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OBJECTIVE: Cocaine-related cues have been hypothesized to perpetuate drug abuse by inducing a craving response that prompts drug-seeking behavior. However, the mechanisms, underlying neuroanatomy, and specificity of this neuroanatomy are not yet fully understood. METHOD: To address these issues, experienced cocaine users (N=17) and comparison subjects (N=14) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while viewing three separate films that portrayed 1 ) individuals smoking crack cocaine, 2) outdoor nature scenes, and 3) explicit sexual content. Candidate craving sites were identified as those that showed significant activation in the cocaine users when viewing the cocaine film. These sites were then required to show significantly greater activation when contrasted with comparison subjects viewing the cocaine film (population specificity) and cocaine users viewing the nature film (content specificity). RESULTS: Brain regions that satisfied these criteria were largely left lateralized and included the frontal lobe (medial and middle frontal gyri, bilateral inferior frontal gyrus), parietal lobe (bilateral inferior parietal lobule), insula, and limbic lobe (anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus). Of the 13 regions identified as putative craving sites, just three (anterior cingulate, right inferior parietal lobule, and the caudate/lateral dorsal nucleus) showed significantly greater activation during the cocaine film than during the sex film in the cocaine users, which suggests that cocaine cues activated similar neuroanatomical substrates as naturally evocative stimuli in the cocaine users. Finally, contrary to the effects of the cocaine film, cocaine users showed a smaller response than the comparison subjects to the sex film. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that cocaine craving is not associated with a dedicated and unique neuroanatomical circuitry; instead, unique to the cocaine user is the ability of learned, drug-related cues to produce brain activation comparable to that seen with nondrug evocative stimuli in healthy comparison subjects.
The importance of craving experiences in perpetuating human drug addiction has been frequently asserted (1–3). Drug craving is thought to be a powerful motivational state or intense desire that drives the cocaine user to seek cocaine. However, the specific psychological mechanisms, affective and cognitive, that underlie drug craving, its determinants, and its relationship to subsequent drug taking are not fully understood. Phenomenologically, cocaine users report that craving occurs roughly twice per day (with each episode lasting approximately 20 minutes or less [4]), is of variable intensity, and can be induced by multiple means. For example, cocaine administration can reinstate responding for cocaine in rats (5) and has been demonstrated to induce craving in humans for additional cocaine (6). Laboratory-based techniques that induce stress have recently been shown to evoke increased self-reported craving in cocaine abusers (7). A corpus of research also suggests that drug-related environmental cues can serve to elicit craving in drug users (3, 8, 9) and that the strength of such cue-induced craving is positively correlated with the severity of cocaine dependence (10). Childress and colleagues (8) reported that cocaine users frequently cite as craving initiators external cues such as money or a drug-using friend and internal cues such as dysphoria. An analysis of the determinants of crack cocaine relapse noted that 34% of relapses followed encounters with drug-related stimuli, and 11% followed money handling (11). However, the neuronal sites and psychological systems responsible for initiating and maintaining cue-induced cocaine craving and how they may differ from other arousal states are not well understood. Such data would appear critical for the development of new behavioral and pharmacological interventions for cocaine treatment, a situation made more urgent as current therapeutic regimens are less than totally effective for the majority of individuals who seek treatment. Noninvasive neuroimaging techniques now afford the opportunity to identify the neuroanatomical underpinnings of these psychological phenomena.
Previous neuroimaging research has implicated a number of cortical and subcortical regions in human drug craving, including prefrontal and limbic structures. For example, significant correlations between self-reported craving scores and regional cerebral glucose metabolism in prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex have been reported (12). A similar frontal involvement was observed by Maas and colleagues (13), who by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reported significant activation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate that corresponded with presentation of cocaine-related stimuli. It has also been reported that cocaine cues, relative to neutral cues, produced increases in regional cerebral glucose metabolism in the dorsolateral prefrontal, medial orbitofrontal, retrosplenial, peristriate, and a number of temporal and parietal regions (14). Significant correlations of 0.60 or greater were found between self-reported craving measures and regional cerebral glucose metabolism in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and medial temporal lobe, specifically the amygdala. Other neuroimaging studies have replicated a frontal and limbic involvement in cocaine craving (15–17). It might be conjectured that the emerging picture of widespread neuronal involvement reflects the participation of a number of cognitive and emotional processes working in concert to produce the subjective craving experience.
The determination that craving has been induced through exposure to cocaine-related cues requires that certain criteria be met. It has been proposed that the craving response should be both population and content specific, being observed in cocaine users but not in cocaine-naive comparison subjects and in response to cocaine stimuli but not to, say, opiate-related cues (18). We suggest that the appropriateness of the content-specific criterion be contingent upon one's choice of comparison stimuli. For example, an increase in arousal may be a component of cue-induced cocaine craving. While it may be reasonable to require that this arousal not be induced by otherwise neutral stimuli (e.g., opiate-specific paraphernalia, as demonstrated by Ehrman et al. [19]), one might expect a similar response to other arousing stimuli (e.g., sexually evocative stimuli). Indeed, the degree to which the neuroanatomical response to cocaine cues is mirrored in response to other evocative stimuli is an open question that may illuminate some of the (common) processes evoked by both sets of cues. To this end, the present study sought to determine if a neuroanatomical response observed in cocaine users when exposed to cocaine-related stimuli would be unique to cocaine users (i.e., not present in cocaine-naive comparison subjects) and unique to the cocaine stimuli (i.e., not present for neutral stimuli) but perhaps shared by nondrug evocative stimuli.
In total, 24 experienced cocaine users and 18 healthy comparison subjects participated in this study. The subjects were recruited through local newspaper advertisements and were paid for their participation. The cocaine users were screened so that only those whose primary method of cocaine administration was through freebase (crack) smoking were included. No subject met criteria for any axis I psychiatric condition other than cocaine abuse or dependence. Seventeen cocaine users (14 men and three women; mean age=34 years, age range=27–44) and 14 comparison subjects (nine men and five women; mean age=26 years, age range=19–39) passed all exclusionary criteria and were included in the fMRI analyses. Of the 17 cocaine users, nine were Caucasian, and eight were African American; 13 were strongly right-handed, one was left-handed, and three were ambidextrous. Of the 14 comparison subjects, 12 were Caucasian, one was Asian, and one was Hispanic; 13 were strongly right-handed, and one was left-handed. The cocaine users averaged 11 years of cocaine use (range=2–25) with an average monthly cocaine expenditure of $1,025 (range=$150–$5,000). The comparison subjects reported no history of cocaine use. After complete description, all subjects gave written informed consent to participate in this study, which was approved by the institutional review board of the Medical College of Wisconsin.
Upon arrival at the MRI unit, each subject completed consent forms and received instructions for, and practiced on, a working memory task that would be performed during the scanning session. Video film segments and the working memory task were back-projected onto a screen at the subject's feet and were viewed with the aid of prism glasses attached to the inside of the radio frequency head coil. The video dialogue was delivered to the subjects by air conduction through plastic tubes threaded through earplugs that attenuated scanner noise. Three films with different content were used. The cocaine film depicted two African American men engaged in drug-specific dialogue while smoking "crack cocaine" (which was actually benzocaine made to look like crack cocaine) and drinking "alcohol" (which was water in a gin bottle). The men were experienced cocaine users; the film was made in consultation with, and reviewed by, a number of former and current cocaine users to ensure authenticity. The nature film contained scenic outdoor images; the sex film contained explicit group heterosexual activity. Each film was 4 minutes in duration, and each was preceded by a 3-minute blank blue screen. All subjects first saw the nature film, and the order of the sex and cocaine films was counterbalanced across subjects. Immediately after each film, subjects performed a visuospatial working memory task for 5 minutes. Thus, each scanning run consisted of a 3-minute rest period, a 4-minute film, and a 5-minute working memory task. After the working memory trials that followed each film, subjects completed retrospective self-report measures evaluating their response to the previous film's content. Questions focused on the subject's responses to the film (t1). The working memory task served a two-fold purpose: as a distracter to minimize any cue-induced craving cross-talk between films and as a probe to determine the effects of craving on cognitive task performance and brain activation. Results of this portion of the experiment will be reported elsewhere.
We could not control for the role that expectations of obtaining either cocaine or sex after the study may have had on the subjects. All cocaine users received a brief therapeutic "talk-down" intervention after the scanning procedure and were not allowed to leave the hospital until the attending psychiatrist certified that they were no longer craving cocaine. In a previous study (20), no additional drug use subsequent to participation in an intravenous cocaine experiment was reported, which suggests little transfer from a drug-related experimental context to the real-world context.
