text:
- Research Article
- Open Access
Cross-Layer Explicit Link Status Notification to Improve TCP Performance in Wireless Networks
- Ji-Hoon Yun1Email author
© Ji-Hoon Yun. 2009
- Received: 17 January 2009
- Accepted: 28 April 2009
- Published: 7 June 2009
To alleviate the performance degradation of conventional TCP in wireless networks, many schemes have been proposed so far. One category of such schemes is the Explicit Loss Notification (ELN) scheme in which TCP senders are notified of wireless losses so as to avoid congestion control against those losses. Thus the key design factor of the ELN scheme is how to detect wireless losses accurately and rapidly. This paper proposes a new ELN scheme, in which wireless losses are detected by monitoring the operation of the wireless link layer. By exploiting such cross-layer design, the proposed scheme can detect wireless losses without additional transmission over the wireless link and thus achieves accurate detection with minimum delay. The proposed scheme additionally sends new information, that is, Explicit Retransmission Start Notification, in order to prevent spurious timeouts of the TCP senders. Furthermore, in order to handle packet reordering and avoid successive shrinking of a congestion window due to multiple packet drops, a new TCP modification is proposed. Through intensive simulations, it is demonstrated that the proposed scheme outperforms the other ELN schemes, and yields the throughput performance of more than 400% of TCP-Reno and 150% of Snoop in the considered environments.
- Transmission Control Protocol
- Congestion Control
- Congestion Window
- Frame Error Rate
- Transmission Control Protocol Connection
1. Introduction
In recent years, wireless networks become more common in real life and many services such as e-mail, web browsing, e-commerce, and so fourth are available in the current wireless networks. In the near future, wireless networks will provide more services that are provided in the wired Internet, and will gradually carry the traffic similar to that of the wired networks. In the current wired networks, the majority of traffic relies on the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) [1], which implies that the majority of traffic in the future wireless networks may also use TCP for the same services.
TCP is the prevailing transport layer protocol that provides the connection-oriented service and reliable transmission by acknowledgment (ACK). It also has a delicate congestion control mechanism [2] to deal with network congestion in a distributed manner. However, it is reported that TCP suffers from severe performance degradation in wireless networks [3].
TCP was originally designed for the use in the wired networks comprising reliable wired links and stationary hosts. It assumes that packet losses and unusual delays result from congestion in the network. Thus a TCP sender reduces its congestion window size to alleviate the congestion when it identifies the loss of a packet either by the arrival of several duplicate ACKs or the absence of an ACK for the packet within a timeout interval. However, wireless links can also suffer from packet losses due to high Bit Error Rate (BER), collisions in random access channels and handoffs in mobile networks. We refer to such packet losses as wireless losses to differentiate them from congestion losses. Although a packet is lost in the wireless link, not by congestion, the TCP sender reduces its congestion window size because the packet loss assumes that it is due to congestion in the network. Such TCP behavior results in significant throughput degradation and high interactive delay.
Recently, many schemes have been proposed to improve the end-to-end throughput of TCP in wireless networks. In this paper, we refer to these sort of schemes to improve the TCP performance against wireless losses as wireless TCP as a whole. Wireless TCP can be classified into three basic categories [4]: end-to-end schemes, split-connection schemes, and link-layer schemes. The end-to-end schemes mostly use three techniques, that is, selective acknowledgments [5], Explicit Loss Notification (ELN) [6–10], and Bandwidth Estimation (BWE) [11–15]. (We do not consider the split-connection schemes in this paper because they violate the end-to-end semantics of a transport layer protocol considerably and put much overhead on the base station.)
In ELN schemes, the TCP sender is notified of wireless losses to preserve its congestion window. Although an ELN scheme is used, the TCP sender may reduce its congestion window even due to a wireless loss if the corresponding loss notification arrives too lately or if the detection of the wireless loss fails. Thus, how accurately and rapidly wireless losses can be notified is the main concern of ELN schemes. There have been various proposals which attempt to achieve this goal. In Balakrishnan et al.'s scheme [6], the TCP sequence numbers are cached at a Base Station (BS), and if the packet whose sequence number is cached is lost, the ELN bit of the ACK packet is set active by BS. In TCP HACK [7], the TCP sender puts extra header checksum bits in the options field of the TCP header. If the TCP receiver receives a data segment of which the data portion is corrupted while the header is intact, the receiver considers it to be a wireless loss and sends an ACK with the reserved bit for ELN set. EWLN [8] and TCP-ELN [9] are based on the similar idea. LHP [10] tries to improve the detection probability by fragmentation. In LHP, each data frame is fragmented before being transmitted over the wireless link and the first fragment which contains the TCP/IP header is sent repeatedly prior to the rest of fragments until it is successfully transmitted or all allocated link time slots for the frame are exhausted. If the receiver does not receive the whole frame except the first fragment, the receiver regards it as a wireless loss and sends an ACK packet with the ELN bit set.
However, the previous ELN schemes have long detection delay and nonzero detection failure probability. Balakrishnan et al.'s scheme requires an exchange of additional data and ACK packets over the wireless link for the detection of a wireless loss, which adds additional transmission delay to the detection delay. The delay gets even longer in poor channel condition due to frequent retransmissions. The other schemes require that a certain part of a data packet should be transmitted successfully in order to detect its wireless loss. However, if the wireless channel condition is poor, there is the possibility that such a part is also corrupted. Also, handoff or collision may result in the loss of the whole packet. In such cases, the TCP receiver will not detect the wireless loss correctly. Even though the receiver detects the wireless loss correctly, the ELN ACK should be transmitted over the wireless link. This takes an additional delay until loss notification and increases the possibility of notification failure further.
Meanwhile, a TCP sender can invoke congestion control due to the acknowledgment timeout of a packet while BS is still attempting to transmit the packet in the wireless link. This is called spurious timeout and more likely to occur if BS has slow loss recovery mechanism (e.g., 80 100 milliseconds for loss awareness in UMTS Rel'99) [16]. The above schemes cannot prevent spurious timeout because their notification process gets started after BS finishes the whole transmission procedure for a packet.
In this paper, a new ELN scheme, called (Link Layer originated Explicit Link Status Notification) LL-ELSN, is proposed. LL-ELSN does not require additional transmission over a wireless link for loss notification and thus enables accurate detection with minimum delay. This is achieved by exploiting cross-layer design. The key idea of LL-ELSN is to send ELN when a data frame is discarded at the wireless link layer due to excessive retry. Along with ELN, the proposed scheme sends a new information, that is, Explicit Retransmission Start Notification (ERSN), which notifies the TCP sender of the start of the retransmission process at the wireless link layer, in order to prevent spurious timeouts at the TCP sender. The author also proposes an SACK-based TCP modification, that is, ELN-capable SACK (ESACK), which can handle ELN messages and packet reordering due to the immediate retransmission of a lost packet indicated by ELN. ESACK is designed to avoid consecutive invocation of congestion control when multiple packets of a congestion window are dropped due to congestion. ESACK also mitigates bandwidth waste due to continuous ELN generation in a disconnection by appropriately filtering received ELNs according to their causes.
To investigate the performance improvement of the proposed scheme, we perform simulation using ns-2 [17] and compare various wireless TCP schemes. Through simulation, it is shown that the combination of the proposed ELN scheme and ESACK achieves goodput performance of more than 400% compared to TCP-Reno and 150% to Snoop [18]. Consequently, we demonstrate that the proposed scheme, when combined with the Link Layer Automatic Repeat Request (LL-ARQ) using a small retry limit, achieves consistently good performance against both uniform and bursty channel errors. Moreover, considering that many wireless TCP proposals compare their schemes only with TCP Reno or a few other schemes, our simulation results provide a comprehensive performance comparison of the various schemes on a single simulation platform.
We only consider last-hop wireless networks, that is, only the link between BS and user equipments is wireless, such as cellular networks and infrastructure Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs).
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly describes recent wireless TCP schemes and analyzes their pros and cons. In Section 3, we describe the implementation details of LL-ELSN and compare it with other ELN schemes. Section 4 explains ESACK, and Section 5 presents the simulation results and their analysis. We conclude this paper in Section 6.
2. Related Work
In this section, we review the wireless TCP schemes that have been proposed recently. The wireless TCP schemes considered in this paper are ELN and BWE schemes as well as SACK [5], Snoop [18], and TCP-DCR [19]. In the following, we briefly describe each of them and analyze their pros and cons.
2.1. Explicit Loss Notification Schemes
ELN schemes attempt to detect wireless losses and notify the TCP sender of their occurrences by marking the reserved bit of TCP ACK or sending a newly defined message. Accordingly, how to accurately detect wireless losses and how to rapidly notify them are important design factors in ELN schemes.
In TCP HACK [7], the TCP sender puts extra header checksum bits in the options field of the TCP header. If the TCP receiver receives a data segment of which the data portion is corrupted while the header is okay, the receiver considers it as a wireless loss and sends an ACK with the reserved bit for ELN set to one. HACK assumes that SACK is used basically and the sender, upon reception of the ACK with the ELN bit set, immediately retransmits the lost packet without triggering congestion control. However, in HACK, if the wireless channel condition is poor, there is the possibility that the header is also corrupted. Also, handoff or channel contention may result in the loss of the whole packet. In such cases, the TCP receiver cannot judge the wireless link error correctly. So, the TCP sender of HACK can reduce its congestion window even due to a wireless loss. Even though the receiver detects the wireless loss correctly, the ELN ACK should be transmitted over the wireless link. This takes an additional delay until loss notification and increases the possibility of notification failure further.
LHP [10] tries to improve the detection probability by fragmentation. In LHP, each data frame is fragmented before being transmitted over the wireless link and the first fragment that contains the TCP/IP header is sent repeatedly prior to the rest of the fragments until it is successfully transmitted or all allocated link time slots for the frame are exhausted. When the receiver does not receive the whole frame except the first fragment, the receiver regards it as a wireless loss and sends an ACK packet with the ELN bit set. By fragmentation, LHP can increase the transmission probability of the TCP/IP header portion, which after all improves the detection probability. LHP also utilizes selective acknowledgement and the packet list which manages congestion control by keeping the unacknowledged packets in the sending order. However, the first fragment has to be transmitted successfully, which increases detection delay. Moreover, the first fragment can still be lost. Also, ACK packets that notify the wireless loss should go through wireless medium and this increases the detection failure probability and the notification delay further. The packet list works poorly with detection failures because the sender retransmits packets redundantly and invokes congestion control if the notification fails. If SMART [20] is used for LHP, whenever an ACK is lost, congestion control is invoked because the SMART ACK only contains the information of the single packet which has been successfully received and has triggered the ACK. In addition, fragmentation increases header overhead considerably, especially in 802.11 [21].
2.2. Bandwidth Estimation Schemes
BWE schemes keep on estimating the available bandwidth to monitor the network state. If a packet loss occurs in a noncongestive state based on the estimated bandwidth, the TCP sender does not invoke congestion control or reduces a congestion window conservatively. However, as BWE schemes infer the network state from indirect information, they have high probability of misjudgement.
TCP Westwood [11] estimates the available bandwidth from a low-pass filtered ACK reception rate. Its slow start and congestion avoidance phases are the same as those of TCP Reno. If duplicate ACKs are received ( is typically 3), the sender sets the and as the estimated bandwidth. When a timeout occurs, the sender sets the as the estimated bandwidth and the as one. In this way, it can maintain a proper sending rate even with wireless losses. However, the low pass filter incurs additional processing overhead due to its complexity. The filter also has the parameters whose optimal configuration may be different network by network. If ACKs are lost, the sender reduces its estimated bandwidth. For a timeout, it reduces the to one. Therefore, with wireless links having poor channel condition, TCP Westwood will underestimate the available bandwidth and have degraded performance since TCP ACKs can be also lost.
TCP Veno [12] adopts the measurement technique of Vegas [22] to estimate the network state. Veno does not change much of Reno. In the congestion avoidance phase, if the estimated backlogged segments from the Vegas measurement is smaller than the threshold , it assumes that the available bandwidth is not fully utilized and increases by 1/ when each new ACK is received as in TCP Reno. If , it increases by 1/ when every other new ACK is received, so as to reach the maximum achievable bandwidth rather slowly. When duplicate ACKs are received, if , Veno assumes a wireless loss and reduces the and by a small amount. Otherwise it behaves as TCP Reno. Veno has only two network states: congestion ( ) or noncongestion ( ). In the congestion state, every packet loss is assumed to be a wireless loss. Therefore, Veno cannot appropriately handle wireless losses when the network is in congestion.
TCP-Santa Cruz [23] also uses the measurement technique of Vegas to estimate the number of backlogged segments in the network. It updates a three-state machine based on the changes of . Within the state machine, an increase of during two consecutive intervals leads to the transition to the congestion state. TCP-Santa Cruz classifies a packet loss as a congestion loss and invokes congestion control against it only in the congestion state. However, TCP Santa Cruz has the same problem as TCP Veno has.
TCP-Jersey [13] is similar to TCP Westwood. It estimates the available bandwidth also from the ACK reception rate, but it filters the rate with the simpler filter than TCP Westwood's, which also needs less parameters. Contrary to the other schemes, TCP-Jersey's congestion event totally depends on Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) [24]. If the sender receives a new ACK or duplicate ACKs with the congestion warning (CW) bit set in a congestion avoidance phase, it invokes the rate control, in which and are set to the estimated available bandwidth. Otherwise, it maintains its and , assuming that the network is underutilized. The weakness of TCP-Jersey is that it requires ECN-capable routers without probabilistic marking, which increases the network cost and processing overhead on the routers. Although it has less parameters than TCP Westwood, it still requires some parameters whose optimum values are hard to be decided because of their high dependence on network states. Also, it has no solution against timeouts due to wireless losses.
