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Mary Dunnion, MSc, RSM, RGN, is director of nursing, Mercy University Hospital, Cork; Martina O'Riordan, MSc, is researcher, National Suicide Research Foundation, Cork; Elizabeth Dunne, PhD, was an academic, Department of Applied Psychology, University College Cork and the principal investigator on this project until her untimely death in December 2006.
Dunnion, M. et al (2008) Internationally recruited nurses: adaptation process. This is an extended version of the article published in Nursing Times; 104: 1, 37-38.
This article reports on a one-year action-based research project on the adaptation of 70 internationally recruited nurses (IRNs) from the Philippines to a hospital in Cork, Ireland.
To describe the adaptation of IRNs and the impact this had on the indigenous nursing staff.
The researchers followed group 1 and group 3 through the adaptation process along with their Irish colleagues and ward managers.
The research examines the challenges for both international and indigenous staff and the achievements of both groups in overcoming these. The challenges ranged from cultural issues to matters of trust, professional competency and loneliness. The achievements include becoming part of the team, confidence and competence. The study also highlights the need for a broader definition of adaptation and a corporate involvement in this process.
Healthcare institutions recruiting international nurses need to invest in:
Appropriate support to enable overseas nurses to adapt to a different health system;
Supporting existing staff in managing this process while maintaining standards of nursing care;
Developing systems to evaluate the successful progress of multicultural teams.
Justification for the study
There is currently a global shortage of suitably qualified nurses and Ireland is not exempt from this phenomenon. In 2002, the Irish nurse-education curriculum changed from a three-year nursing diploma to a four-year degree programme. These changes meant there would be no new nursing graduates to fill vacancies in Irish hospitals in 2005. In common with most hospitals, Mercy University Hospital (MUH) in Cork faced a significant shortfall in registered nursing staff. To address this, the department of nursing at MUH decided to use internationally recruited nurses (IRNs) to fill the high number of vacancies.
The number that needed filling dictated that, within just six months, a quarter of MUH's nursing complement would be from overseas. It was the first time that an acute hospital in Ireland had recruited internationally in such numbers in such a short time. Having decided to recruit from the Philippines and later from India, it was recognised that the introduction of IRNs for such a high number of posts would present major challenges for both the indigenous workforce and the nurses recruited.
The study's context
The director of nursing and a senior clinical nurse manager (CNM) initially conducted recruitment by travelling to the Philippines with an external HR company and interviewing candidates via an agency there. A total of 70 nurses were recruited and subsequently employed, joining the hospital workforce in seven groups over a six-month period.
To achieve professional registration in Ireland, all internationally trained nurses must successfully complete a 6–12 week professional competency framework programme designed by An Bord Altranais (the Irish nursing board). The adaptation programme requires these nurses to have designated staff nurses in the role of preceptor, providing guidance and support during the adaptation programme – this function is in addition to the staff nurse's regular nursing duties.
Recognising the challenges that the introduction of many IRNs would present, the director of nursing commissioned the Department of Applied Psychology in University College Cork to carry out an action-based research project and report on their progress over the first 16 months. The aims of the research study were:
To describe the challenges experienced by IRNs in an Irish hospital over an initial one-year period;
To describe the challenges experienced by Irish nurses (clinical and managerial) working with the IRNs over one year;
To describe the level attained in terms of satisfactory performance by the IRNs;
To explore the meaning of adaptation for an IRN working in an Irish hospital.
Literature review
A comprehensive literature review was carried out to explore previous related research and relevant theory. Searches were undertaken on a wide range of databases including:
Cochrane database of systematic reviews;
Index of theses (the US, Great Britain and Ireland).
The search of these databases provided a comprehensive review of the relevant literature in the field.
The keywords 'internationally recruited nurses', 'Philippines', 'challenges' and 'definition of adaptation' produced a large number of matches and these were complemented by extensive desktop research of healthcare journals and reading lists/bibliographies. Some main themes were identified.
Difficulties with nurse staffing
The reduction in the availability of registered nurses is an international phenomenon. As in Ireland, countries such as the US, Canada, Australia and the UK have all experienced a decrease in indigenous nursing staff in recent years. For example, in the UK between 2001 and 2002 there were more overseas nurses added to the register than nurses from within the UK (Buchan and Sochalski, 2004).
Although internationally educated nurses have been an integral part of US nursing staff since the end of World War II, employers are presently targeting greater numbers of nurses from other countries (Xu and Kwak, 2007). Critically, an increasing nursing shortage is predicted in the US over the next 20 years (Brush et al, 2004). In the current climate of international migration, ability to work effectively with people of varied cultures is important for all professions and, in nursing, this competency becomes essential as health management may conflict with patients' cultural beliefs, standards and practices (St. Clair and McKenry, 1999).