Contiguous 7-mm sagittal slices covering the entire brain were collected by using a blipped gradient-echo, echo-planar pulse sequence (TE=40 msec; TR=6000 msec; field of view=24 cm; 64 × 64 matrix; in-plane resolution=3.75 × 3.75 mm). All scanning was conducted on a 1.5-T Signa scanner (GE Medical Systems, Milwaukee) equipped with a 30.5-cm internal diameter three-axis local gradient coil and an end-capped quadrature birdcage radio frequency head coil (21). Foam padding was used to limit head movements within the coil. High-resolution radio frequency spoiled gradient recalled acquisition in the steady state anatomic images were acquired before functional imaging to allow subsequent anatomical localization of functional activation.
All data processing was conducted with the software package AFNI version 2.2 (22). In-plane motion correction and edge detection algorithms were first applied to the functional data. Subjects whose fMRI time series for a film still had perceptible residual head movements as determined by cine viewing were excluded from the analysis for that film. The number of cocaine users and comparison subjects included in the functional analyses for each film are presented in t1. In total, 47% of the cocaine users' films and 57% of the comparison subjects' films were analyzable. Exclusion of 40% of the cocaine users' films and 35% of the comparison subjects' films was due to movement, with the remaining exclusions attributable to technical problems in the data acquisition. All of the cocaine users included in the critical cocaine film analyses were current users, and none were receiving treatment.
The first 7.5 minutes (75 images) of each scanning run were included in the present fMRI analysis. This included the 3-minute baseline period, the 4-minute film, and the first 30-second rest period of the subsequent working memory task. To characterize a voxel's response, fMRI signals acquired over this 7.5-minute period were modeled with beta distributions on a per-voxel basis by using a nonlinear regression technique (23) (F1). The beta distribution was chosen on empirical grounds, given the wide range of different time series that it can model. The onset time of the beta model was constrained to occur within 1.5 minutes after video onset, and the best linear fit was fitted to the time series before this onset time. The other parameters of the beta distribution (a multiplicative constant [k] and two exponents [α, β]) (F1) were loosely constrained in order that a best-fitting model for each voxel's time series could be attained. The time series data were filtered to exclude all frequencies above 0.01 Hz before the nonlinear modeling, since preliminary analyses revealed that high-frequency changes in the data time series often adversely affected the goodness of the nonlinear model fit. For each voxel, the area under the curve of the beta model was expressed as a percentage of the area under the best linear fit (a null hypothesis representing no response). This percentage of the area under the curve measure served as an estimate of the magnitude of response of a given voxel to the film content (F1). The percentage of the area under the curve functional images were converted to a standard stereotaxic coordinate system (24) and spatially blurred by using a 4.2-mm full width at half maximum isotropic gaussian filter. These functional images are referred to subsequently as activation maps and were used for the following group analyses.
A one-sample t test against the null hypothesis of no effect was performed on the percentage of the area under the curve measure for cocaine users viewing the cocaine film. This t test, thresholded with a voxel-wise p value of 0.0025 and a criterion that each significant voxel be part of a larger 100-μl cluster of contiguous significant voxels (roughly equal to the size of the originally acquired voxels), identified voxels that showed a response to the cocaine film in cocaine users. The advantages of combining a voxel-wise threshold with a minimum cluster size have been described elsewhere (25). The clusters of activation that survived these criteria defined functional regions of interest for the following set of comparisons.
To determine if the response of these regions was unique to the cocaine users (population specificity), the activated regions of the cocaine users during exposure to the cocaine film were superimposed upon the activation maps of the comparison subjects during exposure to the cocaine film, and the regions of interest were compared by using two-sample t tests. To determine if the response of these regions of interest was specific to the cocaine film (content specificity), the activated regions of the cocaine users during exposure to the cocaine film were superimposed upon the activation maps of the cocaine users during exposure to the nature film, and t tests compared the mean activation values. Finally, to determine if these regions of interest were also activated by nondrug, evocative stimuli (content specificity), the activated regions of the cocaine users during exposure to the cocaine film were superimposed upon the activation maps of both the cocaine users and comparison subjects during exposure to the sex film. Separate t tests were performed for each comparison as the ad hoc nature of the exclusions from the functional analyses left too few subjects with complete data to allow a full factorial analysis of variance.
To identify areas activated when viewing the sex film, separate one-sample t tests against the null hypothesis of no effect were performed on the activation maps of cocaine users and comparison subjects. Each was thresholded with a voxel-wise p value of 0.0025 and a 100-μl cluster criterion, as described earlier. To facilitate statistical testing between the two groups, these maps were combined so as to include a voxel if significant in either map. Two-sample t tests comparing users and comparison subjects were then performed on the mean activation values for each cluster of this combined map. An identical sequence of analyses were performed for the nature film.
t1 contains group averages of Likert scale responses to questions asked after each film. The data suggest that the cocaine film successfully induced a craving state in cocaine users. For example, the cocaine users reported liking the cocaine film more than comparison subjects while not differing from comparison subjects in how much they liked the nature or sex films. A similar pattern was observed for how excited and energized they were by the films and, critically, by how much each film made them want to smoke cocaine. Cocaine users also reported less tiredness than comparison subjects after the cocaine film only. To facilitate additional comparisons based on these responses to the cocaine film, a composite craving score was calculated. The five questions that significantly differentiated the cocaine users and the comparison subjects following exposure to the cocaine film but not the other two films were chosen as epitomizing cocaine craving. The composite craving score was the sum of these five questions (the tiredness measure was first subtracted from 10 such that less tiredness would be coded as increasing with increasing craving). The composite craving score allowed us to test if differences in cocaine craving existed between the excluded and included subjects and to test for effects of film order.
Composite craving scores significantly differed between all cocaine users (N=23; the data for one subject was lost) and comparison subjects (N=18) who viewed the cocaine film (t=6.7, df=39, p<0.0001) as well as between just those subjects who were included in the cocaine film functional analyses (t=6.4, df=21, p<0.0001). Further analyses revealed that cocaine users excluded from the cocaine film functional analyses due to head movements were not significantly different than the analyzed users in reported craving (t=1.9, df=17, p=0.07). In fact, subjects included in the functional analyses reported a higher composite craving score (27.7 versus 20.5), thus obviating concerns of a selection bias in our analyses whereby the subjects who craved most might have moved most. An analysis of the film order effect in cocaine users who viewed the cocaine film before or after the sex film revealed no differences in composite craving score. This was true for all cocaine users (t=0.4, df=21, p=0.73) and for just those included in the cocaine film functional analyses (t=0.1, df=9, p=0.91). A similar composite score was calculated for responses to the sex film (i. e., how much subjects liked the sex film, were energized by it, etc.) and to the nature film (i. e., how much subjects liked the nature film, were energized by it, etc.). No significant group differences were found with unpaired t tests for the sex or the nature film either when all subjects or just those subjects included in the respective functional film analyses were included.
For the cocaine users, 19 regions of interest showed significant responses during exposure to the cocaine film (t2). These were mostly in frontal and limbic lobes, generally left lateralized, and included the medial, inferior, middle, and superior frontal gyri as well as both the anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus. Bilateral activation was seen in the inferior parietal lobule, and left lateralized activation was seen in the temporal pole. The remaining regions of interest were observed in the right insula and subcortically, in the left caudate/lateral dorsal nucleus and the anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
Most (13 of 19) of these regions of interest showed significantly greater activation in cocaine users than in comparison subjects when comparing activation induced by the cocaine film (t3 and F2). These same 13 regions of interest also demonstrated significantly greater activation for cocaine users viewing the cocaine film when compared to cocaine users viewing the nature film. By not being present in comparison subjects viewing the same cocaine film content and not being present in users viewing the nature film content, these results speak to the specificity of these 13 regions for cocaine craving.
Conversely, only a minority of these regions of interest (four of 19) showed significantly different activation when cocaine users viewing the cocaine film were tested against cocaine users viewing the sex film, and one of these four, located in the left inferior frontal gyrus, was not significant in either of the two previous comparisons (t3). The remaining three regions of interest, which were significant in all three comparisons, were centered on the anterior cingulate gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobule, and the left caudate/lateral dorsal nucleus. Finally, just four of the 19 regions of interest showed significant differences between cocaine users viewing the cocaine film and comparison subjects viewing the sex film. All four regions of interest showed greater activation in the cocaine users but just one, located in the right inferior parietal lobule, had also been significant in the previous comparisons. The remaining three regions of interest were located in the right superior frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, and the anterior nucleus of the thalamus. In interpreting these results, it should be noted that these between-group and between-film comparisons may be biased toward the activation map of cocaine users viewing the cocaine film, since it was this condition that functionally defined the regions of interest.
