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First, it's important to understand that there are many different types of migraines and understanding the difference between them all is imperative to getting the right treatment.
As well as covering migraines related to vision which we normally focus on, we'll explore each of the most prevalent migraine categories, common symptoms, and best possible treatments. Their causes and effects tend to overlap so if you are having problems with your vision as well as migraines (pre or post laser eye surgery) it is worth knowing about all the different migraine types, triggers and treatments.
What Sort of Migraine Am I Suffering From?
From heading to bed when you feel the onset of a migraine starting to take hold to getting flashes across your vision, migraines can have a huge impact on your day-to-day life.
But you're not alone.
Statistics indicate that around 1 in 7 people will suffer from migraines, which makes them the third most common disease worldwide. Migraines often starts around puberty and is most prevalent among those aged between 35 and 45 years but it can also effect younger children unfortunately. There is also a big difference between genders with three times as many women as men being effected which is most likely due to hormonal differences.
However, migraines themselves are not created equal. Yours could be very different to someone else's migraine – and here's why.
Migraines can be divided into two major categories (with a third minor one which we'll also touch upon):
Migraine with Aura: These present warning signs, such as flashing lights or seeing lines and shapes, before the migraine begins. Sometimes, you may even lose your vision for up to 30 minutes. You could also feel tingling in your legs and arms, with your speech, touch or taste being affected. This type accounts for around 1 in 4 migraine sufferers.
Migraine without Aura: This migraine begins without any specific signs beforehand and is the most common type.
Aura without Migraine: Often referred to as the 'silent migraine', these rare migraines occur when there is no headache but other migraine symptoms or auras are experienced.
You may suffer from any of these types of migraines frequently, even as often as several times a week.
There are also further sub-types that these migraines can be categorised into, including:
- Menstrual Migraines: Often occurring anywhere from 2 days before a woman's period to 3 days after it starts, these migraines tend to be without aura. Women who get these migraines may also suffer from other types of headaches at various other times of the month.
- Ocular (or Retinal) Migraines: A very rare form of migraine, an ocular migraine is one with aura, causing the sufferer to see flashing lights, colours and various other visual disturbances, including the loss of some sight or all sight in one eye. This vision loss tends to be followed by a migraine and should only last 30 minutes or less.
- Chronic Migraines: This headache lasts over 15 days a month for at least 3 months. On 8 of the days each month it includes migraine symptoms.
- Hemiplegic Migraines: Hemiplegic translates as 'paralysis to one side of the body', meaning the aura that comes with this migraine is weakness to one side that lasts less than 72 hours.
- Brainstem Aura: Symptoms include speech, sensory and/or visual ones and at least 2 of these further symptoms: unsteadiness, tinnitus (a ringing in your ears), vertigo, double vision, severe sensitivity to sound and slurred speech.
- Vestibular Migraines: This migraine may also cause the onset of vertigo (where you experience a spinning sensation for several minutes or even hours), balance issues, acute motion sensitivity, ataxia, sensitivity to sound, nausea and vomiting.
What Are the Symptoms of a Migraine?
The majority of migraines will start when you're a child, an adolescent or during early adulthood. Migraines can also pass through several different stages but you might not notice symptoms at each of these points.
Here are some of the signs you could be suffering from a migraine:
Before Your Migraine (Prodrome)
These tend to arise 1-2 days before your migraine, giving you a subtle warning that one's on its way:
- Stiffness in your neck
- Frequent yawning
- Food cravings
- Increased thirst and subsequent urination
- Mood changes, from happiness to depression
- Constipation
Aura – Before and/or During Your Migraine
Even though most people won't have an aura with a migraine, those who do will notice the following symptoms:
- Vision disturbances, such as flashes of light, bright lights and various shapes
- Vision loss
- Numbness or weakness in one side of the body or the face
- Pins and needles in a leg or arm
- Hearing music or noises
- Difficulty speaking
- Uncontrollable jerking – or other similar movements
Each of these will start off gradually, building up to last for 20-60 minutes. They can also be associated with hemiplegic migraine (limb weakness).
The Migraine Attack
If untreated, a migraine tends to last from 4-72 hours, and how frequent these are will vary with each individual case. During your migraine, you may notice:
- Blurred vision
- Nausea and vomiting
- Pain that's pulsating or throbbing
- Pain on both or one side of your head
- Sensitivity to sounds, light and sometimes touch and smell
- Lightheadedness, which can result in fainting
After Your Migraine (Postdrome)
As your migraine starts to ease off you enter the postdrome phase. Now you may feel elated or you could feel drained and washed out. For about 24 hours after, some people also find they experience:
- Weakness
- Moodiness
- Dizziness
- Confusion
- Sensitivity to sound and light
What Causes Migraines?
Sadly, the precise cause of migraines remains unknown but researchers are constantly finding out more about them.
For example, it is thought that environmental factors and genes play a part. And temporary changes in chemicals located in the blood vessels and nerves of the brain may also have an impact.
Approximately 50% of those who suffer from migraines will have a close relative who also has the condition.
That said, there are known migraine triggers.
What Triggers a Migraine?
These triggers vary and it isn't unusual to have more than one of these – but understanding and noting what may be triggering your migraine will help you avoid them (if possible).
- Food: Aged food, e.g. salami or cheese, and salty foods could cause a migraine, as can heavily processed foods. Skipping meals should also be avoided if you have migraines.
- Drink: Caffeine and alcohol may cause migraines.
- Sweeteners and Preservatives: Certain preservatives (e.g. monosodium glutamate – MSG) and artificial sweeteners (e.g. aspartame) are known to trigger migraines. Always check food labels so you can avoid these foods.
- Sensory Stimulation: Unusually strong smells, loud noises or bright lights may induce a migraine – common triggers include cigarette smoke, bright sunlight, paint, flashlights and perfume.
- Hormonal Changes: For women, the natural shift in their hormones can trigger a migraine. Some women will suffer from migraines just before or during their period, others will suffer from migraines during menopause or pregnancy (often during the postpartum period). The latter is due to the changes in oestrogen levels. Hormone medications (e.g. hormone replacement therapies and birth control) can also worsen migraines – but, in some cases, they may make them better.
- Stress: Migraines can arise when there's constant stress in your life. Work and home are the two most common places for stress, and, over time, this stress can have a detrimental impact on your body.
- Physical Exertion: Sometimes, extreme physical exertion, exercise and even sex can cause a migraine.
- Changes to Sleep Cycles: If your sleep pattern is disturbed, your migraines may occur more frequently. And making up for any lost sleep is a pointless exercise, as getting too much sleep can have the same adverse effect as lack of sleep.
- Changes to the Weather: A migraine can be triggered by shifts in barometric pressure and changes in weather.
What Increases Your Risk of Developing Migraines?
The above triggers won't cause everyone to develop a headache – but some people will have certain sensitivities to these triggers that cause the onset of a migraine.
There are several risk factors that can predetermine whether or not you may suffer from migraines. These include:
- Age: Although migraines can arise at any age, most will notice them beginning during adolescence. The good news is – migraines often start to improve when you're over 30.
- Genes: As mentioned previously, if you have a close family member who has migraines, it's more likely you'll suffer from them too. In fact, 90% of patients with migraines will have a family history of this same condition with parents being the best indicator. And if both your parents have or have had migraines, the risk is even higher.
