whole. We were successful in convincing Novacap to establish a concurrent process for the whole business and secured exclusivity in June, signed on July 2, 2015 and closed on July 23, 2015.
To complete the acquisition, One51 needed to raise $200m.
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As part of the capital raising process, PwC helped articulate a three-step approach to an eventual IPO or alternative liquidity event which convinced potential partners of the value creation potential.
Contact us to learn more about our Corporate Finance services and how we can help your organization.
© 2018 - 2019 PwC. All rights reserved. PwC refers to the PwC network and/or one or more of its member firms, each of which is a separate legal entity. Please see www.pwc.com/structure for further details.


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Sunday, November 27, 2016
I never knew the Queens Theatre as The Queens, as my parents would have.
In 1951 the Abbey Theatre burned down and the company moved to the Queens which then became the Abbey.
And the Abbey it was as far as I was concerned.
So it was great to hear about the history of the Queens from Cecil Allen, whose grandfather, Ira Allen, was intimately involved with it both as a manager/owner and an actor.
The Queens specialised in melodrama. This to me conjures up all those Victorian drawing room comedies, but that is not at all what it was about. There was political melodrama, romantic melodrama, and whatever you're having yourself melodrama. And the sets were elaborate with from live horses to lakes appearing onstage as required.
Cecil brought the tradition direct to his audience by punctuating his talk with commendable bursts of (melodramatic ?) acting. Marvellous.
The theatre, in its later years as the Queens, was also home to the Happy Gang, a troupe of comics, singers and musicians including Danny Cummins and Cecil Nash. I was familiar with Danny Cummins from his performances in the Theatre Royal and, I think, the Gaiety. I knew Cecil Nash slightly as he lived around the corner from me in Ballybrack when we were there.
Cecil Allen mentioned the vigorous audience participation which was a feature of these melodramas and I was able to remind him that, in one aspect at least, the Abbey continued this tradition down the years.
This was the Christmas panto in the Irish language. Many Dublin schools were brought to it and some travelled up from down the country. No doubt their teachers thought it would engender a grá for the language. But what they didn't reckon on was the base cunning of the actors. Liberated from the straight jacket of actual scripts and free to adlib to their hearts' content, these wily actors researched the classes which were coming to the show and then mercilessly savaged their teachers from the stage, much to the enthusiastic approval of the pupils. At least that's how I remember it.
I also noticed in one of Cecil's slides, I think it was from Hamlet, the crowns worn by the King and Queen. It reminded me that myself and some classmates were drafted by Tomás Mac Anna to make such crowns for the panto. Sheets of golden cardboard, coloured cellophane, like from the old boiled sweet papers, and an assortment of staples, glue and paper fixers were the commonplace ingredients of these magnificent headpieces.
Cecil has written a book, The Actor, which, while a riveting novel, is attested to have a well researched background of the times (beginning of the twentieth century). You can read a review here, which I suspect is from Cecil's wife. Sounds good.
Cecil's talk was one of two at a seminar, in Dublin City Library and Archive (23/11/2016), on Popular Theatre in Dublin in the context of Explore Your Archives Week.
You can hear and read Cecil's earlier talk on the Queens, given during Heritage Week in August 2016, here.
1 comment:
- Póló said...
My friend, Cathal Cavanagh, has pointed out another connection.
Mick Eustace, who was member of the Happy Gang, ended up working as a messenger in the Department of Finance, where both Cathal and I worked.
You can read Cecil Nash on Mick here
- 27 November 2016 at 17:06
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


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According to a press release PR. No. 597/2015-16, dated 25-11-2015, in order to clear extra rush of passengers, South Central Railway will run Twenty Six Superfast Bi-Weekly Suvidha Special Trains Between Visakhapatnam and Krishnarajapuram, during December, 2015 and January, 2016, as detailed below:-
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IRCTC LOGIN and Indian Railways Additional Resources:


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On March 1, Deputy Director of Water Conservancy Project Management Division of Jiangsu Taihu Region Hu Youyun, Deputy Head of Lake and Water Administrative Department Zhang Peiling and Head of Danjin Gate Hub Project Management Bureau Luo Guoqiang went to Taihu Station for inspection. Jiangsu Taihu Water Conservancy Project Management Division is now managing several water conservancy projects including Changshu Hub, Wangting Hub, Danjin Gate Hub and Changzhou New Gate. Besides, it is responsible for the management for six lakes including Taihu, Gehu and Changdang Lake and works as the office of Taihu Joint Defense Headquarters. The visit by Deputy Director Hu Youyun was intended for learning the practice experience and advanced technology of Taihu Station monitoring of lake ecology so as to better establish Gehu ecology monitoring station. Deputy Head of Taihu Station, Researcher Zhu Guangwei and Deputy Researcher Gong Zhijun expressed their welcome of the group.
At the symposium, Researcher Zhu Guangwei first introduced the basic situation of the Taihu and the main functions of Taihu Station from its basic ecologic observation to its featured researches. Later, Zhu led the group of Deputy Director Hu Youyun to visit the Lake Biology Laboratory, Specimen Room, Lake Water Chemical Laboratory and the Pool Experimental Area that is under construction and introduced the set and functions of each laboratory in detail. In the end, Deputy Director Hu Youyun expressed the gratitude for the hospitable welcome of Taihu Station. Hu expressed that it will fully learn from the station-establishment experience of Taihu Station and welcomed the leaders and staffs of Taihu Station to visit Gehu ecology monitoring station. Zhu expected a further cooperation and communication between two stations.


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An Honest Liar
AN HONEST LIAR is a feature documentary about the world-famous magician, escape artist, and world-renowned enemy of deception, James 'The Amazing' Randi. The film brings to life Randi's intricate investigations that publicly exposed psychics, faith healers, and con-artists with quasi-religious fervor. A master deceiver who came out of the closet at the age of 81, Randi created fictional characters, fake psychics, and even turned his partner of 25 years, the artist Jose Alvarez, into a sham guru named Carlos. But when a shocking revelation in Randi's personal life is discovered, it isn't clear whether Randi is still the deceiver - or the deceived.
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- Subtitles:
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Actors movie: An Honest Liar
- Himself - Magician (also archive footage)
- Himself - Magician
- Himself - Magician
- Himself - Magician & Author
- Himself - Magician & Psychologist (as Prof. Richard Wiseman)
- Himself - Mythbusters
- Himself - Rock Star
- Himself - Mentalist (as Steve Shaw)
- Himself - The Science Guy


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NEW DELHI: Former India allrounder Yusuf Pathan has been suspended by the Board of Control for India in Cricket (BCCI) for five months on the grounds of a doping violation. The BCCI, hours after it was reported that it had instructed the Baroda Cricket Association ...Read More »
Author Archives: brikcomindia
Playing of national anthem in cinema halls not mandatory: Supreme Court
NEW DELHI: The Supreme Court on Tuesday revoked its interim order on mandatory playing of national anthem before movie screenings in cinema hallsafter multiple instances of vigilante patriotism. This comes a day after the Centre filed an affidavit informing the top court that it was in favour ...Read More »
How Chinese road construction activity in Arunachal Pradesh was detected
GUWAHATI: The Bishing village in Arunachal Pradesh's Tuting area in Upper Siang district, the point closest to where the Chinese road construction machines rolled, almost 1.25 km inside the imaginary Line of Actual Control or the McMohan Line, is the symbol of India's yet-to-be-connected places. The road ...Read More »
ISL 2017-18: Jamshedpur FC's late-winner hands Bengaluru FC second successive defeat
Bengaluru: Jamshedpur FC scored from a stoppage time penalty as they beat Bengaluru FC 1-0 in an entertaining Indian Super League match. Brazillian Matheus Trindade Goncalves sent Bengaluru goalkeeper in the wrong direction in the first minute of the stoppage ...Read More »
ISL 2017-18: Chennaiyin FC eye top spot in league table with victory against Kerala Blasters
Chennai: Chennaiyin FC take on Kerala Blasters in their seventh game of the Indian Super League at the Nehru Stadium on Friday, aiming for a fifth win and a top spot in the points table. Former champions Chennaiyin have bounced back ...Read More »
Premier League: Manchester United's Chris Smalling wary of Jamie Vardy threat in Leicester City clash
Manchester United defender Chris Smalling is wary of the threat posed by Leicester City striker Jamie Vardy but is looking forward to the challenge of keeping the speed merchant in check on Saturday. Vardy was a key component in Leicester's ...Read More »
Shooting excluded from 2022 Commonwealth Games; mixed-gender T20 cricket competition a possibility
India's medal tally at the 2022 Commonwealth Games, to be held at Birmingham, has taken a hit as shooting has been excluded from the competition. According to a report in The Indian Express, Birmingham Games officials did not pick shooting, which features in the list ...Read More »
Xiaomi Redmi 5A review: The device that sets the bar for entry-level smartphones
In terms of being competitive in the Indian smartphone market, Xiomi has been making headlines in 2017. The brand recently trumped Samsung to be on the top of the smartphones sale list based on data gathered from the top 50 cities of ...Read More »
Microsoft removes Chrome app from Windows Store hours after Google published it
Microsoft has taken down the Google Chrome app from its Windows Store that directed users to the download link of the browser. According to the company, the Google Chrome app violates its Store policies. According to a report by The Verge, ...Read More »
Facebook-UMG ink "unprecedented" deal allowing all users to use licensed music in their Facebook, Instagram videos
Facebook and Universal Music Group (UMG) have signed an "unprecedented global agreement" which allows users of Facebook, Instagram and Oculus to use licensed, recorded music. This means that any Facebook, Instagram and Oculus user can make use of the music ...Read More »