Similar regions were activated in cocaine users and comparison subjects when they viewed the sex film. These included extensive frontal (medial, superior, and inferior frontal gyri), anterior and posterior cingulate, bilateral insula, caudate, thalamic, occipital, and cerebellar regions. More clusters (36 versus 25), encompassing a greater total volume (8,942 μl versus 5,280 μl), and having a greater average activation (0.24% versus 0.20%) were observed in the comparison subjects than in the cocaine users. The activated clusters of both groups were combined and t tests were performed that compared the two groups on the mean activation values of each of the combined clusters. Of the 52 clusters in this combined map, 29 showed significant differences, and of these, 23 showed significantly greater activation in the comparison subjects than in the cocaine users. A Bonferroni correction (p≤0.001), warranted given the high number of separate statistical tests, reduced the number of significant differences to 10. Half of these clusters were located in the frontal lobes, and half were in the cerebellum, posterior cingulate, and parietal lobes (t4). Of these 10 clusters, nine showed greater activation in the comparison subjects than in the cocaine users. Allowing for the fact that the comparison subjects contributed more clusters to the combined map and accounting for the high number of statistical tests, these analyses show a greater responsiveness on the part of the comparison subjects to the sex film than was shown by the cocaine users. This stands in contrast to the results from the cocaine film analyses.
Few regions were significantly activated in either the cocaine users (four clusters) or the comparison subjects (two clusters) when viewing the nature film. Two clusters, located in the right posterior cingulate and right fusiform gyrus, were significantly greater in comparison subjects than in the cocaine users, while two others, located on the right superior frontal gyrus (Brodmann's area 9) and the left postcentral gyrus (Brodmann's area 3), showed the opposite pattern.
Based upon self-reports of the experienced cocaine users, viewing a film that depicted two men smoking crack cocaine was sufficient to induce cocaine craving. Functional MRI analyses revealed a distribution of brain regions that showed a significant increase in activation in the cocaine users as the cocaine cues were being viewed. These regions were in the prefrontal (medial and dorsolateral), limbic (anterior and posterior cingulate), and parietal (bilateral inferior parietal lobule) lobes. The right insula and left temporal pole were also activated. A number of control comparisons were performed to determine the specificity of these activated regions for cocaine craving. First, the majority of responsive areas were activated to a significantly greater extent in cocaine users than in comparison subjects during the cocaine film, which suggests that the response shown by the cocaine users was not reflecting an inherently evocative characteristic of the film but instead was contingent upon the subject having a history of cocaine use. Second, these same brain areas were more activated in cocaine users watching the cocaine film than in cocaine users watching the nature film, which demonstrates that the responsive areas in the cocaine users were not trait-like responses indiscriminately induced by any film but instead were specific to the cocaine film's content. Combined, this population and content specificity help to isolate the critical neuroanatomical substrates of cue-induced cocaine craving.
Cocaine craving was associated with a widespread pattern of cortical activation that was largely consistent with previous neuroimaging reports of cue- and drug-induced craving. Both dorsolateral prefrontal (12–15) and anterior cingulate activation (13, 15–17, 26) have been consistently seen. Temporal pole activation is consistent with a recent report of increased cerebral blood flow in this region when cocaine users watched a cocaine film relative to a nature film (17), and parietal lobe activation related to cocaine craving has also been reported (14, 26).
We interpret the distributed activation in cocaine users as witness to the contribution of multiple, distinct psychological processes, both cognitive and emotional, to creating the craving state. For example, given that many neuroimaging studies have observed frontal and parietal co-activation during working memory (27–30) and attentionally demanding tasks (31, 32), the activation seen in these structures in the present study might suggest the participation of a frontoparietal working memory circuit in craving or a heightened attention to the cocaine film by users. The implication of this finding is that the engagement of the drug user's attention and his or her subsequent drug-related ruminations, mediated within a working memory system, may be critical for the initiation and maintenance of the craving state. Such a finding may speak to the appropriateness of therapeutic approaches that seek to ameliorate drug craving through attention redirection and subvocal rehearsal techniques.
Activation of the anterior cingulate has been frequently observed during cocaine craving and is thought to play an integral role in both cognitive and affective processes (33, 34). A review contrasting cingulate activations for cognitive/motor tasks and emotional/symptom provocation localized the former to an anterior region that includes the cingulate activation observed in the present study (35). Posner and Rothbart (36) have proposed that the cingulate plays a critical role in the executive control or regulation of emotional states. Medial frontal regions have also been proposed to subserve emotional processes (37, 38), which may explain the activation seen in these regions in cocaine users during the cocaine film, a supposition supported by the medial frontal activation in both groups of subjects during the sex film. In a review of studies that addressed film- and recall-generated emotions as well as anticipatory anxiety, Reiman (39) concluded that the anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal region (Brodmann's area 9) participate in "the conscious experience of, attentional response to, or behavioral response to the anxiety provoking situation." It is plausible to conclude, therefore, that the anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal activations of the present study reflect the participation of these emotional and attentional mechanisms in cocaine craving.
The posterior cingulate region activated during cocaine craving may reflect the participation of a "normal" endogenous drive state or craving response, since this region was also shown to be the most active in a correlation with hypertonic saline-induced thirst and subsequent satiation in normal control subjects (40). Alternatively, Vogt and colleagues (34) assigned an evaluative role in assessing the environment and a memory role to the posterior cingulate. Retrosplenial activation has been previously observed during cue-induced craving (14) and during presentation of threat-related words (41) and in both cases has been interpreted to reflect episodic memory processes, consistent with the suggestion that this area may be specifically involved in the recall of emotional memories (42).
The post hoc assignation of psychological function to regional activation is somewhat speculative and awaits corroboration from experiments that address the specific role of a particular psychological process in the functional anatomy of cocaine craving. Nonetheless, the pattern of activation that has been observed to be specific to the cocaine users and to the content of the cocaine film suggests that the craving response is plausibly manifested through the same circuitry that has been observed in other experiments in normal drug-naive subjects. It is to be expected that the cognitive and affective processes that have been previously described in nondrug experimental paradigms are the same processes subserved by the same brain regions from which the craving response emerges.
For the cocaine users, a minority of the observed craving sites significantly differed in activation in response to the cocaine and sexual stimuli. Furthermore, just four of the observed craving sites differed in activation when contrasted with the comparison subjects' responses to the sexual stimuli. Together, these findings suggest a large overlap in the brain circuitry that underlies responsivity to cocaine-related stimuli and to other nondrug, evocative stimuli. This overlap includes all the medial frontal regions, most of the remaining dorsal frontal regions, as well as most of the cingulate regions. Although just one region of interest, located on the right inferior parietal lobule, did appear to be most specific for cocaine craving by being significant in all the planned comparisons, we would caution against concluding that it constitutes the essence of cocaine craving. Rather, we interpret these results to mean that of those regions of interest identified as the neuroanatomical substrates for cue-induced cocaine craving, most were also responsive to other evocative stimuli and were so for both drug users and drug-naive comparison subjects. This does not necessarily diminish the role of these less-specific regions in cocaine craving but instead suggests that the cocaine craving response is not produced by a circuitry unique to the cocaine user. Rather, it is what activates this circuitry that is unique to the cocaine user. A fuller understanding of these uniquely large responses may shed some light on how prolonged cocaine usage affects normal brain systems for desire and leads to the devastating disorder known as cocaine dependency.
It has been suggested that cocaine's potency may stem from its ability to directly activate the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system (43). It has been demonstrated that chronic cocaine self-administration in rats produces increased brain stimulation reward thresholds during subsequent withdrawal (44). In a similar manner, chronic drug use may reduce the reinforcing efficacy of natural stimuli; anecdotally, experienced drug users typically report a preference for cocaine over sex. In the present study, most regions identified as cocaine craving sites were similarly activated by sexual stimuli (more precisely, were not significantly different in activation between the two films). Furthermore, cocaine users showed diminished activation relative to comparison subjects in their respective responses to the sex film. These findings may have important clinical consequences. If cocaine craving is subserved by the same brain regions that are activated by "naturally" rewarding/evocative stimuli, then this could result in a rewriting of "normal" emotionally driven preferences (45). If cocaine not only acts upon but has co-opted the brain's reward circuits, thus leading to a rewriting of normal emotionally driven preferences, then this may have serious consequences for the decision making of cocaine users. The attenuated response to normal rewards may be exacerbated when in a craving state, thus further feeding the specific desire for cocaine.
It should be noted that the smaller neuroanatomical response of the cocaine users to the sexual stimuli relative to the comparison subjects was not reflected in the self-reports that followed the sex film in which, in general, no differences were observed between the groups. One possibility is that the users, who had already been quite frank concerning their drug use, were more honest in their appraisal of the sex film (the suggestion is that the comparison subjects may have underreported the extent to which they liked the sex film). Given that the self-report questions were constructed with the assessment of the cocaine film to the fore, a more sophisticated probe of each film's effects, for example, one that pitted the reinforcement value of cocaine against that of sex (as in a forced choice between which film, sex or cocaine, to continue viewing), may have yielded behavioral indices that better mirrored the brain activations. An alternative interpretation may accept the apparent dissociation as indicative of a "normal," conscious (i. e., verbalizable) appreciation of the sexual material but an impaired neurological capacity to enjoy it, with the implication that this is a "trait or state" consequence of years of drug use.