Jitter-based TCP (JTCP) [14] utilizes another metric, the jitter of data transmission time used in Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) [25]. From the jitter reported by the receiver, it estimates the fraction of queued TCP segments in the network. If the number of queued segments estimated is more than a threshold, it behaves just like TCP Reno, except that it enters the fast retransmit phase only when duplicate ACKs have been received over several Round-Trip Time (RTT). Otherwise it maintains and for duplicate ACKs or halves and for a timeout. To calculate the jitter, the TCP sender has to store the sending time of each segment and the receiver has to report the segment receiving time in each ACK to the sender.
TCP TIBET [15] provides unbiased bandwidth estimation by filtering the interdeparture time of packets and the estimated bandwidth based on the core stateless fair queueing (CSFQ) algorithm. TCP TIBET uses the minimum RTT, denoted as , to calculate the available bandwidth accurately without depending on the coarse clock granularity of TCP. So, TCP TIBET has an updating algorithm, in which is multiplied by a reducing factor less than one. However, since the updating algorithm is invoked whenever a congestion event occurs, goes eventually to zero in congested networks. This makes small, and hence the corresponding connection remain in the congestion avoidance phase.
TCP NewReno-FF [26] discriminates packet losses based on RTT variation. It uses the flip flop filter technique [27] to estimate RTT. The flip flop filter exploits two exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) filters where one of them, called agile filter, gives more weight to recent RTT samples. The agile filter is used prior to the other one when the deviation of the measured RTT sample is within a certain limit. If more than RTT samples among the last samples exceed the limit, a packet loss is classified as a congestion loss assuming that RTT will vary much in congestion. Otherwise it is classified as a wireless loss. As the other BWE schemes, it also has several parameters for configuring the filters and loss discrimination criterion. Moreover, it cannot detect wireless losses under congestion since it has only two network states as TCP Veno.
2.3. Another End-to-End Schemes
There are the end-to-end schemes which do not use the three techniques. TCP-DCR [19] is one of them. TCP-DCR delays a response to congestion by one RTT after the first duplicate ACK is received so that it gives time for LL-ARQ of the wireless link to recover a possible wireless error. If a new ACK arrives before the timer of one RTT expires, it switches to the normal operation. Otherwise it assumes that the loss is due to congestion and triggers the fast retransmissions and recovery operations.
With TCP-Casablanca [28], the TCP sender marks packets with two different discard priorities and intermediate routers drop the packets of the lower priority first in congestion. Thus the probability distribution of congestion losses will be different for the two types of packets while that of wireless losses may be similar for both of them assuming the uniform distribution of wireless losses. The TCP sender exploits such a difference when determining the cause of a packet loss. However, TCP-Casablanca requires the change of every router in networks and this makes it hard to be deployed. It discriminates the cause of a packet loss in a stochastic manner, therefore has higher detection failure probability of wireless losses than ELN schemes. Furthermore, under heavy congestion or bursty-loss wireless channel condition, the probability distribution of packet losses may not follow the presumed one and thus the detection failure probability will increase.
3. Link Layer Originated Explicit Link Status Notification
In this section, we describe the detailed operation of the proposed ELN scheme, that is, LL-ELSN, and analyze its behavior in the aspects of detection delay, accuracy, and bandwidth overhead.
3.1. Notification Operation
LL-ELSN assumes that the link layer protocol of a wireless link adopts an acknowledged service. The assumption is practical as many link layer protocols for wireless communication such as IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control (MAC) [29] and Radio Link Protocol (RLP) [30] for cellular networks provide acknowledged services with ARQ. In such link layer protocols, when the number of retransmission attempts of a frame exceeds a limit, the link layer discards the frame and begins to transmit the next one. The discard of the frame results in the wireless loss of the corresponding TCP packet. In LL-ELSN, those discard events are monitored by BS or a wireless station. Here, BS indicates the network element which is responsible for reliable transmission over a wireless link in downlink communication, for example, Radio Network Controller (RNC) in UMTS [31] and Access Point (AP) in IEEE 802.11 WLANs.
For uplink communication shown in Figure 1(b), the link layer directly informs the upper TCP stack which packet enters a retransmission process and which packet is dropped because the monitored link layer and the TCP stack are within the same station. The behavior of the TCP sender against ERSN and ELN is the same as that in downlink communication. If a TCP packet is fragmented into several frames at the wireless link layer, ERSN is generated only for the first retransmission of a fragment while ELN is generated for the discard of the whole fragments.
3.2. Comparison to Other ELN Schemes
Comparison of ELN schemes.
Balakrishnan et al.'s
ELN delay (downlink)
ELN delay (uplink)
Prob. of detection failure
- (i)
the time when a wireless loss for a TCP packet occurs is the instance for the TCP packet being discarded at the wireless link layer;
- (ii)
the ELN delay is the time duration that takes until the TCP sender receives a notification for a wireless loss from the loss occurrence.
where and are the required time for a single transmission attempt of data and ACK packet, respectively, and and are the transmission failure probability of the corresponding packet. is the one-way trip time between BS and the remote TCP node (either sender or receiver) in the wired network.
As shown in Table 1, the ELN delay of LL-ELSN is only for downlink communication. However, the other schemes have additional delay plus since the ACK packet corresponding to an ELN message has to be transmitted over a wireless link. Furthermore, Balakrishnan et al.'s scheme has another delay component for successful transmission of the next data packet. On the other hand, for uplink communication, LL-ELSN has negligible ELN delay because the TCP sender is notified of wireless losses by the link layer within the same station. The other schemes need additional in uplink communication because the wireless link and the TCP receiver are located separately.
Although the other schemes (except LL-ELSN) have less delay than Balakrishnan et al.'s scheme, they have the probability of a detection failure that the TCP sender does not have any notification for a wireless loss ( is the probability that the header of the received TCP packet is corrupted and is the probability that the first fragment fails to be transmitted.). That is because at least the TCP/IP header and the first fragment have to be transmitted successfully over the wireless link. In LL-ELSN, there is no additional transmission over the wireless link and thus it has no detection failure in uplink communication. LL-ELSN also has no detection failure in downlink communication if ELN messages do not suffer from congestion losses on the wired path from BS to a TCP sender.
Compared to the other ELN schemes, LL-ELSN has the least delay and detection failure probability for both downlink and uplink, and also does not need any memory overhead at BS, which may enable fast handoffs. One disadvantage of LL-ELSN is that it violates the layering semantics because the link layer refers to the TCP/IP header to send ERSN and ELN messages. However, cross-layer design [32, 33] is a currently popular trend to utilize the restricted bandwidth of wireless links as much as possible. Thus the violation of the layering semantics could be acceptable if the performance is the most important metric.
3.3. Bandwidth Overhead of ERSN and ELN
4. ELSN-Capable SACK
The operation of the TCP sender needs to be redesigned to handle the received ERSN and ELN messages. In this section we describe the proposed TCP modification which can be used with LL-ELSN as well as generic ELN schemes.
4.1. Congestion Control Algorithm
- (i)
FirstUnsacked: the sequence number of the first segment which is not SACKed in the retransmission queue.
- (ii)
HighSACK: the highest sequence number which is SACKed.
The FirstUnsacked segment should be acknowledged cumulatively or selectively by a very next ACK unless it is reordered or dropped by congestion. If the segment is lost in a wireless link, it will be notified by an ELN and the entry of the segment will be moved to the tail of the retransmission queue after being retransmitted. Therefore, if FirstUnsacked is identified to be less than HighSACK after a duplicate ACK is processed, the TCP sender understands that the FirstUnsacked segment is reordered or dropped by congestion assuming that ELN is not dropped. Thus, by checking FirstUnsacked and HighSACK of the retransmission queue, the TCP sender can react to congestion while processing ELN. The procedure of ESACK when an ACK is received is specified in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm 1: Pseudocode of ESACK congestion control algorithm.
if(ELN) retransmit(ELN)
else if(duplicate ACK)
if(there is a SACK option)
update retransmission queue
end if
if(HighACK == FirstUnsacked)
dupacks ++
else if(FirstUnsacked HighSACK)
if(FirstUnsacked is changed)
dupacks = 1
else dupacks ++
else if(HighACK segment is SACKed)
end if
end if
if(dupacks DupThresh)
Typical TCP operation for DupThresh duplicate ACKs
end if
When an ELN is received, ESACK retransmits the lost segment indicated by the ELN immediately since the reception of an ELN indicates not only a packet was corrupted in a wireless link but also the packet has been dropped from the network. Thus the immediate retransmission ensures that the TCP connection remains ACK-clocked.
When a duplicate ACK is received, the sender checks FirstUnsacked and HighSACK to investigate whether it is due to congestion. If FirstUnsacked is equal to HighACK, it means that the FirstUnsacked segment was reordered or dropped due to congestion (we assume that an ACK acknowledges the sequence number or the first byte of the expected data). (HighACK is defined as the sequence number of the highest byte of data that has been cumulatively ACKed at a given point in [34].) Otherwise, if FirstUnsacked is less than HighSACK, it means that the FirstUnsacked segment was reordered or dropped due to congestion while waiting for a new ACK for the segment retransmitted by an ELN. If the segment of HighACK is already SACKed, it means that the segment was dropped in the receiver queue. Therefore, the segment needs to be transmitted again. If the counter of received duplicate ACKs becomes three, the sender triggers the congestion recovery algorithms of fast retransmit and recovery. In fast retransmit phase, the sender retransmits the FirstUnsacked segment. The other operations of ESACK are equal to SACK. Therefore, if there is no wireless loss, ESACK behaves just like SACK.
4.2. ELN Filtering
When a TCP receiver is disconnected from BS in downlink communication, the transmission attempts of the frames for the disconnected receiver fail consecutively. If the BS keeps on sending ELN messages for those frames to the corresponding TCP sender, the TCP connection will not be removed since the TCP sender keeps on retransmitting the lost segments. This wastes the bandwidth of the wired network unnecessarily. One solution to avoid this problem is to let the BS stop sending ELN messages for disconnection. The BS can assume disconnection when a certain number of successive segments for a connection are discarded. However, this approach is not scalable since the BS should store per-connection information. We solve this problem in the sender side.
ESACK can solve the bandwidth waste problem due to consecutive ELNs by differentiating the causes of the ELNs: channel noise or permanent disconnection. ESACK assumes that channel noise can maximally result in consecutive ELNs. To obtain the appropriate value of , let be the probability that a transmitted frame is corrupted by channel noise and be the retry limit. Then, the probability that a transmission leads to at least consecutive transmission failures is obtained by . We configure so that is reasonably high. For example, assume that is 20% and there is no retransmission ( ). Then, the probabilities of two and three consecutive failures are 4% and 0.8%, respectively, and we can configure as 2 since three consecutive failures due to channel noise is rather rare as 0.8%. For more conservative operation, we can increase . For those wireless losses due to channel noise, the TCP sender retransmits the discarded segments immediately without invoking congestion control. If ELNs are received for more than successive data packets, we consider this a disconnection. In this case, the TCP sender freezes all the TCP-related parameters and retransmits the discarded segments at every other ELN. By doing this, ESACK can reduce the bandwidth waste of unnecessary retransmission due to consecutive ELNs gradually in permanent disconnection. The reason of gradual slow down is for the case when a wireless station temporarily looks disconnected due to deep fading, handoff, and so fourth If the TCP sender receives a new ACK, the TCP sender restores the parameters and resumes data service.
5. Simulation Results
To investigate the quantitative performance of the proposed scheme, we perform comprehensive simulation using the ns-2 simulator [17].
5.1. Simulation Setup
5.2. Comparison of Wireless TCP Schemes
In this subsection, we compare the various aspects of wireless TCP schemes. We first set the retry limit of 802.11 MAC to one in order to investigate the robustness of the testing schemes against wireless losses while excluding the effect of LL-ARQ. In this case, FER of the wireless link is equal to the Packet Error Rate (PER). It is noted that wireless losses due to collisions are not counted in FER, so there are still wireless losses even with small FER.
5.3. Effect of TCP Sender Operation
5.4. Effect of Link Layer ARQ
To investigate the effect of a bursty loss channel originated from inherent channel characteristics or temporary link outage from weak signal power or handoffs, we use a Markov chain for the wireless channel model and simulate 10 concurrent TCP connections. The Markov chain can be also used to model Rayleigh fading channels. Tan and Beaulieu [43] proposed a first-order Markov model for Rayleigh fading channels and analytically proved its accuracy. Babich and Lombardi [44] proposed a first-order Markov model for three-level quantized Rayleigh fading channels. Zorzi et al. [45] showed that a two state Markov model well approximates Rayleigh fading channels. As such, modeling Rayleigh fading channels using a first-order Markov model has gained some acceptance in literature and seems to find a growing number of applications [28, 46]. The Markov chain considered in this paper consists of two states: good and bad. We assume that state transitions occur per frame transmission and all the frames are transmitted successfully except when collisions occur in the good state while all the frames are lost with probability one in the bad state. We set the transition probability from the good state to the bad state, denoted as , to 0.01 and vary the staying probability in the bad state, denoted as , from 0.1 to 0.5. As increases, the burstiness of channel loss gets higher.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, we proposed a new ELN scheme and a TCP modification. The proposed ELN scheme can detect wireless losses rapidly and accurately with minimum overhead since it does not need any additional data exchange over wireless links. We also showed that the proposed TCP modification can deal with multiple packet drops in a congestion window. The combination of these two schemes gives the significant performance improvement over existing protocols as we have demonstrated throughout the simulation results. We conclude that the combination of LL-ELSN and LL-ARQ with a small retry limit will perform well flexibly in various environments.
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- 3rd Generation Partnership Project Technical Specification Group Radio Core Network; Radio Link Protocol (RLP) for circuit switched bearer and teleservices. Release 6. 3GPP TS 24.022 (V.6.0.0), December 2004Google Scholar
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- Padhye J, Firoiu V, Towsley D, Kurose J: Modeling TCP throughput: a simple model and its empirical validation. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Applications, Technologies, Architectures, and Protocols for Computer Communication (ACM SIGCOMM '89), October 1998, Vancouver, Canada 303-314.Google Scholar
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This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


