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Perception is a central issue in epistemology, the theory of knowledge. At root, all our empirical knowledge is grounded in how we see, hear, touch, smell and taste the world around us. In section 1, a distinction is drawn between perception that involves concepts and perception that doesn't, and the various epistemic relations that there are between these two types of perception are discussed–our perceptual beliefs and our perceptual knowledge. Section 2 considers the role of causation in perception and focuses on the question of whether perceptual experience justifies our beliefs or merely causes them. Sections 3 and 4 further investigate the epistemic role of perception and introduce two distinct conceptions of the architecture of our belief system: foundationalism and coherentism. It is shown how perceptual experience and perceptual beliefs are integrated into these systems. Finally, section 5 turns to the externalist view that thinkers need not be aware of what justifies their perceptual beliefs.
Perception is the process by which we acquire information about the world around us using our five senses. Consider the nature of this information. Looking out of your window, you see that it is raining. Your perception represents the world as being like that. To perceive the world in this way, therefore, it is required that you possess concepts, that is, ways of representing and thinking about the world. In this case, you require the concept RAIN. Thus, seeing that your coffee cup is yellow and that the pencil is green involves the possession of the concepts COFFEE CUP, YELLOW, PENCIL and GREEN. Such perception is termed "perceiving that," and is factive; that is, it is presupposed that you perceive the world correctly. To perceive that it is raining, it must be true that it is raining. You can also, though, perceive the world to be a certain way and yet be mistaken. This we can call, "perceiving as," or in the usual case, "seeing as". A stick partly submerged in water may not be bent but, nevertheless, you see it as bent. Your perception represents the stick as being a certain way, although it turns out that you are wrong. Much of your perception, then, is representational: you take the world to be a certain way, sometimes correctly, when you see that the world is thus and so, and sometimes incorrectly, when the world is not how you perceive it to be.
It also seems that there is a form of perception that does not require the possession of concepts (although this claim has been questioned). It is plausible to claim that cognitively unsophisticated creatures, those that are not seen as engaging in conceptually structured thought, can perceive the world, and that at times we can perceptually engage with the world in a non-conceptual way. You can tell that the wasp senses or perceives your presence because of its irascible behavior. When you are walking along the High Street daydreaming, you see bus stops, waste bins, and your fellow pedestrians. You must see them because you do not bump into them, but you do not see that the bus stop is blue or that a certain pedestrian is wearing Wrangler jeans. You can, of course, come to see the street in this way if you focus on the scene in front of you, but the claim here is that there is a coherent form of perception that does not involve such conceptual structuring. Let us call such baseline perceptual engagement with the world, "simple seeing". This perception involves the acquisition of perceptual information about the world, information that enables us to visually discriminate objects and to successfully engage with them, but also information that does not amount to one having a conceptually structured representation of the world. (Dretske, 1969, refers to simple seeing as "non-epistemic" seeing, and refers to 'seeing that' as "epistemic" seeing).
You can, then, simply see the bus stop, or you can see that the bus stop is blue, or you can, mistakenly, see the bus stop as made of sapphire. These are all forms of perceptual experience, ways you have of causally engaging with the world using your sensory apparatus and ways that have a distinctive conscious or "phenomenological" dimension. Seeing in its various forms strikes your consciousness in a certain way, a way that you are now experiencing as you look at your computer screen. This article investigates the causal and epistemic roles of this perceptual experience.
A little more terminology: the term "sensation" can be used to refer to the conscious aspect of perception, but note that one can have such sensations even when one would not be said to be perceiving the world. When hallucinating, for example, one is having the sensations usually characteristic of perceptual experience, even though in such cases one's experience would not be described as perceptual.
Consider how these various kinds of perceptual experience are related to our perceptual beliefs. Perceptual beliefs are those concerning the perceptible features of our environment, and they are beliefs that are grounded in our perceptual experience of the world. The content of such beliefs can be acquired in other ways: You could be told that the bus stop is blue, or you could remember that it is blue. Right now, though, waiting for the bus, you acquire this belief by looking straight at it, and, thus, you have a perceptual belief concerning this particular fact. Just how your perceptual beliefs are grounded in your perceptual experience is a contentious issue. There is certainly a causal relation between the two, but some philosophers also claim that it is perceptual experience that provides justification for our perceptual beliefs. This foundationalist claim is denied by the coherentist (see sections 3 and 4 below).
First, one does not necessarily come to acquire perceptual beliefs in virtue of simply seeing the world. Simple seeing is something that cognitively unsophisticated creatures can do, creatures such as wasps that do not have more sophisticated beliefs, propositional beliefs. It is plausible, though, that if one sees a certain object as a bus stop, then one would also come to believe that there is a bus stop being seen. In many cases, this is, of course, true, but it is not in all. A famous example is the Muller-Lyer illusion:
The two horizontal lines above look as though they are of different lengths, the upper line being longer than the lower. If we have seen the illusion before, then we do not believe our eyes. Instead, we believe that the lines are the same length (which they are). Here is another case: a habitual user of hallucinogenics may doubt the veracity of all his perceptions; he may not believe anything he sees. His perception, however, amounts to more than simply seeing; he sees the moon as being made of cheese and his cup of tea as grinning up at him. Yet, because of the doubt fostered by his frequent hallucinations, he does not move from seeing the world as being a certain way to believing that it is. In most cases, though, if one sees the world as being a certain way, then one also believes that it is that way. Last, let us return to the notion of "perceiving that." Such perception has a closer relationship with the acquisition of perceptual belief. If one is described as perceiving that the world is a certain way, it is implied that one also believes that the world is so. Here, there isn't room for perception to come apart from belief.
Thus, we have seen that we can be perceptually engaged with the world in various ways. Such engagement can amount to the mere acquisition of perceptual information, the experience of seeing the world as being a certain way, or the possession of the cognitive states of perceiving and believing that it is so. If all goes well, such perceptual beliefs may constitute perceptual knowledge of the world. According to the traditional account, this is when those beliefs are true and when they are justified. Perceptual knowledge consists in knowledge of the perceptible features of the world around us, and it is that which is grounded in our perceptual experience. Again, the nature of this grounding is controversial. Perceptual experience is certainly causally related to perceptual knowledge; foundationalists, however, make the further claim that such experience provides the justification that is constitutive of such knowledge (see section 3). Others, though, including Armstrong (section 2a) and the coherentists (section 4), do not believe perceptual experience plays this justificatory role with respect to perceptual knowledge. The next section considers this key issue of justification.
But consider the issue of skepticism. The skeptical arguments of Descartes (1641) have had an enormous influence on both the history and practice of epistemology. He suggests certain scenarios that threaten to undermine all of our empirical knowledge of the world. It could be that right now you are dreaming. If you were, everything might appear to you just as it currently does; dreams are sometimes very real. It is also possible that a powerful demon might be deliberately deceiving you; there may not be an external world at all, and all your perceptual experience and perceptual beliefs may be simply planted in your mind by this evil entity. Given such scenarios, it is not clear how our perceptual beliefs can be justified and thus, how we can have perceptual knowledge. Any reasons you have for thinking that such beliefs correctly represent the world are undermined by the fact that you could have such beliefs even if the external world did not exist. Since the seventeenth century, epistemology has been trying to find a solution to this Cartesian scepticism. This article simply assumes that we can have justification for our perceptual beliefs and that perceptual knowledge is possible. Given this assumption, the focus is on how we should conceive of such justification.
Perceptual experience provides both causal and justificatory grounding for our perceptual beliefs and for our knowledge of the passing show. In this section, we shall start to look at the causal and justificatory relations between perception, belief and knowledge. As was discussed above, our perceptual experience can be conceptually structured: we can see the world as being a certain way, or we can see that it is thus and so. Thus, such experience could be seen as providing justification for our perceptual knowledge in that you could be justified in taking things to have the properties you see them as having. The fact that perceptual experience is conceptual, however, is not sufficient to ensure that your perceptual beliefs are justified. Dave, a friend of yours, sees every tackle made against a player of West Ham United Football Club as a foul. He is not, however, justified in taking this to be true. Often these clashes are simply not fouls; Dave is wrong, and even when he is correct, when he really sees that a foul has been committed, it would seem that his prejudiced observation of the game entails that in these cases he only gets it right through luck, and thus, he is not justified in his belief. The fact, then, that our experience is conceptual does not entail that we have justified perceptual beliefs or knowledge. Section 3 considers what else needs to be said, and investigates an account of how perceptual experience is seen to provide epistemic justification. First, though, consider an account of perceptual knowledge that does not make use of the notion of justification.
Armstrong (1961 / 1973) claims that perceptual knowledge simply requires that one's perceptual beliefs stand in lawlike relations to the world.
What makes…a belief a case of knowledge? My suggestion is that there must be a lawlike connection between the state of affairs Bap [that a believes p] and the state of affairs that makes 'p' true such that, given Bap, it must be the case that p. (Armstrong, 1973, p. 75)
Crudely, since causal relations are lawlike, if our perceptual and cognitive apparatus is such that it is buzzing flies that cause us to have perceptual beliefs about buzzing flies, then it will be the case that we will have perceptual knowledge of this annoying aspect of our environment when the bees cause the belief. Armstrong calls his account a "thermometer model" of knowledge. We can come to have knowledge of the world just as a thermometer can come to represent its own temperature. In both systems, there is simply a lawlike relation between a property of the world and a property of a representative device (the level of mercury in a thermometer or the state of certain internal cognitive mechanisms of a thinker).
Highlighting the role of perceptual experience, Armstrong claims that:
"perception is nothing but the acquiring of knowledge of, or, on occasions, the acquiring of an inclination to believe in, particular facts about the physical world, by means of our senses," (Armstrong, 1961, p. 105)