Kline (2003) found that the primary donor countries in international nurse migration are Australia, Canada, the Philippines, South Africa and the UK. India is also becoming a prominent donor country. The primary receiving countries are Australia, Canada, Ireland, the UK and the US. Buchan and O'May (1999) identified three sources of 'inflow' to the pool of nurses in the UK, namely, new entrants from education within the UK, re-entrants to nursing and new entrants from overseas. This model of inflow sources can also be applied to other countries such as Ireland. Thus, when a situation occurs where there are no new entrants from education within the country and there are more nurses leaving the profession than re-entering, the focus turns to overseas recruitment.
'Push' and 'pull' factors of international migration of nurses
A number of 'push' and 'pull' factors can be identified in the literature. In a six-country migration study, Awases et al (2003) identified a number of push factors for nurses leaving their country of origin. These included poor working conditions, low salary and a lack of career-development opportunities, along with social and political factors.
Pull factors for choosing one of the primary receiving countries include opportunities for professional development, and better remuneration and standard of living (Thupayagale-Tshweneagae, 2007). In a study of the experience of 11 overseas nurses in Iceland, Magnusdottir (2005) reported that all participants agreed they experienced less workload, rush and stress, and better staffing than they were used to. These nurses were from seven different nationalities, seven western, four non-western. Further positive features of international migration are an increase in professional nurses' knowledge, expertise and training (Buchan and O'May, 1999).
Challenges in the adaptation of IRNs
There is a dearth of research examining challenges in the transition of overseas nurses into the healthcare practice environments of their host country (Sherman, 2007). Referring to unpublished data from the UK NMC, Buchan (2002) highlighted that while there were 29,313 registered nurses (RNs) in the UK in February 1999, at most only 20,000 were actually resident in the UK. This suggests that many overseas RNs had only spent limited time in the UK before either moving on to another country or returning home.
There is a need to identify what successful adaptation of nurses should involve and how this could be measured empirically. Gerrish and Griffith (2004) identified five meanings of successes in the progression towards successful adaptation. These were:
Gaining professional registration;
Reducing the nurse vacancy factor;
Fitness to practise;
Equality of opportunity;
Promoting an organisation that values cultural diversity.
While the first two are easily quantifiable, the definition of fitness to practise independently following registration may differ between ward managers and health institutions.
In the context of this study fitness to practise refers to the concept of critical thinking and decision-making, building and sustaining interpersonal relationships, and demonstrating competence in the theory and application of skill. In essence, this measures the extent to which an IRN fulfilled the expectations of a similarly qualified and experienced RGN in the area in which they worked. It is more difficult to measure equality of opportunity between overseas and indigenous staff given that the two groups may value career progression in the host country differently. Likewise, the definition of an organisation that values cultural diversity can be subjective and would need strict guidelines to become an assessable factor.
Four stages of adaptation were monitored in this action-based research study. Reflecting a 'stepped approach' of changes in an individual's behaviour, attitude and values and using Pilette's (1989) five phases of adjustment, the researchers used a modified version from Daniel et al (2001), shown in Table 1 below. A modified version was used due to time constraints of the project and data saturation being reached in IRNs' challenges and achievements.
Table 1. Four stages of adaptation for an IRN
Training period and close tutoring and mentoring
On arrival
After 6 weeks
After 12 weeks
Recognising differences between own and host systems and coping with that and with being 'different'
1 month post registration
Working out and accepting differences
4 months post registration
Feeling part of and identifying with the host organisation
8 months post registration*
MUH recruited 70 Filipino nurses between September 2005 and March 2006. In addition, 32 nurses were recruited from India at a later stage. IRNs arrived in seven groups of varying number. The researchers followed groups 1 and 3, comprising 20 nurses in all. The research started alongside the IRNs' initial induction phase and followed their progress and that of their Irish colleagues and management for a period of eight months. Senior nurse managers also took part in a reflective focus group 16 months after the arrival of the IRNs. Some 17 staff nurses, 10 preceptors, 12 clinical nurse managers (ward managers), 20 IRNs and seven members of senior management participated.
Data collection
The research study used a combination of focus groups and semi-structured interviews (Table 2) that were recorded and later transcribed.
Table 2. Data collection periods
Health professionals
Stage at which data collection took place
Internationally recruited nurses
Focus groups:
· After the initial orientation programme
· After 6 weeks
· After 12 weeks
· After 1 month working as RNs
· After 3 months working as RNs
· After 8 months working as RNs
Irish staff nurses
Focus groups:
Senior managers
Semi-structured interviews:
A focus group:
Clinical nurse managers
Semi-structured interviews:
Focus group:
Data analysis
A thematic analysis was carried out to elicit the main themes from the recorded interviews (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The researchers gave feedback in the form of a brief report to the director of nursing following each focus group to ensure that appropriate changes could be made to make the transition less stressful for both Irish and overseas staff. This method of action-based research is a participative approach with the objectives of understanding, change and critical reflection. Following reflection, there was an opportunity to explore how things might be done differently in preparation for the next group of overseas nurses.