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LINDA J. SKITKA is a professor and associate department head at the University of Illinois at Chicago, with an additional courtesy appointment in political science. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1989, worked at Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville from 1989 to 1994, and has been at the University of Illinois at Chicago from 1994 until the present. Her research interests bridge a number of areas of inquiry including social, political, and moral psychology. Her many academic publications cover topics such as the psychological foundations and consequences of moral conviction, how attitudes rooted in moral convictions differ in consequence and kind from otherwise strong but non-moral attitudes, people's everyday moral and immoral experiences, the psychological underpinnings of the left-right political divide, political intolerance, reactions to terrorism, distributive and procedural justice, and automation bias. In addition to her work on these substantive issues, Dr. Skitka has an active interest in a variety of meta-scientific questions about how researchers do science, including the replicability and status of our science debate, best research practices, as well as examining factors that may contribute to a gender gap in eminence in psychology. Dr. Skitka's research has been supported by research grants from theNational Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the Templeton Foundation, and shefrequently presents her research at national and international conferences (recent examples include the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, International Society for Political Psychology,International Society for Justice Research, and Asian Social Psychological Association). In addition to being published in the top-tier journals of social and political psychology, Dr. Skitka's research has also received considerable press attention, including being featured in (for example) the New York Times, Mother Jones, theDaily Beast, National Public Radio, Science Magazine, and Huffington Post.
Faculty Research Speaker Series
Linda Skitka
Professor of Psychology and Political Science, University of Illinois at Chicago
Understanding the Motivational Underpinnings of Morally Motivated Political Engagement
April 5, 2019, 12:00 p.m.
Garrett Hall Seminar Room

