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Evangelicalism is a world-wide Protestant movement maintaining that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.[1][2] The movement gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in the British Isles and North America. Pietism, Nicolaus Zinzendorf and the Moravian Church, Presbyterianism and Puritanism have influenced Evangelicalism.
Influential leaders in the English-speaking world have included John Wesley, George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals by country, with over 30 percent of the world's Evangelicals (between 90 and 100 million).[3] Many Evangelicals now live outside the English-speaking world and over 42 million live in Brazil alone.[4] The movement continues to draw adherents globally in the 21st century, especially in the developing world.
- 1 Characteristics
- 2 Usage
- 3 History
- 4 Types of Evangelicalism
- 5 Global statistics
- 6 Africa
- 7 Latin America
- 8 Asia
- 9 United Kingdom
- 10 United States
- 11 See also
- 12 Notes
- 13 Bibliography
- 14 Further reading
- 15 External links
Christian historian David Bebbington says: "Although 'evangelical', with a lower-case initial, is occasionally used to mean 'of the gospel', the term 'Evangelical', with a capital letter, is applied to any aspect of the movement beginning in the 1730s."[5]:1 He notes four distinctive aspects of Evangelical faith: conversionism, biblicism, crucicentrism, and activism, noting, "Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism."[5]:3 This definition has been influential.[6]
Conversionism, or being "born again" is based on passages in John 1:12–13 and 3:1–21 that call for a complete change of life. Biblicism is defined as having a high regard for biblical authority and an identification with the biblical story. Crucicentrism draws attention to teachings that proclaim the saving death and resurrection of the Son of God, Jesus Christ,[7] offering forgiveness of sins and new life. Activism describes the tendency towards active expression and sharing of the gospel in diverse ways that include preaching and social action.
Development in the doctrine of assurance underlies what differentiates Evangelicalism from what went before. Bebbington says, "The dynamism of the Evangelical movement was possible only because its adherents were assured in their faith."[5]:42 He goes on:
Whereas the Puritans had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers, the Evangelicals believed it to be general, normally given at conversion and the result of simple acceptance of the gift of God. The consequence of the altered form of the doctrine was a metamorphosis in the nature of popular Protestantism. There was a change in patterns of piety, affecting devotional and practical life in all its departments. The shift, in fact, was responsible for creating in Evangelicalism a new movement and not merely a variation on themes heard since the Reformation."[5]:43
This new assurance made way for the possibility of Revivalism, another key discontinuity with the Protestantism of the previous era.[5]:74
Religion scholar, social activist, and politician Randall Balmer says that:
Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism."[8]
The term "evangelical" has its etymological roots in the Greek word for "gospel" or "good news": ευαγγελιον (evangelion), from eu- "good" and angelion "message". By the English Middle Ages the term had been expanded to include not only the message, but also the New Testament which contained the message, as well as more specifically the Gospels in which the life, death and resurrection of Jesus are portrayed.[9] The first published use of the term "evangelical" in English was in 1531 by William Tyndale, who wrote "He exhorteth them to proceed constantly in the evangelical truth."[10] One year later, the earliest recorded use in reference to a theological distinction was by Sir Thomas More, who spoke of "Tyndale [and] his evangelical brother Barns".[10]
By the time of the Reformation, Protestant theologians began to embrace the term evangelical as referring to "gospel truth". Martin Luther referred to the evangelische Kirche or evangelical Church to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in the Roman Catholic Church.[11][12] In Germany, Switzerland and Denmark, and especially among Lutherans, the term has continued to be used in a broad sense.[13] This can be seen in the names of certain Lutheran denominations such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, and the Evangelical Church in Germany.
Current usage[edit]
Although often used in a religious context, the term may also characterize a generic missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose. For example, the Times Literary Supplement refers to "the rise and fall of evangelical fervor within the Socialist movement".[14]
The contemporary North American usage of the term reflects the impact of the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of the early 20th century. Evangelicalism may sometimes be perceived as the middle ground between the theological liberalism of the mainline denominations and the cultural separatism of fundamentalism.[15] Evangelicalism has therefore been described as "the third of the leading strands in American Protestantism, straddl[ing] the divide between fundamentalists and liberals".[16] In 2004 Andrew Crouch wrote in Christianity Today: "The emerging movement is a protest against much of evangelicalism as currently practiced. It is post-evangelical in the way that neo-evangelicalism (in the 1950s) was post-fundamentalist. It would not be unfair to call it postmodern evangelicalism."[17]
While the North American perception has a certain importance in understanding some usage of the term, it by no means dominates a wider global view: elsewhere the fundamentalist debate had less direct influence.
D.W. Cloud wrote: "In the first half of the 20th century, evangelicalism in America was largely synonymous with fundamentalism. George Marsden in Reforming Fundamentalism (1995) writes, "There was not a practical distinction between fundamentalist and evangelical: the words were interchangeable" (p. 48). When the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) formed in 1942, for example, participants included such fundamentalist leaders as Bob Jones, Sr., John R. Rice, Charles Woodbridge, Harry Ironside, and David Otis Fuller."[18]
By the mid-1950s, largely due to the ecumenical evangelism of Billy Graham, the terms Evangelicalism and fundamentalism began to refer to two different approaches. Fundamentalism aggressively attacked its liberal enemies; Evangelicalism downplayed liberalism and emphasized outreach and conversion of new members.[19]
While some conservative Evangelicals[which?] believe the label has broadened too much beyond its more limiting traditional distinctives, this trend is nonetheless strong enough to create significant ambiguity in the term.[20] As a result, the dichotomy between "Evangelical" and "mainline" denominations is increasingly complex, particularly with such innovations as the "emergent church" movement.
Influences from 17th century[edit]
The work of the Pietists Philipp Jakob Spener and August Hermann Francke highly influenced Evangelicalism. The Francke Foundations in Halle became the training ground for many priests of the New World, above all for the United States. The German Pietists believed the personal experience of enlightenment was the central reason to find the way to the good, and the spreading of the faith was best pursued by individual piety.[21]
18th century[edit]
Evangelicalism emerged in the early 18th century in Britain and New England.[5]:20 Howell Harris and Daniel Rowland of Wales are the first discernibly Evangelical preachers.[5]:20 At the same time, in Massachusetts, Jonathan Edwards was involved in a revival in Northampton; he was heavily influenced by Pietism—one historian has stressed his "American Pietism." [22] George Whitfield, converted in 1735, was next; his mentor Charles Wesley reported an evangelical conversion in 1738.[5]:20 In the same week John Wesley felt his heart 'strangely warmed'.[5]:20 Pietism directly influenced John Wesley, who had translated 33 Pietist hymns from German to English. Numerous German Pietist hymns became part of the English Evangelical repertoire.[23]
Whitfield joined forces with Edwards to "fan the flame of revival"[5]:20 in the Thirteen Colonies in 1739–40. Evangelical preachers emphasized personal salvation and piety more than ritual and tradition. Pamphlets and printed sermons crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraging the revivalists.[24] Soon the First Great Awakening stirred Protestants up and down the Thirteen Colonies. The Awakening resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. It reached people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety and their self-awareness. To the evangelical imperatives of Reformation Protestantism, 18th century American Christians added emphases on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded the newly created Evangelicalism into the early republic.[25]
19th century[edit]
The start of the 19th century saw an increase in missionary work and many of the major missionary societies were founded around this time (see Timeline of Christian missions). Both the Evangelical and high church movements sponsored missionaries.
The Second Great Awakening (which actually began in 1790) was primarily an American revivalist movement and resulted in substantial growth of the Methodist and Baptist churches. Charles Grandison Finney was an important preacher of this period.
In Britain in addition to stressing the traditional Wesleyan combination of "Bible, cross, conversion, and activism," the revivalist movement sought a universal appeal, hoping to include rich and poor, urban and rural, and men and women. Special efforts were made to attract children and to generate literature to spread the revivalist message.[26]
"Christian conscience" was used by the British Evangelical movement to promote social activism. Evangelicals believed activism in government and the social sphere was an essential method in reaching the goal of eliminating sin in a world drenched in wickedness.[27] The Evangelicals in the Clapham Sect included figures such as William Wilberforce who successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery.