The primary challenges initially experienced by both Irish and international staff are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Initial challenges experienced by IRNs and Irish nursing staff
International nurses
Irish nurses
Homesickness/missing families
The frequency for arrival of IRNs resulted in over-saturation of, and excess strain, on the nursing staff.
Differences in understanding of basic nursing-care standards
Differences in understanding of basic nursing care standards
Anxiety regarding registration programme
Perceived lack of initiative by IRNs
Time management
Pace of work
As can be seen from Table 3, both IRNs and Irish nurses experienced initial difficulties communicating with each other, building trust and understanding that basic nursing-care standards differed between their two countries.
Examples of these challenges are outlined below.
'They [Irish staff] really talk fast, especially during handover.' (IRN)
'Communication would be the main problem, because some families have difficulty understanding what the nurses are saying to them…if there is a problem do they understand you? There have been difficulties on the phone, things like that and difficulties in getting them to express their concerns.' (Irish CNM)
'The thing we lack is the trust from the Irish nurses.' (IRN)
'You can't trust them to do something, you have to keep double-checking.' (Irish CNM)
Understanding of basic nursing care
'It just so happens that in the Philippines we have relatives that go bedside…not so much ward attendants but the relatives are there you know, almost 24 hours.' (IRN)
'When you talk to them, their work at home is very different to what we do here, they don't do as much basic nursing care. It's probably just the way they are trained…we had to get back to the basics of nursing care.' (Irish CNM)
Irish nursing staff found the timeframe for the IRNs' arrival extremely challenging – within six months, a quarter of their staff complement were from overseas and staff nurses were precepting these along with their own duties:
'The place became supersaturated…in fact we had very few coping mechanisms to cope with it, we had never encountered it and the support was not available.'
'There were too many together, between December and April we had eight IRNs that needed to be precepted and we had 12 students at the same time.'
The Filipino nurses missed their families very much initially and reported feeling quite homesick:
'The first few weeks we were here, almost every day we go to the payphone or to an internet shop to email or to call our family or loved ones. But now we know how to give time to it on our day off…if sometimes we have spare money to call them then we can do an additional call.'
'Most of us here left families and kids behind and just have to work here for their future, we just have to adjust to it, it's how it is I guess.'
Time management/pace of work
Time management and pace of work of their overseas colleagues were issues that the Irish nurses found challenging initially:
'Their main thing is management and organisation of care and managing their time on the ward.'
The IRNs were very surprised at the volume of reporting that is done in Irish hospitals. In the Philippines there is only one handover/report to attend to:
'The handover is very different. There are a lot of reports here. You go on general report in the morning, then there's the report for those who were off the day before and there is another report for the ward sister and there's another in the middle of the day and there's another one at night. In the Philippines there is just one report, one for the incoming and one for the outgoing.'
Registration programme/self-esteem
Anxieties surrounding their registration programme and the effects of the experience on their self-esteem were further challenges for overseas nurses:
'It is a question in my mind, on what grounds do my colleagues fail when the others passed…was it personal? Not everybody is getting along with everyone, that's reality.'
'Sometimes your self-esteem goes so low because you are used to doing that in the Philippines, giving IV medication.'
In one focus group 10 months after the IRNs' arrival, the issue of possible racial discrimination was also raised:
'We feel somehow discriminated in a way, because of our colour.'
While the other findings relate to themes that were mentioned by several nurses, it is important to note that if even one overseas nurse feels discriminated against on the grounds of colour, it becomes an issue that the healthcare institution must be aware of and respond to.
Of the 70 Filipino nurses who came to work in MUH, 94.3% passed the adaptation programme and 91.4% passed their probation. A total of 12.9% left before completing their adaptation or probation. Ten months after the arrival of the first group of IRNs, the Irish ward managers had the following positive reflections on their experience:
'They have very much become part of our team now.'
'We have depended on them hugely, they are settling in well.'
'They have certainly improved. You don't want to be always talking about them as 'IRN', they are part of your staff and you just get on with it.'
The Filipino nurses were also more confident in their own abilities and performance:
'When you are getting to know things, you are getting the confidence and the self-esteem is going up.'
'Before you didn't know what they [Irish staff] were asking for, you couldn't understand them but it's easier now.'
'We are in a continuous learning process and I would say that they [Irish staff] are the same…nursing is a continuous update of learning.'
In their reflective focus group 16 months after the IRNs' arrival, members of MUH's senior nursing management were eager to highlight the achievements of Irish staff in supporting and precepting their overseas colleagues, while simultaneously carrying out their regular nursing duties:
'It brought people together, we had a common purpose.'