Cue-induced cocaine craving is often cited as a major determinant in drug relapse. We have reported a distributed pattern of cortical activation, primarily prefrontal and limbic, that presumably reflects the cognitive and emotional processes that participate in the cue-induced craving state. Further research should be able to disentangle the relative influences of these separate processes. One speculation, out of a number of possibilities, is that the cingulate and medial prefrontal activations may provide the emotional tone of the craving response while the dorsal prefrontal and parietal areas may be involved in an increased attentional processing of, or working memory ruminations upon, the cocaine stimuli. Identifying the relative importance and level of interdependence of the processes that constitute craving should help optimize therapeutic interventions for blocking craving and mitigating consequent drug-seeking behavior. The majority of regions identified as craving sites exhibited similar responses to the sexually explicit material, thus implicating common circuits in drug and nondrug reactivity. Taken together, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that cocaine acts upon normal reward/emotional circuitry and that cocaine craving rests upon the user's memory for cocaine's reinforcing effects. On an optimistic note, this suggests that what is already known of normal learning, memory, and emotions may be usefully applied to an understanding of cue-induced craving and may inform appropriate pharmacological and behavioral/cognitive interventions.
Received Nov. 30, 1999; revision received June 16, 2000; accepted June 30, 2000. From the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, the Department of Pharmacology, and the Biophysics Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin. Address reprint requests to Dr. Stein, Department of Psychiatry, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd., Milwaukee, WI 53226; email@example.com (e-mail). Supported by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA-09465) and an NIH Clinical Research Center grant (RR-00058). The authors thank Scott Fuller, Harold Harsch, Renee Koronowski, Toni Salm, and Doug Ward for their assistance and Drs. Charles O'Brien, Anna Rose Childress, and Steven Grant for their advice and encouragement.
Time Course of fMRI Signals for a Responsive Brain Voxel in an Experienced Cocaine User During Exposure to Film Scene of Cocaine Usea
aThe jagged line represents the time course of fMRI signals from a voxel that showed increased activation in a cocaine user during exposure to a film scene of cocaine use. The time series, which was first filtered to remove frequencies greater than 0.01 Hz, was modeled with a beta function (shown by the continuous smooth line) that was constrained to depart from baseline only during the first 90 seconds of the film. The time series before this departure point was fitted with a linear trend. The percentage of area under the curve measure was calculated by continuing the linear portion of the fit (the dashed line), calculating the area between the dashed line and the beta fit, and expressing this as a percentage of the total area under the flat line (linear portion of the fit and the dashed line). The formula for the beta distribution is y=k[x(α–1) (1–x) β–1)], for x>0, in which x represents each time step after the model's onset time.
Functional Brain Activation Associated With Cue-Induced Cocaine Craving in Experienced Cocaine Usersa
aPart A shows bilateral activation in the parietal cortex and left side activation in the posterior cingulate. The dorsolateral activation in the frontal lobe is centered on the middle frontal gyrus. The coronal slice is 52 mm posterior to the anterior commissure. Part B reveals left hemisphere activation from anterior to posterior in the medial frontal gyrus and in the anterior and posterior cingulate. The coronal slice is 46 mm anterior to the anterior commissure, and the sagittal slice is 9 mm left of midline.
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This brief summary does not attempt to cover all of the aspects of guardianship. Especially in your area where the law and local court rules may vary from county to county, or from state to state, it is a good idea to make inquires as to what is appropriate for your specific circumstances.
Consult with Ms. Bowers about Guardianships, the Law and You.

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text:
Leading employers like Boeing and Banner
Medical Centers benefit from Mesa's well educated workforce,
over 30% of which have an associates degree or higher.
Since 2009,
Mesa's labor force has continued to grow, adding nearly 3,000
new workers. Overall, the Mesa labor force has grown by 25%
since 2000, which is on par with the growth of the Greater Phoenix
labor force, which grew by 28% during the same time period.
As a right to work state, the unionization
rate in Arizona is among the lowest in the nation. Additionally,
Arizona employers, on average, pay the 7th lowest
workers compensation premium rates and the 6th
lowest unemployment insurance premium taxes.
Whether focused on high tech jobs,
administrative operations, or customer service, Mesa and the
Greater Phoenix area can meet all of your labor force needs.
Arizona Commerce
Maricopa Workforce Connection
Small Business Development Center
More Helpful Links
of Mesa receives international award for Higher
Education Initiative
Register now for FREE Export Workshop - Global Connect
Register For ExporTech Boot Camp
The Business Academy at LaunchPoint seeks applicants for entrepreneur training program
City of Mesa and Mesa Chamber of Commerce to launch
business retention and expansion program
Mesa's Economic Development Office and its
recognized with prestigious EDDE awards
LaunchPoint: Mesa Accelerator
Mesa Educates U Scholarship
Mesa Became a College Town
Center for Higher Education
Benedictine University Campus
PO Box 146620 East Main, Suite 200Mesa, AZ
Phone: 480-644-2398
Fax: 480-644-3458
Office Hours
Monday - Thursday
7:00 am - 6:00 pm
Closed Fridays
William J. JabjiniakEconomic Development Director
About Us
Our Experts
E-mail Us
Map & Directions
Sign Up to Receive Our Newsletter
Economic Development Advisory Board
Mesa Chamber of Commerce
Visit Mesa
Downtown Mesa Association
Commerce Authority
Greater Phoenix Economic
Better Business Bureau
list of helpful Links


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text:
Does the crisis portend communism?
There have been many critiques of the financial system in the wake of the global crisis, blaming its structure for the severity of the problem. But it's taken until now for an old-school Marxist to come along and co-opt all of those critiques as a call to embrace communism. David Harvey's new book is just that. Here's the official blurb:
Using his unrivalled knowledge of the subject, Harvey lays bare the follies of the international financial system, looking closely at the nature of capitalism, how it works and why sometimes it doesn't. He examines the vast flows of money that surge round the world in daily volumes well in excess of the sum of all its economies. He looks at the cycles of boom and bust in the world's housing and stock markets and shows that periodic episodes of meltdown are not only inevitable in the capitalist system but essential to its survival. The essence of capitalism is its amorality and lawlessness and to talk of a regulated, ethical capitalism is to make an error of reasoning of the most fundamental kind.
Harvey is happy to go so far as to title his final chapter "What is to be Done?" — which of course is also Lenin's most famous work. He dismisses attempts at wealth redistribution or increased financial regulation as mere "socialism", and pushes instead for something much stronger, which "seeks to displace capitalism" entirely. "An ethical, non-exploitative and socially just capitalism that redounds to the benefit of all is impossible," he writes, in a passage which will surely dismay the likes of Matthew Bishop. "It contradicts the very nature of what capital is about."
He concludes:
Communists are all those who work incessantly to produce a different future to that which capitalism portends… While traditional institutionalised communism is as good as dead and buried, there are by this definition millions of de facto communists active among us, willing to act upon their understandings, ready to creatively pursue anti-capitalist imperatives…
The struggle for survival with justice not only continues; it begins anew. As indignation and moral outrage build around the economy of dispossession that so redounds to the benefit of a seemingly all-powerful capitalist class, so disparate political movements necessarily begin to merge, transcending barriers of space and time…
Capitalism will never fall on its own. It will have to be pushed… Political mobilisations sufficient to such a task have occurred in the past. They can and will surely come again. We are, I think, past due.
All of this reminds me, in a weird kind of meta way, of Richard Florida's new book, which I'm reading right now. Florida, of course, is no communist, and he's certainly not a revolutionary who sneers at the uselessness of Velcro, like Harvey does. But he did enter the crisis with lots of Big Ideas, and he's now written a book about how the crisis only confirms that those ideas were exactly right.
James Kwak has written, apropos Richard Posner, that it's hard to get enormous credibility out of being wrong for decades. At the same time, however, it's always nice to see people's views change when the facts change — and rarely have facts changed as much as they did over the course of this crisis. I suppose that the crisis has naturally pushed most people's views to the left, and it's hard to get much further left than Harvey. But then again, I think that there's definitely a causal connection between the financial crisis and the rise of the tea party: in extreme times, people often gravitate towards corner solutions.
In any event, it's probably good that Harvey's book has now been written, if only to fill out the spectrum of reactions to the crisis and to help make leftists like Joe Stiglitz and Dean Baker look positively Reaganite in comparison. And to remind us all that Keith Olbermann and Michael Moore are maybe not quite as far to the left as some soi-disant centrists would have you believe.
"Tea Party 48% Obama 44%
On major issues, 48% of voters say that the average Tea Party member is closer to their views than President Barack Obama. The latest Rasmussen Reports national telephone survey found that 44% hold the opposite view and believe the president's views are closer to their own."