- Gender: Boys are more likely to suffer from migraines during childhood while women are more likely to develop migraines after puberty.
How Are Migraines Diagnosed?
Migraines aren't diagnosed through a specific test. Rather, your doctor will need to see the pattern of headaches that you've been having along with any of the symptoms they cause.
Understandably, migraines are often very unpredictable, sometimes occurring without any other clear symptoms. Therefore, it may take a while to come to an accurate conclusion.
On your first visit to the GP, they may ask you numerous questions about your migraines, including where they occur, how often they occur and what they're accompanied with, e.g. sensitivity to light or noise and nausea/vomiting.
You may find it beneficial to start a migraine diary, noting what date and time the attacks happen, how long they last for, what you'd been doing before it started, what symptoms you had and what medication you took (if any). For women, it's also worthwhile noting the start and end of your period.
Your doctor may be able to provide you with helpful advice on lifestyle factors and/or medication that will help with your migraine. Or they may want to refer you to a specialist.
A neurologist is someone who specialises in conditions that affect the nervous system and brain, and your doctor may feel it's necessary for them to carry out further assessments if your migraines are chronic, your diagnosis is unclear or treatments aren't helping.
How Can Migraines Be Treated?
Sadly, there is no precise cure for migraines. However, there is a range of treatments available that may help lessen your symptoms and help you control your migraine attacks.
You may need to try several different medications or a mixture of some before you find the right treatment for you. And if over-the-counter (OTC) medication doesn't work, your doctor may need to prescribe something stronger for you.
During an Attack
When a migraine attack occurs, most people find that lying or sleeping in a dark room helps ease it. Or you may find that eating helps, or that you feel better after you've been sick.
Over-the-Counter Painkillers
The majority of people with migraines can reduce their symptoms using OTC medication, such as ibuprofen, paracetamol and aspirin. These tend to be more effective if they're taken as soon as you feel like the migraine is starting – rather than when the pain becomes too unbearable.
By taking them early on in your attack it allows the tablets to be absorbed into your bloodstream, easing your symptoms before they get worse. If you don't, the medication will often be ineffective because it's too late for it to have a beneficial effect. However, soluble painkillers that you dissolve in a glass of water are better in these cases because they are absorbed quickly into your bloodstream.
There is a number of cautions that come with taking these types of painkillers, especially on a regular basis. So you should always read the instructions carefully, avoiding ibuprofen and aspirin if you have a history of kidney or liver problems or a stomach ulcer. Aspirin isn't suitable for children under 16, either.
Furthermore, taking any type of painkiller on a regular basis can make your symptoms worse. This is what's known as a 'painkiller headache' or 'medication overuse headache'. If you are taking painkillers on a regular basis you should speak to your GP.
When OTC medication doesn't work, a doctor may recommend triptans. These medicines are specific to migraines and are thought to help reverse the changes that occur in your brain, causing the migraine.
This medication is available as a nasal spray, injection or tablet, but does come with some side effects, including:
- Flushing
- Tingling
- Tightness
- Warm sensations
- Heaviness in the chest, limbs or face
Some people may also experience drowsiness, nausea and dry mouth. These tend to be mild, though, and will disappear on their own.
Again, overuse of this medication can lead to painkiller headaches.
Anti-Sickness Medication
Also known as anti-emetics, anti-sickness medicines can often help treat migraines even if sickness or nausea aren't one of the symptoms you experience. These may be prescribed alongside the triptans or painkillers and will work better if taken at the start of your migraine.
Side effects include diarrhoea and drowsiness.
Combination Medication
Your local pharmacy will stock some combination medications that are targeted at relieving migraines – and you won't need a prescription for these. These tablets combine anti-emetics with painkillers.
Equally, you may find combining triptan with another OTC painkiller works best.
In most cases, these combined pills are more convenient. But sometimes, the doses won't be high enough to completely eradicate your migraine attack, so you may find it better to take the anti-emetics and painkillers separately so you can control the dose.
Want to try a drug-free approach to your treatment?
Then you may want to try acupuncture.
According to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), up to 10 sessions of acupuncture over a 5-8 week period may benefit some patients.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
If you're referred to a specialist, they may recommend transcranial magnetic stimulation. This was approved by NICE in 2014 and involves delivering magnetic impulses through your skin and into your head.
While it isn't known exactly how this works, there have been some suggestions that it can reduce how severe migraines are – but it won't cure them. Evidence also suggests that it's more beneficial for people who have migraine with aura and the long-term effects of this treatment are still relatively unknown.
Some side effects include irritability, muscle tremor, tiredness and drowsiness and slight dizziness.
Treatment for Women Who Are Pregnant or Breastfeeding
In general, migraine treatment should be limited if you're pregnant or breastfeeding. And the triggers of your migraine should instead be identified and, where possible, avoided.
If medication is required, you will need to speak to your doctor first.
How Can You Prevent Migraines?
Trying to prevent a migraine revolves around avoiding the triggers you've identified. If you can pinpoint what causes the onset of your migraines, you should be able to take some great steps towards removing these or reducing these factors, e.g. stress, noise, light and so on.
Here are some lifestyle changes you can make to help try and keep your migraine at bay:
- Sleep: Getting into a regular pattern with your sleep, even when you're on holiday or resting at the weekend can help reduce headaches.
- Regular Exercise: You may be worried that exercise may cause the onset of a migraine but moderate aerobic exercise may help reduce the severity and length of your migraine. This also helps keep your stress levels in check – reducing another potential trigger.
- Eat Regular Meals: A migraine can start when your blood sugar levels drop so don't skip meals and keep yourself hydrated by drinking plenty of water.
- Reduce Stress: Sometimes, this is easier said than done but try to limit the stress in your life by meditating, doing yoga, taking a short walk or listening to calming music.
- Look After Your Eyes: Although poor eyesight and migraines aren't directly linked, straining your eyes can lead to aches and pains around your eyes and may add another factor to your migraine. Getting the right glasses/contact lense prescription or undergoing laser eye surgery can eliminate this additional problem. Your optician will also be able to rule out any other vision problems that may be causing halos, flashing lights or shapes in your vision if your suffering from migraine with aura or aura without migraine.
- Avoid Loud Noises and Bright Lights: These stimuli may trigger your migraine and while they may be difficult to avoid in some cases, you could try not to do certain things too frequently, especially if you feel as though a migraine may be on its way. Driving at night, being in a club or sitting in the full glare of the sun are all potential triggers, as is sitting at a computer for long periods of time. Always take a break from your screen to give your eyes a rest.
There are also other prevention medications available, including topiramate, propranolol and botulinum toxin type A. However, just like any other type of medication, these do come with side effects. So if your migraine can be controlled by monitoring potential triggers and making the aforementioned changes, this is recommended instead.
When Should You Seek Medical Advice for Your Migraine?
If you are experiencing severe or frequent migraine attacks, you should seek medical attention straight away.
Some over-the-counter painkillers, e.g. ibuprofen and paracetamol may ease your migraine. However, you shouldn't take too many of these as it may make it harder for you to treat headaches in the future.
You should also make an appointment with your GP if your migraines are frequent (five or more days per month), even if you have been able to control them with the aforementioned medication. You may benefit from other types of treatment that prevent your migraines.