In the late 19th century, the revivalist Holiness movement, based on the doctrine of "entire sanctification," took a more extreme form in rural America and Canada, where it ultimately broke away from institutional Methodism. In urban Britain the Holiness message was less exclusive and censorious.[28]
John Nelson Darby was a 19th-century Irish Anglican minister who devised modern dispensationalism, an innovative Protestant theological interpretation of the Bible that was incorporated in the development of modern Evangelicalism. Cyrus Scofield further promoted the influence of dispensationalism through the explanatory notes to his Scofield Reference Bible. According to scholar Mark S. Sweetnam, who takes a cultural studies perspective, dispensationalism can be defined in terms of its Evangelicalism, its insistence on the literal interpretation of Scripture, its recognition of stages in God's dealings with humanity, its expectation of the imminent return of Christ to rapture His saints, and its focus on both apocalypticism and premillennialism.[29]
Notable figures of the latter half of the 19th century include Charles Spurgeon in London and Dwight L. Moody in Chicago. Their powerful preaching reached very large audiences.[30][31]
An advanced theological perspective came from the Princeton theologians from the 1850s to the 1920s, such as Charles Hodge, Archibald Alexander and B.B. Warfield.[32]
20th century[edit]
Evangelicalism in the early part of the 20th century was dominated by the Fundamentalist movement after 1910; it rejected liberal theology and emphasized the inerrancy of the Scriptures.
Following the Welsh Revival, the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 began the spread of Pentecostalism in North America.
In the post–World War II period, a split developed between Evangelicals, as they disagreed among themselves about how a Christian ought to respond to an unbelieving world. The Evangelicals urged that Christians must engage the culture directly and constructively,[33] and they began to express reservations about being known to the world as fundamentalists. As Kenneth Kantzer put it at the time, the name fundamentalist had become "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor".[34]
The term neo-evangelicalism was coined by Harold Ockenga in 1947 to identify a distinct movement within self-identified fundamentalist Christianity at the time, especially in the English-speaking world. It described the mood of positivism and non-militancy that characterized that generation. The new generation of Evangelicals set as their goal to abandon a militant Bible stance. Instead, they would pursue dialogue, intellectualism, non-judgmentalism, and appeasement. They further called for an increased application of the gospel to the sociological, political, and economic areas.
The self-identified fundamentalists also cooperated in separating their "neo-Evangelical" opponents from the fundamentalist name, by increasingly seeking to distinguish themselves from the more open group, whom they often characterized derogatorily by Ockenga's term, "neo-Evangelical" or just Evangelical.
The fundamentalists saw the Evangelicals as often being too concerned about social acceptance and intellectual respectability, and being too accommodating to a perverse generation that needed correction. In addition, they saw the efforts of evangelist Billy Graham, who worked with non-Evangelical denominations, such as the Roman Catholics (which they claimed to be heretical), as a mistake.[citation needed]
The post-war period also saw growth of the ecumenical movement and the founding of the World Council of Churches, which was generally regarded with suspicion by the Evangelical community.[citation needed]
In the United Kingdom, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones emerged as key leaders in Evangelical Christianity.
The charismatic movement began in the 1960s and resulted in Pentecostal theology and practice being introduced into many mainline denominations. New charismatic groups such as the Association of Vineyard Churches and Newfrontiers trace their roots to this period (see also British New Church Movement).
The closing years of the 20th century saw controversial postmodern influences entering some parts of Evangelicalism, particularly with the emerging church movement.[clarification needed]
Types of Evangelicalism[edit]
Conservative Evangelicalism[edit]
Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse Evangelicalism and fundamentalism, but as noted above they are not the same. The labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of Evangelicalism.
Both groups seek to maintain an identity as theological conservatives; Evangelicals, however, seek to distance themselves from stereotypical perceptions of the "fundamentalist" posture of antagonism toward the larger society and advocate involvement in the surrounding community rather than separation from it. However, despite the differences, some people, particularly those with a non-denominational background, may consider themselves both Evangelical and fundamentalist because they believe in the engaging practices of Evangelicalism and take a fundamental view of the Bible.
On the American political spectrum, Evangelical Christians traditionally are socially conservative. Based on their belief that the biblical view of marriage is only between one man and one woman, they oppose both state and church recognition of same-sex marriage. Since the 1970s they have also opposed legalizing abortion on demand. (See below for more details).
Open Evangelicalism[edit]
Open Evangelical refers to a particular Christian school of thought or Churchmanship, primarily in the United Kingdom (especially in the Church of England). Open Evangelicals describe their position as combining a traditional Evangelical emphasis on the nature of scriptural authority, the teaching of the ecumenical creeds and other traditional doctrinal teachings, with an approach towards culture and other theological points of view which tends to be more inclusive than that taken by other Evangelicals. Some open Evangelicals aim to take a middle position between conservative and charismatic Evangelicals, while others would combine conservative theological emphases with more liberal social positions.[35]
British author Dave Tomlinson characterizes post-evangelicalism as a movement comprising various trends of dissatisfaction among Evangelicals. The term is used by others with comparable intent, often to distinguish Evangelicals in the so-called emerging church movement from post-evangelicals and anti-Evangelicals. Tomlinson argues that "linguistically, the distinction [between evangelical and post-evangelical] is similar to the one that sociologists make between the modern and postmodern eras".[36]
There persists considerable and inevitable confusion as to how best to classify the non-traditional/non-conservative forms of Evangelicalism. Some call the emerging church movement a version or manifestation of post-evangelicalism, whereas others distinguish both under the broader umbrella of the "evangelical left" movement. As such developments are still relatively new, it remains to be seen how the categories and semantics will settle.
Global statistics[edit]
According to a 2011 Pew Forum study on global Christianity, 285,480,000 or 13.1 percent of all Christians are Evangelicals.[37] The largest concentration of Evangelicals can be found in the United States, with 26.8% of the U.S. population or 94.38 million,[38] the latter being roughly one third of the world's Evangelicals.[3] The next most populous is Brazil, with 26.3% or 51.33 million.[38]
The World Evangelical Alliance is "a network of churches in 128 nations that have each formed an Evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a worldwide identity, voice and platform" to an estimated more than 420 million Evangelical Christians.[39] The Alliance was formed in 1951 by Evangelicals from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally.
From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelicals grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.[40]
In the 21st century, there are Evangelical churches active in Sudan, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Rwanda, Uganda, Ghana, Kenya, Zambia, South Africa, and Nigeria. They have grown especially since independence came in the 1960s,[41] the strongest movements are based on Pentecostal-charismatic[clarification needed] beliefs, and comprise a way of life that has led to upward social mobility[dubious ] and demands for democracy.[citation needed] There is a wide range of theology and organizations, including some sponsored by European missionaries and others that have emerged from African culture[dubious ] such as the Apostolic and Zionist Churches which enlist 40% of black South Africans, and their Aladura counterparts in western Africa.[42][page needed]
In Nigeria the Evangelical Church Winning All (formerly "Evangelical Church of West Africa") is the largest church organization with five thousand congregations and over three million members. It sponsors two seminaries and eight Bible colleges, and 1600 missionaries who serve in Nigeria and other countries with the Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS). There have been serious confrontations since 1999 between Muslims and Evangelical Christians standing in opposition to the expansion of Sharia law in northern Nigeria. The confrontation has radicalized and politicized the Christians. Violence has been escalating.[43]
In Kenya, mainstream Evangelical denominations have taken the lead[dubious ] in promoting political activism and backers, with the smaller Evangelical sects of less importance. Daniel arap Moi was president 1978 to 2002 and claimed to be an Evangelical; he proved intolerant of dissent or pluralism or decentralization of power.[44]
The Berlin Missionary Society (BMS) was one of four German Protestant mission societies active in South Africa before 1914. It emerged from the German tradition of Pietism after 1815 and sent its first missionaries to South Africa in 1834. There were few positive reports in the early years, but it was especially active 1859–1914. It was especially strong in the Boer republics. The World War cut off contact with Germany, but the missions continued at a reduced pace. After 1945 the missionaries had to deal with decolonisation across Africa and especially with the apartheid government. At all times the BMS emphasized spiritual inwardness, and values such as morality, hard work and self-discipline. It proved unable to speak and act decisively against injustice and racial discrimination and was disbanded in 1972.[45]
Since 1974, young professionals have been the active proselytizers of Evangelicalism in the cities of Malawi.[46]
In Mozambique, Evangelical Protestant Christianity emerged around 1900 from black migrants whose converted previously in South Africa. They were assisted by European missionaries, but, as industrial workers, they paid for their own churches and proselytizing. They prepared southern Mozambique for the spread of Evangelical Protestantism. During its time as a colonial power in Mozambique, the Catholic Portuguese government tried to counter the spread of Evangelical Protestantism.[47]
Latin America[edit]
In modern Latin America, the word "Evangelical" is often simply a synonym for "Protestant".[48][49][50]
Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with German immigrants and British and American missionaries in the 19th century, following up on efforts that began in the 1820s.[51]
In the late nineteenth century, while the vast majority of Brazilians were nominal Catholics, the nation was underserved by priests, and for large numbers their religion was only nominal. The Catholic Church in Brazil was de-established in 1890, and responded by increasing the number of dioceses and the efficiency of its clergy. Many Protestants came from a large German immigrant community, but they were seldom engaged in proselytism and grew mostly by natural increase.