Rasmussen, April 5th
http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_c ontent/politics/general_politics/april_2 010/tea_party_48_obama_44
"It really ought to go without saying that the CEO of a company as big as Citigroup, especially when he's being paid a hefty ten-figure salary, should be able to control his own businesses without crawling to regulators with a plea of "stop me before I issue another cov-lite bond, I can't help myself"
Quote from the previous article – my point is, when you no longer have a profit and LOSS system, you no longer have capitalism. You need the carrot and the stick, and the stick doesn't exist for CEO's. Fiddling with the number of carrots won't solve the problems.
I certainly am willing to admit that my theory of how the free market works is not in accord with reality – Prince should not get compensation that encourages excess risk taking while immunizing him from the destruction of the firm. I thought shareholders make a collective judgement, but as an individual shareholder I have no influence over Prince.
But for those who now believe in regulation – uh, who is the brillient regulator…Greenspan (remember Maestro? Oracle??? Committee to save the world???) or Bernanke "Subprime is contained" ???
Capitalism, socialism, communism, monarchies, even dictatorships… all those systems work on paper. What it comes down to, what it ALWAYS comes down to is how badly the PEOPLE within the system take advantage of it and muck it up.
Not all anti-corporatism is leftist, so you can't point to that as the sole direction in which public opinion has moved.
Neither are all, or even most, corporate chieftains rightist, as many of them have embraced, either functionally or explicitly, a central leftist plank — namely, the obsolescence of the nation-state and the desirability of open borders.
"I suppose that the crisis has naturally pushed most people's views to the left…"
Count me in that group. I wouldn't call myself a Democrat, but I'm closer to being one than I was 3 years ago.
I think Obama in his heart of hearts means to be a socialist, but he has wound up being a corporatist most all. He has been a big disappointment to those of us who voted for him because he claimed to be an outsider not beholden to special interests. Corporate welfarism is repugnant to both the right and the left.
Jamie Dimon has played Obama like a fiddle and megabanks couldn't be more pleased with how the bailouts turned out. Meanwhile the health care bill is corporate welfare to big pharma, big insurance and hospitals. Just look at their stock price movements. Is it any wonder the health care bill was so opposed by many at leftish firedoglake.com?
I ordered Sinclair Lewis's 1935 book "It Can't Happen Here" earlier this week and cannot wait to read it.
The old phrases of communism about "amoral capitalism"?
And people who have NOT done their own research…actually believe this? Capitalism can be regulated…the HUMAN BEING is the source of evil—or good…!
Just curious.
Does the book deal with the Chinese "marriage" of capitalism with communism?
You know…the people that fill much of our stores with THEIR goods, whom the US owes so much money to…and who (latest I heard) still sell us some rotten stuff…be it Florida's infamous Chinese drywall…or bad honey or… (the list goes on)..
It's a new twist on communism – using capitalism as their tool to maybe destroy (or at least disable) the US??
Am waiting to hear when the Chinese maybe get to drill in our plentiful fossil fuel sources—as part payment for the mega dollars they loaned us!
But dream the idealist dreams. Unrefined by your own research into old articles, books…to uncover what the past 100 or so years of communist and super socialist rule has done to the human race. The blood would fill rivers!!!
Find your secular "religion" of a workers' paradise (which will turn into a worker-maintained LEADERS paradise)…
Ignore—-20th century history…and the HUGE multi millions of innocents murdered…by Lenin, Stalin, others…
Or…read up on Animal Farm…or buy the $1 DVD which sometimes shows up in mostly Chinese stocked WALMART…the DVD cartoon of ANIMAL FARM!!!
Or buy an old copy of The Gulag Archipelago by Solzhenitsyn and search for his Harvard Speech online!!!
The crisis doesn't portend communism. It was caused by it – communism for the Rich. Everybody else is supposed to take an entrepreneurial interest in the fiction enshrouding it.
If it says Kwak, it is a duck. We are so old fashioned in our thinking. Solzhenitsyn is good, especially 1974 Nobel Peace Prize Speech, Barack and Woods take heed, so is Sakharoff and Sharanski (phonetic), only problem, the last time I saw Solzhenitsyn in a documentary in a train during a revisit to 'Mother Russia', his wife was crapping on his head on the Steppe. Neither of them looked happy at all.
Lots of morals to that story.
Leave poor Obama alone. We have 20 million people out of work and he's only trying to help them
The communist credo: 'From each according to their ability, to each according to their need.'
The capitalist credo: 'From each according to their want, to each according to their greed."
…capitalism had its last spams and gasps at 9-11, that serves us right, when we get blindsided.
Imagine the opposite happened, in the country of origin, not Hamburg, the other Burg, let me not be too explicit.
It was not Russia that screwed the US over, then, they might now try to.
Whatever the "ism" is doesn't really matter. What matters is whether or not the people participating in the system are people of conscience.
People refuse to do what is correct because they have no spiritual core.
"As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance." – John Dewey
Good one Karen 22, Catch 22…
Ideology, whether communism or Ann Rand type capitalism, is a recipe for disaster.
However, these arguments about 'isms' obscures the real issues: Rampant speculation supported by low tax rates and cheap credit will destroy any economic model, whether it is socialist like China or capitalist like the USA.
The US conservative think tanks continue this "Red Baiting" even after Russian communism is dead and China fills our Wallmart with their cheap goods. Why? Because they know that if Americans (i.e Teaparty) knew how Wall Street and Commercial Real Estate have gamed the tax code and use American savings to speculate, they would rebel.
Remember Engels' great quote: The Capitalist will sell the hangman his own noose.


text:
Here's your chance to share a photo of your favorite tractor.
Tractor of the month owned and restored by Walter Elder, Bay City, MI.
Bought in 1979, walter used this tractor for plowing and pulling his potato harvester until 2007. He completely restored it in 2008.
To learn more visit Fastline online digital edition.


text:
Gold 'N Hot Professional Stove Iron System
|Plug Type:
Folica's Warranty
Folica stands behind every product we sell and we honor all manufacturers' warranties. For all electrical appliances we offer complete protection. If you experience any problem with an item purchased from us and it's still under the warranty period, all you have to do is fill out our Warranty Replacement form, send us the items plus a small shipping and handling fee and we will take care of the rest. We'll repair or replace your item with a new product or a Folica Certified Refurbished product. It's that simple.
Gold'N Hot Professional Stove Iron System provides premium performance-all in one place.
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- Iron Models are: GH2340 - 1 1/4" barrel, GH2339 - 1/5", GH2338 - 1 1/8", GH2337 - 1", GH2336 - 7/8", GH2335 - 3/4", GH2334 - 5/8", 333 - 1/2", 332 - 3/8", 341 - 1" Medium Flat, 342 - 1 1/2" Large Flat, GH2343- Pressing comb with wedge-shaped teeth
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- Holds one stove
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Folica stands behind the authenticity of everything we sell. Since 1998, Folica has made it our mission to provide you with an outstanding selection of hair and beauty products at highly competitive prices.
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thanks so much , I love this product ,its so nice , useful ,too
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Gold 'N Hot by Belson Jet Bonnet Dryer Attachment
The Gold 'N Hot by Belson Jet Bonnet Dryer Attachment is ideal for conditioning treatments and quick roller sets.
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text:
Hadoop and Complex Data Processing Workflows with Cascading
Understanding the basic concepts behind MapReduce is not a very difficult task, but those using extensively MapReduce tasks inside Hadoop are already facing new challenges like:
- how can you run multiple map and/or reduce phases in your data processing?
- how can you better coordinate the data processing execution flow for more complex scenarios?
- how can you perform additional work between map/reduce phases?
Addressing these new challenges is the goal of the ☞ Cascading project:
Cascading is a feature rich API for defining and executing complex, scale-free, and fault tolerant data processing workflows on a Hadoop cluster.
Christopher Curtin's slides embedded below are offering a good overview of what can be achieved using Cascading (starting with slide 20).
by Alex Popescu
Ana-Maria Bacalu
- Most read
- Latest


text:
The Great Bend High School girls' soccer team begins its season on the road at the Wichita South Titan Classic on Monday against Haysville Campus at 4 p.m. - weather permitting.
The All-Mid-Central Activities Association list is in and no high school is more represented than Hoisington, which claimed eight of the 24 spots on the girls' and boys' first and second teams.
The Central Prairie League has proven its strength after sending four of its nine high school boys basketball teams to a state tournament.
WINFIELD - The Barton Community College women's golf team jumped back into Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference play by claiming first place at Quail Ridge on Sunday. Coffeyville was the host.
The Barton Community College women's basketball team had two selections to the All-Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference Western Division's second team - sophomore Alisha Fanshier and freshman Christina Caddy.
The Great Bend High School bowling teams have eight bowlers on an All-Western Athletic Conference team after the 2011 season that sent both the boys and the girls to the Class 5-1A state tournament.
EMPORIA - Talk about a momentum swing.
EMPORIA - The Class 1A-Division I state tournament championship game on Saturday at White Auditorium in Emporia was exactly what a basketball fan wants from a championship game.