'At ward level the nurses did support each other. The IRNs would be well defended by their ward manager or colleague.'
In 2005, there were 850 elective procedures cancelled in MUH due to staff shortages and ward closures. In 2006, this number was reduced to 250. Following the IRNs' recruitment, 31 public medical beds were re-opened, four coronary-care beds were opened and the ICU opened two further ventilated beds. However, the accompanying pressure on both Irish nursing staff and their overseas colleagues to ensure the IRNs were at an appropriate standard for this to happen must be recognised.
Action on ongoing feedback
Given the action-research design of this study, there was an opportunity for nurse management to act on ongoing feedback from the researchers. This was particularly important when Irish staff were feeling unsupported or there was another group of overseas nurses due to arrive while saturation point had already been reached among preceptors and ward managers. Table 4 records some actions taken as a direct result of feedback from the research team.
Table 4. Action on ongoing feedback
IRNs had difficulty finding accommodation for the short term while awaiting results of the registration programme
Nurse management assisted IRNs in finding appropriate accommodation
IRNs found it difficult when their preceptors changed on a daily basis due to shifts/staff shortages etc
Management identified associate preceptors for IRNs so every IRN had two preceptors, one of whom would be available all the time, where possible
Irish nurses reported they had reached saturation point with the number of overseas nurses who had arrived in a short time
· Arrival of next group of IRNs immediately delayed
· Nurse practice development staff redeployed into clinical areas to ease burden
· Basic nurse skillsets facilitated
There appeared to be some confusion between acquisition of skills for registration and competency to practise
Clarification made: skill is an objective the learner can accomplish in a specific time period; competency reflects the quality of an individual's practice
Irish nurses reported they were not sufficiently informed about the timeframe for the arrival of IRN groups
Although there had been information days and news bulletins, this practice was stepped up and Irish staff were also updated on their achievements in precepting the IRNs and re-opening beds
The understanding of adaptation
Following analysis of the IRNs' final focus group (eight months post-registration) it can be concluded that they are still at the 'indignation' stage – recognising the differences between their own system and that of MUH and coping with these differences and with being 'different':
'We have to prove ourselves again and again…probably until we finish the contract.'
'We were expecting a lot of difficulties but not this difficult.'
'Patients here are given too much freedom, they should not be allowed to smoke…when you are in the hospital you should follow the rules…we find it strange to see patients out there smoking in their gowns and they have their IVs.'
Initially, however, adaptation was considered to be merely the achievement of professional registration. The idea of adaptation being a longer-term objective following the other three stages (orientation, indignation and resolution – see Table 1) was something that was not explored until the final focus group. At this point, it became clear that many could see that adaptation was a lengthy process:
'In terms of their adaptation and integration – [in] its 16th month at this stage – we would be lucky if a percentage of them are integrating.'
'In some clinical areas there are more overseas [nurses] than there are Irish, so who needs to integrate is the question.'
'It really is nearly taking us two years to adapt these people so if they leave in two years it would be devastating.'
Thus, the initial definition of an 'adaptation programme' – that of fulfilling the registration requirements while working alongside a preceptor – was viewed as having only adequate success by ward managers. Of 12 CNMs interviewed 10 months after the arrival of the first group of IRNs, their responses on a Likert scale of satisfaction ratings for this six-week adaptation programme showed that only one was 'satisfied', 10 felt the programme was 'adequate' and one was 'dissatisfied'.
The realisation that 'adaptation' of overseas nurses involves considerably more than meeting the registration requirements of the host country was the most significant outcome for the participants in this research. After eight months of working as RNs and 10 months of arriving at MUH, the IRNs were still at the indignation phase of the process (Daniel et al, 2001). However, this should not undermine the achievements of both Irish and Filipino nurses in overcoming the various initial challenges such as communication, standards of basic nursing care and trusting one another.
Lessons learned
The most important lesson learnt by nurse management in this study is that a shortage of nurses is an issue not just for their department but for the healthcare institution as a whole (Buchan and Calman, 2004). Thus, a corporate response, including input from human resources, is needed to help with the initial challenges experienced by both indigenous and overseas nurses. In this study, the action on feedback came only from the department of nursing, which had also been responsible for recruitment and registration.
In addition, it is important to remember that pressure to re-open wards should not result in nurses who are not yet fit to practise overseas being rushed through the registration process. Standards of communication, basic nursing care and trust that nurses are able to complete tasks independently must be present before nurses are deemed ready for registration.
As the adaptation process itself is such a lengthy one, there must be a simultaneous focus on staff retention to safeguard this investment in training and development of international nurses.
This study was limited by the fact that hospital environments are extremely busy places where people work to a rota that covers the 24-hour period. It was, therefore, not possible to include more participants or ensure there was full attendance at each focus group. Focus groups with members of other disciplines, including consultants, junior doctors, general managers and care attendants would have given more information on the IRNs' progress and the effect of their presence on the multidisciplinary team. Unfortunately, time and funding constraints did not allow for this.