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Webster's Chinese Thesaurus Editions
Posted by bazza August 24, 2008 in the Group General Discussion .
Tags: books
Discovered this series of books whilst browsing Amazon for Chinese books.
Looking at the google previews though they're not as useful as I was hoping. They just have highlighted keywords translated into Chinese.
Comments (7)
Updating ...
New lesson idea? Please contact us.


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Second Homes
As our economy continues to improve, Lake Time Realty is seeing more and more people investing in second homes for sale at Table Rock Lake. Many are investing their money in smart, strong investments of real estate as opposed to the stock markets.
Lake properties are a very popular investment choice in our area and investing in Table Rock Lake area real estate has proven to be a solid investment. Table Rock Lake and the Branson/Tri-Lakes area provide recreation in many forms for visitors, year around property owners and second home owners.
We see investors driving here from as far away as large cities such as Kansas City, St Louis, Wichita, Oklahoma City, Tulsa and Dallas not to mention all the small towns in between. We are even seeing owners fly in from Denver, Houston and Chicago and it is more convenient than ever before in this world of easy travel.
Besides being a sound investment, investing in a second home for many is the get-a-way from their hectic home life and an opportunity to slow down a bit while relaxing near or on The Lake with family and friends or just spending the quality time with your special loved ones.
Usually when we work with clients looking to invest in a second home on Table Rock Lake or the Branson /Tri-Lakes area, they have already spent many vacations on Table Rock Lake and are already familiar with the quality of our lakes, the clarity of our water and the pristine shoreline management by the Corp of Engineers. We often don't even have to talk about how great our lakes are and how it will spoil you from other large lakes.
But, if you have never been on Table Rock Lake before, we suggest you find a lake retreat to spend your next family vacation and truly experience what it is like to be out on the lake early in the morning or watch a beautiful sunset in the evening. Imagine how nice it would be to do this on a daily basis. The owners of Lake Time Realty have lived on Table Rock Lake for over 30 years and we have always enjoyed the lake in all the seasons.
Let us show you why our expertise and experience make Lake Time Realty "Your First Choice For Your Second Home At The Lake".


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As anticipated in the latest edition of our EU sugar update report, EU regional domestic prices for white sugar stabilized in the [340 - 350] EUR/t range over the past 3 months.
Overall, EU white sugar prices averaged 347 EUR/t in September 2018, down 3 EUR/t when compared to a month ago. From a regional point of view, price gap between deficit/surplus areas widened to 60 EUR/t (against 43 EUR/t a month ago).
For all details, estimates and analysis about EU's domestic prices, please refer to our EU sugar update report [subscribers only]
Not yet a subscriber ? Use our Contact us form or email us at : firstname.lastname@example.com
Published 4 times a year, our EU sugar update report offers access to the latest market intelligence data, analysis and estimates regarding acreage, production, yields, exports, imports, prices and stocks.
Price = 2,500 SGD/year