EMPORIA - The atmosphere at the Class 1A-Division I state basketball tournament at White Auditorium in Emporia was one of upset.
Not one of the Class 1A- Division II state basketball tournament teams in this year's field qualified for the state tourney last season.
Going into the Class 1A-Division I state basketball tournament at Emporia, the Macksville High School boys' basketball team is 22-1 and the No. 2 seed.
The athletes at Otis-Bison High School have really outdone themselves this year.
For the Macksville High School boys' basketball team, a trip to the Class 1A state basketball tournament is an old-hat scenario.
The path was set.
A 2-run ninth inning gave Hutchinson Community College baseball team the second game of a double header against Barton at Cougar Fields on Saturday.
LEAVENWORTH - Things didn't necessarily go as planned as Great Bend High School's football team challenged Leavenworth on the road on Friday night.


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Frances Leona Robinson passed away in Colville on May 15, 2012. She was born on April 14, 1924, the daugh¬ter of Walter and Leona (Connarroe) Ryan in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Frances grew up in Colorado Springs, where she attended and graduated from school. After gradu¬ating from high school, she moved to Chino, California, where she worked in a factory during World War II. After the war, Frances went to work for General Electric in Ontario, Califor¬nia and was with the com¬pany for 37 years as an inspector.
Georgia Verna Strope, age 94, went home to be with The Lord on May 22, 2012. She was born on Sept.27, 1917, the daughter of Elmer and Jennie (Legett) Stubblefield in Prosser.
She was a loving mother, grandmother, and great-grand¬mother. In her spare time, Georgia enjoyed fishing and making crafts. Georgia will be greatly missed by all who knew her.
Georgia is survived by her sons,, Ron Strope and wife Ellen, Kettle Falls; Richard Strope and wife Benita, Poulsbo; and nu¬merous grandchildren and great-grandchildren.
Lily Florence Aubert, a resident of Colville, passed away on May 18, 2012 in Colville at the age of 94. Florence was born on May 27, 1917 in Warden, Idaho, the daughter of Ray and Florence (Ridout) Yount.
Her growing years were spent in Kellogg, Idaho, where she attended school and graduated from high school. On June 4, 1939, Florence married Lloyd V. Aubert in Kellogg. They began their life together in Warden and then moved to San Diego, CA during LloydŌĆÖs service in the U.S. military.
Scott Barnett Rogers passed away at his home in Gig Harbor on May 21, 2012.
Scott was born Sept. 11, 1963 to Richard (Dick) and Beverly Rogers, who divorced shortly after. As a child, Scott spent much time with his dadŌĆÖs family and his beloved grandma, Aunt Kay and Uncle Joe. He attended school in Port Orchard, Gig Harbor and finally, Colville.
Scott was always a prankster and loved to make people laugh. He loved to tell stories and pull pranks on his siblings and cousins, something he never outgrew.
CHS boys, girls
finish in top 10
The Colville High boyŌĆÖs and girlŌĆÖs track and field teams put a cap on a very successful season last Friday and Saturday at the State 1A track and field championships at Eastern Washington UniversityŌĆÖs Woodward Stadium.
Highlight of the meet for the Indians was the state championship turned in by the 4x100 relay team (Mackayla McLaughlin, Malia Luu, Chelsea Phillips and Tasha Luu).
Earl second in discus
Jenkins High School sent seniors Zack Schnieder and Makayla Earl to the State 1B/2B/1A track and field championships at Eastern Washington University last Friday and Saturday.
For Schnieder and Earl, it was a weekend to remember.
Schnieder set three JHS hurdlesŌĆÖ records, and earned a third place medal in the 300- meter hurdles before capturing a coveted state championship in the 110 meter hurdles.
On Friday, Schnieder won both preliminary races--in the 110 hurdles with a time of 14.94 and in the 300 with a time of 39.49.
Connell rallies in the ninth to win
Colville came agonizingly close to capturing the schoolŌĆÖs first state fast-pitch softball championship last Saturday afternoon at Columbia Playfield in Richland.
But like last spring, when Connell edged the Indians in the State 1A semifinals in Spokane, the Eagles broke a few more Colville hearts with a heart-stopping 4-3 championship game win in nine innings.
CloseŌĆ"oh, so close.
(Age 79)
Holding his wife, BessŌĆÖ, hand with many family members by his side, Tuney Chapman passed on May 14, 2012, in Spokane, Washington. Born at home on Dec. 9, 1932 in Colville, Washington, Tuney is survived by his sisters Irene, Sylvia, Sarah, Anna, Louise and brother William. Tuney grew up loving the land. He enjoyed outdoor activities, including hunting, fishing and camping. He graduated from Colville High in 1950 and served in the Navy during the Korean War.
CHS doubles team was 5th last year
The Colville High doubles duo of Liselotte Doggen and Erin Little captured the region 1B/2B/1A championship last weekend at West Valley High School and will advance to the State 1B/2B/1A Tennis Championships Friday and Saturday at the Yakima Tennis Club.
Doggen and Little finished fifth in doubles at last yearŌĆÖs tournament in Yakima.
Bulldogs donŌĆÖt have it against Indians
Kettle Falls High (12-10) simply had nothing in the tank in an 11-0 loss to Reardan last Tuesday in a District 7 2B tournament game at Medical Lake.
The loss ended KettleŌĆÖs season.
Reardan advanced to the regional tournament at Gonzaga Prep last Saturday. The Indians were eliminated 4-3 by Riverside Christian.
Asotin advanced out of the Spokane regional to the Class 2B Final Four in Ellensburg Friday and Saturday.


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OU Faculty and Staff Week: April 25 - 29!
Free admission for OU faculty and staff and their immediate families.
Science in Action &
Object I.D. Day
1 to 5 p.m. Sunday, Sept. 28
Complimentary admission
Many people find and collect objects that they recognize as something…they just don't know what. Is it a rock or a fossil? A piece of mammoth tusk or a mineral? An arrow point or a chunk of flint? All these questions and more can be answered during this FREE family-friendly, science-packed day featuring demonstrations and hands-on activities! Learn more about fossils of Oklahoma here.
Family Workshop:
Walk on the Wild Side!
9 a.m. to noon, Saturday, Sept. 27
Get your hands and feet dirty as we discover and identify native Oklahoma animal tracks! This workshop is for children 6 and older with an adult. Sponsored by Fowler Auto, Arvest Bank and Republic Bank & Trust. REGISTER TODAY!
IMLS National Medal
First Lady Michelle Obama Recognizes Sam Noble Museum for Community Service
The Institute of Museum and Library Services recognized the Sam Noble Museum as an outstanding organization for its exceptional contributions to the community. This award is only given to five museums annually and is the highest honor for commending museums and libraries for community service efforts. READ MORE!
Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History
2401 Chautauqua Ave. Norman, OK 73072-7029
(ph) 405.325.4712 (fax) 405.325.7699
The Board of Regents of The University of Oklahoma. All rights reserved.
The University of Oklahoma is an equal opportunity institution. Disclaimer.


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vi (past tense & past participle/pasado y participio pasado fought)
- 1.1 [army/country] luchar, combatir; [person] pelear, luchar; [animal] luchar he fought in the First World War combatió or luchó en la primera guerra mundial to fight to the death pelear or luchar a muerte to fight
againstsb luchar ( or combatir etc) contraalgn to fight againststh luchar contraalgo to fight forsb/sth [for king/country/cause] luchar poralgn/algo [for aim/policy] luchar por conseguir or lograr algo he fights for a living se gana la vida boxeando she was fighting for her life se debatía entre la vida y la muerte he had to fight for breath le costaba muchísimo respirar to go down fighting luchar hasta el final to fight shy of sth/ -inghe tends to fight shy of emotional commitments tiende a eludir or evitar los compromisos afectivos he always fights shy of meeting the press siempre procura esquivar or eludir a los periodistasMore example sentences
More example sentences
- A study found that girls as young as 13 are smoking, swearing, fighting, drinking and disrupting lessons in ever higher numbers.
- Her personal bodyguards fought valiantly to keep by her side.
- Needless to say, I struggled and fought like hell the whole damn way.
More example sentences
- When he fought Corrales, he fought a very good fighter who was fighting the best fight of his life.
- Young, like Byrd, fought some monster heavyweights as well.
- Following four comeback fights, he was in position to fight new champion Evander Holyfield.
More example sentences
- The chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee wants to expand the government's powers to fight terrorism.
- Why do we fight even what we know to be in our own vital interests?
- Forty fire trucks and 440 firefighters valiantly fought the blaze for three hours.
More example sentences
- Their crime was to form a union of agricultural labourers to fight for better wages and conditions.
- It goes to show what we pensioners can achieve if we stand up and fight for our rights.
- A group of Kingston doctors has united to fight for the return of the family doctor.