Recommendations for the future
The shortage of nursing staff in MUH had become so acute that in order for vital beds to be re-opened, the international nurses' arrival could not occur on a more phased basis. This meant that within six months, the nursing staff complement went from being almost 100% Irish to 25.9% comprising of overseas nurses. International trends of nurse shortages should be formally recognised by the institution in a timely manner and a stepped response put in place, so that the department of nursing would not be under such intense pressure to recruit staff. This response should incorporate the establishment of IRN manager posts. The role of the preceptor needs to be put on a more formal standing with appropriate rewards for the immense effort involved. Furthermore, if undergraduate nursing programmes were to contain modules on working in a multicultural environment, indigenous staff might be better equipped to adapt to working with international colleagues. Finally, An Bord Altranais should re-evaluate the 6-12 week professional competence framework for specialist nursing. In the context of this study, nursing competencies and skills for the overseas nurses did not appear to be at a comparable level as would be expected from an indigenous nursing workforce with similar qualifications and years of experience. Consequently, the initial adaptation period designed needs to be significantly extended.
The continuing shortage of nurses implies that Ireland and many other countries will have to engage in ongoing international recruitment over the next decade. To facilitate ease of transition for both indigenous and international staff, a phased recruitment process is necessary. The entire healthcare institution should be involved and positions of responsibility should be established. International trends should be monitored and cultural awareness should be emphasised from undergraduate nursing programmes onwards. The approach should be based on understanding of the four levels of adaptation, support for all staff in coping with initial challenges and recognition of achievement in overcoming these challenges to eventually function effectively as part of a multicultural nursing team.
Awases, M. et al (2003) Migration of health professionals in six counties: a synthesis report. WHO Regional Office for Africa.
Braun, V., Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology; 3: 77–101.
Brush, B.L. et al (2004) Imported care: Recruiting foreign nurses to US health care facilities. Health Affairs; 23: 3, 78–87.
Buchan, J. (2002) International recruitment of nurses: United Kingdom case study. London: RCN.
Buchan, J., Calman, L., (2004) Global Nursing Review Initiative 2004. The Global Shortage of Registered Nurses: An Overview of Issues and Actions. Developed for the International Council of Nurses. ISBN 92 – 95040 – 12 -0.
Buchan, J., O'May, F. (1999) Globalisation and healthcare labour markets: a case study from the United Kingdom. Human Resources for Health Development Journal; 3: 3, September–December.
Buchan, J., Sochalski, J. (2004) The migration of nurses: trends and policies Bulletin of the World Health Organisation; 82: 8, 587–594.
Daniel, P. et al (2001) Expectations and experiences of newly recruited Filipino nurses British Journal of Nursing; 10: 4, 254–265.
Gerrish, K., Griffith, V. (2004) Integration of overseas Registered Nurses: evaluation of an adaptation programme. Journal of Advanced Nursing; 45: 6, 579–587.
Kline, D.S. (2003) Push and pull factors in international nurse migration. Journal of Nursing Scholarship; 35: 2, 107–111.
Magnusdottir, H. (2005) Overcoming strangeness and communication barriers: a phenomenological study of becoming a foreign nurse. International Nursing Review; 52: 263–269.
Pilette, P.C. (1989) Recruitment and retention of international nurses aided by recognition of the phases of the adjustment process. Journal of Continuing Education of Nurses; 20: 6, 277-81.
Sherman, R.O. (2007) Leadership development needs of managers who supervise foreign nurses. Leadership in Health Services; 20: 1, 7–15.
St. Clair, A., McKenry, L. (1999) Preparing culturally competent practitioners Journal of Nursing Education; 38: 5, 228–234.
Thupayagale-Tshweneagae, G. (2007) Migration of nurses: is there any other option? International Nursing Review; 54: 107–109.
Xu, Y., Kwak, C. (2007) Comparative trend analysis of characteristics of internationally educated nurses and US educated nurses in the United States. International Council of Nurses; 54: 1, 78–84
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Penticton-based folk singer Ari Neufeld, played at the Rossland Miners' Hall on Saturday to an entranced crowd.
Neufeld is known for his intimate live performances that create a unique energy. That energy came forth as the performer related to the audience between songs, and as he put it, went on stage with no agenda. Neufeld sings and plays the guitar while playing drums with his legs through an amplified wooden box.
On Saturday, he was without his usual step box, but got by drilling a hole and inserting a microphone into his touring case. He noted that the impromptu solution actually sounded pretty good.
Neufeld related stories to each song, in the way only a true folk singer would, intertwining the tragedy of his father dying with stories of his recent performance in Texas for the likes of Willie Nelson.