He does, however, claim that there is a "contingent connection between perception and certain sorts of sensation," and that this, "may help to explain the special 'feel' of perception," (Armstrong, 1961, p. 112). Conscious sensation, then, is not essential to perception. I could be correctly said to see the road ahead as I drive late at night on the motorway, even though I have "switched off," and appear to be driving on "autopilot." I can see the road because I am still causally acquiring beliefs about the world in front of me by way of my senses. Similarly, cases of blindsight are also bonafide cases of perception. Blindsight patients claim to have a complete lack of visual experience on, for example, their left side, yet they can make reliable reports about shapes and objects that are presented to this side of their perceptual field (they themselves, however, claim that they are merely guessing). They do, then, seem to be acquiring correct beliefs about their environment via a causal engagement between the world and their senses, and thus, they perceive the world even though in such cases the contingent connections with sensation are lost. Thus, on Armstrong's account, perceptual experience is not necessary for perceptual knowledge. When one does have conscious perceptual experiences, these do not play a justificatory role; they are simply causally related to perceptual belief and knowledge. Many, however, find such an account too sparse, in that one's experience does not play any justificatory or epistemic role in the acquisition of perceptual beliefs or knowledge. It is claimed that a more satisfying theory of perception should include an account of why perceptual experience justifies our perceptual beliefs and that we should not be content with simply an account of why we are caused to acquire them. The following theory of perception attempts to include just such an account of justification.
Foundationalists claim that the superstructure of our belief system inherits its justification from a certain subset of perceptual beliefs upon which the rest sits. These beliefs are termed "basic beliefs." Our belief system, then, is seen as having the architecture of a building. Later, in section 4, we shall see that coherentists take our belief system to be more akin to an ecosystem, with our beliefs mutually supporting each other, rather than relying for their justification on certain crucial foundation stones. There are various versions of this foundationalist approach, two of which are discussed in the next two sections.
Traditionally the foundations of knowledge have been seen as infallible (they cannot be wrong), incorrigible (they cannot be refuted), and indubitable (they cannot be doubted). For empiricists, these foundations consist in your beliefs about your own experience. Your beliefs are basic and non-basic. Your basic beliefs comprise such beliefs as that you are now seeing a red shape in your visual field, let us say, and that you are aware of a pungent smell. In order to justify your non-basic belief that Thierry Henry is the best striker in Europe, you must be able to infer it from other beliefs, say that he has scored the most goals. The traditional foundationalist claim, however, is that this sort of inferential justification is not required for your basic beliefs. There may not actually be a red object in the world because you may be hallucinating, but, nevertheless, you cannot be wrong about the fact that you now believe that you am seeing something red. Justification for such beliefs is provided by experiential states that are not themselves beliefs, that is, by your immediate apprehension of the content of your sensory, perceptual experience, or what is sometimes termed, "the Given". It is, then, your experience of seeing red that justifies your belief that you are seeing red. Such experience is non-conceptual. It is, though, the raw material which you then go on to have conceptual thoughts about. This conception of the relation between knowledge and experience has had a distinguished history. It was advocated by the British empiricists–Locke, Berkeley and Hume–and by the important modern adherents C. I. Lewis (1946) and R. Chisholm (1989). However, this conception of how your perceptual beliefs are justified has been widely attacked, and the next two sections address the most influential arguments against traditional foundationalism.
Sellars (1956) provides an extended critique of the notion of the Given. There are two parts to Sellars' argument: first, he claims that knowledge is part of the "logical space of reasons;" and second, he provides an alternative account of "looks talk," or an alternative reading of such claims as "that looks red to me," claims that traditionally have been seen as infallible and as foundations for our perceptual knowledge. According to Sellars, no cognitive states are non-inferentially justified. For him:
"The essential part is that in characterising an episode or a state as that of knowing, we are placing it in the logical space of reasons, of justifying and being able to justify what one says." (Sellars, 1956, p. 76)
Whether we are talking about perceptual or non-perceptual knowledge, we must be able to offer reasons for why we take such claims to be true. To even claim appropriately that I have knowledge that I now seem to be seeing a red shape, I must be able to articulate such reasons as, "since my eyes are working fine, and the light is good, I am right in thinking that I am having a certain sensory experience." As Rorty (1979, chapter 4) argues, justification is essentially a linguistic or "conversational" notion; it must consist in the reasoned recognition of why a particular belief is likely to be true or why one is rightly said to be having a certain experience. If such an account of justification is correct, then the notion of non-inferentially justified basic beliefs is untenable and non-conceptual perceptual experience cannot provide the justification for our perceptual beliefs.
Surely, though, "this looks red to me," cannot be something that I can be wrong about. Such a foundationalist claim seems to be undeniable. Sellars, however, suggests that such wording does not indicate infallibility. One does not say, "This looks red to me," to (infallibly) report the nature of one's experience; rather, one uses such a locution in order to flag that one is unsure whether one has correctly perceived the world.
… when I say "X looks green to me"…the fact that I make this report rather than the simple report "X is green," indicates that certain considerations have operated to raise, so to speak in a higher court, the question 'to endorse or not to endorse.' I may have reason to think that X may not after all be green. (Sellars, 1956, p. 41)
Thus, Sellars provides a two-pronged attack on traditional foundationalism. The way we describe our perceptual experience does indeed suggest that we have infallible access to certain private experiences, private experiences that we cannot be mistaken about. However, we should recognize the possibility that we may be being fooled by grammar here. Sellars gives an alternative interpretation of such statements as, "this looks red to me," an interpretation that does not commit one to having such a privileged epistemological access to one's perceptual experience. Further, a conceptual analysis of "knowledge" reveals that knowledge is essentially a rational state and, therefore, that one cannot claim to know what one has no reason for accepting as true. Such reasons must be conceived in terms of linguistic constructions that one can articulate, and thus, the bare presence of the Given cannot ground the knowledge we have of our own experience or, consequently, of the world. This, then, is a rejection of the traditional foundationalist picture, or what Sellars calls, "the Myth of the Given."
One of the forms taken by the Myth of the Given is the idea that there is, indeed must be, a structure of particular matter of such fact that (a) each fact can not only be noninferentially known to be the case, but presupposes no other knowledge either of particular matters of fact, or of general truths; and (b) such that the noninferential knowledge of facts belonging to this structure constitutes the ultimate court of appeal for all factual claims, particular and general, about the world. (Sellars, 1956, pp. 68-9)
According to traditional foundationalism, the content of perceptual experience, the Given, is not conceptual in nature. It has been argued, however, that experience should not be seen in this traditional way. The phenomenon of "seeing as," suggests to some that experience should be interpreted as essentially conceptual in nature.
What is this a picture of?
You perhaps see a duck. I can, however, alter the character of your visual experience by changing the beliefs that you have about this picture. Think RABBIT looking upward. The picture now looks different to you even though you are seeing the same configuration of black marks on a white background. This picture is usually referred to as "the duck-rabbit." Originally, you saw the drawing as a duck; now you see it as a rabbit (or, as Wittgenstein would say, you notice different "aspects" of the picture). You have, then, distinct perceptual experiences dependent on the particular concepts "through which" you see that picture. Some take this to prove that perceptual experience is not pre- or non-conceptual but that it is essentially a conceptual engagement with the world. Such experience does not only consist in our having certain retinal images: "There is more to seeing than meets the eyeball," (Hanson, 1988, p. 294). It is, rather, the result of a necessary conceptual ordering of our perceptual engagement with the world. This is a theory of experience that is at odds with that of the traditional foundationalist.
The theory has Kantian roots. For Kant, one cannot experience the world without having a conceptual structure to provide the representational properties of such experience. In Kant's terms, the intuitions received by the sensibility cannot be isolated from the conceptualization carried out by the understanding. As he states, "Intuitions without concepts are blind, concepts without intuitions are empty" (Kant, 1781, A51 / B75). Intuitions, or what we might call bare perceptual experience–that which does not have a conceptual structure–cannot be seen as experience of a world, and therefore, such a conception of our perceptual engagement with the world cannot be seen as experiential at all; it is "blind". The second clause of Kant's aphorism claims that concepts that are not based on information received through the senses can have no empirical content. The Kantian claim, then, is that thinking about the world and experiencing it are interdependent. This is an attack on the distinction drawn in section 1a between simple seeing and conceptually structured forms of perception such as seeing that and seeing as. Kant claims the notion of simple seeing is incoherent since such a non-conceptual engagement with the world isn't experiential.
Not everyone accepts that the phenomenon of seeing as entails this picture of experience. Dretske (1969) argues that simple or non-epistemic seeing is independent of epistemic seeing; that is, it is independent of seeing that is conceptually structured. Non-epistemic seeing amounts to the ability to visually differentiate aspects of one's environment such as the bus stop and the waste bin, and one can do this without seeing these items as anything in particular (although, of course, one usually does). Further, "seeing as" presupposes simple seeing. One has to have some bare experience to provide the raw materials for our conceptually structured experience or thought. We may be able to see the picture above as a duck or as a rabbit, but we can only do this if we have a non-conceptual experience of a certain configuration of black marks on a white background. One's experience of the basic black and white lines in the figure is independent of any concepts one may have that may then allow one to see these lines in a certain more sophisticated way, that is, as a duck or as a rabbit. In reply, however, it could be claimed that even such a basic experience as this relies on the contingent fact that one has the concepts of, for example, BLACK and WHITE. Perhaps if one did not have these concepts, then one could not even see this basic figure.
We have, then, looked at two problems faced by the traditional foundationalist, both of which center on the alleged non-conceptual nature of perceptual experience. Two responses have been made by those who feel the force of these objections: some modify foundationalism in order to take account of some of the considerations above, and others reject it altogether. The first of these responses is the topic of the next section.