In severe cases, you should dial 999. This includes if you or someone you're with has:
- Weakness or paralysis in one or both arms – or to the side of their face.
- Garbled or slurred speech.
- Headache alongside a rash, double vision, seizures, confusion, a stiff neck and a high temperature.
- A sudden headache that's blindingly painful and isn't something they've experienced before.
These signs could indicate there's something more serious wrong, e.g. meningitis or a stroke.


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Home > Gifts Women Want > All Gifts Women Want
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Katie Loxton Florrie Day Bag in White is a lovely easy handbag. It has fabulous stitching on it and a gorgeous large matching tassel, with a magnet at the top. Florrie bags are a great shape and fit perfectly under your arm as if they were born there! It also has a magnet at the top to keep everything secure and a nice thick strap for over your shoulder.
Presented in a beautiful gift bag and tied in a bow with silk.
Our opinion ' You can now buy Florrie bags with matching clutch bags that also have tassles, we love these!'
Weight: 1.10kg
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UK Delivery
Free delivery any orders over £75, if you are under that it will cost £2.99 this will take 2-4 working days. You can use our priority service which takes 1-2 working days and costs £4.99. For urgent orders we also offer next day delivery if ordered before midday which costs £9.00 for weekdays and £13.00 for Saturdays.
EUROPEAN DELIVERY CHARGES : £12 (for orders up to £299) WORLDWIDE DELIVERY CHARGES : £18 (for orders up to £299) You will be liable for any taxes that may become due on receipt of the item. Please not for orders over £300 international postage is calculated at checkout.
How will my parcel be sent? We use Royal Mail tracked for the majority of our deliveries. For larger items we use Parcelforce. Please note a signature may be required to take delivery.
What if I change my mind or the item isn't suitable? You have up to 30 days from receipt of your item to return it to us for a full refund or exchange providing it still has all of its original tags and packaging. In the case of clothing it must not have been worn or washed. We offer FREE RETURNS on all UK orders within 30 days simply contact us for your return label. All international orders returns are at your cost, we recommend that your obtain proof of postage as we cannot accept liability for loss or damage in transit until the item is received by us. To return an unsuitable item please send to: Mummy & Little Me, C/O Denby Transport, Sadler Rd, Lincoln, LN6 3JR.
Please include your name, order details and the course of action you would like whether it is an exchange or refund. If you would like an exchange then you can call us on 01522 684153 to discuss your alternative requirements so we can ensure it is in stock ready for you. Once we have received your item you will get a confirmation email from us, any refunds will take 5-10 days to appear back in your account depending on your bank. All refunds will be processed by your original form of payment.

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February 8, 2018
The Independence Center
About The Independence Center: Founded in 1987, The Independence Center, which is also referred as "The IC", is a non-profit organization offering traditional, as well as self-directed home healthcare. Other services that are offered by the organization include independent living and advocacies for individuals with disabilities. Although their mission is to work with individuals dealing


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Shell, one of the world's largest energy providers, has signed an agreement to buy Dutch company NewMotion, in a deal enabling both companies to accelerate the transition to low-carbon transport.
Largest electric charging partner
NewMotion is Europe's largest electric charging partner. Under the deal's terms, the company will remain focused on accelerating its mission in Europe by delivering more innovative smart-charging solutions to homes, businesses and public parking spaces. The acquisition will help them enhance its electric vehicle (EV) charging services, turning more parking spaces into charging stations while also improving the charging experience for users across Europe.
Smart-charge services
The ambitious company has expressed pleasure at having such a strong investor which fully supports its expansion across Europe, as the transition to electric vehicles gathers pace. The passionate NewMotion team makes electric driving as simple and convenient for as many people as possible. They achieves this by designing, building and supporting award-winning smart-charge services, including charge points, a mobile app and a charge card granting access to tens of thousands of charge points across Europe.


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She started her career with a tune called "Snowbird." Her latest album features the Calypso tune "Bluebird."
The singer is "songbird" Anne Murray."It had been 20 years since I did a bird song," she says, "so I figure it was time for another. `Bluebird' will probably be my next single."
And "Snowbird?"
"I suppose since it was my first hit you could say it's my anthem. But the song `You Needed Me' is the one that started me on a roll. A couple of songs after `You Needed Me' and I was feeling I could sing in Chinese and the record would go gold."
Local fans will be happy to hear there won't be many Chinese numbers in Murray's show here (Tuesday, Oct. 2, 8 p.m., Symphony Hall). But you can count on about two solid hours of hits: "Another Sleepless Night," "Daydream Believer," "Can I Have This Dance."
We'll also get a smattering of numbers from "You Will," her latest album.
"When I released `You Will,' some critics wrote `Anne's back.' They felt this album was the way I should be heard. I've been told I was taking things too far. A couple of years ago, I went for a real contemporary sound. I felt stagnant and needed to break out, and the new songs were good, more energy, I needed that for my stage shows.
"But we all got a little crazy back then, experimenting with drum machines and synthesizers. Things got a bit cold. This new album is warmer. It feels right for me."
The truth is Murray has built a career on three basic building blocks: a solid knowledge of herself, a knowledge of her material and - most of all - a knowledge of her audience.
"I have an awful lot of tunes that people play at weddings," she says. "I believe `Could I Have This Dance?' has been sung at every reception known to man. A young widow in Provo with five kids met her future husband by
dancing to `Could I Have This Dance?' When they got married, their kids sang the song at the wedding."
Murray has visited Utah several times. She's played BYU quite a bit and once spent five days in Salt Lake City trying to kick a sore throat before a show. Something in her easy-going, understated style weds well with the Utah temperament. She blames that on Nova Scotia, her homeland.
Most people, in fact, have an Anne Murray favorite. They might call it "that pedestal song" or "Save the Last Dance for Me," she says, but they know what they want to hear.
And what they want to hear is a caring human being singing about love and life in deep, rich tones and memorable phrases.
That's Anne Murray.
She may be Canadian, but all North America claims her.


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About Bali Island
Bali Travel
Bali Driver
Bali Info
Bali Transport
Bali History
Auspicious Days
Temple Ceremony
Schedule of Bali Dance
Bali Map
Bali Information
Interesting Place
Bali Airline and Hospital
Comment Request
Bedugul,Singaraja & Pupuan with rice terraced
Type : Fullday Tours
Availability : Daily
Itinerary ;
long tour is arranged in order to appreciate the natural beauty
of Bali in a tranquil and peaceful ambiance (and not so tourist).
At first, we will explore Bedugul area, a mountain
resort lies over 1.000 meters above sea level. We will stop at Ulun
Danu Bratan Temple. Built on a promontory surrounded by
lake's water, this holy place is dedicated to Dewi Danu, The
Goddess of Water. Afterwards, we will stop at colourful
local market that displays many kinds of tropical fruits,
vegetables, flowers and spices. Continuing the trip, we leave for
North Bali, with a brief stop for a refreshing
bath at Git Git village with Waterfalls,
set amidst lush verdant valley. We will pass through Singaraja,
Bali's colonial capital (1848-1953) and Lovina
Beach, a beach resort with sprawling hotels and restaurants set
in a long black sandy beach for Lunch at Local restaurant. On the
way back, we will stop at
Banjar hot spring and at Pupuan, to get a close
look at coffee, clove and cocoa plantations, while
around Belimbing, we will see endless picturesque the big
terraced rice fields along the way home.