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Quick Tip: Navigate a Datastore
Jul 10, 2017
This is a quick tip for managing files on a VMware datastore. We're simply mapping a datastore to a PSDrive that we can then
cd to.
$DS = Get-Datastore MyDatastore
New-PSDrive -Location $DS -Name ds -PSProvider VimDatastore -root "\"
Set-Location ds:\
After that, you can
Remove-Item, etc. Basically any command you can run against a file system, you can run against a datastore.
It comes in handy quite a bit, I've even wrapped it in a function.


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Event Details
DateSunday July 15, 2018 from 9:00 AM to Thursday July 19, 2018 6:00 PM
LocationTU/e innovation Space
OrganizerTU/e innovation Space
About the event
The innoSpace Summer Crash Course challenges you to learn and make an impact for one week during the summer. Students from Eindhoven and Utrecht collaborate in multidisciplinary teams in TU/e innovation Space, together with students from Catalunya. Participants can choose between a large array of themes such as Digital Sport, Automonous Vehicles and XXL 3D printing. Find all themes and more information on summercrashcourse.nl.


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About All Suburbs Building Inspections and Reportss
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Then he raised his head, looked at me very seriously, as only an almost-two-year old can, and said, "Waffles." Still half asleep, I said something super-intelligent.
Me: Huh?
Imp: (with purpose) Waffles.
Me: You want waffles?
Imp: (a hint of exasperation) Waffles. Help Mummy waffles kitchen.
Me: What?
Imp: (for fuck's sake, Mummy) WAFFLES. Help Mummy waffles chair kitchen.
Me: You want to help Mummy make waffles standing on the chair in the kitchen?
Imp: YEAH!!
Me: We don't have time to make waffles from scratch this morning, sweetie. But we froze some of the waffles we made last time, so we can heat them up in the toaster if you'd like.
Imp: Waffles!!
Imp: Smoothie too!
Me: Okay honey, smoothie too.
Thoughtful pause.
Imp: (determined) All done cuddle. Waffles, smoothie too.
After which Very Serious Pronouncement he bailed off the bed and headed straight for the kitchen chair to pull it up to the counter to help make waffles! and smoothie too! I could barely keep up with him.
As we dug out breakfast stuff and put it together, I had visions of the future: The Imp being the most popular kid in his dorm at university because he knows how to throw together waffles from scratch at the drop of a hat, wowing friends with his delicious from-scratch cakes, travelling the world seeking out fantastic new foods... And I smiled as I looked at him and said "May you never know the taste of an eggo, my darling boy."
Yesterday we stopped at the grocery store on our way home from daycare. I can't get over his excitement about all things food. He threw his hands in the air as we pulled into the parking lot and shouted "Hurray grocery store!" As we walked through the produce section he pointed at different fruits and vegetables, naming them as we went. The yams, however, stumped him. "Whassat?" he said as he pointed. So I picked one up and handed it to him.
Me: Yam.
Imp: Yam. Yam?
Me: Yes, yam. You've had yam before when you were little and mummy made mushy yam for you.
Imp: (turning it over in his hands, looking at it very seriously) Yam!
And then he threw it with somewhat surprising vigor into our shopping cart.
This is why Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution is so important. I know it's a tv show. I know it's pop culture. I know there are those who dismiss it. But as I strolled through the grocery! store! with The Imp and saw his unabashed toddler delight in all the varieties of food, I was keenly reminded of the first grade kids in Huntington who couldn't identify even a potato or a tomato in their raw form, despite the fact that they ate fries and ketchup every single day. I was at once sad for those kids and elated for my own.
Real food matters.
So yam it is for dinner tonight, in the form of oven baked fries:
Peel & slice yams into french fries.
Toss them in a small amount of olive oil (garlic infused is lovely) and some dried or fresh herbs. I rely heavily on dried herbes de provence. I can't imagine cooking without them.
Squeeze some lemon juice over them too, if you'd like.
Place them in a single layer on a baking sheet in a 400F oven for 20-30 minutes, turning them over once halfway through.
Salt & pepper to taste, serve hot.
There's really (again, me with the intuitive cooking) no rules. Use whatever spices you prefer. Curried yam fries! Mexican yam fries with cumin, chilies & cilantro! Rosemary & orange juice! Whatever suits your palate. Go!
Note: these do not get as crunchy as regular old potato fries. I think the not deep frying combined with yam's higher water content is to blame. But they're way tastier than generic potato fries, so.
This post is part of Food Revolution Fridays at Scattered Mom's Notes From the Cookie Jar. Be sure to head over there and see what other people are saying about great food!