Some foundationalists agree that the Given is in some ways problematic, yet they still attempt to maintain a "modest" or "moderate" foundationalism. Audi (2003) and Plantinga (2000) promote this view. First, our perceptual beliefs concerning both the world and our own experience are not seen as infallible. You can believe that you see red or that you seem to see red, yet either belief could turn out to be unjustified. Second, non-conceptual perceptual experience does not play a justificatory role. Perceptual beliefs are simply self-justified; that is, it is reasonable to accept that they are true unless we have evidence to suggest that they may be untrustworthy. Such a view of perception remains foundationalist in nature because we still have basic beliefs, beliefs that are non-inferentially justified. Thus, the justification possessed by perceptual beliefs is defeasible. You may, for example, have good evidence that your cup of tea has been spiked with an hallucinogen, and, therefore, the justification for your perceptual belief that a pig has just flown past the window is defeated. More controversially, your belief that you seem to see red could be defeated by psychological evidence concerning your confused or inattentive state of mind. However, in the absence of any beliefs concerning such contravening evidence, your perceptual beliefs have prima facie justification.
Modest foundationalism avoids a dilemma that faces traditional foundationalism. It is certainly plausible that beliefs about your own perceptual experience are infallible and that you can't be wrong when you claim that the cup looks red. It is not clear, however, how such beliefs can ground your perceptual knowledge since they are about your own mental states and not the world. The fact that the cup looks red to you does of course relate to the cup, but primarily it is a fact about how that cup strikes your experience. Recoiling from such a picture, you could claim that your foundational beliefs concern the color of the cup and not merely your experience of the cup. However, it is not plausible that your beliefs about the color of the cup are infallible, and therefore, such beliefs cannot play a foundational role according to the traditional account. The modest foundationalist can avoid this dilemma. For a perceptual belief to be justified, it does not have to be infallible. You can, therefore, have beliefs about the properties of objects in the world playing the requisite foundational role rather than those that are simply about your own experiences.
Modest foundationalists attempt to keep some of the features of the traditional foundationalist picture while conceding that their foundations aren't infallible. There is, however, a distinct response to the problems associated with traditional foundationalism, and that is to reject its key feature, namely its reliance on foundational, non-inferential, basic beliefs. Coherentism presents an alternative. Coherentists such as Bonjour (1985) and Lehrer (1990) claim that beliefs can only be justified by other beliefs and that this is also true of our perceptual beliefs. Section 3.a described how Sellars argued for such a position in that, for him, perceptual beliefs must be supported by beliefs about the reliability of our experience. The next two sections explain the coherentist account of justifying perceptual claims.
For a coherentist, a particular belief is justified if one's set of beliefs is more coherent with this belief as a member, and, conversely, a belief is unjustified if the coherence of one's set of beliefs is increased by dropping that particular belief. The basic idea behind coherentism is that the better a belief system "hangs together," the more coherent it is. How, though, should we conceive of "hanging together" or "coherence"? First, one requires consistency. Our beliefs should not clash; they must not be logically inconsistent: we should not believe p and believe that not p. However, more than mere logical consistency is required. One could imagine a set of beliefs that consisted of the belief that 2+2=4, the belief that Cher is a great actress, and the belief that yellow clashes with pink. Although these beliefs are logically consistent, they do not form a particularly coherent belief set since they do not have any bearing on each other at all. For coherence, therefore, some kind of positive connection between one's beliefs is also required. Such a positive connection is that of inference. A maximally coherent belief set is one that is logically consistent and one within which the content of any particular belief can be inferred from the content of certain other beliefs that one holds. Conversely, the coherence of a set of beliefs is reduced if there are subgroups of beliefs that are inferentially isolated from the whole.
For a coherentist, perceptual beliefs are justified, as all beliefs are, if our acceptance of them leads to an increase in the overall coherence of our belief system. An account, though, is also required of how perceptual beliefs can be seen as correctly representing the external world, a world that is independent of our thinking. This is particularly pressing for the coherentist because the justification for our perceptual beliefs is provided by one's other beliefs and not by one's perceptual experience of one's environment.
To account for the representational ability of perceptual beliefs, Bonjour focuses upon a class of beliefs that he calls "cognitively spontaneous." These are beliefs we simply acquire without inference. Right now, on turning my head to the left, I spontaneously acquire the belief that the orange stapler is in front of the blue pen, and that my glass of water is half full. These perceptual beliefs are likely to be true when certain conditions obtain–that the light is good and that I am not too far away from what I am looking at (these Bonjour calls the "C-conditions"). My belief, then, that my glass is half full is only justified if I also have beliefs about the obtaining of C-conditions. However, for Bonjour's account to be persuasive, he needs to provide some justification for this claim that beliefs acquired in the C-conditions are likely to be true representations of the world. This he does. First, we do not arrive at them via inference; they are spontaneous. Second, the beliefs that we acquire in this way exhibit a very high measure of coherence and consistency with each other and with the rest of our belief system. The question arises, then, as to why this should be so, since it is not obvious why such spontaneous beliefs should continue to cohere so well. If, for example, these beliefs were randomly produced by our perceptual mechanisms, then our set of beliefs would very soon be disrupted. Bonjour's claim is that there is a good a priori explanation for the ongoing coherence and consistency of our set of beliefs, that is, that it is the result of our beliefs being caused by a coherent and consistent world. Thus, our perceptual beliefs correctly represent a world that is independent of our thinking. Non-conceptual perceptual experience does not play a justificatory role with respect to perception. This experience may cause us to acquire certain beliefs about our environment, but the justification for these perceptual beliefs is provided by the inferential relations that hold between these beliefs and the rest of our belief system.
There are important objections. Plantinga (1993) notes that in the Cartesian skeptical scenarios we also have a coherent set of beliefs, but in these cases they are caused not by a coherent and consistent world but by an evil demon or by a mad scientist who manipulates a brain that lies in a vat of nutrient fluid (see Descartes 1641 and Putnam 1981). Bonjour's claim, however, is that it is a priori more probable that our beliefs are not caused by these creatures. Plantinga finds such reasoning "monumentally dubious."
Even if such a hypothesis [that concerning the claim that our coherent belief system corresponds to a coherent world] and these skeptical explanations do have an a priori probability…it's surely anyone's guess what that probability might be. Assuming there is such a thing as a priori probability, what would be the a priori probability of our having been created by a good God who…would not deceive us? What would be the a priori probability of our having been created by an evil demon who delights in deception? And which, if either, would have the greater a priori probability?…how could we possibly tell? (Plantinga, 1993, p. 109)
The varieties of foundationalism and coherentism examined so far share a certain approach to questions concerning epistemic justification. They ask whether the evidence available to you is sufficient to justify the beliefs that you hold. Questions of justification are approached from the first person perspective. Foundationalists claim that you have justified perceptual beliefs because of the fact that these beliefs are grounded in your perceptual experience, experience that is, of course, accessible to you; it is something of which you are aware, something that you can reflect upon. Coherentists find justification in the inferential relations that hold between your perceptual and non-perceptual beliefs, relations that are, again, something to which you have cognitive access. Epistemic practices can, however, also be assessed from the third person perspective. It can be asked whether a person's methods do, in fact, lead him or her to have true beliefs about the world, whether or not such reliability is something of which they are aware. Externalists claim that it is this perspective with which epistemology should be concerned. A key notion for externalists is that of reliability. A belief is justified if it is acquired using a method that is reliable, with reliability being cashed out in terms of the probability that one's thinking latches onto the truth.
The justificatory status of a belief is a function of the reliability of the processes that cause it, where (as a first approximation) reliability consists in the tendency of a process to produce beliefs that are true rather than false. (Goldman, 1979, p. 10)
One need not be able to tell by reflection alone whether or not one's thinking is reliable in the required sense; a thinker does not have to be aware of what it is that justifies his or her beliefs.
According to a reliabilist, then, a perceptual belief is justified if it is the product of reliable perceptual processes. One strategy that reliabilists have adopted is to ground their account of reliability in terms of the causal connections that thinkers have to the world. Roughly, for one to have a justified perceptual belief that p, the fact that p should cause my belief that p. I am justified in believing that Frasier is on television because its presence on the screen causes my belief. Such accounts are developed by Goldman (1979 / 1986) and Dretske (1981). It is important to note the difference between this kind of account and that of Armstrong (section 2a). Armstrong eschews all talk of justification and provides a wholly causal account of perceptual knowledge. Many externalists, however, give an account of justification in causal terms.
It was assumed throughout this article, except during the discussion of scepticism, that we do have perceptual knowledge of the world, and the article explored the multifarious epistemic and causal relations that there are between the various modes of perception and perceptual knowledge. Justification is the key issue, and there are four basic stances. One stance is to agree with Armstrong and deny that perceptual experience plays any justificatory role. Foundationalists see perceptual experience as the justificatory basis for perceptual knowledge, and it is such experience that ultimately provides justification for all our knowledge of the world. Problems with the traditional form of this position urged us to explore a more modest form of foundationalism. Others reject foundationalism altogether. Coherentists claim that the justification for our perceptual beliefs is a function of how well those beliefs "hang together" with the rest of our belief system. They too reject the justificatory role of perceptual experience. Some externalists claim that justification is a matter of reliability and that so long as our perceptual beliefs are produced by mechanisms that reliably give us true beliefs, then those beliefs are justified. Therefore, perception is of prime epistemological importance, and it remains the focus of lively philosophical debate.
Daniel O'Brien
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
The University of Birmingham
Article printed from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://www.iep.utm.edu/epis-per/
Copyright © The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. All rights reserved.