08.30am - 08.45am
at Lobby, (Approx.
12 hours).
Gitgit Water fall
Gitgit water fall located at Gitgit village this the biggest water fall in Bali, is only 30 minutes drive from Bedugul the road climb up and down to the mountain with the coffee plantation and clove tree.


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Blessings Mashaya and Fungi Kwaramba • 9 August 2017 2:08PM • 8 comments
HARARE - Another coalition of opposition parties — which are offshoots of the ruling Zanu PF party — could emerge ahead of polls in 2018 to take on President Robert Mugabe, whose party is already scheming against another alliance consummated over the weekend, under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai.
The Daily News can report that opposition parties that were left out of the weekend pact are unlikely to smoke a peace pipe with Tsvangirai's grouping because of their entrenched differences, and are already making overtures towards conglomerating under a parallel initiative to be negotiated through the Coalition for Democrats (Code).
Joice Mujuru, the former vice president and leader of the National People's Party (NPP), is tipped to lead the parallel initiative even though her formation is not a signatory of Code.
Mujuru, who had a tiff with Tsvangirai over the leadership of the coalition, was conspicuous by her absence at the MDC Alliance weekend rally, which nominated the former trade unionist to lead the alliance.
Tsvangirai has gone to bed with parties led by his former secretaries-general, namely Tendai Biti's People's Democratic Party (PDP) and Welshman Ncube's smaller MDC formation.
He also received the thumbs up from Transform Zimbabwe, under Jacob Ngarivhume; Zimbabwe People First, led by Agrippa Mutambara; Zanu Ndonga and the Multi-Racial Christian Democratic Party.
The MDC leader's supporters and those he went to bed with over the weekend are resolute that Tsvangirai should lead the coalition, while those lining behind Mujuru are questioning why they should trust a man who has previously failed to end Mugabe's rule.
Zapu leader Dumiso Dabengwa has already made it clear that his party will not be joining Tsvangirai or the MDC. The former Zipra intelligence supremo, who, along with former Finance minister Simba Makoni, broke ranks with Zanu PF in early 2008 to form Mavambo/Kusile/Dawn (MKD) party, averred recently that they were negotiations their coalition under Code, which Tsvangirai and his group had refused to be part of.
As such, Dabengwa — who now leads Zapu — does not see why they should depart from Code to join the MDC Alliance even though other Code members such as Ncube's MDC and the PDP are now working with Tsvangirai.
Those in Code who are not part of the MDC Alliance include MKD, the Renewal Democrats of Zimbabwe (RDZ), the Zimbabweans United for Democrats and the Democratic Assembly for Restoration Empowerment.
"Did you want us to dump our parties to join an MDC alliance when we do not even know what they are up to and what their strategy is?" Dabengwa was recently quoted saying, rhetorically.
" . . . They decided to form their own coalition so should we also jump ship and join them? We are not MDC. This is MDC going back to MDC", said Dabengwa.
Yesterday, leader of the RDZ, Elton Mangoma, said they will only accept a leader who is ready to work under Code and with a supreme council.
"We have Code as a coalition that is already in place but it can be improved to accommodate all. We have since drafted the framework, which we have since given to parties and adopted," said Mangoma.
"We therefore really don't care about who will lead the coalition as long as they are committed to having a supreme council that will ensure there we will not be situations where the leader will use his power to pursue those who did not back his or her presidency whether it's Tsvangirai or whoever.
"The supreme council will also be a conflict resolution platform for the coalition partners and address the issues and vaccinate against likely mischief, including unilateralism, overruling collective decisions, non-implementation of agreed positions, policy deviations, lack of integrity, unreliability and violence," added Mangoma.
Mujuru has lately been weighing her options and recently, she tried to sign an agreement with parties uniting under Code only stopping short of putting pen to paper for undisclosed reasons.
NPP secretary-general elect, Gift Nyandoro, said while the parties might be having problems over leadership — there is agreement that the grand coalition is the best way forward.
"Let us see the parties that are coming to our convention. I can speak with authority that we need each other, of all the notable parties there is a consensus that we need each other, of course they may be differences on leadership but those sticking points will be resolved," said Nyandoro.
According to sources, Dabengwa feels belittled by Tsvangirai and is considering working closely with Mujuru, Makoni and Mangoma.
Political analysts were unanimous yesterday that the disunity within the country's opposition parties could result in two coalitions emerging.
Shakespeare Hamauswa, an analyst, opined yesterday that what is emerging is a manifestation of complicated political gamesmanships in the country's body politic with the whole opposition if not all political parties likely to explode.
"The recent violence in MDC-T therefore indicates how the opposition is highly divided. The absence of (Thokozani) Khupe of MDC-T is not the only sign since in other parties like PDP the likes of Gordon Moyo are against the MDC Alliance," said Hamauswa. "So in light of coalition talks, we are going to see at least two big coalitions of opposition parties. Khupe and team might join hands with Simba Makoni, Dabengwa, Mujuru and Priscilla Misihairabwi".
He was referring to the violence that engulfed the MDC on Sunday after suspected thugs from the country's main opposition party stormed a meeting that was being attended by the party's vice president Khupe in Bulawayo.
Although Tsvangirai has condemned the violence, there is growing disquiet in his party over Khupe's close ties with Mujuru.
Incidentally, both Khupe and Mujuru did not attend the MDC grand coalition rally on Saturday but behind the scenes the two have been meeting, under the Women Convergence Platform which is coordinated by Misihairabwi.
Although, Mujuru, Khupe and Misihairabwi have in the past denied that they would want to challenge male dominance in politics, they have not disputed choruses to the effect that time has come for a woman to take over power.
Political analyst Maxwell Saungweme also said the likely scenario would be the creation of two coalitions.
"That scenario is likely. The Tsvangirai one will be a reunited MDC while the Mujuru one will be a Zanu PF faction that broke away. The real coalition will be when the reunited MDC coalesce with the Mujuru Zanu PF breakaway faction but that is a long shot," he said.
But MDC spokesperson Obert Gutu was hopeful yesterday that all parties would eventually unite under Tsvangirai's leadership.
"The MDC Alliance is a formidable force. Actually, there will be more political parties joining this alliance. Political negotiations are ongoing and please, never, ever rule out the possibility of having only one formidable opposition alliance to face Zanu PF in next year's elections. As they say, a day in politics is very long. Just watch the space," said Gutu.
There is nothing to lose at all.Mujuru will never affect MDC support, rather she will affect zanu because her supporters are from zanu.Khupe will be stupid if she really join hands with Mujuru.
How many supporters do Khupe,Dabengwa,Makoni,Mangoma and Mujuru,combined,have? unless if they are trying to tell us that they will be voted for by their families? Bloody fools. One thing they have in common is that they are Zanu PF moles.
Have said it before, will say it again. Unless Mujuru can mobilize a massive rural vote, MDC doesn't need her. She wants to cannibalize the MDC urban vote. Has she even done any rallies so we see her base?
to hell with chancers , khupe and company zanu pf sympathiser
Of course Nyandoro, the smaller invisible parties need each other. None of them holds a single seat in parliament right now, that is a fact. If they could overcome their arrogance and join those who already have a presence in parliament we could have some useful conversation. Let them form their own.