subset: commoncrawl


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Barb Wire
At Martin Farm & Ranch, we carry all sorts of barbed wire. We have barbless barbed wire, high tensile barbed wire, and everything in between. And the barbed wire at Martin's comes in lengths of a quarter mile long and is galvanized from class 1 to class 3. Our barbed wire is perfect for keeping dogs or coyotes from digging under your fence, or horses from rubbing up against your fence and breaking it. From 15.5 gauge to 12.5 gauge thickness and various barb spacing and points, we've got it all.


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Scott County
Georgetown woman who allegedly was making meth in car charged with 13 counts
A Georgetown woman was charged with 13 felony and misdemeanor offenses early Thursday after she tried to run over two police officers and was found to be cooking methamphetamine in a car, police said.
Amy Whisman, whose age was not listed, was charged with two counts of first-degree wanton endangerment, one count of manufacturing methamphetamine, fleeing or evading police, and resisting arrest, among other charges, said Georgetown Police Lt. Robert Swanigan.
Police responded to a call of a suspicious person at 725 East College Street and found a woman sitting in the passenger seat of a Toyota Corolla. When police questioned her, she provided what was later found to be a false name and Social Security number, Swanigan said.
When officers asked her to step out of the locked car, the woman refused and slid over to the driver's seat and tried to drive away, nearly striking officers Shannon Miller and Chris Zirbes, Swanigan said. Neither officer was hurt because they got out of the way, but the Corolla then hit the front of Miller's cruiser.
The officers then broke out the Corolla's windows with their baton/flashlights and used a Taser to immobilize the woman. She still climbed out of a passenger-side window and tried to run away, Swanigan said.
After she was under control, police found a working meth lab in the car; Swanigan said the woman had been cooking the drug as she sat in the car. A Kentucky State Police team was called to the scene to dispose of the hazardous, flammable materials, Swanigan said.
The woman was later identified as Whisman, who also was charged with third-degree assault, possession of methamphetamine, possession of marijuana, a prescription drug not in a proper container, first-degree and third-degree criminal mischief, providing a police officer a false name and address, and improper registration.
She was lodged in the Scott County Detention Center, where she remained without bond later Thursday morning.


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Get your biscuit fix!
If long-term isn't your thing, or you just want to try out our boxes first, we also offer a one-off box – no recurring fees: just one box, one time.
And after all, when you realise that our biscuits are just too good to have now and then, you can subscribe to a plan of your choice
"Every month is an adventure. Can't wait for the next one!"
Richard Hall – Subscriber


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GALVESTON, Texas -- Ouch! The family of a 75-year-old Texas man took off the gloves and delivered a brutal, yet honest obituary.
Leslie Ray Charping died last month after a battle with cancer.
"At a young age, Leslie quickly became a model example of bad parenting combined with mental illness and a complete commitment to drinking, drugs, womanizing and being generally offensive," the obituary stated.
The family went on to describe Charping as a person who lacked ambition and motivation.
"With Leslie's passing he will be missed only for what he never did; being a loving husband, father and good friend," the family said.
And no, the family did not hold a funeral service.
"Leslie's passing proves that evil does in fact die and hopefully marks a time of healing and safety for all," the obituary read.
To read the full obituary from Carnes Funeral Home, click here.
More Videos
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Taha Tai ***
An outdoor swimming pool and bungalows surrounded by gardens can be enjoyed in Hanga Roa only a 5-minute drive from Mataveri International Airport. Wi-Fi is free in public areas and breakfast is included.
Taha Tai' has plenty of common outdoor areas to enjoy nature and is only 500 metres from downtown Hanga Roa.
Regional flavours can be enjoyed at the on-site restaurant.
Anakena beach is 18 km away and Hanga Roa Museum is 3 km from the bungalows. Private parking is free.
Total number of rooms: 40
Hotel address: Chile, 2770000, Hanga Roa, Apina Nui s/n. Region: Easter Island
Photo album
Hotel facilties
Check-In and Check-OutCheck-In time: 14:00:00-00:00:00
Check-Out time: 00:00:00-11:00:00
Online-Tur.com guarantee


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When can I move in?
If there is a storage space available that meets your specific storage needs you can move in anytime.
How much notice needs to be given before I move out?
All contracts are month-to-month. However, we do require notice by the 15th of the month that you want to move out.
What type of documentation do I need to provide in order to rent a space?
We require a government-issued photo ID (example: driver's license, state ID, or passport).
Do I need to sign a long-term lease?
No, we rent on a month-to-month basis.
Does there have to be someone in the office to let me through the security gates?
Most of our facilities don't even have an office. The StorageLink leasing office will give you a security pass code that will allow you access to your unit.
How do I make a payment?
You can pay in person, over the phone, mail a check or money order or make a payment through our website. You may also sign up to have payments automatically deducted from your credit card or debit card monthly.
What forms of payments do you accept?
Checks, Money Orders, VISA, MasterCard, and Discover.
Do you sell boxes and storage supplies?
Yes. We sell various moving supplies in our leasing office located in Sartell.
How do I know how much storage space I will need?
You can either use our Storage Calculator on our website or call the StorageLink leasing office at 1-877-922-2893.
Do I need to bring my own lock?
No, we provide you a high-security lock as part of the Admin Fee.
Are there any items that I am NOT able to store?
Liquids, Explosives, Flammable liquids, Toxic materials and Perishables. Please contact us if you have any questions regarding a specific item.


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Girl Tears
October 20, 2011 § Leave a comment
This isn't working.
This programmed bit of me that keeps running on walls.
It isn't working.
I can't care and not care and care and still survive.
Why are we trying?
I'm not a pheonix, I can't shed my skin and live again.
This isn't workig.
Im just a girl, I cry girl tears.


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Please visit my Soundcloud profile for more details and purchase links for each artist!
Sound Engineer/Bassist for Hire
Please visit my Soundcloud profile for more details and purchase links for each artist!
"I am currently mid-way through recording an EP with my band "Gruel" With Sound Engineer Dan Willett. Not only is Dan an incredibly competent and knowledgeable Sound Engineer. . . . He is an out-and-out Dude!! Who has made the recording process fun and relaxing, whilst remaining professional.
Dan has also helped our band achieve the best sound that we could possibly get. Always willing to go the extra mile to help you get the best out of you, with a great amount of patience and willingness to throw in his own ideas and skills based knowledge to help you achieve the best sound possible. Not just willing to take the first take, but the best one!! Not afraid to speak up and tell you if you could do it better. He really wants to achieve the best sound that both yourself and he can get."