Neufeld is now hoping to get a record deal and move to Texas.
The concert was a part of Rossland Council for Arts and Culture's monthly concerts.


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Yesterday I got an email from someone who enjoys the wilderness as much as I do. After reading some of the things I have here, he thought I might be interested in the web sites of Sigurd Olson (a nature writer and conservationist) and the Listening Point Foundation which strives to promote Sigurd's philosophy and build upon his wilderness education legacy.
Those sites are definitely worth a visit if the wilderness and conservation are as important to you as they are to me.


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Friday, October 26, 2012
Invisible Ink Book Recommendation
Have you ever wanted to be a better story writer? I have! I recently read this amazing book called Invisible Ink by Brian McDonald. I first heard about this book recommendation on this interview with the author, Brian McDonald on the Paperwings Podcast. Brian is a screenplay writer, not a children's book writer, but his book will help anyone who wants to write a good interesting story of any kind. What I love about this book is he uses examples from fairy tales, folk tales and movies and shows the reader how each technique of an invisible story element is used in each situation to tell a more interesting/dramatic story. This is a book I am definitely going to keep close by when writing my children's books. I know my stories will be better because of this book. Highly recommended for all writers, beginner or professional!
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Scientists in 2007 believed that they had, for
the first time, identified an ancient graveyard for gladiators.
Analysis of their bones and injuries provided
new insight into how they lived, fought, and died. The remains
were found at Ephesus in western Anatolia, a major city in the
Roman world. Gladiators were the sporting heroes of the ancient
world. Archaeological records show them celebrated in everything
from mosaics to graffiti.
Motifs of gladiators are found on nearly a third
of all oil lamps from Roman archaeological digs throughout the
empire. But how much did they risk every time they stepped into
the arena? Did they have much chance of getting out alive? The
discovery in 2006-2007 of what was claimed to be the first
scientifically-authenticated gladiator graveyard gave researchers
the opportunity to find out.
'Strict rules'
The Ephesus graves contained thousands of bones.
They were found along with three gravestones which clearly depicted
Two pathologists at the Medical University of
Vienna - Professor Karl Grossschmidt and Professor Fabian Kanz -
spent much of the previous five years painstakingly cataloguing
and forensically analysing every single bone for age, injury, and
cause of death. They found at least sixty-seven individuals, nearly
all aged between twenty and thirty. One striking bit of evidence
was that many had healed wounds.
To Kanz and Grossschmidt, this suggested that they
were prized individuals who were getting good, expensive medical
treatment. One body even showed signs of a surgical amputation. In
addition, the lack of multiple wounds found on the bones, according
to the pathologists, suggested that they had not been involved in
chaotic mass brawls. Instead, the evidence pointed to organised duels
under strict rules of combat, probably with referees monitoring the
But there was also evidence of mortal wounds.
Written records tell us that if the defeated gladiator had not
shown enough skill or had even shown cowardice, the cry of 'iugula'
('lance him through') would be heard throughout the arena,
demanding he be killed.
Final blow
The condemned gladiator would be expected to die
'like a man', remaining motionless to receive the mortal blow.
The pathologists discovered various unhealed wounds
on bones that showed how these executions could have taken place.
These were consistent with depictions on reliefs from the time showing
a kneeling man having a sword rammed down his throat and into the
heart. A very quick way to die.
The Great Sunni / Shia Divide
Persian Empire
Roman Empire
Durham University
Medical University of Vienna
Ephesus Panoramic Virtual Tour
Gravestones helped identify the site as a gladiator graveyard
Tell-tale nicks in the vertebrae or other bones suggested that
at least some of the bodies suffered this fate. A number of skulls
were also found to have sets of up to three holes at odd intervals,
consistent with a blow from a three-pronged weapon such as a trident.
The bone injuries - those on the skulls for example
- were not everyday ones. They were extremely unusual. They - and
particularly the injuries inflicted by a trident - were a particular
indicator that a typical gladiator's weapon was used. But not all head
injuries found were trident wounds. A number of the skulls showed
rectangular holes that could not have been made by any of the known
gladiator weapons. Instead, they suggested the use of a heavy hammer.
One possible explanation put forward by Professor
Kanz, which was being supported by a number of archaeologists, was
that there must have been an assistant in the arena who was there
to provide the gladiator with his coup de grace. The professor
assumed that they must have been very severely injured gladiators,
ones who had fought outstandingly and so had not been condemned to
death by the public or by the organiser, but who had no chance of
surviving because of their injuries. They were delivered a final
blow in order to release them.
'Comfortable' retirement
The work of the Viennese pathologists was
independently reviewed by Dr Charlotte Roberts of Durham
University, a leading physical anthropologist. She looked at
quite a few hundred Roman skeletons. She saw examples of head
injuries, healed and unhealed, and evidence of decapitations.