More example sentences
- The pundits tell us that this entire election was fought over a difference of opinion about how to spend 2% of our GDP.
- It is a contest being fought by e-mail, direct mail and telephone, alongside the traditional door knock.
- A close contest was fought with the American Lisa Raymond on Court 18.
More example sentences1.2 (quarrel) to fight
- Tara crossed her arms over her chest, fighting the feeling of defensiveness she got whenever he spoke to her like that.
- The customer turned towards the door, and she once again fought the urge to hide.
- He fought hard the urge to look around at all the people, the shouting, the screaming.
- You fought your way through the crowds to get it, just for this moment.
- After the group finished their set, my friends and I fought our way through the crowd to catch another band on the main stage.
- We fought our way - and we mean fought our way - through the crowd waiting to get into the Evanescence show.
over/ aboutsth [couple/brothers/friends] pelearse poralgoMore example sentences1.3
(fighting present participle/participio presente)[troops/units] de combate 2,000 fighting men were sent to the front enviaron 2.000 combatientes or soldados al frenteMore example sentences
- They have been fighting over custody issues for an epic two years.
- Does your child hear you talking about troubles at work or fighting with your spouse about financial matters?
- George I and his son shared a deep mutual dislike for each other, were political opposites, and fought constantly.
More example sentences
- He returns to battle and fights, pushing ever closer to the walls of the city.
- The people of Arnhem yesterday welcomed back the old soldiers who fought so bravely to free them 60 years ago.
- People come and go, epochs change, battles are fought, wars won and lost, but India exists.
- He fights his vessel well.
vt (past tense & past participle/pasado y participio pasado fought)
- 1 1.1 [army/country] luchar or combatir contra if you want it, you'll have to fight me for it si lo quieres vas a tener que vértelas conmigo Frazier fought Ali for the world title (in boxing) Frazier peleó contra Ali or se enfrentó a Ali por el título mundial to fight one's way abrirse* camino or paso a la fuerza I had to fight my way into the hall tuve que abrirme camino or paso a la fuerza para entrar en la sala 1.2 (oppose) [fire/disease] combatir; [measure/proposal] combatir, oponerse* a, luchar contra I want to go so don't fight me on this quiero ir, así que no te me opongas we'll fight them all the way no les vamos a dar cuartel
- 2 2.1 (wage, conduct) to fight a duel batirse en or a duelo to fight a battle librar una batalla they fought a long war against the rebels lucharon contra los rebeldes or combatieron a los rebeldes durante largo tiempo 2.2 (contest) [election] presentarse a we intend to fight the case [Law/Derecho] pensamos llevar el caso a los tribunales ( or defendernos etc) to fight a seat (British English/inglés británico) [Politics/Política] presentarse como candidato para conseguir un escaño
Phrasal verbs
fight back
- verb + adverb/verbo + adverbio defenderse* to fight back
againstsb/sth luchar contraalgn/algo 1.1verb + object + adverb, verb + adverb + object/verbo + complemento + adverbio, verbo + adverbio + complemento (suppress) [tears] contener*; [anger] reprimir she fought back the impulse to laugh trató de aguantar la risa
fight downverb + object + adverb, verb + adverb + object/verbo + complemento + adverbio, verbo + adverbio + complemento
fight offverb + object + adverb, verb + adverb + object/verbo + complemento + adverbio, verbo + adverbio + complemento
fight onverb + adverb/verbo + adverbio
fight outverb + object + adverb/verbo + complemento + adverbio
Definition of fight in:
- The British & World English dictionary
- The US English dictionary
- The English Synonyms
- The US English Synonyms
Grammar and usage help for Spanish:
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Here is a selection of useful words and phrases you will need in real-life situations while you're visiting Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries...
In Spain, a privately owned school that receives no government funds is called a colegio privado. Parents pay monthly fees. Colegios privados cover all stages of primary and secondary education.
- 1 countable/numerable 1.1 (between persons) pelea (f); (brawl) pelea (f), riña (f); (between armies, companies) lucha (f), contienda (f) to put up a good fight ofrecer* or oponer* resistencia if you want a fight then I'm ready si quieres pelea or si quieres pelear, aquí estoy I'll give him a fight if he wants one le voy a hacer frente si me provoca they're looking for a fight están buscando camorra or bronca in a fair fight en buena lidMore example sentences
More example sentences
- Her right arm is in bandages after she got into a fight at a nightclub with a crazed fan.
- Another time everything was going fine in America until he got into a fight with a Columbian man and once more was deported.
- Somewhere between Colorado and New Mexico he got into a fight with an irate florist.
More example sentences1.2 (boxing match) pelea (f), combate (m)
- Every combatant there went into the arena in full battle gear for a fight to death or surrender.
- There were casualties in wars, battles, fights; He knew and understood this.
- The two shared their ideas on battles and fights and the results came up with a quite an interesting effect.
More example sentences
- A mother dying from cancer has lost her fight for life and the chance to see her imprisoned son for the first time in three years.
- The only way to make them say yes is to collect the people in a movement that is seen as a fight for the basic rights of individuals.
- But Mr Aldred said he will never give up in his fight for justice.
- This was his last hurrah but even today, he still stays in the boxing games by refereeing fights in Ohio.
- This year will also witness the last fights of boxing legend Lennox Lewis.
- The only time he was ever shook or stopped were in his fights with Holmes and Tyson.
- 2 countable/numerable 2.1 (struggle) lucha (feminine) the fight against poverty/for freedom la lucha contra la pobreza/por la libertad the fight to survive la lucha por la supervivencia or para sobrevivir 2.2 (quarrel) pelea (f), pleito (m) (Mexico/México) to pick a fight with sb meterse con algnMore example sentences
- And, you know, like any normal couple, we have our fights and arguments and disagreements.
- In the future, fights and disagreements between husbands and wives will simply result in the immediate end of their marriages.
- There were no fights, no arguments, nothing of the sort.
- 3 uncountable/no numerable (fighting spirit) espíritu (m) de lucha, combatividad (f) he was still full of fight aún seguía con ganas de pelear there's no fight left in him no le quedan ánimos para lucharMore example sentences
- By late October, they were being hailed for their spirit and fight.
- I realised that I had no fight left in me, no strength left to challenge what was being said.
- Alex praised us for our spirit and fight and he's got to take a lot of credit for the tactics he used.
Definition of fight in:
- The British & World English dictionary
- The US English dictionary
- The English Synonyms
- The US English Synonyms
Grammar and usage help for Spanish:
Get more from Oxford Dictionaries
Subscribe to remove ads and access premium resources
Here is a selection of useful words and phrases you will need in real-life situations while you're visiting Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries...
In Spain, a privately owned school that receives no government funds is called a colegio privado. Parents pay monthly fees. Colegios privados cover all stages of primary and secondary education.


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Home > Holidays > Halloween > Glowin' Safety
Magic Galaxy Wand FlashlightsItem: 146-044
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Sweet Lulu Breaks From Rail in La Brea Clash
Grade I winner Sweet Lulu makes her first start since a fifth-place finish in the Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Sprint (gr. I) as the likely choice in the $300,000 La Brea Stakes (gr. I) opening day Dec. 26 at Santa Anita Park.


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September 16, 2014
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FIRST-PERSON: The villain of Christmas?
Michael J. Brooks
Posted on Dec 16, 2013
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BIRMINGHAM, Ala. (BP) -- Among the "villains" of Christmas, so it seems, is the innkeeper. It's no wonder the little boy assigned that role in his church's Christmas program did so unwillingly. On the big night the boy stepped forward to speak his part, "I'm sorry. There is no room in the inn." Then he added, "But please come in for a cup of coffee."
The innkeeper seems to get more animosity than Herod, the real villain of Bethlehem. Having been an innkeeper years ago, I must admit, has colored my understanding. Potential guests sometimes argued with me about rooms, but if there's no room, there's no room.
The innkeeper really isn't a villain but an exemplary person of compassion. He did what he was trained to do -- help people. He gave what he had to Jesus. The barn at least offered shelter. It was better than having the expectant Mary camp outside.
We, too, can give what we have to the Christ of Christmas:
We can give our money.
Some may argue that they don't have much, but that's not the issue. And it's true that God doesn't need our money since He owns the cattle on a thousand hills. But giving is a God-given way to keep our hearts warm.
There is a natural illustration in Israel. The Sea of Galilee is teeming with life, pouring this life south through the Jordan River to the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is dead because nothing flows out -- it constantly receives.
We're either Sea of Galilee people or Dead Sea people.
We can give our words.
If Christ is Lord of our lives He must be Lord of our tongues too.
A counselor once told of a counselee who grew up feeling worthless because her father's most oft-spoken words to her as a child were "You are stupid." It's hard to imagine a father saying this, but it's hard to imagine in our saner moments that we speak cruel words to others -- words that can sting and scar.
One lady had it right when she said she "tasted" every word before speaking.
We can give service.