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They're at it again, and so are we!
We debate who the sexiest person in this film is, and you might be surprised by the answer (okay, maybe not).
"That's an alien bruv, believe it. "
There's a brand spanking new trailer for "Final Destination 5" out and hey did you know Tony Todd's in this one? So that's something, right? And it's in 3D. Tony Todd in 3D. Man this one is going to be awesome. And I didn't think I'd have anything to say about the new trailer. Thank god and baby Jesus for Tony Todd.
"Jeepers Creepers" mastermind and official NAMBLA member Victor Salva recently let out that if and when "Jeepers Creepers 3" happens it'll be the last installment in the series. Please Victor, say it aint so. He did come out and say that 3D probably wouldn't be an option for the film that's had a script for some time now and just can't seem to get off the ground. Let's keep our fingers crossed that things work out for the convicted sex offender.
If you're holding your breath for a "Zombieland" sequel you better have some pretty hefty lungs my friends. In a recent interview Jesse Eisenberg gave an update on the status of the follow up and it looks like other than some form of a script being worked on not too much else has happened. He does go on to say that all the actors are on board but the longer it takes the less interesting the film will be. Then he kicked a puppy and shot a bald eagle.
And because it's a slow day here's the trailer for a new Cuban zombie flick cleverly titled "Juan of the Dead". As you can expect it's a nod to Simon Pegg and Edgar Wright's "Shaun of the Dead". And by nod I mean there's a cigar smoking mental patient in the corner giving himself whiplash he's nodding so hard. Ay caramba.
I'm pretty sure 30 years ago this was the theme of at least 12 movies but a Oregon man is under arrested after dressing up as a woman and sneaking into a woman's lock room to do a little peeping. Of course it turns out he's also a convicted sex offender which I'm pretty sure was never a plot point in any of those movies but it was a long time ago. I don't remember them that well.
And lastly here's a story about a man who apparently couldn't wait to get out of the porn shop he was robbing to sample the products because police found him hiding in one of the back closets going to town on a blow up doll. When the mood strikes I guess there's no stopping some people.
Suicidal birds, a crazy scarecrow and a women hammering nails into her fingers. All a part of the new trailer for the "Husk", the first release from the new After Dark Originals series. It was also my Senior Prom theme, which is a really weird coincidence.
Christopher Landon, the guy who wrote "Paranormal Activity 2" may in fact not be writing the third film in the series but instead working on a new film titled "Wake" which would star none other than Miss Miley Cyrus. Now who's excited? Just me? Whatever, you guys are pricks.
Here's Amanda Seyfried in a hot new poster for the upcoming film "Red Riding Hood". Look at those ankles! Man it's like Playboy if it had come out in 1812 or whenever the Pilgrims came to Florida and started a colony. Something like that.
Oh Simon Pegg and Nick Frost, you're like the two best friends I always wanted but never had. We would spend our weekends in your parents basements drinking beers and playing air hockey. We'd high five so many times our hands would hurt. But enough of my fantasy, here's the second trailer for the alien flick "Paul", which stars those two if you couldn't of guessed.
With all the birds falling from the sky for no reason it's nice to have a clear answer to why these birds in Romania dropped dead. They simple answer? They were drunk, drunk as hell actually after they got into some leftovers of the wine making process. That's how I want to go.
And this is heartwarming isn't it. An 8 year old boy in Oklahoma had to be rescued after he got his tongue stuck to a metal pole when he was dared to lick it. This of course was also a famous scene in "The Godfather 3" I believe, I love the classics.
Good news kids! I think at least. "The Howling: Reborn" has been picked up by Anchor Bay for all English speaking territories. So congrats America and Britain. See you in hell, France.
Here's another clip from "Skyline" which hits theaters this Friday. It features a giant robot shooting laser beams out of its eyes and destroying all of the west coast. No I'm kidding, it apparently it has some spoilers in it so I didn't watch. Man wouldn't it be crazy if I was right?
Hammer Film's "The Resident", starring America's most handsome sweetheart Hilary Swank will finally see the light of day now that Image Entertainment has picked up the US distribution rights. Swank plays a you doctor who lives in a Brooklyn apartment that might be haunted. I'll star as the guy in the audience who keeps leaning over and asking his wife why people like Hilary Swank so much.
A gaggle of new pics from "Paul" starting Nick Frost and Simon Pegg have popped up online and I just threw up with excitement. Seriously, it's all over the laptop, it's awful and I think I may have ruined the thing. If this is my last news update ever I want you to all know I love you.
A couple in Oregon woke up Monday night to find a naked man in their closet. Seriously I had a roommate in college who use to pull this shit for about a month straight. Minus the whole nude thing but still it was frightening as hell, I can't imagine what it would have been like if his manhood was flopping around when he jumped out.
Never let it be said that the Russians are inhuman. In fact a prison in Moscow is planning on installing sunbeds in order to improve their inmates health. Remember comrades, the only thing worse than looking at a pasty inmate is an inmate with tan lines.
1972 – Southern Airways Flight 49 from Birmingham, Alabama is hijacked and, at one point, is threatened with crashing into the nuclear installation at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. After two days, the plane lands in Havana, Cuba, where the hijackers are jailed by Fidel Castro.
Don Mancini recently sat down to discuss the long awaited "Child's Play" remake and the short and curly of it is there's no news, but he's open to it. So that about covers it. How's your Tuesday going? Mine's pretty good. Like what you're doing with your hair.
Everyone's favorite German Uwe Boll is working on his new film "Blubberella". The film is about the world's first obese superheroine and her battles with the forces of evil. But you probably could have guessed that even if I just gave you the title and the director.
Good news everyone! "Birdemic: The Resurrection" is already in the works. The original "Birdemic" was created by James Nguyen with his own cash and has gained a cult following by hipsters and sarcastic pricks alike.
Some new images from "Paul", the Sci-Fi comedy written by Nick Frost and Simon Pegg have hit the nets and I think I might be giddy. The film is currently set for a March 18th release and stars the duo as a couple of geeks who meet a real life alien.
Remember that girl who couldn't stop hiccupping a few years back and how we all felt bad for her? Well she murdered a guy and is now in some serious trouble. I assume the murder had something to do with some weird voodoo ritual and she'll get off with a warning. Remember how adorable she was?!
An Australian man has broken the world record for collecting navel lint with a ground breaking 22 grams. Hold my calls Barb, I'm going to top this by lunch time! Just kidding, I don't have a secretary.
1881 - Wyatt Earp, his two brothers and "Doc" Holliday confronted Ike Clanton's gang in a gunfight at the OK Corral in Tombstone, Ariz. Three members of Clanton's gang were killed; Earp's brothers were wounded.
This week we discuss alchemy, camera technology, a first time guest host joins the show, and we review "As Above, So Below".