Methodists were active along with Presbyterians and Baptists. The Scottish missionary Dr. Robert Reid Kalley, with support from the Free Church of Scotland, moved to Brazil in 1855, founding the first Evangelical church among the Portuguese-speaking population there in 1856. It was organized according to the Congregational policy as the Igreja Evangélica Fluminense; it became the mother church of Congregationalism in Brazil.[52] The Seventh-day Adventists arrived in 1894, and the YMCA was organized in 1896. The missionaries promoted schools colleges and seminaries, including a the liberal arts college in São Paulo, later known as Mackenzie, and an agricultural school in Lavras. The Presbyterian schools in particular later became the nucleus of the governmental system. In 1887 Protestants in Rio de Janeiro formed a hospital. The missionaries largely reached a working-class audience, as the Brazilian upper-class was wedded either to Catholicism or to secularism. By 1914, Protestant churches founded by American missionaries had 47,000 communicants, served by 282 missionaries. In general, these missionaries were more successful than they had been in Mexico, Argentina or elsewhere in Latin America.[53]
There were 700,000 Protestants by 1930, and increasingly they were in charge of their own affairs. In 1930, the Methodist Church of Brazil became independent of the missionary societies and elected its own bishop. Protestants were largely from a working-class, but their religious networks help speed their upward social mobility.[54][55]
Protestants accounted for fewer than 5% of the population until the 1960s, but grew exponentially by proselytizing and by 2000 made up over 15% of Brazilians affiliated with a church. Pentecostals and charismatic groups account for the vast majority of this expansion.
Pentecostal missionaries arrived early in the 20th century. Pentecostal conversions surged during the 1950s and 1960s, when native Brazilians began founding autonomous churches. The most influential included Brasil Para o Cristo (Brazil for Christ), founded in 1955 by Manoel de Mello. With an emphasis on personal salvation, on God's healing power, and on strict moral codes these groups have developed broad appeal, particularly among the booming urban migrant communities. In Brazil, since the mid-1990's, groups committed to uniting black identity, antiracism, and Evangelical theology have rapidly proliferated.[56] Pentecostalism arrived in Brazil with Swedish and American missionaries in 1911. it grew rapidly, but endured numerous schisms and splits. In some areas the Evangelical Assemblies of God churches have taken a leadership role in politics since the 1960s. They claimed major credit for the election of Fernando Collor de Mello as president of Brazil in 1990.[57]
According to the 2000 Census, 15.4% of the Brazilian population was Protestant. A recent research conducted by the Datafolha institute shows that 25% of Brazilians are Protestants, of which 19% are followers of Pentecostal denominations. The 2010 Census found out that 22.2% were Protestant at that date. Protestant denominations saw a rapid growth in their number of followers since the last decades of the 20th century.[58] They are politically and socially conservative, and emphasize that God's favor translates into business success.[59] The rich and the poor remained traditional Catholics, while most Evangelical Protestants were in the new lower-middle class–known as the "C class" (in a A–E classification system).[60]
Chesnut argues that Pentecostalism has become "one of the principal organizations of the poor," for these churches provide the sort of social network that teach members the skills they need to thrive in a rapidly developing meritocratic society.[61]
One large Evangelical church is the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD), a neo‐Pentecostal denomination begun in 1977. It now has a presence in many countries, and claims millions of members worldwide.[62]
Protestants remained a small portion of the population until the late-twentieth century, when various Protestant groups experienced a demographic boom that coincided with the increasing violence of the Guatemalan Civil War. Two Guatemalan heads of state, General Efraín Ríos Montt and Jorge Serrano Elias, have been practicing Evangelical Protestants. They are the only two Protestant heads of state in the history of Latin America.[63][64]
General Efrain Rios Montt, an Evangelical from the Pentecostal tradition, came to power through a coup. He escalated the war against leftist guerrilla insurgents as a holy war against atheistic forces of evil.[65]
Protestant missionary proselytism in Asia was most successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. Between 1907 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.[66] In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful.[67] Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who remained behind have risen sharply in social and economic status. Most Korean Protestant churches in the 21st century emphasize their Evangelical heritage. Korean Protestantism is characterized by theological conservatism[clarification needed] coupled with an emotional revivalistic[clarification needed] style. Most churches sponsor revival meetings once or twice a year. Missionary work is a high priority, with 13,000 men and women serving in missions across the world, putting Korea in second place just behind the US.[68]
Sukman argues that since 1945, Protestantism has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernists. It has been a powerful force[dubious ] supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and emulation[dubious ] of the United States, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and to the authoritarianism of North Korea.[69] There are 8.6 million adherents to Protestant Christianity (approximately 19% of the Korean population) in which many[quantify] identify themselves as Evangelicals.
South Korea has been referred as an "evangelical superpower" for being the home to some of the largest and most dynamic Christian churches in the world; South Korea is also second to the U.S. in the number of missionaries sent abroad.[70][71][72]
United Kingdom[edit]
There are an estimated 2 million Evangelicals in the UK.[73] According to research done by the Evangelical Alliance in 2013 87% of UK evangelicals attend Sunday morning church services every week and 63% attend weekly or fortnightly small groups [74] An earlier survey conducted in 2012 found that 92% of evangelicals agree it is a Christian's duty to help those in poverty and 45% attend a church which has a fund or scheme that helps people in immediate need, and 42% go to a church that supports or runs a foodbank. 63% believe a tithing, and so give around 10% of their income to their church, Christian organisations and various charities[75] 83% of UK evangelicals believe that the Bible has supreme authority in guiding their beliefs, views and behaviour and 52% read or listen to the Bible daily.[76] The Evangelical Alliance, formed in 1846, was the first ecumenical evangelical body in the world and works to unite evangelicals, helping them listen to, and be heard by, the government, media and society.
United States[edit]
20th century[edit]
By the 1890s, most American Protestants belonged to Evangelical denominations, except for the high church Episcopalians and German Lutherans. In the early 20th century, a divide opened up between the Fundamentalists and the Mainline Protestant denominations, chiefly over the inerrancy of the Bible. The fundamentalists were those Evangelicals who sought to defend their religious traditions, and feared that modern scientific leanings were leading away from the truth. A favored mode of fighting back was to prohibit the teaching of Darwinism or macro-evolution as fact in the public schools, a movement that reached its peak in the Scopes Trial of 1925, and resumed in the 1980s. The more modernistic Protestants largely abandoned the term "evangelical" and tolerated evolutionary theories in modern science and even in Biblical studies.
Evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had surrendered their heritage as Evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of secularism. At the same time, the modernists criticized fundamentalists for their separatism and their rejection of the Social Gospel.
During and after World War II, Evangelicals increasingly organized, and expanded their vision to include the entire world. There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, "a revival of revivalism." Youth for Christ was formed; it later became the base for Billy Graham's revivals. The National Association of Evangelicals formed in 1942 as a counterpoise to the mainline Federal Council of Churches. In 1942–43, the Old-Fashioned Revival Hour had a record-setting national radio audience.[77][page needed]
Even more dramatic was the expansion of international missionary activity by the Evangelicals. They had enthusiasm and self-confidence after the national victory in the world war. Many Evangelicals came from poor rural districts, but wartime and postwar prosperity dramatically increased the funding resources available for missionary work. While mainline Protestant denominations cut back on their missionary activities, from 7000 to 3000 overseas workers between 1935 and 1980, the Evangelicals increased their career foreign missionary force from 12,000 in 1935 to 35,000 in 1980. Meanwhile Europe was falling behind, as North Americans comprised 41% of all the world's Protestant missionaries in 1936, rising to 52% in 1952 and 72% in 1969. The most active denominations were the Assemblies of God, which nearly tripled from 230 missionaries in 1935 to 626 in 1952, and the United Pentecostal Church International, formed in 1945. The Southern Baptists more than doubled from 405 to 855, as did the Church of the Nazarene from 88 to 200.[78] Overseas missionaries began to prepare for the postwar challenge, most notably the Far Eastern Gospel Crusade (FEGC; now named "Send International"). After Nazi Germany and fascist Japan had been destroyed, the newly mobilized Evangelicals were now prepared to combat atheistic communism, secularism, Darwinism, liberalism, Catholicism, and (in overseas missions) paganism.[79]
21st century[edit]
Today, Evangelicals are often concerned with their own negligence to live up to Christian standards in contrast to the world. Christianity Today author Mark Galli says "It's now pretty much agreed that the Evangelical church mirrors the dysfunctions of secular society, from premarital sex stats to divorce rates to buying habits. Much to our dismay, we are hardly a light to the world, nor an icon of the abundant, transformed life."[80] Despite this perceived setback, Evangelicals continue to successfully maintain the evangelism aspect that is an integral part of their movement.