All of us have gifts we can use in the service of Christ. We may not preach like the apostle Peter or pray like the apostle Paul. We may not sing or play a musical instrument. But there's some ministry we can do for the glory of God.
Consider what Methodist evangelist Sam Jones (1847-1906) used to say: If he could have religion in any part of his body, he wanted it in his right arm so that he could do something definite for Christ.
Michael J. Brooks is an adjunct professor for New Orleans Baptist Seminary's extension center in Birmingham, Ala., and distance learning instructor for Judson College in Marion, Ala. He also is the bivocational pastor of Pine Flat Baptist Church in Suttle, Ala.
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University Relations
ABERDEEN, S.D. – An informational meeting is scheduled for people interested in Northern State University's summer 2013 Italy trip and art course.
The meeting will be 3 p.m. Wednesday, Sept. 12, in Room 205 of Northern's Dacotah Hall. Anyone, including members of the public, can take the trip and enroll in the course.
The one-credit course is titled "Art in Italy: Past to Present." The trip will be June 5-15, 2013, and is led by Northern professors Greg Blair and Sara Christensen Blair. Travelers will study the Italian Renaissance in Florence and visit several key artworks:
• Michelangelo's David
• Botticelli's The Birth of Venus• Leonardo da Vinci's The Annunciation
The trip then continues to Venice, where participants will visit the world's most important contemporary art fair, the Venice Biennale.
Estimated cost is $4,000, including airfare, hotel, breakfasts, transportation, admissions and tuition. A $500 deposit is due by Oct. 15; 22 spots are available.
For more information, contact Sara Christensen Blair, firstname.lastname@example.com; Greg Blair, firstname.lastname@example.com; or the NSU Office of Online and Continuing Education, 605-626-2568 or http://www.northern.edu/online/pages/travelabroad.aspx.


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More Medals For USA
Friday, February 19, 2010 - 6:38pm
By JAIME ARON
AP Sports Writer
VANCOUVER, British Columbia (AP) - Bode Miller always likes a
good party. So it's a good thing he came to the Vancouver Olympics.
Instead of retiring, the 32-year-old Miller decided to compete
in one more Winter Games and on Friday he collected his second
medal in as many events, this time getting a silver in the super-G
and adding to a stash of prizes that's really worth celebrating.
Andrew Weibrecht, who'd never finished higher than 10th in a
World Cup race, snagged bronze in the super-G, giving the United
States six Alpine medals, already its best at any Winter Olympics.
With the total medal haul up to 20, the U.S. delegation is
closing in on its total from Turin (25) - and there are 54 events
and nine days left.
Americans have won six gold, six silver and eight bronze. You
can add just two of those colors and it would still be several more
than any other country.
Germany has the second-most overall medals with 11. Norway has
the second-most golds with five.
Norway's total was boosted by victories in the first two events
decided Friday. Aksel Lund Svindal won the super-G and Marit
Bjoergen won the women's 15-kilometer pursuit. Bjoergen also became
the first winner of multiple gold medals in Vancouver and the first
with three medals.
The other medals to be decided Friday were in men's and women's
Alas, all is not well for the U.S. delegation. There's a crisis
in curling.
After an 0-4 start that's made the Americans the only winless
club in the field, the men's team changed its skip. John Shuster, a
bronze winner in 2006, was benched for the match Friday against
Shuster understands. After the latest loss, he said, "I've let
my teammates and USA Curling down."
San Francisco 49ers tight end Vernon Davis, the team's honorary
captain, showed up Friday and joked, "Oh, yeah, I'll go in. I'll
be ready, man."
At least the women finally broke the ice, so to speak.
Skip Debbie McCormick bumped out a Russian stone with her last
rock, giving the U.S. a 6-4 victory - its first after an 0-3 start
that had put her stewardship in jeopardy, too.
When Miller took bronze in the downhill, he was all smiles at
the end of the race. He looked more worn out this time.
After finishing, he let out a big breath of air and quickly
shook his head. Then he leaned forward, resting his helmet on
forearms still locked atop his poles. Once his lungs stopped
burning, he took out his mouthpiece and gave a little fist pump.
"I feel really tired," Miller said. "I was really working
hard to get the skis coming around like that. No big mistakes, a
couple of little bobbles and the line got loose."
There's more for Miller to toast in the Whistler nightlife: With
his fourth career medal, Miller regained the title of most
decorated American Alpine skier, a day after Julia Mancuso tied him
for that honor. (The title could keep changing hands with the men's
super combined and slalom still to come; Mancuso has two events
left and Lindsey Vonn has three.) Also, this is the first time two
Americans got medals in the same Alpine event since brothers Phil
and Steve Mahre went 1-2 in slalom at the 1984 Sarajevo Games.
Weibrecht found himself in first place after his run, something
that had never happened before. He kept waiting to get bumped way
down, but that never happened.
"I've been knocking on the door all year and to come out here
and do it just feels unbelievable," Weibrecht said.
Svindal made it four golds for Norwegians in the seven times
since this race joined the Olympic program at the 1988 Calgary
The race was marred by more horrific wipeouts. The most serious
involved 40-year-old Patrik Jaerbyn flying through the air, landing
on his back and bouncing hard on the icy surface before sliding to
a stop, his face bloodied.
The defending gold medalists from Sweden avenged a monumental
upset against outmanned Belarus - and avoided another one.
The Swedes led 3-0, then were up by only one goal with 5:10
remaining. A goal with 10.4 seconds left padded the final margin.
Belarus has only two NHL players, Sweden 19.
Two Swiss competitors have withdrawn from events following scary
crashes, including a strong medal contender.
Swiss driver Daniel Schmid, who was not a medal favorite, pulled
out of the two-man and four-man bob for "safety reasons" after
two practice crashes. On Friday, his sled overturned during
training and his brakeman was taken from the track in an ambulance,
then flown to Vancouver for observation. A team doctor said there
were no serious injuries.
Earlier, Swiss-1 driver Beat Hefti, a World Cup champion,
withdrew from two-man because of a concussion in a crash Wednesday.
He hasn't decided whether to race in the four-man, which starts
next Friday.
Normal hill winner Simon Ammann of Switzerland can keep using
the modified bindings that anchor his boots to his skis.
He can keep his gold medal, too.
The International Ski Federation dismissed complaints by the
Austrians that Ammann was breaking the rules, and gave him
permission to stick with the equipment for Saturday's large hill
Wearing his now-controversial equipment, Ammann flew past his
main rivals in the qualifying session Friday. He jumped even
farther in the trial round, then playfully turned his skis around
when holding them up to the camera to hide the bindings.
"I am in such awesome shape, it makes me a bit nervous," he
Having already won a pair of halfpipe gold medals, Shaun White
would love the chance to double his collection at the 2014
White said he'd consider competing in halfpipe and slopestyle if
that event was added to the mix for the Sochi Games.
In slopestyle, riders do huge tricks while going down the
mountain and through "features" - rails, big jumps and bumps. At
ski resorts, slopestyle is widely thought of as an easier way for
amateur snowboarders to do cool tricks than on a halfpipe.
White likes the idea of being in the spotlight a little longer.
Odds are NBC would like to have him around more, too.
"It's a strange thing going to the Olympics, where so many
people have four, five events and we just have the one big night,"
he said.
On his first day as an Olympic champion, Evan Lysacek said he's
not even thinking about retirement.
Defending his world championship next month in Turin? Well,
that's still to be determined.
The 24-year-old American also said he was a "little
disappointed" his long program was criticized by silver medalist
and reigning champion Evgeni Plushenko. He added that Plushenko
congratulated him with "a strong handshake."
Bjoergen pulled away midway through the freestyle portion of the
race and was never threatened the rest of the way.
Anna Haag of Sweden won a three-way sprint for the silver, with
favorite Justyna Kowalczyk of Poland getting bronze in a photo
Yes, even at the Olympics, folks took a break to watch Tiger
Woods talk Friday.
Snowboarder Shaun White says people will soon realize Woods made
mistakes but isn't such a bad guy. Figure skater Evan Lysacek
thinks Woods' remarks offer a teaching moment on how to handle
one's self. Skier Julia Mancuso questioned his sincerity on
Twitter: "come on Tiger! give us some reality here."
The task force overseeing security for the Winter Olympics has
done a good job protecting athletes and their families. They're
also keeping a close eye on each other.
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police said 11 officers have been
sent home for breaking rules, including two officers whose cases
are being investigated by Vancouver police.
The security task force includes more than 4,000 members of the
Canadian military and more than 6,000 police officers from across
All quiet on the doping front.
As of Thursday night, 1,363 doping tests had been conducted -
about two-third before competition, one-third after they competed -
and there'd been only one violation. A female Russian hockey player
was reprimanded but escaped a ban after testing positive for a
stimulant before the games.
"Clearly," IOC spokesman Mark Adams said, "it's good news if
athletes aren't doping."