Joice Mujuru the thick baobab kicked in the bonnet by Bob, Simba Makoni the tame raven and Dumiso Davengwa who fools himself thinking he is Zapu - the three idiots who revel in seeing Zimbabwe at the mercy of Zanu-PF. We know your intentions. You will not win. Leadership of a real opposition to Zanu-PF comes with responsibilities. The three of you are showing none of it. Its high time you repent and join MDC with you tails between your legs. You are nonentities trying to elevate yourselvesin a game you think its for chancers. People may not be as stupid as you think.Simba, ndozvawakaendera kuchikoro izvozvi ? Wasiyanepi nedofo iri Joice? Fundo yose yepaUniversity of Rhodesia yakaenda musango. Tinyarevo !
You can always see people like dabengwa rambling from afar barking loud but doing nothing for the country.Dabengwa thinks his 16 people Zapu must have a say in what happens as the opposition?Tsvangirai is the face of the opposition and we should all rally behind him and change the country.I am not a member of the MDC but believe they have the most realistic chance of winning behind Tsvangirayi. Simba Makoni used to be an intelligent someone but i see that all he now wants is to be the opposition of the opposition,Shem. I always knew that mujuru was a zanu mole,how else can you consider her opposition when before they killed her husband she was part and parcel of the deal hoping to trade him, for presidency,manje akairasa.Everybody forgets that Mujuru did not quit Zanu,she was fired.We dont trust any opposition that has not struggled the the country.
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vulgar, racist, tribalistic, sexist, discriminatory and hurtful
language when posting their comments on the Daily News website.
Those who transgress this civilised etiquette will be barred from
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- Editor
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It's been bitterly hot these past few days. 100 degrees in Del Mar, California is unheard of and we were ill prepared for it. Nobody has AC because it's rarely too hot (or too cold for that matter.)
This absence of a cooling mechanism translated to signs littering the home good stores. BIG BOLD LETTERS reading FANS ARE SOLD OUT.
So we've been opening and closing doors—trying to achieve perfect cross ventilation. We've been taking cold showers, drinking cold sodas and jumping in the ocean whenever time and tide allows.
The last part is sort of the gift of all of this—my mom who rarely jumps in the water has become something of a pacific mermaid, diving under the salty waves.
This seems fitting because I think she may have instigated my love affair with all bodies of water. When my sister and I were little we'd spend hours at the beach as a family, stewing in the sun… and every summer we'd camp near a lake or a river—anywhere we could submerge.
So it's a photo essay today… inspired by the heat and the things we do to escape it… a photo essay of my aquatic affair through the ages…
Water Love from Carina Kolodny on Vimeo.


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J. B. Danquah the Inventor & Founder for Dummies!
911 total views, 1 views today
"…Mr. Paul Adom-Otchere is as ignorant as the Kyebi branch of the NPP come…No people in all of mankind's recorded and oral history ever united through a…National Liberation Movement (NLM)-United Party (UP)-Progress Party (PP)-confederation, let alone build a great civilization…In Ghana…Ghanaian workers, always free to work, constructed and built all the great infrastructure and institutions Kwame Nkrumah bequeathed to Ghana as the Chief Executive of Ghana//…….It was Ako Adjei who recommended that Nkrumah is the right person to lead the struggle not Danquah…It was Paa Grant who paid for Nkrumah's return to the Gold Coast, not Danquah. It was Paa Grant who sheltered Nkrumah at his residence in Takoradi but not Danquah…… J. B. Danquah, the attorney, was the only principal member of the UGCC who did not contribute a single penny to fund Nkrumah's travel back to Ghana in 1947 to assist the UGCC in a "self-government" project they were miserably failing at…When the Great People of Akyem Abuakwa, through their taxes and sweat, paid to gloom Barrister J. B. Danquah, J. B. Danquah simply neglected them, and they, him…J.B. Danquah never won a single election, not even in his own neck of the woods, …", (Prof Lungu/…/BOY KOFI, in summary-commentary form, 2015-2016-2017).
It is funny that having recently lost political power, the NDC seem to have re-discovered Kwame Nkrumah.
But this paper is not about the NDC.
Like many non-partisan critics whose primary interests are in responsible, responsive, and accountable governance for Ghana and Africa, we found it incredibly tone deaf and a mighty waste of time for some members of the NPP, including President Akufo Addo and the Speaker of the House, to revisit the tired old debate they've never won since 1966, and will never win in any forum in Africa, or anywhere else in the world. Simply, it is the fully vetted proposition that Dr. Kwame Nkrumah is without doubt the singular, most important character and activist behind the transformation of the Gold Coast during the years 1947-1956, and the consequent founding of Ghana in 1957 as a sovereign, independent state.
Clearly, the Kyebi-branch of the NPP has always fallen short whenever they've tried to elevate J. B. Danquah who died in 1965 in Nsawam prison under suspicion of treason and succession at the age of 70 years from high blood pressure under the government of the CPP headed by Kwame Nkrumah.
What election(s) J. B. Danquah, the self-proclaimed "Doyen of Gold Coast politics" ever win, even in his own Kyebi neck of the woods, we've never been told by the Kyebi branch of the NPP.
What projects and programs J. B. Danquah ever cause to be planned, built, or commissioned into service for Ghana, the Kyebi branch of the NPP has never bothered to tell Ghana's children.
We are fed up with all that garbage!
The fact is, one does not "traditionally", and in reality, fight for secession and a morass of a confederate state, then turn around to attempt to steal the glory of a "Unitary State" someone else championed at the pain of imprisonment and event death, after you've failed miserably.
And so, with minor revisions and still with the intent to educate, inspire, and inform or readers we are today humbly re-publishing our classic paper and series on "J. B. Danquah for Dummies".
Dear reader, no people in all of mankind's recorded and oral history ever united through a Ghana National Liberation Movement (NLM)-United Party (UP)-Progress Party (PP)-confederation, let alone build a great civilization. It was not the case for ancient Egypt, not for Ghana Empire, not for Songhai Empire, nor was it the case for all the great civilizations of Mongolia and China that European Marco Polo marveled at during his travels in the mid-1200s.
Further, many of the greatest engineering and economic feats of mankind were invented and built through servitude, sometimes through part time conscription, most often through slavery, but all the time, of the conquered, or of fellow compatriots.
We are talking about Grand Canals, Harbors, Urban Squares, Dams, Cities, Highways, Road, Bridges, Libraries, the Pyramids, and yes, Universities, even. Such it is, even in the case of Christopher Columbus's Old America of the late 1400s, and in the case of Abraham Lincoln's United States of America, in more recent historical annals.
Those, dear reader, were "brutal" regimes and institutional arrangements of hyper-centralized direction. It was always about the city, change, adaptation, renewal, and degradation. And people died in the millions in the aggregate constructing and supporting those facilities and institutions. Largely immutable records are available to today's privileged, including you who are reading this essay.
In Ghana, with second hand knowledge of those records by expatriates, Ghanaian workers, always free to work, constructed and built all the great infrastructure and institutions Kwame Nkrumah bequeathed to Ghana as the Chief Executive of Ghana, who, in many cases, commissioned them. Nkrumah was, after all, elected by the entire Nation of Ghana multiple times, while J. B. Danquah was not elected, not even once, by the entire Nation. And Ghana needed every bit of that infrastructure, and more.