Meaning of Evangelicalism in the US[edit]
The Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals states:
There are three senses in which the term "evangelical" is used today at the beginning of the 21st-century. The first is to view "evangelical" as all Christians who affirm a few key doctrines and practical emphases. British historian David Bebbington approaches evangelicalism from this direction and notes four specific hallmarks of evangelical religion: conversionism, the belief that lives need to be changed; activism, the expression of the gospel in effort; biblicism, a particular regard for the Bible; and crucicentrism, a stress on the sacrifice of Christ on the cross.
A second sense is to look at evangelicalism as an organic group of movements and religious tradition. Within this context "evangelical" denotes a style as much as a set of beliefs. As a result, groups such as black Baptists and Dutch Reformed Churches, Mennonites and Pentecostals, Catholic charismatics and Southern Baptists all come under the evangelical umbrella, thus demonstrating just how diverse the movement really is.
A third sense of the term is as the self-ascribed label for a coalition that arose during the Second World War. This group came into being as a reaction against the perceived anti-intellectual, separatist, belligerent nature of the fundamentalist movement in the 1920s and 1930s. Importantly, its core personalities (like Harold John Ockenga and Billy Graham), institutions (for instance, Moody Bible Institute and Wheaton College), and organizations (such as the National Association of Evangelicals and Youth for Christ) have played a pivotal role in giving the wider movement a sense of cohesion that extends beyond these "card-carrying" evangelicals.[81]
The 2004 survey of religion and politics in the United States identified the Evangelical percentage of the population at 26.3 percent while Roman Catholics are 22 percent and mainline Protestants make up 16 percent.[82] In the 2007 Statistical Abstract of the United States, the figures for these same groups are 28.6 percent (Evangelical), 24.5 percent (Roman Catholic), and 13.9 percent (mainline Protestant.) The latter figures are based on a 2001 study of the self-described religious identification of the adult population for 1990 and 2001 from the Graduate School and University Center at the City University of New York.[83] A 2008 study showed that in the year 2000 about 9 percent of Americans attended an Evangelical service on any given Sunday.[84][85] The Economist estimated in May 2012, that "over one-third of Americans, more than 100 M, can be considered evangelical," arguing that the percentage is often undercounted because many black Christians espouse Evangelical theology but prefer to refer to themselves as "born again Christians" rather than "evangelical."[86] These estimated figures given by The Economist agree with those in 2012 from Wheaton College's Institute for the Studies of American Evangelicals.[3]
The movement is highly diverse and encompasses a vast number of people. Because the group is diverse, not all of them use the same terminology for beliefs. For instance, several recent studies and surveys by sociologists and political scientists that utilize more complex definitional parameters have estimated the number of Evangelicals in the U.S. in 2012 at about 30–35% of the population, or roughly between 90 and 100 million people.[3]
The National Association of Evangelicals is a U.S. agency which coordinates cooperative ministry for its member denominations.
Types of Evangelical[edit]
John C. Green, a senior fellow at the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, used polling data to separate Evangelicals into three camps, which he labels as traditionalist, centrist and modernist:[15]
- Traditionalists, characterized by high affinity for certain Protestant beliefs, (especially penal substitutionary atonement, justification by faith, the authority of scripture, the priesthood of all believers, etc.) which, when fused with the highly political milieu of Western culture (especially American culture), has resulted in the political disposition that has been labeled the Christian right, with figures like Jerry Falwell and the television evangelist Pat Robertson as its most visible spokesmen.
- Centrist evangelicals, described as socially conservative, mostly avoiding politics, who still support much of traditional Christian theology.
- Modernist evangelicals, a small minority in the movement, have low levels of church-attendance and "have much more diversity in their beliefs".[15]
Christian right[edit]
Evangelical political influence in America was first evident in the 1830s with movements such as abolition of slavery and the prohibition movement, which closed saloons and taverns in state after state until it succeeded nationally in 1919.[87] The Christian right is a coalition of numerous groups of traditionalist and observant church-goers of every kind: especially Catholics on issues such as birth control and abortion, Southern Baptists, Missouri Synod Lutherans and others.[88]
Evangelical political activists are not all on the right. There is a small group of liberal white Evangelicals.[89] Most African Americans belong to Baptist, Methodist or other denominations that share Evangelical beliefs; they are firmly in the Democratic coalition and (except for gay and abortion issues) are generally liberal in politics.[90]
Christian left[edit]
Typically, members of the Evangelical left affirm the primary tenets of Evangelical theology, such as the doctrines of Incarnation, atonement, and resurrection, and also see the Bible as a primary authority for the church. A major theological difference, however, which in turn leads to many of the social/political differences, is the issue of how strictly to interpret the Bible, as well as what particular values and principles predominantly constitute the "biblical worldview" believed to be binding upon all followers. Inevitably, battles over how to characterize each other and themselves ensue, with the Evangelical left and right often hyperbolically regarding each other as "mainline/non-evangelical" and "fundamentalist" respectively.
Unlike conservative Evangelicals, the Evangelical left is generally opposed to capital punishment and supportive of gun control. In many cases, Evangelical leftists are pacifistic. Some promote the legalization of same-sex marriage or protection of access to abortion for the society at large without necessarily endorsing the practice themselves. There is considerable dispute over how to even characterize the various segments of the Evangelical theological and political spectra, and whether a singular discernible rift between "right" and "left" is oversimplified. However, to the extent that some simplifications are necessary to discuss any complex issue, it is recognized that modern trends like focusing on non-contentious issues (like poverty) and downplaying hot-button social issues (like abortion) tend to be key distinctives of the modern "evangelical left" or "emergent church" movement.
Recurrent themes[edit]
Since 1980, a central issue motivating conservative Evangelicals' political activism is abortion. The 1973 decision in Roe v. Wade by the Supreme Court, which legalized abortion, proved decisive in bringing together Catholics and Evangelicals in a political coalition, which became known as the Religious Right when it successfully mobilized its voters behind presidential candidate Ronald Reagan in 1980.[91]
In the United States, Supreme Court decisions that outlawed organized prayer in school and restricted church-related schools also played a role in mobilizing the Religious Right.[92] In addition, questions of sexual morality and homosexuality have been energizing factors—and above all, the notion that "elites" are pushing America into secularism.
Christian nation[edit]
Opponents criticise the Evangelicals, whom they say actually want a Christian America—America being a nation in which Christianity is given a privileged position.[93] Survey data shows that "between 64 and 75 percent do not favor a 'Christian Nation' amendment", though between 60 and 75 percent also believe that Christianity and Political Liberalism are incompatible.[94] Evangelical leaders, in turn, counter that they merely seek freedom from the imposition by national elites of an equally subjective secular worldview, and feel that it is their opponents who are violating their rights.[95]
Other issues[edit]
|The neutrality of this section is disputed. (May 2013)
According to recent reports in the New York Times, some Evangelicals have sought to expand their movement's social agenda to include poverty, combating AIDS in the Third World, and protecting the environment.[96] This is highly contentious within the Evangelical community, since more conservative Evangelicals believe that this trend is compromising important issues and prioritizing popularity and consensus too highly. Personifying this division were the Evangelical leaders James Dobson and Rick Warren, the former who warned of the dangers of a Barack Obama victory in 2008 from his point of view,[97] in contrast with the latter who declined to endorse either major candidate on the grounds that he wanted the church to be less politically divisive and that he agreed substantially with both men.[98]
See also[edit]
- 10/40 Window
- Child evangelism movement
- 4/14 Window
- Bible believer
- Broad church
- British Conservative Evangelicalism
- Christian eschatological differences
- Evangelical Council of Venezuela
- Evangelical Fellowship of Canada
- Fundamentalism
- List of evangelical Christians
- List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges
- National Association of Evangelicals
- World Evangelical Alliance
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- ^ a b Johnson, Phil (2009-03-16). "The History of Evangelicalism". Pulpit Magazine. Part 1.