subset: commoncrawl


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BATON ROUGE – LSU forward Johnny O'Bryant III realized his dream of being drafted in the National Basketball Association when he was selected by the Milwaukee Bucks in the second round with the 36th pick Thursday night in the 2014 NBA Draft held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn.
Click here for the original story.
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Jazz pianist Dave Brubeck dead at 91
Jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, whose choice of novel rhythms, classical structures and brilliant sidemen made him a towering figure in modern jazz, has died at the age of 91, his longtime manager and producer Russell Gloyd said on Wednesday.
Brubeck died of heart failure on his way to a regular medical exam at Norwalk Hospital, in Norwalk, Conn., said Gloyd.
His Dave Brubeck Quartet put out one of the biggest selling jazz songs of all time: "Take Five," composed by alto saxophonist Paul Desmond. Like many of the group's works, it had an unusual beat — 5/4 time as opposed to the usual 4/4.
"We play it differently every time we play it," Brubeck told The Philadelphia Inquirer in 2005. "So I never get tired of playing it. That's the beauty of jazz."
"Take Five" was the first million-selling jazz single.
Brubeck injected classical counterpoint, atonal harmonies and modern dissonance into his music, hinting at composers such as Debussy, Bartok, Stravinsky and Bach.


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Recent Articles
Ahmad Hawkins on playing at BYU and more. READ MORE>
Keys, match-ups, and the winner is ... READ MORE>
A weekly rundown on how UVa's commitments are doing this season. READ MORE>
The Hoos head west for their road opener. READ MORE>
The Hoos upset Louisville and BYU is the new No. 21. READ MORE>
September similarities abound for Hoos. READ MORE>
The Hoos knocked off No. 21 Louisville. READ MORE>
PA safety Petrishen visited UVa last weekend. What's next for him? READ MORE>
UVa commit Polk reflects on last weekend's official visit. READ MORE>
Virginia ended its ACC losing streak. READ MORE>


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Starting today, Facebook will pay $500+ to anyone who exposes a vulnerability that could compromise user data. To qualify, you must be the first to report it and give them time to fix it before going public. [Facebook via TheNextWeb]
Facebook Will Pay You to Break Its Website
Pending approval Michael Zhao


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The Opp Police Department says it has arrested and charged a man with abuse of his young daughter.
Detectives took Dwaine Tyson, 37, into custody on July 1 after receiving a report of child abuse that is alleged to have taken place at his home during the previous weekend on June 28.
Investigators say the Crenshaw County Department of Human Resources obtained information that the girl, 8, was being physically abused by her father during child visitation.
Tyson is charged with torture and willful abuse of a child.
The case remains under investigation by the Crenshaw and Covington County DHR offices as well as Opp Police.
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HoopsHype Jarvis Varnado rumors
Christopher A. Vito: Jarvis Varnado said he's guaranteed with #Sixers through remainder of this season AND has two non-guaranteed years on his deal. Twitter @ChrisVito
Brett Brown may have another new face on his roster. The Sixers currently have the maximum 15 players signed, but Jarvis Varnado's 10-day contract expires Monday. The Sixers could sign him to a second 10-day contract or they could fill that roster spot with someone else. "I am thrilled with him so far," Brown said of Varnado. "I think he is a good guy. He is so willing to please and so coachable, and then he has the skill of blocking shots. He has a toughness inside. He is someone I want to keep moving forward with." CSNPhilly.com
Sixers signed Brandon Davies, Lorenzo Brown and Elliot Williams to non-guaranteed deals through the 2016-17 season. Jarvis Varnado could be next. Yahoo! Sports
The Philadelphia 76ers today announced that they have signed forward Jarvis Varnado to a 10-day contract. He is the 26th GATORADE Call-Up of the 2013-14 NBA Development League season. Varnado was originally the 41st overall pick by Miami in the 2010 NBA Draft. He began his professional career overseas and joined Boston briefly during the 2012-13 season before eventually signing with the Heat during its championship run. NBA.com
The Chicago Bulls announced today the team has signed free agent forward Jarvis Varnado (Vur-NAR-doe) to a 10-day contract. In accordance with team policy, terms of the contract were not announced. Varnado (6-9, 230) is currently in his second year in the NBA. After being drafted by the Miami Heat in the second round (41st pick) of the 2010 NBA Draft, Varnado played overseas for two seasons. During the 2012-13 season, Varnado played for the Miami Heat, Boston Celtics and Sioux Falls Skyforce of the NBA D-League. This season, Varnado has appeared in 22 games (all starts) with the Iowa Energy of the NBA D-League, and has averaged 14.1 ppg, 11.0 rpg, 4.68 bpg and 0.8 apg in 31.1 mpg. NBA.com
The Chicago Bulls have signed 6-foot-9-inch Jarvis Varnado to a 10-day contract. Their roster now stands at 13 players. Varnado has been playing for the Iowa Energy, the Bulls' Development League affiliate. He is the Bulls' latest 10-day experiment as they continue their dance with the luxury tax line. Though they are projected to remain below it after January's Luol Deng trade, performance bonuses in certain contracts like Joakim Noah and Taj Gibson could be triggered. Thus, they are being financially prudent with various 10-day deals and periods of 12-man rosters, one below the league limit but allowable for up to 14 days. Chicago Tribune
Adrian Wojnarowski: Bulls will sign D-League forward Jarvis Varnado to a 10-day contract, league sources tell Yahoo Sports. He worked out in Chicago on Monday. Twitter @WojYahooNBA
Jarvis Varnado injured himself at one of the most unfortunate times for any athlete, during a tryout. In fact, Varnado suffered a hip strain before he even had the chance to perform in the tryout for Philadelphia back on January 13. Now, Varnado told DLeagueDigest.com that he's aiming to return this week, maybe as soon as tomorrow's game against Sioux Falls at home. D-League Digest
Marc J. Spears: The Sixers are working out free agent big men Hamady Ndiaye, Kyrylo Fesenko, Dewayne Dedmon & Jarvis Varnado today, sources said. Twitter @SpearsNBAYahoo
Philadelphia 76ers (12-25, last week's ranking: 20): The Sixers are working out free-agent big men Monday, including D-Leaguers in Dewayne Dedmon and Jarvis Varnado, sources said. Yahoo! Sports
Marc J. Spears: NBA scout's top free agents at NBDL Showcase:Bost, Curry, Manny Harris, Dedmon, Diogu, Ebanks, Varnado,Chris Wright, Howell,Reggie Williams. Twitter @SpearsNBAYahoo
Varnado spoke with DleagueDigest.com, and explained his current mindset as a member of the Iowa Energy. "My goal is to be consistent every night, and to average a double-double, maybe even squeeze in a triple-double too." Varnado said. Varnado continued, "I mean that's what I do, that's what I got drafted for. A lot of NBA teams want a big guy who can block shots, and also run the floor. I can do both of those things, and I plan on showing everyone that." D-League Digest
Despite being in the NBADL instead of the NBA at the moment, Varnado has a positive mindset, and touched on his decision to play in the NBADL. "I'm very happy with my decision to play in the D-League, I feel like I'm an NBA player, and that I can play in the league. I know that all it takes is for the right situation to present itself, and I'll wait for that to happen." D-League Digest
Despite trading away the first pick of the NBA D-League Draft, the Iowa Energy are still coming away with a talent of such caliber after acquiring NBA champion Jarvis Varnado from the Sioux Falls Skyforce. Ridiculous Upside
The Energy have acquired former Heat big man Jarvis Varnado from the Sioux Falls Skyforce. The young gun is fresh off winning an NBA title with Miami, but was subsequently waived by the team following training camp last month. From the Skyforce: The Sioux Falls Skyforce announced today that the team has acquired the third and 39th overall picks in tonight's NBA Development League Draft and second round pick in the 2014 NBA D-League Draft from the Iowa Energy in exchange for forward Jarvis Varnado and the eighth round pick in the 2014 NBA D-League Draft. Ridiculous Upside
The Miami Heat have begun stocking their NBA Development affiliate, with Heat camp cuts Jarvis Varnado, Justin Hamilton and Larry Drew II among those invited Thursday to the Sioux Falls Skyforce's training camp. Also on the Skyforce camp roster are Anthony Mason Jr. and former NBA forward Bill Walker. Also invited to camp was Jeffrey Remmington, a former Florida Atlantic guard who advanced out of an open tryout staged last month by the Heat. South Florida Sun-Sentinel
Any rumor missing? E-mail us at email@example.com.


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What Does The Media Industry Hold for an Investor?
Nitesh is a member of The Motley Fool Blog Network -- entries represent the personal opinion of the blogger and are not formally edited.
Last week was big for the media industry, as three of the biggest companies in the sector announced their results. Time Warner's (NYSE: TWX) net income grew by more than 50% in the last three months of 2012, as fees from cable and satellite companies increased and ad revenue at TV networks also surged up.
The company reported revenue of $8.16 billion, which was flat compared to the same quarter last year. Net income was $1.17 billion, up from $773 million a year earlier. The boost in profits will benefit investors, as the company has authorized $4 billion for share buybacks. Moreover, the raise in the quarterly dividend by 11% to $0.29 will bring more joy to investors.
The company has faced some trouble in generating revenue as some of its international businesses closed, CNN ratings were weak, and its publishing revenue declined. On the bright side, Time Warner's more dependable TV business is going strong as Cable and Satellite Operators in the U.S. are paying more to transmit channels such as TNT, TBS, and CNN from their network.
HBO's horizon is continuously expanding. Game of Thrones and True Blood had a phenomenal viewership of 12 million viewers per episode a couple of months back. There has been 30% growth in subscribers for the network internationally in Q3 2012.
The standard of comedy at TBS has improved of late and with successful syndicated series like The Big Bang Theory it looks well positioned. Furthermore, the network will launch some new originals and has announced a contract with Major League Baseball until 2021. TNT shows such as Major Crimes, Perception, and Dallas are also performing well.
Time Warner should have a stable year ahead with increased original programming and high quality syndicated shows.
Surfing other networks
The Walt Disney Company's (NYSE: DIS) recently declared earnings were a touch better than analyst expectations, in terms of both revenue and profit. I believe the company is looking for a very good year ahead. Though the stock prices are at their all time high, I am still bullish on the stock.
ESPN is deriving good returns for the company thanks to the inflation in sports rights. The increased rights fee is being passed on to the customers through cable and satellite distributors by way of increased affiliate fees. This benefit will start giving results in the coming quarters.
Parks and Resorts shall be the center of the Disney's revenue in the coming period as the company's heavy capital investment will start to pay off with increased spending and visitation. Spending in Shanghai and China should improve as Disney has a very strong brand image there and derives the same benefits like the park in California.
Studio entertainment revenue has struggled in the first quarter because of higher distribution and film costs coupled with low demand for feature releases. However, the acquisition of Marvel Comics, and more recently, Lucasfilm, position it better than before. The Lucasfilm acquisition adds Star Wars to the company's portfolio and increases its scope to attract action-oriented audience in addition to its traditional Disney princess space.
News Corp (NASDAQ: NWS) also had a good quarter, as revenue moved north 5% compared to the same quarter last year as the company's cable business performed well. Its adjusted earnings came in at $0.44, slightly better than the consensus expectation of $0.43.
News Corp is more dependent on cable business as it forms about 55% of its value. Subscription is the major source of revenue for the cable business, as it is paid on regular basis, thus providing stability to the company's top line.
Fox Sports is a key driver for the company, as currently the demand for sports programs is high. News Corp's recent agreements with Major League Baseball and NASCAR, as well as acquisition of Disney's stake in ESPN Star Sports, will drive more viewers to its side. Performance of Fox News has been better than its competitors and has drawn large a audience since the U.S. presidential elections.
The boost in the macro-economic environment and increased political advertisement spending can help the company enhance its revenue. The bright side is that there has been reasonable growth in spending over TV advertisements in the U.S. in 2012, although TV viewership declined.
From the valuation standpoint
Time Warner's trailing P/E ratio is 17 times and has a forward P/E of 12 times. HBO is the company's most critical business, and contributes more than 20% of its revenue. HBO's operations are expanding domestically as well as internationally, which should bring a positive impact on the company. Time Warner has a low PEG ratio of 1.17, which means that there is a lot of growth ahead for the company.
Disney currently has a trailing P/E ratio of 17.5 times and a forward P/E ratio of 14. It might look overly priced as its net income has fallen slightly, but improved movie business and increasing demand for sports should support the current valuation. This company is a good buy.
News Corp's trailing P/E is 26 and forward P/E is 14. It is trading on a premium with the belief that a split of company between the publishing and media and entertainment businesses will allow management to focus better on their performance and improve the bottom line. However, the entire process will take a year to deliver so investors can keep a close watch on this stock for the time being.
niteshsanthalia has no position in any stocks mentioned. The Motley Fool recommends Walt Disney. The Motley Fool owns shares of Walt Disney. Try any of our Foolish newsletter services free for 30 days. We Fools may not all hold the same opinions, but we all believe that considering a diverse range of insights makes us better investors. The Motley Fool has a disclosure policy. Is this post wrong? Click here. Think you can do better? Join us and write your own!