Try harder, sirs!
To be continued….
By Prof. Lungu
- Mumford, Lewis. The City in History, 1968.
- Building The World – The Grand Canal,
(3) Cameron Duodu. Is there one "history" or are there several "histories"?
(4) Prof Lungu. Give us a break, Kankam Nyame creators: Kwame Nkrumah is the Founder!
(5) http://www.danquahinstitute.org/index.php/447-ghana-the-party-system-in-1951-1956-and-1957-1962
(6) Cameron Duodu. Dr J B Danquah's Tragic Death Sticks In The Throat Of Some People Like A Dead Rat, (http://www.modernghana.com/news/600004/dr-j-b-danquahs-tragic-death-sticks-in-the-throat-of-some-p.html).
SUBJ: J. B. Danquah The Inventor & Founder for Dummies!
Support Fair-Trade Oil Share Ghana (FTOS-Gh) Campaign/Petition:
Brought to you courtesy www.GhanaHero.com©1 Sep 17.
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In the matter of the estate of ROBERT H. TOZER of Alexandria, Jefferson Co. NY: On 6 March 1854, REZOT TOZER of Alexandria, petitioned to open probate.
FRANKLIN TOZER of Theresa
ROZOT TOZER of Alexandria, of full age and children of testator
SARAH TOZER, of full age, of Alexandria, widow of the testator
ROBERT H. TOZER named his wife, SARAH. Named his daughter, SARAH EVELINE. Named his son, REZOT. He appointed son, REZOT, as executor of the will. Will dated 24 August 1853.
/s/ Robert H. Tozer
Witnesses: J. C. Rhodes of Redwood and M. J. Hutchens of Alexandria, NY
Will proved: 16 May 1855
Jeff. Co. NY Wills, Vol. 3, p. 431
Information contributed by volunteer Marilyn Sapienza.
Return to Jefferson County Will Index page
Copyright 2016 Jefferson County NYGenWeb — a member of the NYGenWeb Project
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Return to Jefferson County Genweb Page


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Employers' financial difficulties irrelevant when calculating notice periods
Compared to employment, business ownership can offer independence and control, but can also create inescapable financial and other obligations. Salaries and other expenses must be paid regardless of how poorly the business does. The inescapable obligation to pay the appropriate notice pay when employees are terminated, was recently the subject of an Ontario Court of Appeal case.
Director's liability for corporate negligence
Plaintiffs often cast the net broadly to capture every party with assets or insurance capable of satisfying a potential judgment. Directors are often named as defendants in claims related to the negligence of the companies they oversee.
Why do charities need creditor proofing? This is why.
In the aftermath of the abuse scandals at Catholic schools and churches the charity world learned much about how creditors could seize control of a charity's assets. As a result many organizations began studying methods to protect charitable assets in case of an unsuccessfully defended lawsuit against them. Lawyers though know that the lessons of the past have not sunk in at many charities and now there is a very public example that comes from the failure to learn from history.
Intellectual property belongs to employer despite contract dispute
When an employment relationship involves intellectual property created by an employee, the employer must take special care in the employment contract to consider who owns the IP.
Office of the Information and Privacy Commissioners bring your own device program guidelines
Using personal devices at work to conduct business (BYOD or "bring your own device") has become commonplace in the last couple of years. Employers are implementing BYOD policies left, right and centre to try to control the privacy challenges this practice can bring about when employers access these devices to protect their data contained on them.
Worldwide code of conduct reasonable exercise of management rights
Many multinational corporations have issued company-wide codes of conduct setting out baseline rules that apply to all of their global operations. A recent Ontario arbitration decision provides a good precedent for employers who may be concerned about balancing corporate governance interests against the rights of unionized employees when instituting universal codes of conduct.
Public holiday reminders for the 2014-15 holiday season
The holiday season is often the happiest time of the year, because of time spent with family, gifts and many other things. However, it can also be the most stressful time of the year, especially at work. Deadlines are often tight because of shifting schedules, customers and workloads can be more demanding, and there may be pressure to increase performance to meet end-of-year business goals. Family demands, travel and employment standards public holiday (statutory holiday/general holiday) requirements can also take a toll. Management should not forget what employees are entitled to, and their responsibilities, under the law regarding time off during the holidays. Here is a brief summary:
What charites & non-profits can learn from the Ministry of Labour blitz on unpaid internships
Volunteers and unpaid interns are not covered by the Employment Standards Act, 2000 ("ESA") and therefore are not subject to minimum wage and other requirements of the legislation. However, on September 30, 2014, the Ministry of Labour released the results of its recent blitz where it was determined that a number of unpaid interns in various sectors of the economy were actually employees covered by the ESA, and accordingly, entitled to minimum wages, vacation pay and other protections afforded to employees under the ESA. While the Ministry of Labour did not specifically target charities and non-profits in this blitz, there are many lessons to be learned due to the large number of volunteers and unpaid interns working in these sectors.
Arbitrators should apply 'privacy spectrum' to personal information
The names of people involved in labour arbitration should be disclosed with the arbitrator's decisions, unless there are compelling reasons not to do so, according to the open-court principle and the public's interest.
Evans v. The Bank of Nova Scotia: Another case of intrusion upon seclusion is certified as a class action
The new tort of "intrusion upon seclusion", which provides a cause of action to those whose privacy has been breached, was given new teeth this month by the certification of a class action against the Bank of Nova Scotia and its employee, Richard Wilson.


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Title: Guns n' Boys: Gilded Agony
Author: K.A. Merikan
Series: Guns n' Boys #7
Page Count: 257 pages
Genre(s): M/M, Dark Romance
Release Date: March 24, 2018
Guest Reviewer: ~Judith~
Rating: ✮5 Stars✮
"We are two halves of the same rotten apple."
Deep in the Amazonian jungle, there is a mansion with a rose garden and a hen house where juicy tomatoes are the perfect shade of red, and marble countertops glisten.
Inside, where even the shadows don't reach, something is rotting, and the perfect facade can only hold the stench for so long.
Domenico promised his husband that he would keep him safe, keep him away from the bloodshed and the brutal world of cartel violence. But when a guest arrives to help retrieve a stolen transport of guns, something sinister sneaks into his home, something more dangerous than his enemies. Or has it been there all along, and he just hasn't noticed?
Seth's life is what others dream of. Endless leisure time filled with cocktails, a kitchen stocked with anything he wishes for, and a private pool in the sunshine. What's missing is the man he shares it with, the man he fell in love with. If being cut off from the mafia business was what he wanted, then why is it so painfully lonely in paradise?
Desperate to be the supportive husband Domenico needs, Seth buries his rage, his violent urges, and the anger that simmers inside of him. But he can only hide in plain sight for so long, and when a guest invites him to play with fire, one misstep, one wrong move, could burn their safe haven to the ground.
POSSIBLE SPOILERS: Themes: mafia, cartel, assassin, organized crime, family ties, domestic violence, inequality, betrayal, revenge
Genre: Dark, twisted M/M romance/crime thriller
Length: ~92,000 words (Book 7 in the series)
WARNING: Adult content. If you are easily offended, this book is not for you.