However, she felt that this new find was extremely
significant; there was nothing like it to have been found in the
world. It served to dispel quite a few myths about gladiators and
how they fought.
If a gladiator survived three years of fighting
in the arena, he would win his freedom. Those who did often became
teachers in gladiator school. And one of the skeletons found at
Ephesus appears to be that of a retired fighter. He was of mature
age and because he was much older than the others. The scientists
were able to reconstruct nearly his entire body. His head showed
apparent signs of healed wounds from previous fights and none of
them would have proved fatal.
He lived quite a normal Roman lifespan. He most
probably died of natural causes. Historical records suggest a
gladiator's chance of survival was slim, with some estimates as
low as a one in three chance of dying each time he fought. But
it appears that at least one of the Ephesus gladiators survived
the odds and had a chance to enjoy his retirement from the arena.
Gladiators were mainly prisoners of war, slaves or condemned
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By Sait Matty Jaw
I bet most of you think that this is a Manifesto. Well, it is not. But when critically discussed, we might be able to come up with one that highlights the agenda for a "New Gambia." For now, let me share some lessons learned from the Students at Risk Conference in Oslo.
Last weekend, I attended one of the most refreshing workshops on Non-violent action thanks to the Norwegian Centre for the Internationalization of Education (SIU) and Students and Academics International Help Fund (SAIH). I must admit that the time was too short, but the lessons learned within the six or so hours of interaction can change a society for good. While seated and as the workshop lead from the Centre for Applied Non-Violent Action and Strategies (CANVAS) took us through the principles of non-violent actions, all I could think of was our very own struggle in The Gambia: the things we did right and those we either did not know or took for granted. I took away so many valuable lessons that the New Gambia movement can learn from. The purpose of this blog is to share some those ideas and hope that with clear reflection we will be able to continue our journey to not only liberate Gambia from autocratic rule, but to also inspire every Gambian to help Gambia adopt democratic principles for our own advancement. The interesting part about all I am about to raise is for us to discuss and debate amongst ourselves. As such one could either agree or disagree. But we must also pay attention to the very principles of the game.
In my study of People's Democratic Organization for Independence and Socialism (PDOIS) I used Gene Sharp's theory of power to help me understand the approaches and strategies of PDOIS. In case you do not know who Gene Sharp is, he is the world's leading writer on non-violent actions (Google him). Sharp uses power to distinguish between rulers and subjects and on the withdrawal of consent as the key to effecting political change. That is, the power base of the ruler is constructed on the approval of subjects. The minute the subjects withdraw this consent, the ruler loses their support as well as the legitimacy to rule. My interest at that time was to see how PDOIS, a political party and a non-violent group was mobilizing the masses to withdraw the support base of Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. We all know that it did not work due to many factors both structural and otherwise. Today, we have many groups (civil society, political parties, and movements) and individuals in The Gambia and in the diaspora working to effect political change in the country with the slogan "Jammeh Must Go." However, the question with all that is going on, the misinformation, the blame game etc., I would like to ask whether we are trying to withdraw the support base of Jammeh or alienating the masses and forcing them to reject our movement?
I must admit that I am a very active participant in the New Gambia movement. I also strongly believe that Jammeh Must Go. He has done his part over the past 22 years. We appreciate all the projects he has to his name including my favorite: The University of The Gambia. Nonetheless, this does not guarantee him the right to continuously flaunt the laws of our land, abuse the rights of dissenting citizens and even those that support him. His actions and ways are not the ways of our country and people. He has divided us against each other, instilled fear in the minds of every Gambian, and forced many to leave the country in exile; there's also less employment opportunities for our youth and above all, his attempt to turn the Gambia into an Islamic State. This, for me, is the last straw.
That being said, I think we need to revisit our approach so as to have an effective campaign that not only removes Jammeh but also changes the entire Gambian society. I have had this debate many times before. Jammeh is just part of our problem. One may argue that he is the greater part or the lesser part of it. I think he may sound and look rash, but he has great influence on us as a people. For a very long time, he directed the game and all we did as a people was to react. For change to come we must turn the tables around, we must control the narrative and attack with evidence so as to weaken his support base. We must also know this support base. It is not only the security forces. It is his personal economy and the many people promoting his agenda. Again, we must be able distinguish between civil servants and what we call the "Jammeh enablers." For most of us, we consider anyone working for government as an enabler. I don't think that should be the case. This whole struggle is about who controls information. What Jammeh wants to do like many other lunatics before him is to control the flow of information; under-serve the masses and keep them ignorant and disenfranchised. We have been helping him to some extent by sending out scary images–some of them seemingly propaganda material– that do not reflect what was on the ground around April 14th and 16th.