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Shelburne, Vermont - April 5, 2011
Chicks and bunnies. They're cute, they're fluffy, they're symbols of spring, and it seems they're in stores just in time for Easter. But places that sell them, like Tractor Supply Co., say that's just a coincidence.
"They're here from March to May because that's the typical breeding season for chickens," says Shelburne store manager Donavan Konkler, and he says chicks have no place in an Easter celebration.
"They grow up very fast. About the second or third week they start to feather, the overall look changes, they become more of an adult bird," he says.
If you're looking to buy just one chick you won't be able to in Vermont, nor is it recommended since chickens are flock animals. Vermont state law requires that people buy a minimum of six chicks at a time. That law is in place to discourage people from buying them for the purpose of being pets or gifts. It's also illegal to dye chicks in Vermont, so keep your Easter dye for eggs only.
Chickens are livestock, meant to produce eggs or provide meat, and rabbits, which can be agricultural animals, are also high-energy pets whose destructive tendencies and discomfort with being held often catch new owners by surprise.
"Nationwide, rabbits and bunnies are become the third largest category of animals residing in shelters behind dogs and cats," says Chuck Pizer of the Humane Society of Chittenden County.
Humane societies across Vermont and the country are dealing with a bevy of bunnies.
"We get them generally around this time of year where people are going out buying gifts and end up with a rabbit they weren't anticipating," says Pizer.
To discourage this practice of irresponsible purchase, Tractor Supply Co. says they price their rabbits at $30. Konkler says that's still fair market value but the store believes it's high enough to prevent compulsive gift buyers.
"Gifts are intended to be a surprise and the amount of effort required to care for your animals properly is probably a little bit more of a surprise than what they're looking for," he says.
So if you want these cute critters in your Easter basket, stick to chocolate bunnies and marshmallow Peeps instead.
There are rescue groups that focus specifically on rabbits. One is the House Rabbit Society, another is the House Rabbit Network. Volunteers there point out that stores selling rabbits don't often educate buyers about all the details involved with owning them.
Rachel Feldman - WCAX News
PO Box 4508
Burlington, VT 05406-4508
Primary Phone: 802-652-6300
Primary email: firstname.lastname@example.com


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Patch is a place where users decide what's important to their community, so why should we tell you which local businesses to pay attention to?
Instead, you tell us.
To help promote the importance of shopping locally, we want you to decide which businesses should be featured in Dexter Patch this holiday season.
Here's how:
- Leave a comment on this article telling us which business (or businesses) you think deserve a feature story in Dexter Patch.
- Post a photo of something awesome you bought (dinner, an accessory, a massage gift certificate) from a Dexter business. Do that by clicking the "Upload Photos and Videos" button.
- Review your favorite businesses in our Patch Places directory.
You have until 11:59 p.m. on Dec. 5 to make your voice heard. Restaurants, services, shops—they're all fair game, as long as they're local.
When all is said and done, we'll visit with area businesses and feature one per week every Sunday through December.


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Clinical staging is a proven strategy whose value is clear in the treatment of malignancies and many other medical conditions in which the quality of life and survival rely on the earliest possible delivery of effective interventions, yet it has not been explicitly endorsed in psychiatry (1–4). Clinical staging differs from conventional diagnostic practice in that it defines the progression of disease in time and where a person lies along this continuum of the course of illness. It enables the clinician to select treatments relevant to earlier stages because such interventions may be more effective and less harmful than treatments delivered later in the illness course (5). Although staging links treatment selection and prediction, its role in the former is more crucial than in the latter, particularly since early successful treatment may change the prognosis and thus prevent progression to subsequent stages.
A disorder that is potentially severe and may progress if untreated is likely to be most appropriate for staging. Treatment and particularly early treatment should also demonstrably increase the chances of cure or at least of reducing mortality and disability. This could include many or even most psychiatric disorders.
Defining discrete stages according to progression of disease creates a prevention-oriented framework for understanding pathogenesis and evaluation of interventions. The key outcomes are prevention of progression to more advanced stages or regression to an earlier stage. This requires an accurate understanding of the broad social, biological, and personal risk and protective factors that influence movement across stages. We need to know the relative potency of such risk factors and whether they are malleable by current interventions. The burgeoning arena of gene-environment interactions (6) is directly relevant; these environmental variables such as substance abuse, psychosocial stressors, cognitive style, medication adherence, and social isolation may interact with genetic and other biological risk factors at a particular time in the pathogenesis of the illness. A clinical staging model, which maps the relationship of biological change to stage of illness, may help to validate or redefine clinical boundaries, distinguish true pathophysiology from epiphenomena or sequelae, and enable much existing data to be better understood.
In the clinical arena, we are already able to see that improved outcomes based on a staging approach are more readily achievable (7–10). For schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders, the progression from prodromal symptoms to the first psychotic episode to chronic psychosis and cognitive and social deterioration is by no means inevitable. Many people who reach one stage may not progress to the next and may even remit from their illness entirely. Although such spontaneous remissions were well known even before neuroleptic treatment became available, we are now in a position to assess if specific interventions, including medication and psychosocial interventions, increase the number of persons who are saved from the progression toward chronic psychosis and deterioration. The specification of the characteristics of specific stages of schizophrenia in DSM-V would provide a framework for the comparison of results from preventive efforts across many different centers and may ultimately have implications for other psychiatric disorders.
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6 ways to earn extra holiday cash
This time of year may require some work on the side. If you're resourceful, you can find it.
This post comes from Chris Birk at partner blog Wise Bread.
The most wonderful time of the year is also the most expensive one.
Consumers of all stripes would probably love to gain some supplemental income during the holiday season. A holiday boost to the bottom line lets you spoil those you care about or simply helps cover your expected outlay. At the same time, more cash gives you the chance to indulge yourself with some fancy holiday snacks, drinks or gadgets.
There are dozens of ways to pick up some side cash to fatten your wallet. Here's a short list of realistic options for consumers to explore:
Pick up a seasonal gig
These jobs are not glamorous, but the retail and service industries depend on temporary, seasonal workers during the holidays. If you're stuck at your office job during the business week, you can still work nights and weekends. That's when you're needed most. Even though the unemployment rate is still high, you have a shot. Just don't pigeonhole yourself into retail. Food services expect more customers, too.
Sell stuff you don't want anymore
Thanks to Craigslist, eBay and Amazon.com, shoppers hit the Internet knowing they can get used items as gifts. Capitalize on this, and get rid of things you don't need or want anymore. Sure, this is a great way to get rid of any junk you have, but also look for rare items that are collecting dust in the basement or attic, especially if there's a seasonal tie-in. Holiday collectibles are obviously in hot demand.
Work the neighborhood
Whether you live in suburbia or a downtown loft, there's bound to be a service you can charge for. Ask neighbors if they'd like you to spice up their holiday decorations. Make it known that you're willing to shovel driveways and sidewalks when snow falls. If you're handy in the kitchen, offer to cater friends' and family members' holiday parties, or work as a bartender or server at those functions.
Be your own boss
Use your skills to land a freelance gig. Anybody can look for freelance work; it's not just for writers. If you're in a band, look for parties or venues that need live performances. Photographers can offer one of the most in-demand services this time of year, so seek work at upscale offices and benefit gatherings. For the more artsy types, look for work decorating inside and outside, making holiday cards or designing storefronts for local businesses. If you have a skill, get paid for it.
You don't have to be 13 years old or in a special club to do this. In fact, many a graduate student has earned spending money by baby-sitting throughout the calendar year. The holidays in particular are a busy time that can generate opportunities.
Seek extra hours at your current job
For those already employed, consider asking for more hours. Full-time employees might be able to earn overtime and get paid time and a half or better. There's no harm in asking. At the very least, your boss will appreciate your attitude.
More on Wise Bread and MSN Money:
- 25 tips for smart (and safe) credit card use during the holidays
- Even more Black Friday savings tips from shopping experts
- The 10 worst ways to make extra money
- Smart Spending on the go: Get our app for Android or iPhone
- Amazon seeking 50,000 holiday helpers
- Why we lose it on Black Friday
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Directions to NTIS
(Approximately 11 miles south of Washington, D.C.)
National Technical Information Service
5301 Shawnee Road
Alexandria, VA 22312
Phone: (703) 605-6040
By Car
- Take I-395 to Exit 2B, Edsall Rd toward VA-648.
- Turn right at Cherokee Avenue.
- Continue on Shawnee Road.
- NTIS is on right.
By Metrorail and Cab
- Take Metrorail to the Van Dorn Metro station.
- The cab fare is approximately $15 from that location.
By Metrorail and Bus
- Take Metrorail to the Van Dorn Metro station.
- Take Fairfax Connector bus Route 321. This route runs about every 30 minutes.
- Get off at Cherokee Avenue.
- NTIS is about .25 mile straight up the road.