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This week's picks from Ryan:
Frank Pollard, Shark Man
Jaime Lynn Henderson, William Portrait 2
Jacob Whibley
Spencer Sweeny, TBC
Margie Livingston, Folded painting, big
Terry Winters, Contours
I said hello!
Hey! Thanks for posting my portrait of William! Great selection of vivid, bright work!
Your email is never published nor shared. Required fields are marked *


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Join us in our Café whilst you watch your children training on our TV screens. Our new rijo fresh coffee bean machine offers a variety of new coffees and hot chocolates to try with a choice of adding some flavoured syrup!
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Specialising in Tumbling, Gymnastics and Cheerleading
Join us in our Café whilst you watch your children training on our TV screens. Our new rijo fresh coffee bean machine offers a variety of new coffees and hot chocolates to try with a choice of adding some flavoured syrup!
Congratulations to Shanice Davidson, Rachel Davies who have been selected to compete in Russia at this years World Championships in November and Sophie Allen who has been selected to compete at the World Age Group Championships, also in Russia! Well done and good luck!
Please contact Durham City Gymnastics Club if you would like to hire table top space to sell new or used items – £15
Classes (Age 5 yrs +)
1 session £12
2 sessions £22
3 sessions £32
4 sessions £40
5 sessions £50
6 sessions £55 (per week) note: 1 session = 2 hr 30 min slot
All gymnasts will receive a drink and snack each session
Limited places are available on each class so full payment will be required on booking
Week 1
Tue 3rd April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Wed 4th April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Fri 5th April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Week 2
Tue 10th April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Wed 11th April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Fri 13th April – 9:30-12:00 12:45-15:15
Baby Gym has returned! Join us with your little ones on a Friday morning from 10.45am – 12.15pm. £3.00 per child, £5 for two children and free for babies 6 months and under.
What an amazing Christmas we've had at Durham City Gymnastics Club. On Saturday 17th December Olympian Craig Heap officially opened the centre followed by our Christmas displays which showcased the talent and enthusiasm of our gymnasts.
The gymnasts from the youngest to the oldest, from beginner to International medal winners took part in a series highly entertaining displays of their skills. The most senior members wowed us with their gravity-defying tumbling feats whilst our younger members entertained us with their gymnastics skills accompanied by some memorable Christmas numbers.
The audience clapped and cheered, 'oohed' and 'aahed', and you could tell from their enthusiasm and the smiles on their faces that the gymnasts thoroughly enjoyed this chance to show friends, family and supporters what they could do.
As head coach Glen Wharton said "Back in May we had no idea this was all going to happen." But with a huge amount of work from Glen, his wife Vicki, their family, coaches, parents and supporters, and with the support of local parish council the centre was renovated and ready to go in October, hundreds of gymnasts are training there already and the Christmas displays were a fitting demonstration of what has been achieved in such a short space of time.
Our Christmas party is on Saturday 10th December 1.30 to 3.30 tickets are available from reception at £5 each includes a present from Santa (Please get your tickets before Mon 5th to give Santa's elves time to make all the presents).
Come and see our fantastic gymnasts in action at our Christmas Displays
Tickets cost £5 for children £8 for adults and are available from reception.
Our official opening will take place at the Saturday afternoon display (2.30pm-4.30pm) by our special guest Olympian.
Come and support your local club and see an amazing show. Limited numbers for each performance.
Stocking Fillers!
We now have our beautiful Rudolph hot chocolate and marshmallow cones available at £1 each 🎄🎄🎄
If you want to find out more about Durham City Gymnastics club feel free to drop by and visit us. While you are here you might want to relax in our newly refurbished cafe with a latte or cappuccino and cake.