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Ludhiana: World Organ Donation Day programme was organised by Fortis Hospital Ludhiana. More than 100 patients and their relatives attended the programme. Programme was held under the supervision of Vivan Singh Gill, Director Fortis Hospital Ludhiana. Programme was started with 'Aardas' (prayer). The whole session was followed by question-answer round on the procedure and difficulties during Organ Donation.
Dr Ajay Pal Singh Sandhu, consultant, psychiatry department, Fortis Hospital Ludhiana said, "In spite of all major religions in our country in favour of organ donation and having a culture which holds donations of all types in high premium, India has a dismal record in organ donation. It is seen even when the deceased had expressed a wish to donate his organs the immediate relatives refuse to honour his wishes.
Only about 0.08 percent of people consent to donate their organs in India, whereas in western countries 10 to 20 percent of people consent to donate organs. Every year approximately 5 lakh people die who could be saved by a donor. About 2 lakh people need suffer from incurable liver disease and liver transplant would be lifesaving. Similarly 50,000 need a heart transplant. For 10 lakh people having corneal blindness, a corneal transplant would be a gift of sight.
After brain death the liver, kidneys, heart and pancreas can be successfully retrieved. After natural death, the cornea, heart valves and bone can be retrieved.Dr. Ashish Jindal, Consultant Urologist and Lap and Kidney Transplant Surgeon, Fortis Hospital Ludhiana said, "Kidney disease is rampant in our country and is expected to increase with increasing incidence of diabetes and heart disease. There is need of 2 lakh kidney transplants a year, but only 3500 transplants are performed because lack of living donors.
If more people would donate their kidneys after death then such cadaveric (dead) transplants would be the norm obviating the complex re tape and corruption which exists in kidney transplantation today.By donating our organs we give the most precious gift to humanity– the gift of life.Also present on the occasion were, Dr Navdeep Khaira, Director Nephrology Department, Ankit, Head HR Department, Ajay Aggarwal, Finance Head, Amarjeet Kaur, Deputy Manager, Marketing, Fortis Hospital Ludhiana.
For more news updates Follow and Like us on Facebook


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Nico Rosberg returns to the cockpit in the new Formula E Gen2 car.
Nico Rosberg made his return to the cockpit today at the ABB FIA Formula E Championship admitting the buzz of driving a race car came flooding back – but the 32-year-old insists he is still happily retired.
The Formula One World Champion was driving the Formula E Season 5 Gen2 car for the first time publicly, parading the futuristic vehicle on the streets of Berlin from the Brandenburg Gate to the race track at Tempelhof Airport.
Rosberg has become an investor in the all-electric street-racing Championship and alongside recently announced Venturi driver Felipe Massa is one of the biggest names to attach himself to Formula E.
Rosberg will be putting the Gen2, which can go 0-60mph in 2.7seconds, through its paces on the race track tomorrow prior to the Berlin E-Prix tomorrow, Saturday May 19, as the ABB FIA Formula E Championship enters its ninth race weekend of the season.
And while admitting that, even for a champion, his first full-speed lap on a race track since his 2016 win brings with it some nerves Rosberg insisted he was raring to get onto the track.
He said: "It will be my first time on a race track tomorrow and I really got the whole feeling coming back after driving the car so I was like 'can I go on the race track now!?' It is going to be great – I'm excited.
"I might be a little bit nervous actually thinking 'do I still have it in me? Am I going to be able to feel the limit with it being such a different car?' I better not shunt it! Although it would create a bit of a story.
"I think the racing will be just as good as it is now - the car looks awesome which is important because the visual is always important and it will be great racing, close racing and some great battles next year I'm sure just like now.
"It is great to be a part of this because I believe in it and have done for a long time so. Alejandro does a great job leading it and being a pioneer and it is right in the moment because e-mobility is going to go massive in our world so I believe in it.
"When I stopped in F1 I didn't think about it but when I stopped and started to think and learn about it, it became clear quite quickly that this is going to take off so I came on board. It is a new interest because before it was just F1, win the next race and family. I kept it that simple and that was one of my keys to success.
"When I stopped my horizons opened and I really started to look at the world and what is out there and speaking to people and that is where I really became interested in this movement that is going on. This innovation which is happening where e-mobility can really play such an important role in taking the world closer to sustainability.
"I'm in a good place with my retirement which is nice and it has just been so nice to be able to go out on a high and then change into this new life for me in such a way. It was really great in hindsight so I have been really lucky."
Following his home win in the last E-Prix in Paris, former Toro Rosso F1 driver Jean-Eric Vergne sits 31 points clear of Britain's Sam Bird but with 29 points on offer in a single Formula E weekend and four races to go the Championship is still wide open.
The Berlin round of the Championship is the only round to have featured every year since the championship's inception in 2014. The drivers face a 10 turn, 2.375km track on what can be an abrasive surface.
Also attending the event will be actress Emily Ratajkowski who will become the first female celebrity to drive the Formula E race car.
To follow the latest news and information, visit - www.FIAFormulaE.com
Shows: Video and images of the event
Other: None
Nico Rosberg Drives Formula E Gen2 Car
Nico Rosberg returns to the cockpit in the new Formula E Gen2 car
Natural Sound and English Speech
Formula E
Berlin, Germany
Nico Rosberg attends Formula E in Berlin to drive Gen2 car
Nico Rosberg attends Formula E in Berlin to drive Gen2 car
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg with the Gen2 Formula E car
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg, drives the Formula E Gen2 car around the streets of Berlin
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg with the Gen2 Formula E car
Formula E Gen2 Car in front of the Brandenburg Gate
Nico Rosberg Formula 1 World Champion
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg with Alejandro Agag, CEO, Formula E, and the Gen2 Formula E car
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg, drives the Formula E Gen2 car around the streets of Berlin.
Formula 1 World Champion, Nico Rosberg, drives the Formula E Gen2 car around the streets of Berlin


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Speak Out! - HireDS Message Board
HireDS Message Thread
Current Thread : Ticket to Work - BEWARE
Add to this Thread! | Return to Message Board
Posted By : Buxy
For those of you working with the ticket, if you go over the allowable amount just once, and don't report it, whether you are aware of it or not, SSA will take away all your funds and recapture the money anyway they can. They don't even have to warn you. They can wait until you've been accepting money for a few years, then slap you with a "we have found an error. You owe us $56k. We found that you had gainful employment on such and such month/year." Yep! I know all too many people who have gone through it. One person's payroll withheld pay for over 2 weeks and then paid it out all in one month, causing the employee an overage and they weren't aware of what had happened. That month they got a large check. It was considered gainful employment. They lost SSDI. SSDI says immediate reinstatement if you lose your job. Not true. They fail to tell you have to come in and reapply all over again. It's not automatic and they don't tell people! Work at your own risk. Gainful employment working petty pay and no benefits isn't worth the hassle. You're not making more than when you were on SSDI. Only now, you'll be without insurance in time.


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Tomorrow I'll be brewing a dry stout. Typically, this is one ale Stephen and I share – we each take five gallons. We'll be doing this again, me giving Stephen five gallons of stout, and me being the lucky recipient of five gallons of his wonderful Brew Barn Brown Ale. We both win!
This will be the sixth time I've made this stout, and in the past it has been called Stout Mark. The last time I brewed it I renamed it Black Widow Stout and I think the name is more appropriate because if you drink too many of them it will bite you!
The only major change I'm making to the tried and true recipe is the addition of one pound of Belgian de-bittered black malt. Supposedly, it adds very little in the way of flavor (no roastiness, chocolate or coffee flavors), but merely darkens the ale. This is one of the things Stephen and I have been trying to do to this ale since we first brewed it. A one pound addition takes the SRM from 28.5 to 33.5. We'll see how it goes. Anyone out there used this stuff before?
Here's the recipe:
Black Widow Stout
13-A Dry Stout
Author: Mark Ranes
Date: 2/7/09
Size: 10.32 gal
Efficiency: 70.0%
Attenuation: 75.0%
Calories: 283.63 kcal per 16.0 fl oz
Original Gravity: 1.064 (1.036 – 1.050)
Terminal Gravity: 1.016 (1.007 – 1.011)
Color: 33.69 (25.0 – 40.0)
Alcohol: 6.29% (4.0% – 5.0%)
Bitterness: 36.6 (30.0 – 45.0)
11.0 lb Pale Malt(2-row)
11.0 lb Maris Otter
1 lb Chocolate Malt
1.5 lb Roasted Barley
1.0 lb De-Bittered Black Malt (Mout Roost 1400)
1.0 lb Cara-Pils Dextrine Malt
1 oz Northern Brewer (9.0%) – added during boil, boiled 90.0 min
.5 oz Nugget (13.0%) – added during boil, boiled 30.0 min
1.0 oz Northern Brewer (9.0%) – added during boil, boiled 30.0 min
2 ea Whirlfloc – added during boil, boiled 10.0 min
1 tsp Yeast Nutrient – added during boil, boiled 10.0 min
1.0 oz Northern Brewer (9.0%) – added during boil, boiled 0.0 min
2000 ml Starter with 2/vials White Labs WLP004 Irish Stout
I'll be lighting the burners shortly after 9 am.


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Lydia Njoki's youngest child Samwell, who has epilepsy and physical disabilities, would not be here if some of her family had their way.
Her own grandmother went as far as suggesting how she could kill her baby.
"She told me to insert needles into Samwell's veins - that they would kill him slowly and no-one would know what had happened," she said.
The 56-year-old mother-of-four lives in Narok County, Kenya.
"People said I was cursed, that's why I got a child with a disability," Ms Njoki said.
Many a night, she cried herself to sleep: "I hated myself and asked God, why me?"
Visit this article to read the full story on BBC News


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Észak-Alföldi Tész
The Northern Great-Plain Vegetable and Fruit Production and Sale Cooperative (Észak-Alföldi TÉSZ) was formed in 1999, under the name of Parmen-Farm Cooperative. The purpose of the formation and operation was the storage, refrigeration, packing, and sale of the vegetable and fruit goods produced by the members.
The cooperative received a preliminary recognition as TÉSZ (Production and Sale Cooperative) in 2003, and it has been operating as a permanently recognized TÉSZ since 2009. The members produce quality goods mostly on their own lands, with their own production tools and state of the art machines.
We perform consulting activities in an organized form continuously during the whole year. The task of the integrator is to determine certain elements of the cropping technology and the species usage for the members of the cooperative. We provide input materials for members at fair prices, and also producer loans when needed.
The cooperative is closely connected with its two strategic partners, Parmen Kft and Parmen Zrt. The processing of goods and the domestic and export sales are conducted through these two companies.


text: Introducing an air gap into a design is often taken into consideration for keeping the display and protective overlay independent from each other as this will reduce manufacturing and maintenance costs of the end product. To assess the performance difference, we are showing testing the GT-1P module and a competitors' module with the same display and touch interfaces. Watch video below.