We have also weakened his power, yet we do not realize this. Solo's march for electoral reform shocked the entire Gambian community. In one of my previous writings, I did warn that Gambians are no longer governed by fear. I gave an example of the standoff at Fass Njaga Choi as well as NRP's defeat of the APRC government in the Saloum by election. What is happening now is just part of the entire game. Everything happening slowly but surely.
So, what do we do now to maintain this momentum? Firstly, as active participants in the New Gambia movement, we must realize that each individual or group have their personal and group agenda tied to the removal of Jammeh. My own agenda is to change Gambian society (democratize) and I believe my greatest obstacle like many of us is Jammeh. However, I believe we will not be able to achieve this if we continue to tell the people — that we expect to act through mass protest or election — what we want and reject especially where we do not understand their own personal agendas. I have quite often seen many people in the diaspora or even at home and on the same team calling each other hypocrites. The reason I believe is, we do not understand our personal interest in this whole movement. I strongly believe and it is evident that people only engage in most cases when issues affect them personally. It is true that unemployment is high; the human rights abuses are rife, but why are some people indifferent and why do others act? For the activists, we can argue it is their work and that even where they are not paid to push an agenda, the abuse of human rights makes it personal for them. But for the ordinary person to act, either a family member or close relative or friend must be affected. I must also say that in my own experience, I saw many people that I did not know on a personal level show concern about my safety. This, however, could be a limitation to what I am trying to put across.
Secondly, the general picture in The Gambia is a weak opposition and a strong incumbent party. For the longest, the contention has been between the weak opposition parties interested in political power and the ruling party that will do anything to stay in power. Now enters a third group mostly young people with no interest in political power. Dealing with such group especially when they are extremely organized is a huge challenge for any autocratic government. However, the danger with this group, especially when they realize their worth, is that they can threaten the survival of the state and society. Hence, they need to be controlled and by control, I mean there needs to be a form of leadership within them — people leading the actions. Power within such group must be horizontal and not hierarchical. The current challenge with our movement is that power is diffused randomly. No one knows who does what and when. It must be harnessed. When Ibrahim Ceesay, based on his activism, stood up, putting his life and that of his family on the line, we could detect a huge interest in the youth. With our situation, what the young people need is a face that will lead them. I have had this discussion with friends and the consensus was that if people are really concerned they will not wait for a face to lead, however, based on our context and history, our movement needs a face to champion the course.
In my last article, I argued that even if the opposition in The Gambia formed a coalition, they will be defeated by the ruling party. Yes, that was before all these events happened. It might be too early to conclude the outcome of the election later this year, but now more than ever, the movement must put pressure on the political parties to unite. I am sure the fate of UDP has also shown the party the need to stand up together to achieve their dream for political power. Even if we lose the election to Jammeh this year, I can guarantee that this will be his last term in office. I know some of you do not want to hear that, but it just might happen.
The third point or lesson that I have learned from the workshop and want to conclude with is the organizational bit. I briefly mentioned the leadership issue, I think the reason why the New Gambia movement — despite having people on the ground ready to get to the street and face the paramilitary — did not materialize, was due to lack of proper planning and organization. Everything was spontaneous. I learned that the worst enemy for a non-violent action is spontaneity. Our approach this time like always was reactionary. I think this should serve as a lesson for all of us involved. We must organize and strategize, understand deeply the need of our people on the ground and attract them to take action. We must not in any way also underestimate our opponent — Jammeh. His tactic is to not inform the people, whilst ours is to use information to bring him down. Hence, the information must be credible and should be channeled in a way that will make people act. I also do understand that there is a whole team on Jammeh's side posting information to distract us from achieving our agenda. Their aim is to discredit our movement and render it untrustworthy. We must be careful before sharing anything. We must make sure the sources are credible. I can understand that at some point, the idea is to get people to act, but for a country with a history like ours, people do not react to things they have no idea about. We should take note of that.
Finally, what is our vision of tomorrow? What is it that we want to achieve from this engagement? What capacities do we have individually that can help us get to where we want to be? How do we harness all our efforts and channel it towards a strong movement that is responsive to the need of every Gambian; one that is respected and trusted by the international community? These among others are questions we need answers to. Our quest should not be to make Gambia ungovernable. We need the institutions no matter how ineffective they are in governing.
We must continue to engage in non-violent actions, not actions that may cause injury or lead to death. This was a valuable lesson that I learned. In non-violent or peaceful struggle, we need our numbers and every life counts. We will not move ahead if we lose our ranks. We must understand that we are dealing with a government that is willing and ready to shoot people to death. Hence, let us not give them that opportunity to kill and maim. It is true that non-violent actions are not usually violent free; however, we must always try as much as possible to avoid actions that might lead to death. As yet, I do not have answers to questions regarding the best actions that suit our context, but I hope in due course we will come up with various campaigns that will slowly weaken the power base of Jammeh and shift it to the people.
Aluta Continua
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