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- ^ Marsden, George M (1991). Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans. p. 5. ISBN 0-8028-0539-6.
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- ^ Tomlinson, Dave (2007). The Post-Evangelical. p. 28. ISBN 0-310-25385-3.
- ^ Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population (PDF), Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, December 19, 2011, p. 67.
- ^ a b Johnstone; Mandryk. "Operation World". Retrieved August 31, 2014.
- ^ "History". World Evangelical Alliance. 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-05-22. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
- ^ Milne, Bruce (2010). Know the Truth: A Handbook of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press. p. 332. ISBN 0-83082-576-2. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
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- ^ Pakendorf, Gunther (2011), A Brief History of the Berlin Mission Society in South Africa, History Compass 9 (2): 106–18, doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00624.x.
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- ^ Harries, Patrick (1988), Christianity in Black and White: The Establishment of Protestant Churches in Southern Mozambique, Lusotopie: 317–33.
- ^ Larsen, Timothy; Treier, Daniel J (12 April 2007). The Cambridge Companion to Evangelical Theology. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-1-139-82750-8. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
- ^ "U.S. Hispanics Are Becoming Less Catholic". Time. March 1, 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
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- ^ Leonard, Émil-G (1963), O Protestantismo Brasileiro [Brazilian Protestantism] (in Portuguese), São Paulo: ASTE.
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- ^ Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1943), A history of the expansion of Christianity, V: The great century in the Americas, Austral-Asia, and Africa: A.D. 1800 – A.D. 1914, pp. 120–3.
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- ^ Chesnut, R. Andrew (1999), The Salvation Army or the Army's Salvation?: Pentecostal Politics in Amazonian Brazil, 1962–1992, Luso-Brazilian Review 36 (2): 33–49.
- ^ Birman, Patrícia; Leite, Márcia Pereira (2000), Whatever Happened to What Used to Be the Largest Catholic Country in the World? (JStor), Daedalus 129 (2): 271–90.
- ^ Londono, Diana (Dec 5, 2012), Evangelicals in Brazil, Hemispheric Affairs (Coha).
- ^ Antunes, Anderson (Jan 17, 2013), The Richest Pastors In Brazil, Forbes.
- ^ Chesnut 1997, p. 104.
- ^ Jacob, CR; Hees, DR; Waniez, P; Brustlein, V (2003), Atlas da Filiação Religiosa e Indicadores Sociais no Brasil [Brazilian Religious Affiliation & Social Indicators Atlas] (in Portuguese), São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro: PUC-Rio, Edições Loyola, ISBN 85-15-02719-4.
- ^ Garrard-Burnett. Protestantism in Guatemala. pp. 138–61.
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- ^ Chesnut 1997, p. 145.
- ^ Kane, Danielle; Park, Jung Mee (2009), The Puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical Networks and Religious Conversion in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia, American Journal of Sociology 115 (2): 365–404, doi:10.1086/599246.
- ^ Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1945), A history of the expansion of Christianity:, VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations, pp. 401–7.
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- ^ Galli, Mark (July 30, 2009), We've Won the Lottery—Now What? The meaning of evangelical scandals—including our own, Christianity Today.
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- Ranger, Terence O, ed. (2008), Evangelical Christianity and Democracy in Africa, Oxford University Press.
Further reading[edit]
- Balmer, Randall Herbert (2004), Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism (excerpt and text search) (2nd ed.); online.
- ——— (2010), The Making of Evangelicalism: From Revivalism to Politics and Beyond, ISBN 978-1-60258-243-9.
- ——— (2000), Blessed Assurance: A History of Evangelicalism in America
- Bastian, Jean-Pierre (1994), Le Protestantisme en Amérique latine: une approche sio-historique [Protestantism in Latin America: a sio‐historical approach], Histoire et société (in French) (27), Genève: Labor et Fides, ISBN 2-8309-0684-5; alternative ISBN on back cover, 2-8309-0687-X; 324 pp.
- Beale, David O (1986), In Pursuit of Purity: American Fundamentalism Since 1850, Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University: Unusual, ISBN 0-89084-350-3.
- Bebbington, D. W. (1989), Evangelicals in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s, London: Unwin.
- Carpenter, Joel A. (1980), Fundamentalist Institutions and the Rise of Evangelical Protestantism, 1929–1942, Church History 49: 62–75, doi:10.2307/3164640.
- ——— (1999), Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-512907-5.
- Freston, Paul (2004), Evangelicals and Politics in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-60429-X.
- Hindmarsh, Bruce (2005), The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Kidd, Thomas S (2007), The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America, Yale University Press.
- Knox, Ronald (1950), Enthusiasm: a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries, Oxford, Eng: Oxford University Press, pp. viii, 622 pp.
- Marsden, George M (1991), Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism (excerpt and text search).
- ——— (1987), Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans.
- Noll, Mark A (1992), A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada, Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, pp. 311–89, ISBN 0-8028-0651-1.
- Noll, Mark A; Bebbington, David W; Rawlyk, George A, eds. (1994), Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles and Beyond, 1700–1990.
- Pierard, Richard V. (1979), The Quest For the Historical Evangelicalism: A Bibliographical Excursus, Fides et Historia 11 (2): 60–72.
- Price, Robert M. (1986), Neo-Evangelicals and Scripture: A Forgotten Period of Ferment, Christian Scholars Review 15 (4): 315–30.
- Rawlyk, George A; Noll, Mark A, eds. (1993), Amazing Grace: Evangelicalism in Australia, Britain, Canada, and the United States.
- Schafer, Axel R (2011), Countercultural Conservatives: American Evangelicalism From the Postwar Revival to the New Christian Right, U. of Wisconsin Press, 225 pp; covers evangelical politics from the 1940s to the 1990s that examines how a diverse, politically pluralistic movement became, largely, the Christian Right.
- Smith, Timothy L (1957), Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War.
- Stackhouse, John G (1993), Canadian Evangelicalism in the Twentieth Century
- Utzinger, J. Michael (2006), Yet Saints Their Watch Are Keeping: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and the Development of Evangelical Ecclesiology, 1887–1937, Macon: Mercer University Press, ISBN 0-86554-902-8.
- Ward, WR (2006), Early Evangelicalism: A Global Intellectual History (Amazon excerpt and text search), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Wigger, John H; Hatch, Nathan O, eds. (2001), Methodism and the Shaping of American Culture (Amazon excerpt and text search) (essays by scholars).
- Wright, Bradley (March 21, 2013), "What, exactly, is Evangelical Christianity?", Black, White & Gray, The Economist, Evangelical Christianity in America (Patheos).
- Anderson, Gerald H, ed. (1998), Biographical dictionary of Christian missions, Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
- Bainbridge, William F (1882), Around the World Tour of Christian Missions: A Universal Survey (Amazon full text online), 583 pp.
- Barrett, David, ed. (1982), World Christian Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press.
- Brown, Candy Gunther, ed. (2011), Global Pentecostal and Charismatic Healing (essays by scholars on different countries), Oxford UP, 400 pp.
- Etherington, Norman, ed. (2008), Missions and Empire, Oxford History of the British Empire Companion.
- Gailey, Charles R; Culbertson, Howard (2007), Discovering Missions, Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press.
- Glover, Robert H; Kane, J Herbert (1960), The Progress of World-Wide Missions, Harper & Row.
- Hutchison, William R (1987), Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions.
- Jenkins, Philip (2011), The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (Amazon excerpt and text search) (3rd ed.), Oxford UP.
- Kane, J. Herbert (1982), A Concise History of the Christian World Mission, Baker.
- Koschorke, Klaus (2007), A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450–1990: A Documentary Sourcebook (Google Books), et al., Wm. B. Eerdmans Amazon excerpts, text search and table of contents.
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, (1938–45) (detailed scholarly history), 7 volumes.
- Moreau, A. Scott (2000), Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, et al, Baker.
- Neill, Stephen (1986), A History of Christian Missions, Penguin.
- Newcomb, Harvey (1860), A Cyclopedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of Missionary Operations Throughout the World with Geographical Descriptions, and Accounts of the Social, Moral, and Religious Condition of the People (Google Books), 792 pp.
- Pocock, Michael; van Rheenen, Gailyn; McConnell, Douglas (2005), The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends; 391 pp.