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Parashat Mishpatim – Why don't we mix meat and dairy?
One of the most unclear prohibitions in the Torah is not to mix meat and dairy. Have you ever thought why? all this and much more in this class
Duration of class:57:58
Podcast: Play in new window | Download
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Curious on whether you can drink alcohol or not? As a favorite pastime of many people, we will in this article be exploring into depth on is alcohol paleo friendly or not. Explaining why or why not it might be considered ok to consume on the paleo diet.
Since there is a variety of different alcohols, the answer will vary from one to another so we will address each individually and explain why or why not you can consume it.
Alcohol for many has become much more of a social experience, giving you the chance to bond with family members and friends. It's given many people a way to relax after a busy week of work or to socialize with friends and family.
It is also considered a great accompaniment when it comes to eating food. So losing alcohol from your diet can have a more significant on your overall life than you might think. Luckily some types of alcohol can be consumed on the paleo diet in decent amounts.
Alcohol, in general, is considered a processed food, so that gives you an idea of where this guide will be going, let's not hold off any further and jump right into it.
Is Beer Paleo?
Now beer is an alcohol that has been around for an incredibly long time, and some would say that's it's been around long enough and should be in fact allowed in the paleo diet. It is often accepted that humans in the Palaeolithic era would have been drinking things such as honey mead, which is probably one of the first alcohol beverages.
You will find that basically all modern beers are made from primarily wheat, barley, and hops. As you would likely already know, these are all a big no on the paleolithic diet. These ingredients land most modern beers cleanly into the "not" paleo friendly column.
If you're able to get your hands on some old style beer that is made from ingredients such fruit and honey, then you may be able to enjoy a beer that is very close to being "paleo friendly". However, I would steer clear of any modern beer that is likely to have been made from grains.
Is Wine Paleo?
Wine is often considered by most paleo diet experts to be the closest alcohol to being paleo-friendly. This is mainly due to it not relying on ingredients such as wheat, hops, and barley as most other alcohols do. Wine also has its advantages, more so red wine in particular. Red wine, in particular, includes antioxidants such as resveratrol which helps in a variety of different ways.
The antioxidants can help prevent damage to blood vessels, lower bad cholesterol and help prevent blood clots. These antioxidants mean that when you consume red wine in moderation, it is often considered to be a justified healthy alcoholic option for the paleo community. This is despite that wine is often fermented alongside off-limits ingredients such as sugars, starches and sometimes rice. However, if you were to drink alcohol, this is still one of your better options.
Is Spirits Paleo?
Spirits like all alcohols, go through a process of fermentation. Spirits, in particular, is the fermentation of grains. However, unlike beer, they do also have to undergo a second process.
This process is called distillation. Distillation is the action of purifying a liquid using the process of heating and cooling. This distillation manages to remove the vast majority of the gluten that is typically found in alcoholic beverages, something that is a major concern for many who follow the paleo diet.
However, with all that said, the distillation doesn't remove the gluten completely, so you are not getting off completely free if you decide to drink spirits. Also, the process of distillation is part of the reason why spirits have a much higher alcohol content, so be careful of the amount you drink.
Is Hard Cider Paleo?
Hard cider is a great fruity alternative for those who enjoy an alcoholic beverage every now and then. Hard cider is a fermented alcoholic beverage that is typically made from fruits such as apples or pears.
Hard cider is naturally gluten-free. However, it is always a good idea to double-check the labels. The need to check is because sometimes a producer can include ingredients that are not typically a traditional cider ingredient. These extra ingredients usually help aid the brewer in making a more consistent brew.
So on the question, is hard cider paleo? The answer is usually yes, however, be careful, as the amount of sugars that are often found can be quite high in some ciders. Your best bet is to go after dry cider as these will typically have a much lower sugar count than others.
So is Alcohol Paleo Friendly?
The answer to this is both yes and no, while there are options for you if you do enjoy drinking alcohol such as hard cider, spirits, and red wine. Things such as beer should be avoided when possible since modern beers make large use of wheat, barley, and hops that are big no in the paleo diet.
Alcohol lowers your inhibitions, so although you might be able to justify drinking hard cider, spirits and red wine as paleo friendly, you have to watch out that the alcohol doesn't make you eat things that you wouldn't typically eat while being on the paleo diet. It's also important to note that alcohol is loaded with carbohydrates so if you're seeking to lose weight it might be worth just avoiding completely.
I hope this guide has helped explain is alcohol paleo friendly and any of the benefits or drawbacks to drinking alcohol both on and off the paleo diet. If you think I have missed something or want to leave some feedback, then please don't hesitate to leave a comment below.