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Pagosa Springs Hotels or Lodges(4)
4 Results
Didn't find what you're looking for?
View all 2131 Southwestern Colorado Vacation Rentals or all 14727 Colorado Vacation Rentals
Recent Pagosa Springs Reviews
Great Family Getaway
Three generations of our family spent a pleasant week at this well-kept home; we were pleased with all aspects. The upstairs makes a great get-away area for the children, and the main floor is open, allowing for plenty of gathering space and interaction. The kitchen was better equipped that any we have ever enjoyed in a vacation rental, including little touches not commonly seen like an electric grill/griddle, spices,and sharp knives. The house is in a quiet location on the west side of town, yet it has easy access to necessities. Downtown Pagosa is about a ten minute drive. Excellent linens, comfortable beds, and plenty of entertainment options (satellite, wifi, games, etc) complete the package. We prefer to rent directly from owners as we find they are more responsive to needs than are rental agents; Chuck and Sarah were easy to work with, provided all important information, answered questions promptly, and even gave us a welcome call on the day we arrived. We strongly recommend this property for any large family gathering.


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Our exclusive Laguna outdoor chaise lounge brings the comfort of indoors outside. Each upholstered piece is made with quality marine-grade plywood and weather-resistant fabric. Perfect for most outdoor climates, Laguna should be covered or brought inside during winter or long periods of rain.
Laguna Chaise
- fabric:
Select fabricXSunbrella Canvas100% Sunbrella acrylicSunbrella Sims100% Sunbrella acrylic
- Color:
Allow extra time
Special Order
Details & Dimensions
- Material:
- sunbrella canvas
- Color:
- taupe
- Fabric Content:
- 100% Sunbrella acrylic
- Fabric Description:
- With a smooth, tight weave, Sunbrella® Canvas is the perfect backdrop for a wide range of striking colors. Solution-dyed acrylic yarns make this fabric easy to clean and fade-resistant. A great solution for outdoor spaces, kids' rooms and family-friendly furniture.
- Fabric Origin:
- United States
- Seat Cushion:
- foam and fiber
- Back Cushion:
- foam and fiber
- Dimensions:
- 30w 60d 28h
- Seat Height:
- 17h
- Removable Leg:
- yes
- Frame Style:
- Tight Seat/Tight Back
- Construction Details:
- bench made hardwood frame with webbing seat suspension
- Special Considerations:
- outdoor cover available
- Product Origin:
- made in North Carolina
Customer Reviews
Delivery Pricing
We'll deliver unlimited furniture items to for one flat rate per trip.
Ordering a single item? Delivery is only $129
UPS Shipping
Ship an unlimited amount of small accessories for free. Ship one large accessory item or a piece of small furniture for $25 via UPS Ground.
Get an unlimited number of small accessories delivered for this set rate.
Delivery rate for a single large accessory item or a piece of small furniture.
Free delivery on this item.View Options and Prices
Care & Fit
- Weather-resistant fabrics care
- Watch the video on how to measure your space for delivery or download the instructions
Fabric Swatches
See all available fabrics and order up to 20 fabric swatches at no cost on the full website. Go to Fabrics and Materials on our website or contact us.
The Laguna Collection
$599 - $649
$399 - $449
$1,798 - $3,895
$899 - $999


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January is here??? How can that be?? Well, it is here and possible!
And so are the coming challenges that I have for you- we stretched a little the past 4 months,
and now we will begin to lift off the ground and reach for the stars!
This month, I am giving everyone a coupon for an ATC kit.
I will be adding two new ones this month to my shoppe.
The coupon will be available at the end of the challenge.
So, what is the challenge for the month??
It has 3 letters...
You are making an ATC this month and we are all going to be swapping them!
This will be a digital swap.
How does this work??
1.Reply to this thread that you want to play. I will pair people up and PM partner names to you.
The partner will be a SECRET until January 15th.
2. Create your digital A.T.C. sized 2.5x3.5; 300dpi.
ANY theme!
You could always choose one word as your word for the year- if you are in need of inspiration!
Please use 80% GDS products and of course I would like to see some of
my stuff used! lol!
3.On the 15th, your ATC should be pm'd to your partner and vice versa
This means you DO NOT post in the gallery until the 15th of January.
From all the participants I will randomly choose a winning pair.
EVERY participant will get the coupon for a free A.T.C kit mentioned above. Your A.T.C. is what qualifies you for that gift
So you can chat in this thread, ask questions, but DO NOT post your card here or in the gallery before the 15th.
Those who enter after that date will not be eligible for the drawing,
but will still get the coupon once their ATC is posted in the gallery.
Are you ready???
Here we go!!
Originally Posted by bombalurina59
I've got one more question Amanda, just to get it all straight: :) On the 15th do we post our own ATC to the gallery and this thread or do we post our partner's ATC?
No problem! FIRST post the card to your partner...then to the gallery... and then HERE in this thread! DDDDD


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Crimped 1.5mm Trimmer line suitable for Electric Trimmers using lower noise line.
*Free delivery over £50 refers to home delivery orders placed on diy.com only. Charges refer to the value of goods being delivered and excludes delivery from stores or services. Excludes bulk delivery.
B&Q accepts the above cards and also offers a range of in-store financial services. Learn more
Buy online, return in store. Terms and conditions apply
Have a question or a problem, chat to our support team now.contact B&Q
© B&Q 2014 - Terms & Conditions


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- Musician's Friend Best Selection, Price & Service. Guaranteed.
Need Help? Call our Gear Heads at 800-449-9128Private Reserve Guitars 866-926-1923
Need Help? Call our Gear Heads at 800-449-9128
This delicately designed china from Sabian offers a soft tang with a mild, slow wash and balanced feel.
The Sabian HHX Zen China offers a unique inverted design which makes this model easier to play when mounted flat. Traditional hand-hammering is used, followed by additional HHX hammering to flatten out the playing surface next to the bell. This multi-dimensional china offers dexterity that allows low volume riding on the bow or bell and high-volume riding on the edge. This model features a natural finish.
A china cymbal approved for both metal maniacs and zen masters. Order today!
Our product catalog varies by country due to manufacturer restrictions. If you change the Ship-To country, some or all of the items in your cart may not ship to the new destination.