- Shenk, Wilbert R, ed. (2004), North American Foreign Missions, 1810–1914: Theology, Theory, and Policy (Amazon excerpts and text search). 349 pp; important essays by scholars.
- Tejirian, Eleanor H; Simon, Reeva Spector, eds. (2012), Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East, Columbia University Press, 280 pp; focus on the 19th and 20th centuries.
- Tucker, Ruth (2004), From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya.
- ——— (1988), Guardians of the Great Commission.
External links[edit]
|Look up evangelist, evangelical, or evangelicalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
- Institute for the Study of American Evangelicalism, Wheaton College.
- Spencer, Michael (March 10, 2009), The Coming Evangelical Collapse, The Christian Science Monitor.
- Modern Evangelical African Theologians: A Primer, Need not fret.
- American Evangelicalism and Islam: From the Antichrist to the Mahdi, DE: Qantara.
- Operation World – Statistics from around the world including numbers of Evangelicals by country.


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Clean Air Act
News about Clean Air Act, including commentary and archival articles published in The New York Times.
Chronology of Coverage
May. 27, 2014
Pres Obama will use his executive authority under 1970 Clean Air Act to issue an Environmental Protection Agency regulation targeted at coal-fired power plants, nation's largest source of carbon pollution; Obama tried, without success, to move a climate change bill through Congress in his first term, and such legislation would now stand no chance of getting past the resistance of Republican lawmakers who question the science of climate change. MORE
Feb. 25, 2014
Supreme Court is poised to consider whether the Environmental Protection Agency has authority under two programs to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from stationary sources like power plants; at issue is move by EPA to raise emission thresholds contained in the Clean Air Act, which were so low that even schools and small businesses would be covered. MORE
Feb. 24, 2014
Editorial urges the Supreme Court to find the Environmental Protection Agency is well within its authority to interpret the Clean Air Act as broadly as it has, which the court has reaffirmed repeatedly in the past; contends the optimal solution would be for Congress to update the law, but that is not going to happen anytime soon. MORE
Jul. 12, 2013
Editorial welcomes announcement by Republican Sen David Vitter that he will drop filibuster threat and allow up-or-down vote on Gina McCarthy, Pres Obama's nominee to lead Environmental Protection Agency; holds McCarthy seems ideally suited to daunting task of addressing climate change; calls on her to make robust use of her authority under Clean Air Act. MORE
Jun. 26, 2013
News analysis; Pres Obama takes sizable risk and announces goal to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions by stretching boundaries of Clean Air Act, decades-old law that was not written with climate change in mind; plan to use executive powers, with no chance of Congressional support, to limit carbon dioxide emissions from power plants will set off legal and political battles that could last years. MORE
Jun. 27, 2012
Federal appeals court upholds a finding by the Environmental Protection Agency that heat-trapping gases from industry and vehicles endanger public health, dealing a decisive blow to companies and states that had sued to block agency rules; declares the agency is correct that the Clean Air Act requires the federal government to impose limits once it has determined that emissions are causing harm. MORE
May. 24, 2012
Editorial urges the Environmental Protection Agency, under the Clean Air act, to impose new safety rules on the country's chemical plants; warns plants remain dangerously unprepared for large-scale accidents and terrorist attacks; maintains unilateral action by an agency is necessary due to Congressional gridlock. MORE
Dec. 2, 2011
Obama administration says that a series of new air pollution rules for power plants will not cause power shortages, despite the fact that an expert panel designated by the government to ensure electricity reliability warns that compliance with these rules could strain generating capacity; the rules will update existing regulations in the Clean Air Act. MORE
Nov. 17, 2011
Pres Obama's decision to reject the Environment Protection Agency's proposal to tighten the national standard for smog shows how the interests of his re-election campaign are influencing his administration's decisions on policy; environmental and public health advocates have dubbed the decision an act of political pandering and a betrayal, while Republicans and industry groups have welcomed it. MORE
Oct. 15, 2011
Editorial scores Republican-controlled House of Representatives for 168 votes in 2011 undercutting clean air and water laws, grim tally supporting Rep Henry Waxman's labeling of current Congress as 'the most anti-environmental Congress in history'; argues that what Republicans are really doing is putting interests of corporations above all others and threatening public health. MORE
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A Dozen States File Suit Against New Coal Rules
The states are seeking to block efforts by the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce carbon emissions from coal-powered plants.
August 2, 2014, Saturday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: West Virginia , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Obama, Barack , Coal , Clean Air Act , Environmental Protection Agency
Morning Views
Opinions on for-profit colleges, environmental authority, opioid addiction, the border crisis and South Sudan aid.
July 9, 2014, Wednesday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: South Sudan , Corinthian Colleges Inc , Environmental Protection Agency , Illegal Immigration , Clean Water Act , Immigration and Emigration , Clean Air Act
Taking Oil Industry Cue, Environmentalists Drew Emissions Blueprint
To influence carbon policy, the Natural Resources Defense Council followed a strategy used by the oil industry during the Bush administration.
July 7, 2014, Monday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Hawkins, David , Air Pollution , Bush, George W , Regulation and Deregulation of Industry , Doniger, David , Obama, Barack , Global Warming , Lashof, Daniel , Natural Resources Defense Council , Environmental Protection Agency , Clean Air Act , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Coal , Lobbying and Lobbyists
Justices Uphold Emission Limits on Big Industry
The Supreme Court largely upheld the Environmental Protection Agency's ability to regulate emissions from stationary sources. Justice Antonin Scalia said the agency got "almost everything it wanted."
June 24, 2014, Tuesday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Regulation and Deregulation of Industry , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Supreme Court (US) , Environmental Protection Agency , Electric Light and Power , Global Warming , Clean Air Act
On Balance, a Good Ruling on Emissions
The Supreme Court preserved the government's ability to confront global warming, and pointed out that the Clean Air Act doesn't meet modern needs.
June 24, 2014, Tuesday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Global Warming , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Environmental Protection Agency , Electric Light and Power , Supreme Court (US) , Clean Air Act , Editorials
Rhetoric and Realities Around Obama's 'Carbon Pollution' Power Plant Rules
The Environmental Protection Agency is trying to stress the word pollution in explaining its rules for cutting power plant emissions of carbon dioxide.
June 2, 2014, Monday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: McCarthy, Gina , Obama, Barack , Supreme Court (US) , Environmental Protection Agency , Global Warming , Clean Air Act , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Carbon Dioxide
Teaching an Old Law New Tricks
On climate, Obama and the courts step in where Congress has failed.
May 30, 2014, Friday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Global Warming , Law and Legislation , Obama, Barack , Senate , House of Representatives , Energy Efficiency , Environmental Protection Agency , United States , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Energy and Power , Regulation and Deregulation of Industry , Clean Air Act
President Said to Be Planning to Use Executive Authority on Carbon Rule
President Obama's proposed regulation to cut pollution from coal-fired power plants by up to 20 percent would be the strongest action taken by an American president to tackle climate change.
May 29, 2014, Thursday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Democratic Party , Law and Legislation , McCarthy, Gina , Schwarzenegger, Arnold , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative , Clean Air Act , Romney, Mitt , Executive Orders and Memorandums , Republican Party , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Obama, Barack , Coal , Carbon Dioxide , Global Warming , States (US) , Air Pollution , Environmental Protection Agency
Governments Await Obama's Move on Carbon to Gauge U.S. Climate Efforts
Governments across the world are watching for a new regulation targeted at coal-fired power plants that is expected to be the United States' most forceful effort yet to address climate change.
May 27, 2014, Tuesday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: Law and Legislation , Obama, Barack , Environmental Protection Agency , Greenhouse Gas Emissions , Global Warming , Coal , Regulation and Deregulation of Industry , United States International Relations , Air Pollution , Clean Air Act
Justices Back Rule Limiting Coal Pollution
The Supreme Court upheld the E.P.A.'s authority to regulate coal-plant pollution that drifts from more than two dozen Midwestern and Appalachian states to the East Coast.