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Leather Blogs List.
The Best Leather blogs from thousands of top Leather blogs in our index using search and social metrics. Data will be refreshed once a week.Also check out Top Leather Youtube Channels list for Top videos on Leather.
If your blog is selected in this list, you have the honour of displaying this Badge (Award) on your blog.
Leather Blogs
1. Pan American Leathers | The Worlds Largest Exotic Skin Tannery
About Blog Pan American Leathers is one of the world's leading independent exotic leather tanneries. Learn some of the tips of the exotic leather tannery trade and how to buy exotic leathers from our experts.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website panamleathers.com/blog
Facebook fans 253. Twitter followers 429.
2. Fine Leatherworking | Premium Tools and Waxed Linen Thread
Berkeley, CA About Blog Fine Leatherworking is for designers, artists and dedicated enthusiasts who are passionate about making high-end leather goods. We offer the best tools, materials and information to help you make the leather goods of your dreams. Get tips, tutorials and inspiration for making finely crafted leather goods.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website fineleatherworking.com/blog
Facebook fans 1,783. Twitter followers 263.
3. Reddit - Leather
San Francisco, CA About Blog Reddit is a place to discuss any and all things Leather.
Frequency about 4 posts per week.
Website reddit.com/r/Leather
Facebook fans 1,103,563. Twitter followers 483,516.
4. Weaver Leather Craft Supply
Mount Hope, Ohio About Blog With over 30 years in the supply business, Weaver Leather has developed a reputation for bringing you top quality leather, supplies, machines and more. A rich heritage of manufacturing leather products pairs with giving expert advice to our supply customers to make Weaver Leather the industry's supplier of choice.
Frequency about 4 posts per month.
Since Aug 2010
Also in Leather Youtube Channels
Website youtube.com/user/WeaverLe..
Facebook fans 19,199. Twitter followers 709.
5. AM leathercraft - Leather crafting tutorial blog
Bordeaux, France About Blog Looking for leather good video tutorials and patterns you are on the right page. This blog is about leather crafting tip and tricks as well as leather good making tutorials
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website am-leathercraft.com/blogs/news
Facebook fans 816. Twitter followers 83.
6. Kinnari Leather
Finland About Blog This channel is about Leathercraft, using traditional techniques! Here you will find videos of all kinds of Leather goods.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Since Nov 2014
Also in Finland Blogs
Website youtube.com/channel/UCDi7..
Facebook fans 2,209. Twitter followers n/a.
7. Leather Medic | Leather Repair | Leather Restoration
Lehigh Acres, FL About Blog Leather Medic® is the repair and finishing expert! Leather Medic® specializes in automotive leather and vinyl repair, leather furniture repair and refinishing, marine craft leather and vinyl repair as well as commercial leather and vinyl repair.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website leathermedic.com/blog
Facebook fans 684. Twitter followers 500.
8. Pad & Quill | The Bindery Blog | Leather iPhone Cases, iPad Cases, Bags, & More
Minneapolis About Blog A small Minneapolis based family company designing and hand making iPad, iPhone, Macbook and Kindle cases along with beautiful leather dry goods. Mission to bring heart and soul to everyday experiences like carrying an iPhone or slinging a bag over your shoulder. Our focus is to deliver unique, quality and handmade dry goods.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website padandquill.com/blog
Facebook fans 11,879. Twitter followers 3,154.
9. Reddit - Leather Crafting Tutorials
About Blog Subreddit for LeatherTutorials here you'll find a large assortment of tutorials for all things leather!
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website reddit.com/r/LeatherTutorials
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
10. Leather Celebrities - Leather Girls Blog
Worldwide About Blog Leather Celebrities is a entertainment website reaching more than 100k monthly fashion and celebrity enthusiasts worldwide.
Frequency about 21 posts per week.
Website leathercelebrities.com
Facebook fans 10,335. Twitter followers 1,519.
11. Saddleback Leather Blogs
Fort Worth, TX About Blog Shop Saddleback Leather Company's full grain leather briefcases, backpacks, bags, luggage, wallets, accessories and more.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website blogs.saddlebackleather.com
Facebook fans 73,815. Twitter followers 7,912.
12. We Love by Radley | Handbags and Accessories for Women
London Town About Blog A British icon of affordable luxury, Radley blends creative design and exceptional leathers with expert craftsmanship. Follow us for the inside scoop on all things Radley London. From the latest Radley news to gorgeous giveaways, blogger exclusives and our new arrivals.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website welove.radley.co.uk
Facebook fans 241,445. Twitter followers 33,508.
13. Rustico - Handmade Leather Goods & Accessories
About Blog Rustico ranks among the top manufacturers of handmade custom leather products in the world. We take pride in creating and providing the best in handmade, true-to-you leather goods. Click to check out our journals, pouches, accessories and more.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website rustico.com/blog
Facebook fans 23,469. Twitter followers 524.
14. Chamberlains Leather Milk – Leather Milk Blog
Fort Worth, TX About Blog Experience the best leather conditioner, leather cleaner and leather protector made with the highest quality natural ingredients for the best leather care!
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website leathermilk.com/leather-milk..
Facebook fans 1,489. Twitter followers 271.
15. Daily outfits – Fake Leather Blog
Barcelona, Spain About Blog Blog by Adriana Gastélum. You can expect chic yet wearable outfits in Fake Leather with beautiful photography and a few tips on food, lifestyle, beauty and every other little passion I have.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website fake-leather.com/lookbook-ou..
Facebook fans 18,150. Twitter followers 3,226.
16. Beara Beara | The British Vintage Leather Bag Brand
London About Blog UK London brand of vintage style leather bags. Quality leather backpacks, colourful suede backpacks, old-school British leather satchels, classic handbags. Get news about Beara Beara, the London leather bag brand. Updates about new styles of backpacks, satchels, handbags, bumbags, wallets etc.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website bearabeara.co.uk/blog
Facebook fans 9,731. Twitter followers 832.
17. Will Leather Goods - TIP TO TAIL
Eugene, Oregon About Blog WILL delivers a collection of bags, belts and leather accessories that are uniquely American. They have rugged good-looks, thoughtful functionality, and top-quality materials inherent to artisan craftsmanship. Will Leather Goods creates leather bags inspired by the past, designed for the present, and built for the future.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website willleathergoods.com/blogs/news
Facebook fans 29,939. Twitter followers 7,188.
18. Mujjo Leather tech- and travel accessories
Netherlands About Blog Emerging Dutch designer label producing leather accessories for iPhone, Galaxy, iPad and Macbook. Designed in the Netherlands, shipping worldwide.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website mujjo.com/blog
Facebook fans 8,851. Twitter followers 1,774.
19. BestLeather - Many Options, Choose Best
About Blog Let BestLeather help you make a smart buying decision on your next leather purchase. Our mission is to create a comprehensive knowledge center and reference center for everything related to quality leather goods. We are ubiquitous in the leather goods industry. We condense the best information, promote the best products, and share these findings with our readers.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website bestleather.org
Facebook fans 4,305. Twitter followers 2,367.
20. Oberon Design - Leather Journal Covers | iPad, Kindle and iPhone Cases | Jewelry
Santa Rosa, CA About Blog Oberon Design is a small company of core crafts people, designers and office staff passionate about the quality of the leather and Britannia metal products made in our studio shop in northern California.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website oberondesign.com/blogs/news
Facebook fans 12,051. Twitter followers 703.
21. Corter Leather & Cloth
Brewster, MA About Blog Corter Leather & Cloth is a one-man operation based in Boston, Massachusetts. Corter products are built to be accessible, necessary essentials that age gracefully and uniquely to every owner. All leather goods are designed and handmade by maker Eric Heins.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website corterleather.com/blogs/news
Facebook fans 4,926. Twitter followers 2,188.
22. Ghurka | Leather Bags, Accessories, and Luggage
New York, New York About Blog Ghurka leather bags & accessories are handmade by master artisans committed to quality & timeless craftsmanship since 1975. Browse our collections here.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website ghurka.com
Facebook fans 35,303. Twitter followers 3,421.
23. Vaja Leather Cases and Covers Blog
Argentina About Blog Vaja Cases is a third generation artisan of hand crafted Argentinian customer leathers. Vaja creates stunning and durable leather cases for the iPhone, iPad, tablets, Samsung phones and much more. Customize the colors to match your style. Make it Yours!
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website vajacases.com/blogs/leather-..
Facebook fans 10,270. Twitter followers 308.
24. Story Leather Custom Handmade Premium Genuine Leather Wallets, Phone Cases, Holsters, and Bags
Los Angeles, CA About Blog Story Leather is a custom leather product company. We specialize in making handcraft leather goods like cellphone cases, wallets, purses, etc. Our goal at Story Leather is to customize every aspect of a case that fits an individual's lifestyle. For a truly unique personal touch, we emboss patterns and logos for a meaningful, lasting impression.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website storyleather.com/blog
Facebook fans 1,735. Twitter followers 713.
25. Horween Leather Co.
Chicago, Ill. About Blog Horween Leather Company was founded in 1905. For more than 100 years and five generations our goal has been to make the world's best leather. Making the best means doing lots of little things right. It means never mistaking fastest or cheapest with the best. It means always using formulas that do not cut corners, and choosing components strictly for their quality.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website horween.com/blog
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers 9,314.
26. Colonel Littleton | Leather Briefcase & Bags | Men's Wallet & Portfolios
Lynnville, TN (Pop. 327) U.S.A About Blog Col. Littleton Ltd., Inc. is a Lynnville, TN (pop. 327) based company that designs authentic upscale leather and specialty products in the Americana tradition; handmade at the company's workshop by local craftsman. Unrivaled leather handmade & personalized briefcase & travel bags, belts, phone & tablet cases, bracelets, pocket knives & dog collars.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website colonellittleton.com/blog
Facebook fans 26,764. Twitter followers 1,971.
27. Townsend Leather
Johnstown NY About Blog At Townsend Leather, we have a passion for leather, luxury, and design. Our design-driven philosophy allows us to offer creative and innovative leathers along with virtually unlimited opportunities for customization. We strive to provide top-of the-line leathers that are as unique as each of our customers.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website townsendleather.com
Facebook fans 593. Twitter followers 425.
28. Garrett Leather Blog | Premium Italian Upholstery Leather
Buffalo, NY About Blog Garrett Leather has over two million square feet of superior quality upholstery leather for shipment anywhere in the world. Our mission is to reward all of our customers with the best leather purchasing experience possible by providing superior quality leather, customized services, and on-time delivery.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website garrettleather.com
Facebook fans 968. Twitter followers 833.
29. Teakwood Leathers
India About Blog Teakwood is a premium Luxury brand that provides its cutomers the luxuries experience to carrying leather in a elegent and classic way.,Our products include Leather jackets,Shoes, wallets, belts and bags.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website teakwoodleathers.com/blog
Facebook fans 23,732. Twitter followers 12.
30. Brahmin | Designer Leather Bags, Accessories, & Jewelry
About Blog The Brahmin Blog is where you can gain access to exclusive stories, news, giveaways and more! Step into our design department where all of our handbag creations and concepts are drawn up. Head on over to product development to see the sketches come to life. Take a tour of our US factory where skilled artisans work daily, handcrafting our beauties.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Also in Bag Blogs
Website brahminblog.com/#
Facebook fans 114,848. Twitter followers 2,885.
31. Alto - Superior Italian Handmade Leather Cases for Apple iPhone
Anson Texas About Blog We keep it simple A great design is to find the perfect balance between technology and traditional handicraft. In this information-explosion age, our visual sense is gradually becoming numbed by the constant barrage of new products, and we take for granted another of our primary senses, touch. Find leather cases with card holder which made with premium imported Italian leathers.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website viaalto.com/blog