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Vanguard University offers a dynamic, passionate and visceral production of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet."
Director Susan Berkompas has set her concept of this classic tragedy in the here and now. Her vision of a "modern day, industrial Verona" features tattooed gang bangers in both the Capulet and Montague camps.
The seething antagonism between the two families (the reason for the feud is not provided) pervades the Vanguard production and often overshadows the forbidden romance at the play's core. But once the two title characters are joined, their tragic attraction dominates, as it should.
Too often, directors cast older, more seasoned actors in the parts written for a boy and girl in their mid-teens. Royen Kent and Rosalyn Brickman may be college students, but both are physically convincing in the title roles.
Kent excels in the guise of a lovesick youth, acting against all constraints from both his elders and peers. His passion for Brickman, and hers for him, are splendidly interpreted, although the script itself becomes a bit melodramatic toward the climax.
Brickman's budding lass, with her intense defiance of her parents' wishes, is solidly and realistically presented. Her abhorrence of arranged marriage, common in Shakespeare's time, strikes a welcome discord in this futuristic version and her blind devotion to her young lover is strikingly effected.
Nearly as powerful as Romeo's part is that of Mercutio, the hero's garrulous ally who waxes eloquently and clashes superbly with the snarling Tybalt (a powerful Preston Butler III) in the show's major conflict. Why Butler doubles in a throwaway role as the apothecary late in the show is anyone's guess.
Mark Bowen, the only seasoned adult in the cast, strikes a fine balance as Friar Lawrence, the clergyman who assists the lovers. Katelyn Spurgin also impresses as Juliet's strongly opinionated nurse and confidante.
Other supporting roles are either overplayed (Brandon Arias as Juliet's fuming father) or underdone (Dain Ouradnik as Juliet's would-be husband). Karah Macie Gravatt strikes the proper balance as Juliet's mother, as does Zach Simons as Romeo's pal, Benvolio.
Director Berkompas has assigned her son, Connor, the task of designing a multi-use setting, marked by huge moving screens and wheeled ladders. Executed by technical director Paul Eggington, the concept works splendidly.
Lia M. Hansen's pop cultural costumes and Jonathan Byram's overarching sound design also lend strong credence to this full-bodied production. The impressive stage combat, orchestrated by Deborah Marley, further enriches the atmosphere.
Few tragedies, even those from Shakespeare, stir both the heart and sinew with the impact of "Romeo and Juliet." Vanguard University has mounted a rich and vital revival of this most virulent story.
Feminist, scientific attitudes embellish 'Silent Sky'
Were someone to comment that "Silent Sky" may be over the heads of most South Coast Repertory audience members, it would be both an accurate figurative and literal observation.
Lauren Gunderson's chronicle, focusing on the life and career of astronomer Henrietta Leavitt, whose discovery in the early 1900s revolutionized her field, is indeed overly scientific in its presentation, dramatizing the "period-luminosity relation of Cepheid variables." It also attempts, without much success, to stir the plot with a little romantic drama.
In director Anne Justine D'Zmura's world premiere production, personal emotions are largely eclipsed both by science and feminist attitudes of the period (one of Leavitt's colleagues sports a banner reading "Votes for Women"). What genuine theater remains is an awkward romance between the astronomer and her superior that begins with his come-on line, "I think you may be quite marvelous."
Nevertheless, SCR's handsomely mounted project touches the intellect if not the soul. With the universe as a sprawling backdrop (in John Iacovelli's scenic design), "Silent Sky" becomes a visual achievement.
Leavitt began work in 1893 at the Harvard College Observatory in a menial capacity as a "computer," assigned to count images on photographic plates. Study of the plates led Leavitt to propose a groundbreaking theory, developed while she toiled as a $10.50-a-week assistant, that was the basis for the pivotal work of famed astronomer Edwin Hubble (after whom they named a telescope).
As solidly portrayed by Monette Magrath, Henrietta vacillates between her astronomical mission at Harvard and her rural Massachusetts home base where her sister (Erin Cottrell) has established a family and pursues music. Magrath's star-gazing Henrietta is drawn to fellow scientist Peter Shaw (Nick Toren), but both are woefully lacking in romantic experience.


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Hours and Locations
The Writing Center opens for business during the second week of the term and closes on Wednesday during exam week. Additionally, the Writing Center is closed during university breaks and holidays. Most Writing Center services are offered at our main location in APSC 301, where you can make appointments, meet with a tutor, utilize our writer's reference library, obtain handouts on various writing issues, and write in our computer lab. To make or cancel an appointment, click the WC link in your portal.
Writing Center: APSC 301
Monday-Thursday, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 3:00 p.m.
in-person and synchronous online sessions
Sunday-Thursday, 7:00 - 10:00 p.m.
appointment book opens ten minutes prior to opening every night
Summer Hours: APSC 301
Writing Center 503-838-8286 | or e-mail: email@example.com
MissionWestern Oregon University | 345 N. Monmouth Ave. | Monmouth OR 97361 | 503-838-8000(V/TTY) | Admissions 1-877-877-1593 | firstname.lastname@example.com Text only


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Locals and out-of-towners are drawn to Stowe.
"We come every year to ski," said Hyla Cooper of New York City. "We love it here. We come every year for a week. Much better then skiing in New York."
Stowe Mountain Resort includes part of Mount Mansfield which, at almost 4,400 feet, is Vermont's highest peak. It also happens to house the WCAX transmitter.
The large vertical drop coupled with almost 40 miles of terrain gives the mountain an impressive feel.
"There's the wow factor for the boys to see something this large on the East Coast. They haven't skied a mountain this size," said Christopher Freeman of Nantucket, Mass.
The resort also has some incredible views.
"Fantastic," said Rick Carrick of Stowe. "I always like it when you can see Lake Champlain from the top of Mount Mansfield. You can't quite today. But we've got Bolton, Camel's Hump is starting to come out of the clouds. Maybe we'll get Mount Washington later in the day."
Despite Stowe's elevation, the mountain has still had to cope with some variable weather this season.
"It hasn't been a killer snowfall year. It's been timed very well, but we owe our success this winter to our new snowmaking system," said Dave Merriam of Stowe.
The extensive snowmaking in combination with last week's snow event is keeping skiers happy.
"Conditions are good. There's a ton of snow, a huge base and the softness of the snow is really just fun to ski in. No ice at all," said Mike Sweet of Albany, N.Y.
"Today it's soft, it's very edgeable," Freeman said. "We'll probably cover a lot of the mountain today over the course of the day."
With more than 100 open trails, there's no shortage of terrain. At Stowe there are plenty of groomers, bumps and even some tree skiing. But for those seeking an additional thrill, they even have one of Vermont's only half-pipes. We caught up with a few riders who were pulling off some impressive tricks in the half-pipe and in the terrain parks; they told us Stowe does a remarkable job of maintaining their features.
"Stowe is the most on top of their features I've ever seen. Sometimes you actually have to wait for the terrain park crew to fix the rails and jump and it's always prime," Sweet said.
With Stowe and many other area ski resorts in great shape, winter enthusiasts are looking forward to March and all the soft snow and comfortable temperatures that often come with it.
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Rock Band 3 Dev Diary Explains 'Bridging the Gap' Between Real and Fake MusiciansRock Band 3 attempts to take things to the next level with its "Pro" mode, a setting that shifts control inputs from simple color-coded buttons to something more recognizable to real musicians. Alongside this change, the game includes adds keyboards to the franchise. Although the new peripheral will allow players to play on simple tracks reminiscent of current music games, Harmonix believes playing on "Pro" mode will "make the keyboard come alive."
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Delhi braveheart scores 73% marks in her last exams
Over three weeks after she lost the battle for life, the Delhi gang-rape victim has successfully cleared her fourth year examination of the Bachelor of Physiotherapy course.
The 23-year-old woman, who was gang-raped in a moving bus in South Delhi on the night of December 16 and died in a Singapore hospital on December 29, secured 72.7 per cent marks, as per a list of successful candidates put out by the Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University in Uttarakhand.
The director of the Dehradun institute where the Delhi braveheart was studying said she scored 800 out of a total of 1100 marks. The director described the braveheart's performance as "very good" in all subjects.
According to him, the braveheart secured 124 marks out of 200 in physiotherapy in orthopaedics; 147 out of 200 in physiotherapy in neurology; 151 out of 200 in physiotherapy in cardiothoracic conditions; 144 out of 200 in physiotherapy in general medicine; 160 out of 200 in physiotherapy in clinical dissertation; and 74 out of 100 in research methodology, a leading English daily reported.
The exams were held in September last year.
The HoD of the course said the braveheart's performance was "excellent".


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Best Babies Zone: A holistic, neighborhood-based approach to improving birth outcomes
Best Babies Zone is a bold, national initiative to improve birth outcomes based at the University of California, Berkeley.
Healthy Kids
Aug. 13, 2014
What's Happening
#NOLA public schools and where they're going http://t.co/QEurhoGd6E #educatedkids @djdreilinger
WKKF's CEO: Focus on #educatedkids & #healthykids from age 0-8 will help all #Michigan families
Media Inquiries
All media inquiries will be routed to the appropriate staff person and you will be contacted as soon as possible. Please be sure to include your deadline in all messages. Please contact: WKKF Communications at 269.969.2079 or communications [at] wkkf.org


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Bering Optics® Sensor Reflex Sight
Item # WX2-234806
- Google+
This item cannot ship via any of our Next Day or Second Day Express delivery methods.
This item is shipped directly from the factory. To see the expected shipping date, please add to your Shopping Cart. Sorry, no express shipping available. We are unable to ship factory direct items to Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico or APO or FPO addresses.
This item cannot ship to Canada.
This item cannot ship internationally.
- Details & Specs
Bering Optics® Sensor Reflex Sight offers bright, clear images with the brawn to handle rough field outings!
Completely clear, bright images await on this Sensor Reflex Sight from Bering Optics®! Multi-coated optics allow major light transmission, and as the sun sets, you've got 6 brightness settings on your reticle to extend shooting hours! Photo sensor actually adjusts the brightness of the dot according to ambient light conditions, for optimal viewing. Compact, lightweight design stays out of the way and won't change the feel of your firearm either. Plus, with shockproof design, the recoil of firing won't damage the interior working parts. Features standard Weaver-style mounting.
- 1x magnification and 33x24mm objective lens
- Reticle type: Multi red, with four "switchable" reticle types. Features auto-reticle brightness control, too - 6 settings allow for adjustment to suit the time of day, or your specific needs
- Parallax setting is 50 yards
- FOV is and 53 ft. @ 100 yards
- Focus range is 0.5 yards to infinity
- Unlimited eye relief
- Runs for up to 300 hours on your choice of CR2032, DL2032, or ECR2032
- Able to operate in temps from -4°F to 122° F, and up to 93% humidity
- Meets IPX4 water intrusion rating
- Measures 3 1/4 x 1 2/5 x 2" and weighs 3.7 ozs.
- Reviews
Customer ReviewsNo reviews exist for this item....
Don't Forget
HQ ISSUE® Brass Laser BoresighterBuyer's Club $17.99 Non-Members $19.99
BSA® Boresighter KitBuyer's Club $26.99 Non-Members $29.99
Bushnell® Laser BoresighterBuyer's Club $26.99 Non-Members $29.99
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