April 30, 2014, Wednesday
MORE ON THE CLEAN AIR ACT AND: States (US) , Regulation and Deregulation of Industry , Obama, Barack , Appalachian Region , Clean Air Act , Air Pollution , East Coast (US) , Ginsburg, Ruth Bader , Supreme Court (US) , Coal , Environmental Protection Agency
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HOME Rip Curl Gear Rip Curl Shorts Rip Curl Shorts Boardshorts Sale Items (44 items) Product ID: 837902
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Rip Curl is on the cutting edge of boardies tech. The new Flex Macro boardies give you a great look and crazy stretch fabric so you don't have to worry about any restriction of motion when you're out in the barrel. Electromagnetic & heat-welding technology reduces excess fabric, while increasing the overall comfort and performance of these trunks. These seams stretch with the fabric, reducing the overall weight and reducing rash by removing bulky seams. Long story short - not only are they some smooth looking threads, they're also the most comfortable trunks you'll ever own!
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The department is asking residents to follow these guidelines as a matter of safety precautions:
• Do not leave any valuables in your vehicle. This would include items such as cellphones, computers, tablets, laptops, CD players, calculators, packages, loose change or money, jewelry and anything else that a thief would consider worth taking. Do not leave guns in vehicles.
• Make sure your vehicle is locked. The easier it is to gain entry into a vehicle, the more likely it is that something will be taken. Thieves usually try several vehicles until they find one that is unlocked in order to avoid any noise.
• As we approach the Christmas shopping period, keep packages locked inside the trunk if at all possible. Again, do not leave valuables visible in the vehicle while the vehicle is parked.
• If you see someone suspicious peering into vehicle windows, call 911. Do not attempt to make contact with the individual. Try to get as accurate a description of the subject as possible. The more information police receive, the more likely the apprehension if there is a theft.
• One particular area of interest is the parking lots of gyms and workout centers. Thieves know that people are more likely to leave valuables in the car rather than take them inside and put them in a locker. If you must leave something in the vehicle, lock it in the trunk if possible or have it out of sight with the vehicle locked.
Culpepper said, "Working together we will be able to apprehend those responsible. The department continues to follow all leads that we receive. This matter has become a top priority for everyone in the department."
Anyone with information concerning these incidents is asked to call the Criminal Investigation Division at 770-607-5690.


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Bill would let local school systems change calendar start, end dates
SALISBURY — Local school boards could soon choose to start the school year in early August and let students out by the end of May.
N.C. Rep. Harry Warren is sponsoring a local bill that would give the Rowan-Salisbury School System the ability to decide when its academic year will start and end. N.C. Rep. Carl Ford is sponsoring a nearly identical bill that would apply to the Kannapolis City School System.
There are now about two dozen local bills to give school systems the added flexibility in their calendars, Warren said.
"I have always believed in local control yielding better results," Warren said. "At the chamber's legislative breakfast, I had mentioned giving local control back to the schools. Afterward, Rita Foil approached me and asked me if I had gotten an email from someone with the school system."
Currently, unless they are granted a weather-related waiver, North Carolina schools must start no earlier than the Monday closest to Aug. 26 and end no later than the Friday closest to June 11.
Colby Cochran, director of accountability for the Rowan-Salisbury School System, emailed Warren to ask for a bill granting more control of the academic calendar.
"As soon as I came back up (to Raleigh), I had drafting go ahead and draw me up a bill, and I went ahead and submitted it," Warren said.
He said lawmakers might combine all of the local bills into one piece of legislation that affects all of the school systems making the request. They also could choose to rewrite its school calendar law for all systems in the state.
Cochran sent letters to both Warren and Ford urging them to pass a statewide bill that would allow school boards to set their start dates as early as Aug. 1.
"This bill will provide the flexibility that is needed by all school systems to develop more educationally-sound calendars," he wrote. "The benefits are too numerous to address in this letter."
Cochran attached a sample 180-day calendar for 2013-14 that could be passed with more flexibility. In that calendar, school starts Aug. 8 and ends May 22, with teacher work days beginning as early as Aug. 1.
In case that legislation doesn't pass, Cochran asked Warren to draft the local bill.
Richard Miller, chairman of the Rowan-Salisbury Board of Education, said he supports Cochran's effort.
"It benefits the local system to be able to adopt a calendar that meets our needs, not one dictated by the hotel/motel associations," Miller said. "We have different calendar needs than the eastern part of the state."
The law benefits the tourism industry, he said, by providing more summer labor. It also gives families more time for vacations.
Miller said the request didn't stem from a specific calendar problem this year, but from general concerns. To meet the state's required hours keep next year's calendar at 180 days — preserving teacher work days — the board had to extend elementary school hours slightly.
During the February meeting when the calendar was set, board member agreed that those work days are vital for teachers, and more flexibility would help. They didn't discuss how early they would like to start school, though.
Shifting the school year earlier could also directly benefit students, Miller said.
"Data shows that finishing the semester before Christmas improves student performance rather than having the exams in January," Miller said.
Superintendent Judy Grissom added that ending the school year sooner also helps graduates transition to higher education - especially if they are taking summer classes.
When the school year ends later in June, she said, "it's more difficult for students going to community college, or even some four-year colleges."
Todd Adams, vice chairman of the Kannapolis City Schools Board of Education, said he likes the idea.
"Although I'm in favor of a traditional summer break, I would like to see us have more local control of the calendar," Adams said. "I don't want to see us starting going back to school the very first of August."
He said each school district has a different set of circumstances, and the calendar's start and end dates affect them differently. It also leaves little choice in how many planning days to take or where they fall.
"There's not a lot of flexibility," Adams said. "By the time you put in every day you need to - the mandatory work days, holidays, start date and end date - the calendar kind of paints itself."
Contact reporter Karissa Minn at 704-797-4222.
Twitter: twitter.com/posteducation
Facebook: facebook.com/Karissa.SalisburyPost


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Mt. Cardigan
Holt Trail --> Mowglis Trail --> Manning Trail
Distance: 4.7 mi.
Elevation Gain: 1,748 ft. (Overall) 2,206 ft. (Total)
Time: 2:15 (Mt. Cardigan) 3:57 (total)
I've been meaning to hike Mt. Cardigan for quite a while. And since I wanted to hike up the Holt Trail, I knew I should get to it before winter. With a cloudy afternoon predicted due to the outer edges of hurricane Sandy coming in and a family event in the evening, this shorter hike seemed like a good idea for today.
When I got to the Cardigan Lodge, the skies were blue and there were hardly any clouds. A pleasant surprise. Shortly after heading out, I was already losing my outer layers as the warming temps were kicking in. The early trails are on old woods roads and are very easy. After a crossing of Failey Brook on a nice bridge and a moderate climb after, I was already at the fork to go up the Holt Trail. I was expecting the dry week we had plus the partly sunny skies predicted for today would make the trail dry and easier to climb. From here, the first bit of the Holt Trail is pretty easy following a bank next to the brook. Eventually you start to turn left away from it and the climb gets steeper, but still not overly steep.
Early Trail
Bailey Brook crossing
Then you come to the first challenge of the trail. From here to the summit, it stays steep. Shortly before the steep part, I had noticed the temps seemed to be cooling off. When I turned around to look, I could see the clouds had come in and even the lower parts of the mountain above me were getting in the clouds. The start of the steep section is a crack in the rocks the trail goes up. Normally I would go up the rock right next to it, but things were just damp enough from the moisture in the air and the lack of sun in this spot that I couldn't do that. I ended up hiking up int he crack, which wasn't as easy as I expected, and required more lifting with my arms than expected. You can tell some people go around this, but I don't like when paths get made off trail and I was up for the challenge.
The first challenge of the trail
From here, the trail stays steep and goes up and over many large rocks. Soon it starts to pop up out of the trees though and go over more sections of steep open rock. At this point, I was already above the bottom of the clouds. The trail continues over mostly open rock while going in and out of the trees some. The paint blazes are a bit faded here, so stopping and looking ahead was needed at times to make sure where you actually wanted to go. Traction wasn't too bad on the open rock, but some places were a bit smooth or slicker than other spots. The last steep climb up open rock was definitely the hardest of the hike. Under dry sunny conditions, I would have just carefully gone up the rock looking from rough surfaces to provide traction. But with today's dampness, I decided the edge of the rock would be the safest route. The start isn't bad, but then you need to go around a large rock you can't go over. Grip around it wasn't good and it involved pulling my self along the rock a lot. There aren't many good hnad holds, so this wasn't overly easy. Once around that rock, there is another you can go around or possibly over. I found a way to get up on to it and went over it. From here to the summit wasn't bad. I knew I needed to head up and that the summit was close, but all of a sudden it seemed like the blazes went away. I just headed straight up and eventually found one just before the tower. It was so cloudy, I couldn't see the tower until I was about 100 feet from it. More blazes here would be helpful in conditions like this.