Facebook fans 41,160. Twitter followers n/a.
32. Love Your Leather - Leather Cleaning Blog
About Blog Our mission is to provide dry cleaners, manufacturers, retailers, and individuals with the highest quality leather care service. Your source for leather related information. We give you interesting articles relating to leather, and more specifically to the leather cleaning industry.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website loveyourleather.ca/leather-blog
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
33. Leather Leather Leather Blog
About Blog Celebrate Lady Celebrities & Ladies in Leather gloves, Leather boots & Leather clothing.
Frequency about 3 posts per month.
Website leatherleatherleather.com
Facebook fans 12,458. Twitter followers 242.
34. Wellingtons Fine Leather Furniture - Everything You Need to Know About Leather Furniture
Washington State About Blog Welcome to the Wellington's Fine Leather Furniture blog. We cover all things leather furniture: leathers, construction, styles, pricing, choosing and care. Our online leather furniture gallery is filled with hundreds of traditional leather furniture styles that are designed for comfort and affordability.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website fineleatherfurniture.com/lea..
Facebook fans 2,197. Twitter followers 933.
About Blog Tina Lee is a Lingerie Designer by day and Leather Accessories Creator by night. Her obsessions include shoes, lingerie and all things leather and lace. Of Leather and Lace is the embodiment of her style which is best described as feminine, sensual and occasionally cool.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website ofleatherandlace.com
Facebook fans 841. Twitter followers 132.
36. Kinz Leather | Handcrafted down under
About Blog WELCOME TO KINZ Handcrafted fine leather goods using premium materials and traditional tools and techniques. All items are made to order and are individually handcrafted The Properties and Strengths of Different Leathers Used.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website kinzleather.com/leather-life
Facebook fans 32. Twitter followers n/a.
37. Ortu leather - leather contractor leather supplier private label
Los Angeles, CA About Blog High End Leather Contractor Full Package leather contracting For manufacturers, designers and artists Women / Men Garments, Fashion accessories and much more.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website ortuleather.com/blog
Facebook fans 122. Twitter followers 15.
38. Hand and Hide LLC - Leathercraft
About Blog Hand and Hide crafts fine leather goods, specializing in smartphone wallet-case, covers for tablets and travel goods. Stay current with the latest news, inspiration and behind-the-scenes happenings at Hand and Hide. We are passionate about leathercraft and hope to share that passion with you.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website handandhide.com/blogs/leathe..
Facebook fans 257. Twitter followers 25.
39. Duvall Leatherwork
314 Wyoming Ave, Kingston PA About Blog Duvall Leatherwork is an artisan based company specializing in prototyping & manufacturing finished leather goods for wholesale and retail sales. Artisan-based full service leather shop specializing in handmade belts, wallets, handbags, dog collars, leashes, historic reproductions, and much more.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website duvallleatherwork.com/news
Facebook fans 6,246. Twitter followers 322.
40. Meridio Band | Apple Watch bands and leather accessories handmade in Italy
Hong Kong About Blog Meridio leather bands and accessories are inspired by Italian Style and handmade in a prestigious and ancient Italian tannery exclusively for your products.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website meridioband.com/blog
Facebook fans 525. Twitter followers 7.
41. Rainier Leather - Leather artisans Blog
About Blog Blog by M. K, leather artisan, professional blogger. Mission is to bring all my knowledge about leather handicraft and related products for you.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website rainierleather.com
Facebook fans 1,191. Twitter followers n/a.
42. Linny Kenney Leather
Littleton, NH About Blog Littleton, NH is currently the home of Linny Kenney Leather where custom guitar/bass straps, bags, belts, wallets, cuffs, and various other leather goods are hand crafted.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website linnykenney.com/posts
Facebook fans 2,412. Twitter followers 138.
43. JAW LEATHER GOODS - leather-blog
About Blog Blog by Jonathan A. Wilson. Get Updates and news about JAW Leather Goods upcoming products and special promotions.
Frequency about 4 posts per week.
Website jawleathergoods.com/leather-..
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
44. Leather Beauty
About Blog Celebrate Lady Celebrities & Ladies in Leather gloves, Leather boots & Leather clothing
Frequency about 1 post per week.
Website leatherbeauty.blogspot.com
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
45. Realeather
New Jersey About Blog Realeather is pleased to bring you our expanded catalog of leather lace and leathercraft supplies for 2017. Our Realeather brand of lace kits and jewelry is distributed by craft retailers and wholesalers across the United States. The Realeather® line also offers trim pieces in assorted forms which are perfect for garments, moccasins, bags, small projects, home décor, jewelry, and more.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website realeather.com
Facebook fans 57. Twitter followers 213.
46. Leather Treasure Shop - Spanish Leather Skins
Granada, Spain About Blog Leather Treasure Shop is an online based company, with warehouses in Spain and USA, which supplies genuine leather hides, full skins, furs, leather scraps and pieces, supplies and accessories worldwide. Find general facts and information on leather projects.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website leathertreasureshop.com/cate..
Facebook fans 615. Twitter followers 452.
47. Colville Leather: Handmade Leather Accessories Blog
Totnes, England About Blog Colville Leather strives to reintroduce a generation to the longevity and beauty of traditionally made leather accessories.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Also in Leather Fashion Blogs
Website colvilleleather.co.uk/blogs/..
Facebook fans 178. Twitter followers 87.
48. Edison Leatherworks
About Blog Custom leather, career, science, art, and thoughts about making things by hand.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website edisonleatherworks.com/home/..
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
49. Martin Pryce Leather Artisan
Pepper Lane, Ludlow, SY81PX About Blog Martin Pryce, Leather Artisan, maker of leather bags, clothes, accessories & guitar straps & all round dapper dude.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website martinpryceleather.co.uk/blo..
Facebook fans 682. Twitter followers 230.
50. Alphenberg | Masters in leather, the natural tough chique look and feel
Amsterdam About Blog At Alphenberg we are passionate about leather. We love the natural-tough-chique look and feel, we like the way it smells and foremost, we are inspired by the endless possibilities it has to offer. It's our mission to uphold the honour of leather and to be spirited ambassadors inspiring the world to apply this characteristic material as much as possible in our daily lives.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website alphenberg.com/blog
Facebook fans 1,919. Twitter followers 407.
51. Lovely Ladies in Leather
About Blog Post on Lovely Ladies in Leather.
Frequency about 5 posts per week.
Website lovelyladiesinleather.blogsp..
Facebook fans n/a. Twitter followers n/a.
52. Fine Lines Blogs
About Blog Fine Lines high-quality leather bags are well-known for its softness and ability to look good over time.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website finelines.co/fine-lines-blogs
Facebook fans 861. Twitter followers 2.
53. Old Country Leather Blog
About Blog A small business located in Ontario Canada started by two brothers that custom makes unique one of a kind products, all made from real leather. Personalize any of our products how you like, with different color options, and custom artwork to suit your liking, additional hardware, the options are nearly endless.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website oldcountryleather.com/blog
Facebook fans 82. Twitter followers n/a.
54. Mascon Leather - The Leather Blog
Williamsburg, VA About Blog Mascon Leather is a maker of handcrafted leather goods in Williamsburg, VIrginia. Leather goods painstaking crafted with passion, patience and pride.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website masconleather.com/the-leathe..
Facebook fans 1,350. Twitter followers 23.
55. Kirkstone Leathercraft Blog
About Blog Handmade leather good including guitar straps, belts, bags, pouches, wallets etc. Personalised items made to order for that special gift. Here you will find information and photos detailing the creation of some of the products on this website.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website kirkstoneleathercraft.co.uk/..
Facebook fans 42. Twitter followers n/a.
56. Dig Leather Co - The Artisan
Vancouver, British Columbia About Blog Blog by Don Gillard. In our world of disposable products, my leather goods are meant to last a lifetime, and longer. My creations are all limited editions, as each piece is handmade, and each design evolves organically. My process is simple. I choose a piece of leather or a full hide that inspires me, and let the design flow.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website digleather.com/the-artisan
Facebook fans 86. Twitter followers 12.
57. Zaccardelli Leather Co
Edinburgh, Scotland About Blog Edinburgh's finest producers of luxury Handmade Leather Goods. We produce bespoke hand finished leather items for a ever growing market within Scotland.
Frequency about 2 posts per month.
Website zleatherco.com/blog
Facebook fans 137. Twitter followers 217.
58. Leather from the Past
About Blog Welcome to my Blog! My name is Darrel Lang and I specialize in the Replication of Leather shot bags & Accouterments made in the colonies by the harness and saddle maker of the18th century. All items are hand sewn using waxed linen thread, dyed, then treated with neatsfoot oil & bee's wax. The leather used is of veg. tanned cow hide 2-3 or 4-5 oz. weight.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website leatherfromthepast.blogspot.in
Facebook fans 1,073. Twitter followers n/a.
59. Handmade Leather Goods & Lifestyle
Manchester - England About Blog Bespokeleather bags handcrafted by Edward de lacy. Every bag, wallet and accessory is uniquely designed, cut and sewn by myself in my Manchester based studio. Designs are sketched down and then explored in more detail when I construct the first prototype. I often discover new ideas during this process and enjoy the freedom to develop these ideas and avenues organically.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website delacyblog.com
Facebook fans 349. Twitter followers 525.
60. Leathersmith Designs - Our Blog On Custom Leather Work - Leather Craft
88 Woodlawn Rd., Dartmouth, NS About Blog Leathersmith Designs Inc. has been a Canadian manufacturer specializing in quality custom imprinted quality leather goods, promotional leather products and a distributor of leather craft supplies. Mission to produce quality leather products to meet the needs and desires of our valued customers and also to provide leathercraft supplies and knowledge on basic leather craft skills.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website blog.leathersmithdesigns.com
Facebook fans 601. Twitter followers 163.
61. LeatherCareUSA - Leather Pro Tips and Blog
Cold Spring, KY About Blog LeatherCareUSA.com provides leather cleaning services for garments, handbags, footwear, furs and more. Here you will find professional tips for leather garments that are frequently asked by our customers.
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website leathercareusa.com/blogs/news
Facebook fans 216. Twitter followers 11.
62. Equus Leather
County Durham About Blog Equus Leather makes handmade bridle leather belts and accessories, as well as a range of rolled leather dog collars , half check collars and flat dog collars and leads, harnesses and accessories. We design and make finest quality luxury leathergoods from our workshop in Great Britain. We have happy customers in every continent except Antarctica!
Frequency about 1 post per month.
Website equusleather.blogspot.com
Facebook fans 4,092. Twitter followers 745.
These blogs are ranked based on following criteria
- Google reputation and Google search ranking
- Influence and popularity on Facebook, twitter and other social media sites
- Quality and consistency of posts.
- Feedspot's editorial team and expert review
Top 60 Leather Blogs Winners
CONGRATULATIONS to every blogger that has made this Top Leather Blogs list! This is the most comprehensive list of best Leather blogs on the internet and I'm honoured to have you as part of this! I personally give you a high-five and want to thank you for your contribution to this world.
If your blog is one of the Top 60 Leather blogs, you have the honour of displaying the following badge on your site. Use the below code to display this badge proudly on your blog. You deserve it!:
<a href="https://blog.feedspot.com/leather_blogs/" title="Leather blogs"><img src="https://blog-cdn.feedspot.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Leather-transparent_216px.png" ></img></a>
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