'Guns n' Boys' is a gritty story of extreme violence, offensive language, abuse, and morally ambiguous protagonists as well as scorching hot, explicit love scenes. Behind the morbid facade, there is a splash of inappropriate dark humor, and a love story that will crawl under your skin.
"Sometimes I think it's impossible for two people to be so closely connected.Maybe we've met in a different life."
Seven books in and this series just get better and better and how many series can you say that about? After years of reading M/M romance books, Dom and Seth are still my favorite couple. In this book, K.A. Merikan once again grabs your attention and don't let go, in what is my favorite book in the series so far…This one is brutal in terms of Dom and Seth's relationship…
Seth seems to have a perfect life. Lazy days spent with their daughter Angelica, tending to his beloved chickens and hours spent in his beautiful kitchen creating wonderful food for his family. And, really, whatever he wants he eventually gets from Dom. But resentment is starting to creep up on him. Is he really happy being Dom's Trophy husband?…he might have the T-shirt but is it enough?
For his part, Dom is determined to keep the ugliness out of Seth's life as far as his work is concerned. After all, Seth made it very clear he wants no part in any violence but is Dom's over protectiveness about to backfire in the worst way when a new face arrives at their home turning their world into chaos…No matter how strong their love is will it be enough this time?
As usual, these Authors don't hold back…they are never afraid to go there…and there are some shocking moments here but I wouldn't have it any other way.
Reading a new chapter in Dom and Seth's life always, without fail, makes me happy because along with the violence and self-destruction it's a powerful love story, definitely not always pretty but completely compelling…
I highly recommend this series! 💓


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The world's biosphere could be likened to a great wall, the human perched atop it. And if the biosphere were to lose a few species of animals, the wall would only lose a few bricks and still remain standing. But soon, if more and more animals go extinct, the entire wall may, just may, come crumbling down. The question is who is removing the bricks?
Full Article
– Does the tempest halt for the sake of your blindness?
From the poem Utpakhi (The Ostrich); Dutta, Sudhindranath
A mass extinction episode is a global phenomenon during which more than seventy-five percent of Earth's wildlife goes extinct. And, over the last half a billion years, five such mass extinction episodes have decimated Earth's wildlife. The most recent being the one that wiped out dinosaurs forever. But how many of us are aware that several recent research studies1,2 have time and again claimed that Earth is in the throes of yet another mass extinction episode: the sixth mass extinction.
Indeed, over the last 100 years, 200 species of vertebrates have gone extinct3. This extinction rate, of two species a year, may only elicit a shrug of your shoulders and may not sound alarming: Animals go extinct all the time, such is the way of nature. But when one considers the rate at which animals usually went extinct in the last two million years, two hundred species would not have taken a hundred years but ten thousand years to go extinct.
The extinction rate, in other words, has risen drastically – by almost 100 times – as compared with the eras before and in too short a window of time, the last one hundred years.
A research article3, published recently in the journal PNAS [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences], however, goes one step further with its claims regarding the sixth mass extinction.
This study reports that not only is the unsheathing of the sixth mass extinction a contemporary phenomenon, but it is also a lot more severe in magnitude than previously thought. Furthermore, this study also alludes to the fact the human animal seems to be solely responsible for this one. It is interesting to note that even the first mass extinction, which occurred much, much before the first human being came into existence, was caused not by a shower of meteors or by great volcanic eruptions but by animals8.
"In the last few decades, habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive organisms, pollution, toxification, and more recently climate disruption, as well as the interactions among these factors, have led to catastrophic declines in both the numbers and sizes of populations of both common and rare vertebrate species,"3 write the authors – Gerardo Ceballos, Paul R. Ehrlich, Rodolfo Dirzo – in their research article. Furthermore, according to the study, in the last hundred years, "50% of the number of vertebrate individuals that once shared Earth with us3 have already been wiped out", and such a catastrophic decline of animal populations thus indicates that the sixth mass extinction is already under way.
But why should we, as humans, care even if we lost more than 75% of our animals through mass extinction? Because given how interdependent different animals are in the ecosystem web – Domino Collapse – even humans would be adversely affected.
Take insects, for example. If tens of thousands of species of insects go extinct before the environment can adapt to their absence, then thousands of species of trees too would disappear as many species of trees are dependent on insects for pollination. And if trees disappear, the death knell would be all but sounded for the human race.5 Our air would be filthy, toxic, and the ambient temperature of the Earth would rise by several degrees. The rate of soil degradation would rise, and so will the rate of soil erosion resulting in the loss of arable land. Rainfall would be seriously affected, and in turn, so would be the quality of our freshwater sources. The human animal, assuredly, would be negatively hit.
Therefore, given that this mass extinction could prove to be a credible threat to human survival, it is rather discomfiting to realize that we – the primary reason behind this extinction episode – appear to be blind to it. Two reasons explain why?
The first reason: The two species that disappear every year are ones that either are not alluring enough for us [not as alluring as the lion, for example] or live in isolated corners of the world, and, hence, we never really feel their loss.
For instance, do you know of the Catarina Pupfish? Or of the Christmas Island Pipistrelle? The Pyrenean Ibex? All three disappeared for good in the recent past, but how many of us are aware of this fact.
The second reason that contributes to our not being fully informed of the threat of mass extinction is that previous research studies have focused strongly only on the 'end point' – the complete extinction of animal species – to deduce the health of Earth's wildlife. And this approach, the study in question highlights, is the fundamental reason why previous studies have underestimated the magnitude of the present mass extinction. The following paragraphs explain this in greater detail.
Consider, for the sake of argument, an animal species 'X'. This animal X is spread across fifteen different countries in Asia. This animal's 'global population', in other words, comprises 'local populations' spread across fifteen different countries. There would be one local population, of a certain number of individuals, of animal X in one country; another local population, of a certain number of individuals, in another country, and so on.
Suppose, after a year, we observe that out of the fifteen local populations, fourteen have been wiped out – local population extinctions – and only one last local population exists.
In such a scenario, if we were to concentrate only on the 'end point' – the complete extinction of this animal species – we would simply put a tick mark against animal X and report it as 'not extinct' since that one last local population still exists. And here lies the problem.
This strict binary of 'extinct' or 'not extinct' is simply too coarse a method to capture the true health of an animal species in the wild. In this case, for example, by simply labelling animal X as 'not extinct' we fail to capture the critical detail that animal X is faring miserably because its local populations have suffered from a drastic decline: In this hypothetical scenario, from 15 to 1. Hence, the underestimation of the magnitude of mass extinction.
Therefore, according to the study in question, to better gauge the true estimate of the magnitude of the present mass extinction event, it is imperative that one should focus more on the extinctions of the local populations, and not just on the global extinction of a species. Just because an animal lives, does not imply it thrives.
All previous studies have followed the above, albeit flawed, approach: of concentrating only on the 'end point'. And thus these studies suffer from the misconception that the phase of biodiversity loss is only just beginning, and humankind has the luxury of several decades to counter it. The rate of extinction, after all, is only two animals/per year. But the study in question asserts the contrary through rather aggressive rhetoric: "We emphasise that the sixth mass extinction is already here and the window for effective action is very short, probably two or three decades at most." Probably, even less.