Rocky and steep
Much of the upper Holt Trail is like this
The hardest climb of the trail
Summit tower
I took a nice break at the summit and talked to other hikers. They assured me there are actually good views from here, but I never saw any. When I headed out, I followed the blazes I expected to be my trail. I couldn't actually see anything in the distance to verify this, but there are only so many trails off the summit. Going down into the saddle between the summit and Firescrew was easy and mostly gentle. A few trees, but mostly over open rock with scattered trees around. The start of the Manning Trail was the same. Eventually it gets a bit steeper and heads into the trees more. Once you are back into the trees and below the steep bits, the trail was nice and easy again. It was a bit muddy in places, but the mud wasn't deep. Waterbars had recently been cleaned out to prepare for the storm. Near the trailhead again, I could see someone ahead of me carrying a shovel. That would explain the clean waterbars. Other small crews were heading out for more trail clean up when I got back to the car too.
Mowglis Trail
Almost getting some views on the way down
Large glacial erratic next to the trail
Small patches of mud
If it had been any wetter today, the Holt Trail probably wouldn't have been a good idea. As it was, it was challenging and tricky in places. Carefull footing was needed. I would go back to it on a drier day for sure though. The route I took down would be a great route in the winter I think. With so much of it on mostly open ledges, I am sure it would be a great hike after some fresh snow. I'm sure I will come back for that, plus to get the views I am told are here.
All in all it was still a good hike even with the clouds. I will certainly come back again to hit more trails and hopefully see the views.
For all the pictures from the hike, just go HERE


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I bought my Onza new in early june, and in august i suffered from severe cam lean and cracked limbs both top and bottom i sent it in and got it back mid September. With no more 3D shoots it was time to set it up for hunting. I put about 50-75 shots through it setting it up but it didn't feel like the bow i previously owned it was substantially slower and louder, which i still could never figure out cam timing was perfect and specs were all right. My Hammerhead strings had stretched prior to sending it in which martin replaced even though they didn't have to which i was greatly thankful for, but after getting it all set up for the woods i noticed severe serving wear on the new cables from my modules which had been replaced due to bolts being to tight to loosen, I wasnt going to mess with it until after season i figured it could make it through to shoot a couple deer, so now that my season is over i went to go file down the medal burs in my modules and found out my new limbs were cracked and my draw stop was rubbing on my limb every shot which actually took the paint off i do not know what would cause this problem but i know it is a problem.. lol anyway just letting it all out on here because i feel i should not have gone through this many problems on a bow that's just barely 6 months old, My dealer is about an hour away and last time i took my bow there he was not happy and hard to deal with so Im going to try and call Martin tomorrow at lunch and find out what can be done I feel as though i have suffered from every problem in the book you hear about on these forums. From my grip leather bunching up and side plate falling out to cracked limbs, cam lean so bad the side of the cam hits the limbs on the shot etc. Love the bow, Hate the problems i take great care of my equipment better then 99 percent of archers i know but Im giving Martin one more chance to make my bow right if not ill pass it on and look elsewhere, but Martins customer service i feel can pull through for this long time martin shooter, Hell only other bow company i have had a taste of was a Darton for 2 weeks which turned into another martin.
Sorry for the long Rant, Tom


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Janis Joplin Biopic To Star Amy Adams
Friday, October 19, 2012
Actress Amy Adams has signed on to portray the late Janis Joplin in the upcoming biopic, Get It While You Can, according to The Hollywood Reporter. Lee Daniels -- best known for his films Monster Ball and Precious -- is in negotiations to direct the movie, which is expected to start production next year. Adams, a three-time Academy Award nominee, joins a long list of actors around Hollywood who either are, or have been, attached to different Joplin films in varying stages of pre-production -- including The Gospel According To Janis, which had Zooey Deschanel attached to it and a Sean Durkin-directed feature starring Nina Arianda.
Janis Joplin was found dead on October 4th, 1970. After a long night of partying, her body was discovered in her room at the Landmark Hotel in Hollywood with fresh needle marks in her arm, and her death was ruled an accidental overdose. Joplin was 27-years-old, and at the time of her death was working on what became her final album, Pearl.
Fans have often wondered since then what Joplin would have gone on to do, and her old friend and Big Brother & The Holding Co. bandmate Sam Andrew says that a very modest Joplin might have gone away from rock n' roll: "I think she would have gone through a couple of jazz standard albums, maybe -- I, I hope she would have, 'cause I loved the way she did 'Little Girl Blue' and 'Summertime,' and to hear a couple of albums of that kind of material would have been truly great. But mainly, I think she'd just be really tickled -- (does Joplin impression) 'They're still thinking about me? How can they be thinking about me? (laughs).'" )
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aimee. 23. minnesotan. environmentalist. feminist. vegetarian. particularly fond of pretty things, india, harry potter, clever things on the internet, and arashi
my political opinions occasionally (read as often) make their way onto my blog too (I'm a liberal, feminist, tree-hugging freak, okay?).
I love talking/listening so don't be afraid to drop something in my ask box. I don't bite, I promise ;)
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The Transactional File System (TxF), which allows access to an NTFS file system to be conducted in a transacted manner through extensions to the Windows SDK API. MFC 10, has been extended to support TxF and related technologies. This support allows existing MFC applications to be easily extended to support kernel transactions.
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text:
Holly bat guano! In doing my research on the PANTERA, I discovered that there is an acronymn for PANTERA.
PRECISION ATTACK NAVIGATON and TARGETING with EXTENDED RANGE AQUISITION.
All this time I thought it was just a spanish translation for PANTHER.
Also, I stumbled on some kind of super duper, top secret Martin Archery need to know kind of thing. I decided to do some digging into the word ONZA. This is where it gets even more weird. There is animal, almost myth like that is a hyprid panther of some kind in Mexico. It has a snout that resembles a canine. One was killed back in the 90s. I think Martin might be cross breeding animals that are fast and stealthy in order to enhance their bows through the research of these animals and some of the animals must have escaped.
I think I might need to move or at least change my user name before the engineers come looking for me.


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A Congressional Budget Office report released in the fall tells Obama what the rest of us have known for some time: Your bet on electric cars wasn't an investment, but a gamble; a dumb gamble.
And now you've just come up snake eyes.
"Despite the federal government pumping $7.5 billion into the electric vehicle industry in the United States through 2019," writes the CSMonitor.com, "overall national gasoline consumption is unlikely to be significantly affected, according to a report released by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO)."
The CBO says that even if Obama increased the amount of the subsidy, it...


text:
Garay, in her seventh year coaching the high school teams at Classic Gymnastics on Mars Court, usually takes on anyone who wants to give the sport a try.
But for 2013, she opted for a smaller, more talented team.
Garay has eight varsity gymnasts this year — six from Tracy High and two from Kimball. No one from West tried out.
"This year, we wanted to make sure we had girls who were committed to the program and really wanted to be here and learn," Garay said. "We have a good, committed group."
No other Sac-Joaquin Section schools have gymnastics, so local high school gymnasts compete in the Santa Clara Valley Athletic League, where Kimball High placed second last year and Tracy placed fourth.
Kimball sent five gymnasts to the Central Coast Section finals and placed fourth.
Tracy junior Elizabeth Higa competed for the Bulldogs her freshman year but has been in the sport for 13 years.
"I started when I was little and I fell in love with it," she said. "I don't want to do any other sports besides gymnastics."
Higa added that even with reduced numbers, the Tracy team can repeat its success.
"I feel like if we work really hard, we could do really well," Higa said.
Returning varsity gymnasts also include Danielle Scheurerlein, a Kimball High senior in her third year, and Rachel Pombo, a Tracy High sophomore who qualified for CCS competition in the balance beam and floor exercise.
Joining Kimball for the first time is sophomore Ariel Escalante, who brings 13 years of experience.
"It's a little scary, but I'm here to learn new moves," she said. "I was going to be on the junior varsity, but I decided to stay on varsity to learn new things, because I felt I would be challenged."
Also new to the team is Tracy High freshman Alicia Woo, who got into the sport as a youth and competed for nine years before an injury held her back. She took the opportunity to join the high school team to get back into the sport.
Fellow freshman Lauren Arganbright and juniors Christina Lopopolo and Morgan Balaban also join the Tracy team this year.
The competitive season begins at 4:30 p.m., Monday, March 25, at Classic Gymnastics, when the local teams host Palo Alto High, Gunn High of Palo Alto and St. Francis High of Mountain View.
• Contact Bob Brownne at 835-3030 or firstname.lastname@example.com.