Of course, this is not to say that humankind will go extinct within a few decades; but that if we do not begin to act right now, then this mass extinction will prove to be irreversible after two or three decades. Consequently, the extinction of the human race will, in all likelihood, closely follow.
To back such a strong claim, this study follows a novel approach. It takes into account, unlike prior studies, two important factors that directly precede the 'end point', i.e. the global extinction of an animal species. First, as delineated above, the decrease in the local populations of different animal species over the last hundred years. Second, the shrinkage of their geographical habitats over the same time. [Note: For this study, the local populations of 27,600 vertebrates were considered, which is a small fraction of the total number of animal species in the world, about 8.7 million7.]
The study reports that over the last hundred years about one billion local populations of different animal species have gone extinct. One. Billion. Again, to repeat, this does not imply that one billion animal species have gone globally/completely extinct in the world; but that a total of one billion local populations of different species have been wiped out forever in certain regions of the world while still probably being present in other regions of the world. Hence, 'local' extinction.
Thousands of local populations of the Asiatic Lion, for instance, were once found all over India. But over time, all these local populations – along with the one billion local populations of other animals – have gone extinct. Today, the last few local populations of the Asiatic Lion are now only found in an isolated pocket, the Gir Forest, situated in the state of Gujarat. Once these last few local populations go extinct, the Asiatic Lion will be declared 'globally extinct', not to be found anywhere in the globe.
The study discovers another disturbing fact.
Over the last hundred years, 32% of Earth's vertebrate species have decreased in population size and range. Of the 177 mammals analysed in the study, all have lost 30% or more of their geographic ranges, and the ranges of more than 40% of the species have decreased by more than 80%. Even animal species – categorised as 'Least Concern' – too have been suffering from similar woes and are tending inexorably towards the 'Endangered' category.
"Our data indicate that beyond species extinctions, Earth is experiencing a huge episode of [local] population declines and extirpations, which will have negative cascading consequences on ecosystem functioning and services vital to sustaining civilisation. Humanity will eventually pay a very high price for the decimation of the only assemblage of life that we know of in the universe."
Therefore, even if only 'two' animal species are going globally extinct every year, this number – 'two' – belies the drastic and widespread extinction of hundreds of thousands of local populations of different animal species all around the world. Eventually, such local population and habitat losses will lead to the global extinctions of thousands of animal species over a short duration of time: mass extinction.
So, what do we do to counter this wave of local population extinctions, and thus in turn stall the sixth mass extinction?
To answer this question, one may talk of wildlife conservation programmes. Of ombudsman bodies. Of national policies. Of international partnerships. But the real answer to this question is one that we – and any high school student – have known too well and for far too long. An answer that has been repeated so many times that it seems to have lost its potency:
Reduce consumption3. Rein in population3.
Considering the unpalatable claims of the study, however, it should come as no surprise that certain scientists have taken issue with it and questioned its findings, and not without good reason.
These scientists find the study to be 'alarmist' and accuse it of crying Wolf! because mass extinction events are far more severe in their intent. These sceptics4 believe that since mass extinction events unfold over hundreds of thousands of years, it is simply too soon to convince ourselves we are knee-deep in another one. The study, after all, has considered the number of animal extinctions, and that too only of vertebrates, over only the last hundred years – a blink of an eye when compared to the duration of previous mass extinctions. What of insects and other non-vertebrates? By focussing only on 27,600 vertebrates, a small subset of the total 8.7 million animal species, the study may be reporting a mass extinction event that is far more severe, even exaggerated, in magnitude than what it actually is.
Furthermore, one may even argue, that the human animal may be able to engineer solutions to alleviate the ill effects of mass extinction. Again, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, it would be wise to note that a biological mass extinction event, after all, is not a sudden guillotine that would end all humankind with one swift fell swoop. Yes, thousands of animal species do go extinct at a high rate and over a 'short window' of time, but this short window of time stretches over hundreds of thousands of years. And this window of time could be time enough for the human to develop robots to pollinate trees. To artificially synthesise meat, if the world's fisheries were affected. To even create disruptive technologies that could mimic the role of otherwise extinct plants and trees to ensure the atmospheric oxygen, along with other essential gases, is maintained at a certain vital level. By then, we may have even colonised other planets. So, the threat of mass extinction may not be as bad as it sounds, at least not to the human.
Yes, this study does claim that if we do not act now – two or three decades, at most – the mass extinction would be irreversible. Consequently, soon, the rate of local population extinction could rise cancerously from what it is now and result in a precipitous drop of biodiversity, thus threatening human survival.
But will the drop in biodiversity be quick and significant enough to outmanoeuvre human technological growth? This is one question that needs to be considered before we sound the alarm.
Yet, dare I say, since we have already wiped out 50% of our vertebrates over the last hundred years3, we could soon lose another 50% if something is not done. And, personally, given the momentum of extinction, I wonder if there will be time enough for the human animal to cope with it – through technology, or otherwise. Furthermore, such a rate of biodiversity loss could prove to be something that will be far greater than even the most catastrophic of the previous mass extinction episodes:
"This makes it even more urgent. All previous mass extinction episodes spanned over hundreds of thousands of years, but this mass extinction is happening now, and over only a few hundred years!" Said Gerardo Ceballos, the lead author of the study, in an interview with me.
He continued: "And what of the sceptics you speak of? I know of only two scientists who say that there is no sixth mass extinction. If we do not act within the next two or three decades to reverse this mass extinction, our annihilation would be certain and complete. In fact, what is the point in waiting for the mass extinction to worsen in order to satisfy ourselves, beyond doubt, that it really, really is happening? Because then it would be too late for us to do anything. It is rather trivial to wait for the extinction to get over and say 'Oh look it really did happen', because by then we would have been long gone. We must act. Now."
The tempest rages and gathers momentum, but the ostrich burrows her head deeper into her solace of ostensible peace. The ostrich also seems to forget that her wings cannot bear flight. Her limbs are fast, but only so fast.
1Ceballos, Gerardo, Paul R. Ehrlich, Anthony D. Barnosky, Andrés García, Robert M. Pringle, and Todd M. Palmer. "Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction." Science advances 1, no. 5 (2015): e1400253.
2Wake, David B., and Vance T. Vredenburg. "Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. Supplement 1 (2008): 11466-11473.
3Ceballos, Gerardo, Paul R. Ehrlich, and Rodolfo Dirzo. "Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114.30 (2017): E6089-E6096.
6Kalinkat, Gregor, Sonja C. Jähnig, and Jonathan M. Jeschke. "Exceptional body size–extinction risk relations shed new light on the freshwater biodiversity crisis." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2017): 201717087.
7Mora, Camilo, Derek P. Tittensor, Sina Adl, Alastair GB Simpson, and Boris Worm. "How many species are there on Earth and in the ocean?." PLoS biology 9, no. 8 (2011): e1001127.
8Darroch, Simon AF, Erik A. Sperling, Thomas H. Boag, Rachel A. Racicot, Sara J. Mason, Alex S. Morgan, Sarah Tweedt et al. "Biotic replacement and mass extinction of the Ediacara biota." In Proc. R. Soc. B, vol. 282, no. 1814, p. 20151003. The Royal Society, 2015.
Somendra Singh Kharola is a published poet and a freelance science writer based in Bengaluru.


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